lit 


HENLEY'S   TWENTIETH    CENTURY 

BOOK   OF 

RECIPES,    FORMULAS 
AND   PROCESSES 


HENLEY'S 
-TWENTIETH  CENTURY 

FORMULAS.    RECIPES 
AND  PROCESSES' 


CONTAINING  TEN   THOUSAND  SELECTED   HOUSEHOLD  AND 
WORKSHOP  FORMULAS,  RECIPES,  PROCESSES  AND  MONEY- 
SAVING    METHODS    FOR    THE    PRACTICAL    USE 
OF  MANUFACTURERS,  MECHANICS,  HOUSE- 
KEEPERS  AND   HOME   WORKERS 

EDITED  BY 

GARDNER  D.   HISCOX,  M.E. 

AUTHOR  OF  "MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS,  POWERS  AND  DEVICES," 
"COMPRESSED  AIR,"  "GAS,  GASOLINE  AND 

OIL  ENGINES,"   ETC.,   ETC. 


1914   EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


NEW    YORK 

THE   NORMAN   W.   HENLEY   PUBLISHING   COMPANY 

132  NASSAU  STREET 
1914 


(1 


COPYRIGHT,  1914  AND  1913,  BY 
THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT,  1912  AND  1907,  BY 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
Also,  Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall  Court,  London,  England 


All  rights  reserved 


THE  TROW  PRESS,  NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 

IN  compiling  this  book  of  formulas,  recipes  and  processes,  the  Edi- 
tor has  endeavored  to  meet  the  practical  requirements  of  the  home  and 
workshop — the  mechanic,  the  manufacturer,  the  artisan,  the  housewife, 
and  the  general  home  worker. 

In  addition  to  exercising  the  utmost  care  in  selecting  his  materials 
from  competent  sources,  the  Editor  has  also  modified  formulas  which 
were  obviously  ill  adapted  for  his  needs,  but  were  valuable  if  altered. 
Processes  of  questionable  merit  he  has  discarded.  By  adhering  to  this 
plan  the  Editor  trusts  that  he  has  succeeded  in  preparing  a  repos- 
itory of  useful  knowledge  representing  the  experience  of  experts  in 
every  branch  of  practical  achievement.  Much  of  the  matter  has  been 
specially  translated  for  this  work  from  foreign  technological  period- 
icals and  books.  In  this  way  the  Editor  has  embodied  much  practical 
information  otherwise  inaccessible  to  most  English-speaking  people. 

Each  recipe  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  basis  of  experiment,  to  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  the  particular  purpose  in  hand,  or  the  peculiar  conditions 
which  may  affect  the  experimenter.  Chemicals  are  not  always  of  uni- 
form relative  purity  and  strength-,  heat  or  cold  may  markedly  influence 
the  result  obtained,  and  lack  of  skill  in  the  handling  of  utensils  and 
instruments  may  sometimes  cause  failure.  Inasmuch  as  a  particular 
formula  may  not  always  be  applicable,  the  Editor  has  thought  it  ad- 
visable to  give  as  many  recipes  as  his  space  would  allow  under  each 
heading.  In  some  instances  a  series  of  formulas  is  given  which  appar- 
ently differ  but  slightly  in  their  ingredients.  This  has  been  done  on 
the  principle  that  one  or  more  may  be  chosen  for  the  purpose  in  hand. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  works  of  a  similar  character  are  not  un- 
known, the  Editor  has  endeavored  to  present  in  these  pages  the  most 
modern  methods  and  formulas.  Naturally,  old  recipes  and  so-called 
trade  secrets  which  have  proven  their  value  by  long  use  are  also 
included,  particularly  where  no  noteworthy  advance  has  been  made; 
but  the  primary  aim  has  been  to  modernize  and  bring  the  entire  work 
up  to  the  present  date. 

284534  THE  EDITOR. 

JANUARY, 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED 


Apothecary,  The. 
Berliner  Drog.  Zeitung. 
Brass  World. 

British  Journal  of  Photography.. 
Chemical  News. 

Chemiker  Zeitung  Repertorium. 
Chemisch  Technische  Fabrikant. 
Chemische  Zeitung. 
Chemist-Druggist. 
Comptes  Rendus. 
Cooley's  Receipts. 
Cosmos. 

Dekorationsmaler,  Der. 
Deutschq  Drog.  Zeitung. 
Deutsche  Goldschmiede  Zeitung. 
Deutsche  Handwerk. 
Deutsche  Maler  Zeitung. 
Deutsche  Topfer  und  Ziefler  Zeitung. 
Dingler's  Polytechnic  Journal. 
Drogisten  Zeitung. 
Druggists'  Circular. 
English    Mechanic. 
Farben  Zeitung. 
Gummi  Zeitung. 
Journal  der  Goldschmiedekunst. 
Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy. 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute. 
Journal  Society  of  Chemical  Industry. 
Journal  Suisse  d'Horlogerie. 
Keramische  Rundschau. 
La  Nature. 

La  Science  en  Famille. 
La    Vie    Scientifique. 
Lack  und   Farben  Industrie. 
Legierungen. 
Le  Genie  Civil. 
Le  Praticien. 

Leipziger   Farber  und   Zeugdrucker   Zei- 
tung. 


Maler  Zeitung. 
Metallarbeiter. 
Mining  and  Scientific  Press. 
Neueste  Erfindungen  und  Erfahrungen. 
Nouvelles  Scientifiques. 
Oils,  Colors,  and  Drysalteries. 
Papier-Zeitung. 
Parfumer,   Der. 
Pharmaceutische  Zeitung. 
Pharmaceutische   Centralhalle. 
Pharmaceutische  Era. 
Pharmaceutische  Journal. 
Pharmaceutische  Journal   Formulary. 
Photo  Times. 
Polytech.  Centralblatt. 
Polyt.  Notizblatt. 
Popular  Science  News. 
Pottery  Gazette. 
Practical  Druggist. 
Revue  Chronometrique. 
Revue  de  la  Droguerie. 
Revue  des  Produits  Chimiques. 
Revue  Industrielle. 
Science,  Arts  and  Nature. 
Science  Pratique. 
Seifensieder  Zeitung,  Der. 
Seifenfabrikant,  Der. 
Spatula. 

Stein  der  Weisen,  Der. 
Sudd.  Apoth.  Zeitung. 
Technisches  Centralblatt. 
Technische  Rundschau. 
Uhland's  Technische  Rundschau. 
Verzinnen  Verzinken  Vernickeln,  Das. 
Werkmeister  Zeitung. 
Wiener  Drogisten  Zeitung. 
Wiener  Gewerbe  Zeitung. 
Zeitschrift    fur    die    Gesammte    Kohlen- 
saure  Industrie. 


HENLEY'S  BOOK  OF  RECIPES 


ABRASION  REMEDY: 

See  Cosmetics  and  Ointments. 

ABSINTHE: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

Acid-Proofing 

An  Acid-Proof  Table  Top.— 
1. 

Copper  sulphate 1  part 

Potassium  chlorate..  ..      1  part 
Water 8  parts 

Boil  until  salts  are  dissolved. 

2. 

Aniline  hydrochlorate.      3  parts 
Water 20  parts 

Or,  if  more  readily  procurable: 

Aniline 6  parts 

Hydrochloric  acid 9  parts 

Water 50  parts 

By  the  use  of  a  brush  two  coats  of  so- 
lution No.  1  are  applied  while  hot;  the  sec- 
ond coat  as  soon  as  the  first  is  dry.  Then 
two  coats  of  solution  No.  2,  and  the  wood 
allowed  to  dry  thoroughly.  Later,  a 
coat  of  raw  linseed  oil  is  to  be  applied, 
using  a  cloth  instead  of  a  brush,  in  order 
to  get  a  thinner  coat  of  the  oil. 

A  writer  in  the  Journal  of  Applied 
Microscopy  states  that  he  has  used  this 
method  upon  some  old  laboratory  tables 
which  had  been  finished  in  the  usual  way, 
the  wood  having  been  filled  oiled,  and 
varnished.  After  scraping  off  the  varnish 
down  to  the  wood,  the  solutions  were  ap- 
plied, and  the  result  was  very  satisfac- 
tory. 

After  some  experimentations  the  for- 
mula was  modified  without  materially 
affecting  the  cost,  and  apparently  in- 
creasing the  resistance  of  the  wood  to  the 
action  of  strong  acids  and  alkalies.  The 
modified  formula  follows: 

1. 

Iron  sulphate 4  parts 

Copper  sulphate 4   parts 

Potassium     permanga- 
nate       8  parts 

Water,  q.  s 100  parts 


2. 

Aniline. 12  parts 

Hydrochloric  acid ....    18  parts 

Water,  q.  s 100  parts 

Or: 

Aniline  hydrochlorate     15  parts 
Water,  q.  s 100  parts 

Solution  No.  2  has  not  been  changed, 
except  to  arrange  the  parts  per  hundred. 

The  method  of  application  is  the  same, 
except  that  after  solution  No.  1  has  dried, 
the  excess  of  the  solution  which  has  dried 
upon  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  thor- 
oughly rubbed  off  before  the  application 
of  solution  No.  2.  The  black  color  does 
not  appear  at  once,  but  usually  requires 
a  few  hours  before  becoming  ebony 
black.  The  linseed  oil  may  be  diluted 
with  turpentine  without  disadvantage, 
and  after  a  few  applications  the  surface 
will  take  on  a  dull  and  not  displeas- 
ing polish.  The  table  tops  are  easily 
cleaned  by  washing  with  water  or  suds 
after  a  course  of  work  is  completed,  and 
the  application  of  another  coat  of  oil 
puts  them  in  excellent  order  for  another 
course  of  work.  Strong  acids  or  alkalies 
when  spilled,  if  soon  wiped  off,  have 
scarcely  a  perceptible  effect. 

A  slate  or  tile  top  is  expensive  not  only 
in  its  original  cost,  but  also  as  a  destroyer 
of  glassware.  Wood  tops  when  painted, 
oiled,  or  paraffined  have  objectionable 
features,  the  latter  especially  in  warm 
weather.  Old  table  tops,  after  the  paint 
or  oil  is  scraped  off  down  to  the  wood, 
take  the  above  finish  nearly  as  well  as 
the  new  wood. 

To  Make  Wood  Acid-  and  Chlorine- 
Proof. — Take  6  pounds  of  wood  tar  and 
12  pounds  rosin,  and  melt  them  together 
in  an  iron  kettle,  after  which  stir  in  8 
pounds  finely  powdered  brick  dust. 
The  damaged  parts  must  be  cleaned 
perfectly  and  dried,  whereupon  they 
may  be  painted  over  with  the  warm 
preparation  or  filled  up  and  drawn  off, 
leaving  the  film  on  the  inside. 

Protecting  Cement  Against  Acid. — A 
paint  to  protect  cement  against  acid  is 
obtained  by  mixing  pure  asbestos,  very 
finely  powdered,  with  a  thick  solution  of 


10 


;  ADHESIVES 


sodium/  silicate',  Tlte"  sodium  silicate 
must  be  as  alkaline  as  possible.  • .  ']The 
asbestos  is  first  rubbed  with  a  small 
quantity  of  the  silicate,  until  a  cake  is 
obtained  and  then  kept  in  well-closed 
vessels.  For  use  this  cake  is  simply 
thinned  with  a  solution  of  the  silicate, 
which  furnishes  a  paint  two  or  three  ap- 
plications of  which  protect  the  walls  of 
reservoirs,  etc.,  against  any  acid  solid 
or  liquid.  This  mass  may  also  be  em- 
ployed for  making  a  coating  of  sand- 
stone. 

To  Make  Corks  Impermeable  and 
Acid-Proof. — Choose  your  corks  care- 
fully. Then  plunge  them  into  a  solution 
of  gelatin  or  common  glue,  15  parts,  in 
24  parts  of  glycerine  and  500  parts  of 
water,  heated  to  44°  or  48°  C.  (112°-120° 
F.),  and  keep  them  there  for  several 
hours.  On  removing  the  corks,  which 
should  be  weighted  down  in  the  solution, 
dry  them  in  the  shade  until  they  are  free 
from  all  surplus  moisture.  They  are  now 
perfectly  tight,  retaining  at  the  same 
time  the  greater  portion  of  their  elasticity 
and  suppleness.  To  render  them  acid- 
proof,  they  should  be  treated  with  a 
mixture  of  vaseline,  2  parts,  and  paraffine 
7  parts,  heated  to  about  105°  F.  This 
second  operation  may  be  avoided  by 
adding  to  the  gelatin  solution  a  little 
ammonium  dichromate  and  afterwards 
exposing  the  corks  to  the  light. 

Lining  for  Acid  Receptacles. — Plates 
are  formed  of  1  part  of  brown  slate,  2 
of  powdered  glass,  and  1  of  Portland 
cement,  the  whole  worked  up  with  sili- 
cate of  soda,  molded  and  dried.  Make 
a  cement  composed  of  ground  slate  and 
silicate  of  soda  and  smear  the  surface 
for  the  lining;  then,  while  it  is  still  plastic, 
apply  the  plates  prepared  as  above  de- 
scribed. Instead  of  these  plates,  slabs 
of  glass  or  porcelain  or  similar  substances 
may  be  employed  with  the  same  cement. 

ACACIA,  MUCILAGE  OF : 

See  Adhesives  under  Mucilages. 

ACID-PROOF  GLASS: 

See  Glass. 

ACID-RESISTING  PAINT: 
See  Paint. 

ACIDS,  SOLDERING: 

See  Solders. 

ACID  STAINS  FROM  THE  SKIN,  TO 
REMOVE : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

ACID  TEST  FOR  VINEGAR: 

See  Vinegar. 


Adhesives 

GLUES : 

Manufacture  of  Glue. — I. — The  usual 
process  of  removing  the  phosphate  of 
lime  from  bones  for  glue-making  pur- 
poses by  means  of  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  acid 
cannot  be  regenerated.  Attempts  to  use 
sulphurous  acid  instead  have  so  far 
proved  unsuccessful,  as,  even  with  the 
large  quantities  used,  the  process  is  very 
slow.  According  to  a  German  invention 
this  difficulty  with  sulphurous  acid  can 
be  avoided  by  using  it  in  aqueous  solu- 
tion under  pressure.  The  solution  of 
the  lime  goes  on  very  rapidly,  it  is 
claimed,  and  no  troublesome  precipi- 
tation of  calcium  sulphite  takes  place. 
Both  phosphate  of  lime  and  sulphurous 
acid  are  regenerated  from  the  lyes  by 
simple  distillation. 

II. — Bones  may  be  treated  with  suc- 
cessive quantities  of  combined  sulphur- 
ous acid  and  water,  from  which  the  heat 
of  combination  has  been  previously  dis- 
sipated, the  solution  being  removed  after 
each  treatment,  before  the  bone  salts 
dissolved  therein  precipitate,  and  before 
the  temperature  rises  above  74°  F. — • 
U.  S.  Pat.  783,784. 

III. — A  patent  relating  to  the  process 
for  treating  animal  sinews,  preparatory 
for  the  glue  factory,  has  been  granted  to 
Florsheim,  Chicago,  and  consists  in  im- 
mersing animal  sinews  successively  in 
petroleum  or  benzine  to  remove  the  outer 
fleshy  animal  skin;  in  a  hardening  or 
preserving  bath,  as  boric  acid,  or  alum 
or  copper  sulphate;  and  in  an  alkaline 
bath  to  remove  fatty  matter  from  the 
fibrous  part  of  the  sinews.  The  sinews 
are  afterwards  tanned  and  disintegrated. 

Test  for  Glue.— The  more  water  the 
glue  takes  up,  swelling  it,  the  better  it 
is.  Four  ounces  of  the  glue  to  be  exam- 
ined are  soaked  for  about  12  hours  in  a 
cool  place  in  4  pounds  of  cold  water.  If 
the  glue  has  dissolved  after  this  time,  it 
is  of  bad  quality  and  of  little  value;  but  if 
it  is  coherent,  gelatinous,  and  weighing 
double,  it  is  good;  if  it  weighs  up  to  16 
ounces,  it  is  very  good;  if  as  much  as 
20  ounces,  it  may  be  called  excellent. 

To  Prevent  Glue  from  Cracking.— To 
prevent  glue  from  cracking,  which  fre- 
quently occurs  when  glued  articles  are 


ADHESIVES 


II 


exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  stove,  a  little 
chloride  of  potassium  is  added.  This 
prevents  the  glue  from  becoming  dry 
enough  to  crack.  Glue  thus  treated  will 
adhere  to  glass,  metals,  etc.,  and  may 
also  be  used  for  pasting  on  labels. 

Preventing  the  Putrefaction  of  Strong 
Glues. — The  fatty  matter  always  existing 
in  small  quantity  in  sheets  of  ordinary 
glue  affects  the  adhesive  properties  and 
facilitates  the  development  of  bacteria, 
and  consequently  putrefaction  and  de- 
composition. These  inconveniences  are 
remedied  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of 
caustic  soda  to  the  dissolved  glue.  The 
soda  prevents  decomposition  absolutely; 
with  the  fatty  matter  it  forms  a  hard  soap 
which  renders  it  harmless. 

Liquid  Glues. — 

I. — Glue 3  ounces 

Gelatin 3  ounces 

Acetic  acid 4  ounces 

Water 2  ounces 

Alum 30  grains 

Heat  together  for  6  hours,  skim,  and 
add: 

II. — Alcohol 1  fluidounce 

Brown  glue,  No.  2.  .      2  pounds 
Sodium  carbonate  . .    11  ounces 

Water 3£  pints 

Oil  of  clove 160  minims 

Dissolve  the  soda  in  the  water,  pour 
the  solution  over  the  dry  glue,  let  stand 
over  night  or  till  thoroughly  soaked  and 
swelled,  then  heat  carefully  on  a  water 
bath  until  dissolved.  When  nearly  cold 
stir  in  the  oil  of  cloves. 

By  using  white  glue,  a  finer  article,  fit 
for  fancy  work,  may  be  made. 

III. — Dissolve  by  heating  60  parts  of 
borax  in  420  parts  of  water,  add  480 
parts  dextrin  (pale  yellow)  and  50  parts 
of  glucose  and  heat  carefully  with  con- 
tinued stirring,  to  complete  solution; 
replace  the  evaporated  water  and  pour 
through  flannel. 

The  glue  made  in  this  way  remains 
clear  quite  a  long  time,  and  possesses 
great  adhesive  power;  it  also  dries  very 
quickly,  but  upon  careless  and  extended 
heating  above  90°  C.  (194°  F.),  it  is  apt 
to  turn  brown  and  brittle. 

IV. — Pour  50  parts  of  warm  (not  hot) 
water  over  50  parts  of  Cologne  glue  and 
allow  to  soak  over  night.  Next  day  the 
swelled  glue  is  dissolved  with  moderate 
heat,  and  if  still  too  thick,  a  little  more 
water  is  added.  When  this  is  done,  add 
from  2£  to  3  parts  of  crude  nitric  acid, 
stir  well,  and  fill  the  liquid  glue  in  well- 
corked  bottles.  This  is  a  good  liquid 
steam  glue. 


V. — Soak  1  pound  of  good  glue  in  a 
quart  of  water  for  a  few  hours,  then  melt 
the  glue  by  heating  it,  together  with  the 
unabsorbed  water,  then  stir  in  J  pound 
dry  white  lead,  and  when  that  is  well 
mixed  pour  in  4  fluidounces  of  alcohol 
and  continue  the  boiling  5  minutes  longer. 

VI. — Soak  1  pound  of  good  glue  in  1  \ 
pints  of  cold  water  for  5  hours,  then  add 
3  ounces  of  zinc  sulphate  and  2  fluid- 
ounces  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  keep 
the  mixture  heated  for  10  or  12  hours  at 
175°  to  190°  F.  The  glue  remains  liquid 
and  may  be  used  for  sticking  a  variety  of 
materials. 

VII. — A  very  inexpensive  liquid  glue 
may  be  prepared  by  first  soaking  and 
then  dissolving  gelatin  in  twice  its  own 
weight  of  water  at  a  very  gentle  heat; 
then  add  glacial  acetic  acid  in  weight 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  dry  gelatin. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
all  acid  glues  are  not  generally  applica- 
ble. 

VIII.— Glue 200  parts 

Dilute  acetic  acid. .  400  parts 
Dissolve  by  the  aid  of  heat  and  add: 

Alcohol 25  parts 

Alum 5  parts 

IX. — Glue 5  parts 

Calcium  chloride. .  1  part 

Water 1  part 

X. — Sugar  of  lead 1  i  drachms 

Alum 1  i  drachms 

Gum  arabic 2£  drachms 

Wheat  flour 1 "  av.  Ib. 

Water,  q.  s. 

Dissolve  the  gum  in  2  quarts  of  warm 
water;  when  cold  mix  in  the  flour,  and 
add  the  sugar  of  lead  and  alum  dissolved 
in  wrater;  heat  the  whole  over  a  slow  fire 
until  it  shows  signs  of  ebullition.  Let  it 
cool,  and  add  enough  gum  water  to  bring 
it  to  the  proper  consistence. 

XI. — Dilute  1  part  of  official  phos- 
phoric acid  with  2  parts  of  water  and  neu- 
tralize the  solution  with  carbonate  of 
ammonium.  Add  to  the  liquid  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  warm  it  on  a  water 
bath,  and  dissolve  in  it  sufficient  glue  to 
form  a  thick  syrupy  liquid.  Keep  in 
well-stoppered  bottles. 

XII. — Dissolve  3  parts  of  glue  in  small 
pieces  in  12  to  15  of  saccharate  of  lime. 
By  heating,  the  glue  dissolves  rapidly 
and  remains  liquid,  when  cold,  without 
loss  of  adhesive  power.  Any  desirable 
consistence  can  be  secured  by  varying 
the  amount  of  saccharate  of  lime.  Thick 
glue  retains  its  muddy  color,  while  a  thin 
solution  becomes  clear  on  standing. 

The  saccharate  of  lime  is  prepared  by 


ADHESIVES 


dissolving  1  part  of  sugar  in  3  parts  of 
water,  and  after  adding  £  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  sugar  of  slaked  lime,  heat- 
ing the  whole  from  149°  to  185°  F.,  allow- 
ing it  to  macerate  for  several  days,  shaking 
it  frequently.  The  solution,  which  has 
the  properties  of  mucilage,  is  then  de- 
canted from  the  sediment. 

XIII. — In  a  solution  of  borax  in  water 
soak  a  good  quantity  of  glue  until  it  has 
thoroughly  imbibed  the  liquid.  Pour  off 
the  surplus  solution  and  then  put  on 
the  water  bath  and  melt  the  glue.  Cool 
down  until  the  glue  begins  to  set,  then 
add,  drop  by  drop,  with  agitation, 
enough  acetic  acid  to  check  the  tendency 
to  solidification.  If,  after  becoming 
quite  cold,  there  is  still  a  tendency  to 
solidification,  add  a  few  drops  more  of 
the  acid.  The  liquid  should  be  of  the 
consistence  of  ordinary  mucilage  at  all 
times. 

XIV.— Gelatin 100  parts 

Cabinetmakers'  glue.     100  parts 

Alcohol 25  parts 

Alum 2  parts 

Acetic   acid,    20   per 

cent 800  parts 

Soak  the  gelatin  and  glue  with  the 
acetic  acid  and  heat  on  a  water  bath  until 
fluid;  then  add  the  alum  and  alcohol. 

XV.— Glue 10  parts 

Water 15  parts 

Sodium  salicylate. ...  1  part 
XVI. — Soak  5  parts  of  Cologne  glue 
in  an  aqueous  calcium  chloride  solution 
(1  : 4)  and  heat  on  the  water  bath  until 
dissolved,  replacing  the  evaporating 
water;  or  slack  100  parts  of  lime  with  150 
parts  of  hot  water,  dissolve  60  parts  of 
sugar  in  180  parts  of  water,  and  add  15 
parts  of  the  slacked  lime  to  the  solution, 
heating  the  whole  to  75°  C.  (167°  F.). 
Place  aside  for  a  few  days,  shaking  from 
time  to  time.  In  the  clear  sugar-lime 
solution  collected  by  decanting  soak  60 
parts  of  glue  and  assist  the  solution  by 
moderate  heating. 

XVII.— Molasses,  100  parts,  dissolved 
in  300  parts  of  water,  25  parts  of  quick- 
lime (slaked  to  powder),  being  then 
stirred  in  arid  the  mixture  heated  to  167° 
F.  on  a  water  bath,  with  frequent  stir- 
rings. After  settling  for  a  few  days  a 
large  portion  of  the  lime  will  have  dis- 
solved, and  the  clear,  white,  thick  solu- 
tion, when  decanted,  behaves  like  rubber 
solution  and  makes  a  highly  adherent 
coating. 

XVIII.— Dissolve  bone  glue,  250 
parts,  by  heating  in  1,000  parts  of  water, 
and  add  to  the  solution  barium  perox- 
ide 10  parts,  sulphuric  acid  (66°  B.)  5 


parts,  and  water  15  parts.  Heat  for  48 
hours  on  the  water  bath  to  80°  C.  (176° 
F.).  Thus  a  syrupy  liquid  is  obtained, 
which  is  allowed  to  settle  and  is  then 
decanted.  This  glue  has  no  unpleasant 
odor,  and  does  not  mold. 

JQX. — A  glue  possessing  the  adhesive 
qualities  of  ordinary  joiners'  glue,  but 
constituting  a  pale  yellow  liquid  which  is 
ready  for  use  without  requiring  heating 
and  possesses  great  resistance  to  damp- 
ness, is  produced  by  treating  dry  casein 
with  a  diluted  borax  solution  or  with 
enough  ammonia  solution  to  cause  a 
faintly  alkaline  reaction.  The  prepara- 
tion may  be  employed  alone  or  mixed 
with  liquid  starch  in  any  proportion. 

Glue  for  Celluloid. — I. — Two  parts 
shellac,  3  parts  spirits  of  camphor,  and  4 
parts  strong  alcohol  dissolved  in  a  warm 
place,  give  an  excellent  gluing  agent  to  fix 
wood,  tin,  and  other  bodies  to  celluloid. 
The  glue  must  be  kept  well  corked  up. 

II. — A  collodion  solution  may  be  used, 
or  an  alcoholic  solution  of  fine  celluloid 
shavings. 

Glue  to  Form  Paper  Pads. — 

I. — Glue 3^  ounces 

Glycerine 8    ounces 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Pour  upon  the  glue  more  than  enough 
water  to  cover  it  and  let  stand  for  several 
hours,  then  decant  the  greater  portion  of 
the  water;  apply  heat  until  the  glue  is 
dissolved,  and  add  the  glycerin.  If  the 
mixture  is  too  thick,  add  more  water. 

II. — Glue 6    ounces 

Alum 30    grains 

Acetic  acid £  ounce 

Alcohol 1 1  ounces 

Water 6§  ounces 

Mix  all  but  the  alcohol,  digest  on  a 
water  bath  till  the  glue  is  dissolved,  allow 
to  cool  and  add  the  alcohol. 

III. — Glue 5  ounces 

Water 1  ounce 

Calcium  chloride. .        1  ounce 
Dissolve  the  calcium  chloride  in  the 
water,  add  the  glue,  macerate  until  it  is 
thoroughly  softened,  and  then  heat  until 
completely  dissolved. 

IV. — Glue 20  ounces 

Glycerine 5  ounces 

Syrupy  glucose.  . .        1  ounce 

Tannin 50  grains 

Cover  the  glue  with  cold  water,  and  let 
stand  over  night.  In  the  morning  pour 
off  superfluous  water,  throw  the  glue  on 
muslin,  and  manipulate  so  as  to  get  rid 
of  as  much  moisture  as  possible,  then  put 
in  a  water  bath  and  melt.  Add  the  glyc- 


ADHESIVES 


erine  and  syrup,  and  stir  well   in.     Fi- 
nally, dissolve  the  tannin  in  the  smallest 
quantity  of  water  possible  and  add. 
This  mixture  must  be  used  hot. 

V. — Glue 15  ounces 

Glycerine 5  ounces 

Linseed  oil 2  ounces 

Sugar 1  ounce 

Soak  the  glue  as  before,  melt,  add  the 
sugar  and  glycerine,  continuing  the  heat, 
and  finally  add  the  oil  gradually  under 
constant  stirring. 

This  must  be  used  hot. 

Glue  for  Tablets.— 

I. — Glue 3^  ounces 

Glycerine 8    ounces 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Pour  upon  the  glue  more  than  enough 
water  to  cover  it  and  let  stand  for  several 
hours,  then  decant  the  greater  portion  of 
the  water;  apply  heat  until  the  glue  is 
dissolved,  and  add  the  glycerine.  If  the 
mixture  is  too  thick,  add  more  water. 

II. — Glue 6     ounces 

Alum 30    grains 

Acetic  acid £  ounce 

Alcohol if  ounces 

Water G|  ounces 

Mix  all  but  the  alcohol,  digest  on  a 
water  bath  till  the  glue  is  dissolved,  allow 
to  cool  and  add  the  alcohol. 

III. — Glue.  . .- 5  ounces 

Water 1  ounce 

Calcium  chloride.  . .        1  ounce 
Dissolve  the  calcium  chloride  in  the 
water,  add  the  glue,  macerate  until  it  is 
thoroughly  softened,  and  then  apply  heat 
until  completely  dissolved. 

IV. — Glue,  1  pound;  glycerine,  4  ounces; 
glucose  syrup,  2  tablespoonfuls;  tannin, 
-^o  ounce.  Use  warm,  and  give  an  hour 
to  dry  and  set  on  the  pads.  This  can  be 
colored  with  any  aniline  dye. 

Marine  Glue. — Marine  glue  is  a  prod- 
uct consisting  of  shellac  and  caoutchouc, 
which  is  mixed  differently  according  to 
the  use  for  which  it  is  required.  The 
quantity  of  benzol  used  as  solvent  gov- 
erns the  hardness  or  softness  of  the  glue. 

I. — One  part  Para  caoutchouc  is  dis- 
solved in  12  parts  benzol;  20  parts  pow- 
dered shellac  are  added  to  the  solution, 
and  the  mixture  is  carefully  heated. 

II. — Stronger  glue  is  obtained  by  dis- 
solving 10  parts  good  crude  caoutchouc 
in  120  parts  benzine  or  naphtha  which 
solution  is  poured  slowly  and  in  a  fine 
stream  into  20  parts  asphaltum  melted 
in  a  kettle,  stirring  constantly  and  heat- 
ing. Pour  the  finished  glue,  after  the 
solvent  has  almost  evaporated  and  the 


mass  has  become  quite  uniform,  into  flat 
molds,  in  which  it  solidifies  into  very  hard 
tablets  of  dark  brown  or  black  color. 
For  use,  these  glue  tablets  are  first  soaked 
in  boiling  water  and  then  heated  over  a 
free  flame  until  the  marine  glue  has  be- 
come thinly  liquid.  The  pieces  to  be 
glued  are  also  warmed  and  a  very  durable 
union  is  obtained. 

III. — Cut  caoutchouc  into  small  pieces 
and  dissolve  in  coal  naphtha  by  heat  and 
agitation.  Add  to  this  solution  pow- 
dered shellac,  and  heat  the  whole,  con- 
stantly stirring  until  combination  takes 
place,  then  pour  it  on  metal  plates  to  form 
sheets.  When  used  it  must  be  heated  to 
248°  F.,  and  applied  with  a  brush. 

Water-Proof  Glues.— I.— The  glue  is 
put  in  water  till  it  is  soft,  and  subse- 
quently melted  in  linseed  oil  at  moderate 
heat.  This  glue  is  affected  neither  by 
water  nor  by  vapors. 

II. — Dissolve  a  small  quantity  of  san- 
darac  and  mastic  in  a  little  alcohol,  and 
add  a  little  turpentine.  The  solution  is 
boiled  in  a  kettle  over  the  fire,  and  an 
equal  quantity  of  a  strong  hot  solution  of 
glue  and  isinglass  is  added.  Then  filter 
through  a  cloth  while  hot. 

III. — Water-proof  glue  may  also  be 
produced  by  the  simple  addition  of 
bichromate  of  potassium  to  the  liquid  glue 
solution,  and  subsequent  exposure  to  the 
air. 

IV. — Mix  glue  as  usual,  and  then  add 
linseed  oil  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  oil 
to  8  parts  glue.  If  it  is  desired  that  the 
mixture  remain  liquid,  \  ounce  of  nitric 
acid  should  be  added  to  every  pound  of 
glue.  This  will  also  prevent  the  glue 
from  souring. 

V.— In  1,000  parts  of  rectified  alcohol 
dissolve  60  parts  of  sandarac  and  as 
much  mastic  whereupon  add  60  parts  of 
white  oil  of  turpentine.  Next,  prepare  a 
rather  strong  glue  solution  and  add  about 
the  like  quantity  of  isinglass,  heating  the 
solution  until  it  commences  to  boil;  then 
slowly  add  the  hot  glue  solution  till  a  thin 
paste  forms,  which  can  still  be  filtered 
through  a  cloth.  Heat  the  solution  be- 
fore use  and  employ  like  ordinary  glue. 
A  connection  effected  with  this  glue  is 
not  dissolved  by  cold  water  and  even 
resists  hot  water  for  a  long  time. 

Vl.— Soak  1,000  parts  of  Cologne  glue 
in  cold  water  for  12  hours  and  in  another 
vessel  for  the  same  length  of  time  150 
parts  of  isinglass  in  a  mixture  of  lamp 
spirit  and  water.  Then  dissolve  both 
masses  together  on  the  water  bath  in  a 
suitable  vessel,  thinning,  if  necessary, 
with  some  hot  water.  Next  add  100 


ADHESIVES 


parts  of  linseed  oil  varnish  and  filter  hot 
through  linen. 

VII. — Ordinary  glue  is  kept  in  water 
until  it  swells  up  without  losing  its  shape. 
Thus  softened  it  is  placed  in  an  iron 
crucible  without  adding  water;  then  add 
linseed  oil  according  to  the  quantity  of 
the  glue  and  leave  this  mixture  to  boil 
over  a  slow  fire  until  a  gelatinous  mass 
results.  Such  glue  unites  materials  in  a 
very  durable  manner.  It  adheres  firmly 
and  hardens  quickly.  Its  chief  advan- 
tage, however,  consists  in  that  it  neither 
absorbs  water  nor  allows  it  to  pass 
through,  whereby  the  connecting  places 
are  often  destroyed.  A  little  borax  will 
prevent  putrefaction. 

VIII. — Bichromate  of  potassium  40 
parts  (by  weight);  gelatin  glue,  55  parts; 
alum,  5  parts.  Dissolve  the  glue  in  a 
little  water  and  add  the  bichromate  of 
potassium  and  the  alum. 

IX. — This  preparation  permits  an  ab- 
solutely permanent  gluing  of  pieces  of 
cardboard,  even  when  they  are  moist- 
ened by  water.  Melt  together  equal 
parts  of  good  pitch  and  gutta-percha;  of 
this  take  9  parts,  and  add  to  it  3  parts  of 
boiled  linseed  oil  and  1 A  parts  of  litharge. 
Place  this  over  the  fire  and  stir  it  till  all 
the  ingredients  are  intimately  mixed. 
The  mixture  may  be  diluted  with  a  little 
benzine  or  oil  of  turpentine,  and  must  be 
warm  when  used. 

Glue  to  Fasten  Linoleum  on  Iron 
Stairs. — I. — Use  a  mixture  of  glue,  isin- 
glass, and  dextrin  which,  dissolved  in 
water  and  heated,  is  given  an  admixture 
of  turpentine.  The  strips  pasted  down 
must  be  weighted  with  boards  and  brick 
on  top  until  the  adhesive  agent  has  hard- 
ened. 

II. — Soak  3  parts  of  glue  in  8  parts 
water,  add  A  part  hydrochloric  acid  and 
f  part  zinc  vitriol  and  let  this  mixture 
boil  several  hours.  Coat  the  floor  and 
the  back  of  the  linoleum  with  this. 
Press  the  linoleum  down  uniformly  and 
firmly  and  weight  it  for  some  time. 

Glue  for  Attaching  Gloss  to  Precious 
Metals. — Sandarac  varnish,  15  parts; 
marine  glue,  5  parts;  drying  oil,  5  parts; 
white  lead,  5  parts;  Spanish  white,  5 
parts;  turpentine,  5  parts.  Triturate  all  to 
form  a  rather  homogeneous  paste.  This 
glue  becomes  very  hard  and  resisting. 

Elastic  Glue. — Although  elastic  glue  is 
less  durable  than  rubber,  and  will  not 
stand  much  heat,  yet  it  is  cheaper  than 
rubber,  and  is  not,  like  rubber  affected 
by  oil  colors.  Hence  it  is  largely  used 
for  printing  rollers  and  stamps.  For 


stamps,  good  glue  is  soaked  for  24  hours 
in  soft  water.  The  water  is  poured  off, 
and  the  swollen  glue  is  melted  and  mixed 
with  glycerine  and  a  little  salicylic  acid 
and  cast  into  molds.  The  durability  is  in- 
creased by  painting  the  mass  with  a  solu- 
tion of  tannin,  or,  better,  of  bichromate 
of  potassium.  Printing  rollers  require 
greater  firmness  and  elasticity.  The 
mass  for  them  once  consisted  solely  of 
glue  and  vinegar,  and  their  manufacture 
was  very  difficult.  The  use  of  glycerine 
has  remedied  this,  and  gives  great  elas- 
ticity without  adhesiveness,  and  has  re- 
moved the  liability  of  moldiness.  Swol- 
len glue,  which  has  been  superficially 
dried,  is  fused  with  glycerine  and  cast 
into  oil  molds.  Similar  mixtures  are 
used  for  casting  plaster  ornaments,  etc., 
and  give  very  sharp  casts.  A  mass  con- 
sisting of  glue  and  glycerine  is  poured 
over  the  model  in  a  box.  When  the  mold 
is  removed,  it  is  painted  with  plaster  out- 
side and  with  boiled  oil  inside,  and  can 
then  be  used  many  times  for  making  re- 
productions of  the  model. 

Glue  for  Paper  and  Metal. — A  glue 
which  will  keep  well  and  adhere  tightly 
is  obtained  by  diluting  1,000  parts  by 
weight  of  potato  starch  in  1,200  parts  by 
weight  of  water  and  adding  50  parts  by 
weight  of  pure  nitric  acid.  The  mixture 
is  kept  in  a  hot  place  for  48  hours,  taking 
care  to  stir  frequently.  It  is  afterwards 
boiled  to  a  thick  and  transparent  consist- 
ency, diluted  with  water  if  there  is  occa- 
sion, and  then  there  are  added  in  the 
form  of  a  screened  powder,  2  parts  of  sal 
ammoniac  and  1  part  of  sulphur  flowers. 

Glue  for  Attaching  Cloth  Strips  to  Iron. 
— Soak  500  parts  of  Cologne  glue  in  the 
evening  with  clean  cold  water  in  a  clean 
vessel;  in  the  morning  pour  off  the  water, 
place  the  softened  glue  without  admix- 
ture of  water  into  a  clean  copper  or 
enamel  receptacle,  which  is  put  on  a  mod- 
erate low  fire  (charcoal  or  steam  appa- 
ratus). During  the  dissolution  the  mass 
must  be  continually  stirred  with  a  wood- 
en trowel  or  spatula.  If  the  glue  is  too 
thick,  it  is  thinned  with  diluted  spirit, 
but  not  with  water.  As  soon  as  the  glue 
has  reached  the  boiling  point,  about  50 
parts  of  linseed  oil  varnish  (boiled  oil)  is 
added  to  the  mass  with  constant  stirring. 
When  the  latter  has  been  stirred  up  well, 
add  50  parts  of  powdered  colophony  and 
shake  it  into  the  mass  with  stirring, 
subsequently  removing  the  glue  from  the 
fire.  In  order  to  increase  the  binding 
qualities  and  to  guard  against  moisture, 
it  is  well  still  to  add  about  50  parts  of 
isinglass,  which  has  been  previously  cut 


ADHESIVES 


15 


into  narrow  strips  and  placed,  well 
beaten,  in  a  vessel,  into  which  enough 
spirit  of  wine  has  been  poured  to  cover 
all.  When  dissolved,  the  last  -  named 
mass  is  added  to  the  boiling  glue  with 
constant  stirring.  The  adhesive  agent 
is  now  ready  for  use  and  is  employed  hot, 
it  being  advisable  to  warm  the  iron  also. 
Apply  glue  only  to  a  surface  equivalent 
to  a  single  strip  at  a  time.  The  strips  are 
pressed  down  with  a  stiff  brush  or  a  wad 
of  cloth. 

Glue  for  Leather  or  Cardboard. — To 
attach  leather  to  cardboard  dissolve 
good  glue  (softened  by  swelling  in  water) 
with  a  little  turpentine  and  enough  water 
in  an  ordinary  glue  pot,  and  then  having 
made  a  thick  paste  with  starch  in  the 
proportion  of  2  parts  by  weight,  of  starch 
powder  for  every  1  part,  by  weight,  of 
dry  glue,  mix  the  compounds  and  allow 
the  mixture  to  become  cold  before  appli- 
cation to  the  cardboard. 

For  Wood,  Glass,  Cardboard,  and  all 
Articles  of  a  Metallic  or  Mineral  Char- 
acter.— Take  boiled  linseed  oil  20  parts, 
Flemish  glue  20  parts,  hydrated  lime  15 
parts,  powdered  turpentine  5  parts,  alum 
5  parts  acetic  acid  5  parts.  Dissolve  the 
glue  with  the  acetic  acid,  add  the  alum, 
then  the  hydrated  lime,  and  finally  the 
turpentine  and  the  boiled  linseed  oil. 
Triturate  all  well  until  it  forms  a  homo- 
geneous paste  and  keep  in  well-closed 
flasks.  Use  like  any  other  glue. 

Glue  for  Uniting  Metals  with  Fabrics. 
— Cologne  glue  of  good  quality  is  soaked 
and  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of 
that  used  by  cabinetmakers.  Then  add, 
with  constant  stirring,  sifted  wood  ashes 
until  a  moderately  thick,  homogeneous 
mass  results.  Use  hot  and  press  the 
pieces  well  together  during  the  drying. 
For  tinfoil,  about  2  per  cent  of  boracic 
acid  should  be  added  instead  of  the  wood 
ashes. 

Glue  or  Paste  for  Making  Paper 
Boxes. — 

Chloral  hydrate 5  parts 

Gelatin,  white 8  parts 

Gum  arabic 2  parts 

Boiling  water 30  parts 

Mix  the  chloral,  gelatin,  and  gum 
arabic  in  a  porcelain  container,  pour  the 
boiling  water  over  the  mixture  and  let 
stand  for  1  day,  giving  it  a  vigorous  stir- 
ring several  times  during  the  day.  In 
cold  weather  this  is  apt  to  get  hard  and 
stiff,  but  this  may  be  obviated  by  stand- 
ing the  container  in  warm  water  for  a 
few  minutes.  This  paste  adheres  to  any 
surface  whatever. 


Natural  Glue  for  Cementing  Porcelain, 
Crystal  Glass,  etc.— The  large  shell 
snails  which  are  found  in  vineyards  have 
at  the  extremity  of  their  body  a  small, 
whitish  bladder  filled  with  a  substance 
of  greasy  and  gelatinous  aspect.  If  this 
substance  extracted  from  the  bladder  is 
applied  on  the  fragments  of  porcelain  or 
any  body  whatever,  which  are  juxtaposed 
by  being  made  to  touch  at  all  parts,  they 
acquire  such  adhesion  that  if  one  strives 
to  separate  them  by  a  blow,  they  are 
more  liable  to  break  at  another  place 
than  the  cemented  seam.  It  is  necessary 
to  give  this  glue  sufficient  time  to  dry  per- 
fectly, so  as  to  permit  it  to  acquire  the 
highest  degree  of  strength  and  tenacity. 

Belt  Glue. — A  glue  for  belts  can  be 
prepared  as  follows:  Soak  50  parts  of 
gelatin  in  water,  pour  off  the  excess  of 
water,  and  heat  on  the  water  bath.  With 
good  stirring  add,  first,  5  parts,  by 
weight,  of  glycerine,  then  10  parts,  by 
weight,  of  turpentine,  and  5  parts,  by 
weight,  of  linseed  oil  varnish  and  thin 
with  water  as  required.  The  ends  of  the 
belts  to  be  glued  are  cut  off  obliquely  and 
warmed;  then  the  hot  glue  is  applied,  and 
the  united  parts  are  subjected  to  strong 
pressure,  allowing  them  to  dry  thvs  for 
24  hours  before  the  belts  are  used. 

Chromium  Glue  for  Wood,  Paper,  and 
Cloth. — I.  —  (a)  One-half  pound  strong 
glue  (any  glue  if  color  is  immaterial, 
white  fish  glue  otherwise);  soak  12  hours 
in  12  fluidounces  of  cold  water,  (b)  One- 
quarter  pound  gelatin;  soak  2  hours  in 
12  fluidounces  cold  water,  (c)  Two 
ounces  bichromate  of  potassium  dis- 
solved in  8  fluidounces  boiling  water. 
Dissolve  (a)  after  soaking,  in  a  glue  pot, 
and  add  (6).  After  (a)  and  (fc)  are  mixed 
and  dissolved,  stir  in  (c).  This  glue  is 
exceedingly  strong,  and  if  the  article 
cemented  be  exposed  to  strong  sunlight 
for  1  hour,  the  glue  becomes  perfectly 
waterproof.  Of  course,  it  is  understood 
that  the  exposure  to  sunlight  is  to  be 
made  after  the  glue  is  thoroughly  dry. 
The  one  objectionable  feature  of  this 
cement  is  its  color,  which  is  a  yellow- 
brown.  By  substituting  chrome  alum 
in  place  of  the  bichromate,  an  olive  color 
is  obtained. 

II. — Use  a  moderately  strong  gelatin 
solution  (containing  5  to  10  per  cent  of 
dry  gelatin),  to  which  about  1  part  of 
acid  chromate  of  potassium  in  solution  is 
added  to  every  5  parts  of  gelatin.  This 
mixture  has  the  property  of  becoming  in- 
soluble by  water  through  the  action  of 
sunlight  under  partial  reduction  of  the 
chromic  acid. 


16 


ADHESIVES 


Fireproof  Glue. — 

Raw  linseed  oil 8  parts 

Glue  or  gelatin 1  part 

Quicklime 2  parts 

Soak  the  glue  or  gelatin  in  the  oil  for 
10  to  12  hours,  and  then  melt  it  by  gently 
heating  the  oil,  and  when  perfectly  fluid 
stir  in  the  quicklime  until  the  whole 
mass  is  homogeneous,  then  spread  out  in 
layers  to  dry  gradually,  out  of  the  sun's 
rays.  For  use,  reheat  the  glue  in  a  glue 
pot  in  the  ordinary  way  of  melting  glue. 

CEMENTS. 

Under  this  heading  will  be  found  only 
cements  for  causing  one  substance  to  ad- 
here to  another.  Cements  used  prima- 
rily as  fillers,  such  as  dental  cements, 
will  be  found  under  Cements,  Putties, 
etc. 

Cutlers'  Cements  for  Fixing  Knife 
Blades  into  Handles. — 

I. — Rosin 4  pounds 

Beeswax 1  pound 

Plaster    of    Paris     or 

brickdust 1  pound 

II.— Pitch 5  pounds 

Wood  ashes 1  pound 

Tallow 1  pound 

III. — Rosin,  12;  sulphur  flowers,  3; 
iron  filings,  5.  Melt  together,  fill  the 
handle  while  hot,  and  insert  the  instru- 
ment. 

IV. — Plaster  of  Paris  is  ordinarily 
used  for  fastening  loose  handles.  It  is 
made  into  a  moderately  thick  paste  with 
water  run  into  the  hole  in  the  head  of  the 
pestle,  the  handle  inserted  and  held  in 
place  till  the  cement  hardens.  Some  add 
sand  to  the  paste,  and  claim  to  get  better 
results. 

V. — Boil  together  1  part  of  caustic  soda, 
3  parts  of  rosin,  and  5  parts  of  water  till 
homogeneous  and  add  4  parts  of  plaster 
of  Paris.  The  paste  sets  in  half  an  hour 
and  is  but  little  affected  by  water. 

VI. — 'Equal  quantities  of  gutta  percha 
and  shellac  are  melted  together  and  well 
stirred.  This  is  best  done  in  an  iron  cap- 
sule placed  on  a  sandbath  and  heated 
over  a  gas  furnace  or  on  the  top  of  a 
stove.  The  combination  possesses  both 
hardness  and  toughness,  qualities  that 
make  it  particularly  desirable  in  mend- 
ing mortars  and  pestles.  In  using, 
the  articles  to  be  cemented  should  be 
warmed  to  about  the  melting  point  of  the 
mixture  and  retained  in  proper  position 
until  cool,  when  they  are  ready  for  use. 

VII.— Rosin 600  )    Parts 

Sulphur 150  }•     by 

Iron  filings 250  )  weight. 


Pour  the  mixture,  hot,  into  the  opening 
of  the  heated  handle  and  shove  in  the 
knife  likewise  heated. 

VIII. — Melt  sufficient  black  rosin,  and 
incorporate  thoroughly  with  it  one-fifth  its 
weight  of  very  fine  silver  sand.  Make 
the  pestle  hot,  pour  in  a  little  of  the  mix- 
ture, then  force  the  handle  well  home, 
and  set  aside  for  a  day  before  using. 

IX. — Make  a  smooth,  moderately  soft 
paste  with  litharge  and  glycerine;  fill  the 
hole  in  the  pestle  with  the  cement,  and 
firmly  press  the  handle  in  place,  keeping 
it  under  pressure  for  three  or  four  days. 

Cements  for  Stone. — I. — An  excellent 
cement  for  broken  marble  consists  of  4 
parts  of  gypsum  and  1  part  of  finely 
powdered  gum  arabic.  Mix  intimately. 
Then  with  a  cold  solution  of  borax  make 
into  a  mortarlike  mass.  Smear  on  each 
face  of  the  parts  to  be  joined,  and  fasten 
the  bits  of  marble  together.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  days  the  cement  becomes 
very  hard  and  holds  very  tenaciously. 
The  object  mended  should  not  be  touched 
for  several  days.  In  mending  colored 
marbles  the  cement  may  be  given  the  hue 
of  the  marble  by  adding  the  color  to  the 
borax  solution. 

II. — A  cement  which  dries  instanta- 
neously, qualifying  it  for  all  sorts  of  re- 
pairing and  only  presenting  the  disad- 
vantage of  having  to  be  freshly  prepared 
each  time,  notwithstanding  any  subse- 

?uent  heating,  may  be  made  as  follows: 
n  a  metal  vessel  or  iron  spoon  melt  4  to 
5  parts  of  rosin  (or  preferably  mastic) 
and  1  part  of  beeswax.  This  mixture 
must  be  applied  rapidly  it  being  of  ad- 
vantage slightly  to  heat  tne  surfaces  to  be 
united,  which  naturally  must  have  been 
previously  well  cleaned. 

III.— Slaked  lime,  10  parts;  chalk,  15 
parts;  kaolin,  5  parts;  mix.  and  imme- 
diately before  use  stir  with  a  correspond- 
ing amount  of  potash  water  glass. 

IV.— Cement  on  Marble  Slabs.— The 
whole  marble  slab  is  thoroughly  warmed 
and  laid  face  down  upon  a  neatly  cleaned 
planing  bench  upon  which  a  woolen  cloth 
is  spread  so  as  not  to  injure  the  polish  of 
the  slab.  Next  apply  to  the  slab  very 
hot,  weak  glue  and  quickly  sift  hot  plaster 
of  Paris  on  the  glue  in  a  thin  even  layer, 
stirring  the  plaster  rapidly  into  the  ap- 
plied glue  by  means  of  a  strong  spatula, 
so  that  a  uniform  glue-plaster  coating 
is  formed  on  the  warm  slab.  Before  this 
has  time  to  harden  tip  the  respective  piece 
of  furniture  on  the  slab.  The  frame,  like- 
wise warmed,  will  adhere  very  firmly  to  the 
slab  after  two  days.  Besides,  this  process 
has  the  advantage  of  great  cleanliness. 


ADHESIVES 


17 


V. — The  following  is  a  recipe  used  by 
marble  worKers,  and  which  probably 
can  be  used  to  advantage:  Flour  of  sul- 
phur, 1  part;  hydrocnlorate  of  am- 
monia, 2  parts;  iron  filings,  16  parts. 
The  above  substances  must  be  reduced 
to  a  powder,  and  securely  preserved 
in  closely  stoppered  vessels.  When  the 
cement  is  to  be  employed,  take  20  parts 
very  fine  iron  filings  and  1  part  of  the 
above  powder;  mix  them  together  with 
enough  water  to  form  a  manageable 
paste.  This  paste  solidifies  in  20  days 
and  becomes  as  hard  as  iron.  A  recipe 
for  another  cement  useful  for  joining 
small  pieces  of  marble  or  alabaster  is  as 
follows:  Add  £  pint  of  vinegar  to  J  pint 
skimmed  milk;  mix  the  curd  with  the 
whites  of  5  eggs,  well  beaten,  and  suffi- 
cient powdered  quicklime  sifted  in  with 
constant  stirring  so  as  to  form  a  paste. 
It  resists  water  and  a  moderate  degree  of 
heat. 

VI. — Cement  for  Iron  and  Marble. — 
For  fastening  iron  to  marble  or  stone  a 
good  cement  is  made  as  follows:  Thirty 
parts  plaster  of  Paris,  10  parts  iron  filings, 
A  part  sal  ammoniac  mixed  with  vinegar 
to  a  fluid  paste  fresh  for  use. 

Cement  -for  Sandstones. — One  part 
sulphur  and  1  part  rosin  are  melted 
separately;  the  melted  masses  are  mixed 
and  3  parts  litharge  and  2  parts  ground 
glass  stirred  in.  The  latter  ingredients 
must  be  perfectly  dry,  and  have  been 
well  pulverized  and  mixed  previously. 

Equally  good  cement  is  obtained  by 
melting  together  1  part  pitch  and  iV  part 
wax,  and  mixing  with  2  parts  brickdust. 

The  stones  to  be  cemented,  or  be- 
tween the  joints  of  which  the  putty  is  to 
be  poured,  must  be  perfectly  dry.  If 
practicable,  they  should  be  warmed  a 
little,  and  the  surfaces  to  which  the  putty 
is  to  adhere  painted  with  oil  varnish 
once  or  twice.  The  above  two  formulae 
are  of  especial  value  in  case  the  stones 
are  very  much  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the 
sun  in  summer,  as  well  as  to  cold,  rain, 
and  snow  in  winter.  Experience  has 
shown  that  in  these  instances  the  above- 
mentioned  cements  give  better  satisfac- 
tion than  the  other  brands  of  cement. 

Cements  for  Attaching  Objects  to 
Glass.— 

Rosin 1  part 

Yellow  wax 2  parts 

Melt  together. 

To  Attach  Copper  to  Glass.— Boil  1 
part  of  caustic  soda  and  3  parts  of  co- 
lophony in  5  parts  of  water  and  mix  with 
the  like  quantity  of  plaster  of  Paris. 


This  cement  is  not  attacked  by  water, 
heat,  and  petroleum.  If,  in  place  of  the 
plaster  of  Paris,  zinc  white,  white  lead, 
or  slaked  lime  is  used,  the  cement  hard- 
ens more  slowly. 

To  Fasten  Brass  upon  Glass.  —Boil  to- 
gether 1  part  of  caustic  soda,  3  parts  of 
rosin,  3  parts  of  gypsum,  and  5  parts  of 
water.  The  cement  made  in  this  way 
hardens  in  about  half  an  hour,  hence  i't 
must  be  applied  quickly.  During  the 
preparation  it  should  be  stirred  con- 
stantly. All  the  ingredients  used  must 
be  in  a  finely  powdered  state. 

Uniting  Glass  with  Horn.  — (1)  A  solu- 
tion of  2  parts  of  gelatin  in  20  parts  water 
is  evaporated  up  to  one-sixth  of  its  volume 
and  J  mastic  dissolved  in  ^  spirit  added 
and  some  zinc  white  stirred  in.  The 
putty  is  applied  warm;  it  dries  easily 
and  can  be  kept  a  long  time.  (2)  Mix 
gold  size  with  the  equal  volume  of  water 
glass. 

To  Cement  Glass  to  Iron. — 

I. — Rosin 5  ounces 

Yellow  wax 1  ounce 

Venetian  red 1  ounce 

Melt  the  wax  and  rosin  on  a  water 
bath  and  add,  under  constant  stirring,  the 
Venetian  red  previously  well  dried.  Stir 
until  nearly  cool,  so  as  to  prevent  the  Ve- 
netian red  from  settling  to  the  bottom. 

II. — Portland  cement 2  ounces 

Prepared  chalk 1  ounce 

Fine  sand 1  ounce 

Solution  of  sodium  silicate 
enough  to  form  a  semi- 
liquid  paste. 

III. — Litharge 2  parts 

White  lead 1  part 

Work  into  a  pasty  condition  by  using 
3  parts  boiled  linseed  oil,  1  part  copal 
varnish. 

Celluloid  Cements. — I. — To  mend  brok- 
en draughting  triangles  and  other  cellu- 
loid articles,  use  3  parts  alcohol  and  4 
parts  ether  mixed  together  and  applied  to 
the  fracture  with  a  brush  until  the  edges 
become  warm.  The  edges  are  then 
stuck  together,  and  left  to  dry  for  at  least 
24  hours. 

II. — Camphor,  1  part;  alcohol,  4  parts. 
Dissolve  and  add  equal  quantity  (by 
weight)  of  shellac  to  this  solution.  N 

III. — If  firmness  is  desired  in  putting 
celluloid  on  wood,  tin,  etc.,  the  following 
gluing  agent  is  recommended,  viz.:  A 
compound  of  2  parts  shellac,  3  parts 
spirit  of  camphor,  and  4  parts  strong 
alcohol. 


18 


ADHESIVES 


IV. — Shellac 2  ounces 

Spirits  of  camphor. .  2  ounces 
Alcohol,  90  per  cent. .  6  to  8  ounces 
V.  — Make  a  moderately  strong  glue  or 
solution  of  gelatin.  In  a  dark  place  or 
a  dark  room  mix  with  the  above  a  small 
amount  of  concentrated  solution  of  potas- 
sium dichromate.  Coat  the  back  of  the 
label,  which  must  be  clean,  with  a  thin 
layer  of  the  mixture.  Strongly  press  the 
label  against  the  bottle  and  keep  the  two 
in  close  contact  by  tying  with  twine  or 
otherwise.  Expose  to  sunlight  for  some 
hours;  this  causes  the  cement  to  be  insol- 
uble even  in  hot  water. 

VI. — Lime av.  oz.  1 

White  of  egg av.  oz.  2£ 

Plaster  of  Paris av.  oz.  5| 

Water fl.    oz.  1 

Reduce  the  lime  to  a  fine  powder;  mix 
it  with  the  white  of  egg  by  trituration, 
forming  a  uniform  paste.  Dilute  with 
water,  rapidly  incorporate  the  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  use  the  cement  immediately. 
The  surfaces  to  be  cemented  must  first 
be  moistened  with  water  so  that  the  ce- 
ment will  readily  adhere.  The  pieces 
must  be  firmly  pressed  together  and  kept 
in  t>his  position  for  about  12  hours. 

Cementing  Celluloid  and  Hard-Rubber 
Articles. — I. — Celluloid  articles  can  be 
mended  by  making  a  mixture  com- 
posed of  3  parts  of  alcohol  and  4  parts  of 
ether.  This  mixture  should  be  kept  in 
a  well-corked  bottle,  and  when  celluloid 
articles  are  to  be  mended,  the  broken 
surfaces  are  painted  over  with  the  alcohol 
and  ether  mixture  until  the  surfaces 
soften:  then  press  together  and  bind  and 
allow  to  dry  for  at  least  24  hours. 

II. — Dissolve  1  part  of  gum  camphor 
in  4  parts  of  alcohol;  dissolve  an  equal 
weight  of  shellac  in  such  strong  camphor 
solution.  The  cement  is  applied  warm 
and  the  parts  united  must  not  be  dis- 
turbed until  the  cement  is  hard.  Hard- 
rubber  articles  are  never  mended  to  form 
a  strong  joint. 

III. — Melt  together  equal  parts  of 
gutta  percha  and  real  asphaltum.  The 
cement  is  applied  hot,  and  the  broken 
surfaces  pressed  together  and  held  in 
place  while  cooling. 

Sign-Letter  Cements.— 

I. — Copal  varnish 15  parts 

Drying  oil 5  parts 

Turpentine  (spirits).     3  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine 2  parts 

Liquefied  glue 5  parts 

Melt  all  together  on  a  water  bath  until 
well  mixed,  and  then  add  10  parts  slaked 
lime. 


II. — Mix  100  parts  finely  powdered 
white  litharge  with  50  parts  dry  white 
lead,  knead  together  3  parts  linseed  oil 
varnish  and  1  part  copal  varnish  into  a 
firm  dough.  Coat  the  side  to  be  attached 
with  this,  removing  the  superfluous  ce- 
ment. It  will  dry  quickly  and  become 
very  hard. 

III. — Copal  varnish 15  parts 

Linseed-oil  varnish  .      5  parts 

Raw  turpentine 3  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine. ...      2  parts 
Carpenters'  glue,  dis- 
solved in  water  ...      5  parts 
Precipitated  chalk  . .    10  parts 

IV. — Mastic  gum 1  part 

Litharge,  lead 2  parts 

White  lead 1  part 

Linseed  oil 3  parts 

Melt  together  to  a  homogeneous  mass. 
Apply  hot.  To  make  a  thorough  and 
reliable  job,  the  letters  should  be  heated 
to  at  least  the  temperature  of  the  cement. 
To  Fix  Gold  Letters,  etc.,  upon  Glass. 
— I. — The  glass  must  be  entirely  clean  and 
polished,  and  the  medium  is  prepared  in 
the  following  manner:  One  ounce  fish 
glue  or  isinglass  is  dissolved  in  water 
so  that  the  latter  covers  the  glue.  When 
this  is  dissolved  a  quart  of  rectified  spir- 
it of  wine  is  added,  and  enough  water  is 
poured  in  to  make  up  one-quarter  the 
whole.  The  substance  must  be  kept  well 
corked. 

II. — Take  i  quart  of  the  best  rum 
and  I  ounce  fish  glue,  which  is  dissolved 
in  the  former  at  a  moderate  degree  of 
heat.  Then  add  ?  quart  distilled  water, 
and  filter  through  a  piece  of  old  linen. 
The  glass  is  laid  upon  a  perfectly  level 
table  and  is  covered  with  this  substance 
to  the  thickness  of  J  inch,  using  a  clean 
brush.  Seize  the  gold  leaf  with  a 
pointed  object  and  place  it  smoothly 
upon  the  prepared  mass,  and  it  will  be 
attracted  by  the  glass  at  once.  After  5 
minutes  hold  the  glass  slightly  slanting 
so  that  the  superfluous  mass  can  run  off, 
and  leave  the  plate  in  this  position  for  24 
hours,  when  it  will  be  perfectly  dry.  Now 
trace  the  letters  or  the  design  on  a  piece 
of  paper,  and  perforate  the  lines  with  a 
thick  needle,  mak:ng  the  holes  -^  inch 
apart.  Then  place  the  perforated  paper 
upcwi  the  surface  of  the  glass,  and  stamp 
the  tracery  on  with  powdered  chalk.  The 
paper  pattern  is  then  carefully  removed, 
and  the  accurate  design  will  remain  upon 
the  gold.  The  outlines  are  now  filled 
out  with  an  oily  gold  mass,  mixed  with 
a  little  chrome  orange  and  diluted  with 
boiled  oil  or  turpentine.  When  all  is 
dry  the  superfluous  gold  is  washed  off 


ADHESIVES 


19 


with  water  by  means  of  a  common  rag. 
The  back  of  the  glass  is  then  painted 
with  a  suitable  color. 

Attaching  Enamel  Letters  to  Glass. — 
To  affix  enamel  letters  to  glass,  first 
clean  the  surface  of  the  glass  perfectly, 
leaving  no  grease  or  sticky  substance 
of  any  kind  adhering  to  the  surface. 
Then  with  a  piece  of  soap  sketch  the  out- 
lines of  the  design.  Make  the  proper 
division  of  the  guide  lines,  and  strike  off 
accurately  the  position  each  letter  is  to 
occupy.  Then  to  the  back  of  the  letters 
apply  a  cement  made  as  follows:  White 
lead  ground  in  oil,  2  parts;  dry  white 
lead,  3  parts.  Mix  to  a  soft  putty  con- 
sistency with  good  copal  varnish. 

With  a  small  knife  or  spatula  apply 
the  cement  to  the  back  of  the  letters, 
observing  especial  care  in  getting  the 
mixture  well  and  uniformly  laid  around 
the  inside  edges  of  the  letter.  In  at- 
taching ^he  letters  to  the  glass  make  sure 
to  expel  the  air  from  beneath  the  char- 
acters, and  to  do  this,  work  them  up 
and  down  and  sidewise.  If  the  weather 
be  at  all  warm,  support  the  letters 
while  drying  by  pressing  tiny  beads  of 
sealing  wax  against  the  glass,  close  to 
the  under  side  or  bottom  of  the  letters. 
With  a  putty  knife,  keenly  sharpened 
on  one  edge,  next  remove  all  the  sur- 
plus cement.  Give  the  letters  a  hard, 
firm  pressure  against  the  glass  around 
all  edges  to  securely  guard  against  the 
disruptive  attacks  of  moisture. 

The  seepage  of  moisture  beneath  the . 
surface  of  the  letters  is  the  main  cause 
of  their  early  detachment  from  the  glass. 

The  removal  of  the  letters  from  the 
glass  may  be  effected  by  applying  tur- 
pentine to  the  top  of  the  characters, 
allowing  it  to  soak  down  and  through 
the  cement.  Oxalic  acid  applied  in  the 
same  way  will  usually  slick  the  letters 
off  in  a  trice. 

Cement  for  Porcelain  Letters. — Slake 
15  parts  of  fresh  quicklime  in  20  parts  of 
water.  Melt  50  parts  of  caoutchouc  and 
50  parts  of  linseed-oil  varnish  together, 
and  bring  the  mixture  to  a  boil.  While 
boiling,  pour  the  liquid  o>n  the  slaked 
lime,  little  by  little,  under  constant  stir- 
ring. Pass  the  mixture,  while  still  hot, 
through  muslin,  to  remove  any  possible 
lumps,  and  let  cool.  It  takes  the  cement 
2  days  to  set  completely,  but  when  dry 
it  makes  a  joint  that  will  resist  a  great 
deal  of  strain.  By  thinning  the  mixture 
down  with  oil  of  turpentine,  a  brilliant, 
powerfully  adhesive  varnish  is  obtained. 

Water  -  Glass  Cements.  —  I.  —  W7ater 
<rlass  (sodium  of  potassium  silicate),  which 


is  frequently  recommended  for  cement-- 
ing glass,  does  not,  as  is  often  asserted, 
form  a  vitreous  connection  between  the 
joined  surfaces;  and,  in  fact,  some  of 
the  commercial  varieties  will  not  even 
dry,  but  merely  form  a  thick  paste, 
which  has  a  strong  affinity  for  moisture. 
Good  30°  B.  water  glass  is,  however, 
suitable  for  mending  articles  that  are  ex- 
posed to  heat,  and  is  best  applied  to  sur- 
faces that  have  been  gently  warmed; 
when  the  pieces  are  put  together  they 
should  be  pressed  warmly,  to  expel  any 
superfluous  cement,  and  then  heated 
strongly. 

To  repair  cracked  glasses  or  bottles 
through  which  water  will  leak,  water 
glasses  may  be  used,  the  application 
being  effected  in  the  following  easy 
manner:  The  vessel  is  warmed  to  induce 
rarefaction  of  the  internal  air,  after 
which  the  mouth  is  closed,  either  by  a 
cork  in  the  case  of  bottles,  or  by  a  piece 
of  parchment  or  bladder  if  a  wide- 
mouthed  vessel  is  under  treatment. 

While  still  hot,  the  outside  of  the 
crack  is  covered  with  a  little  glass,  and 
the  vessel  set  aside  to  cool,  whereupon 
the  difference  between  the  pressure  of  the 
external  and  internal  air  will  force  the 
cement  into  the  fissure  and  close  it 
completely.  All  that  is  then  necessary 
is  to  take  off  the  cover  and  leave  the 
vessel  to  warm  for  a  few  hours.  Sub- 
sequently rinse  it  out  with  lime  water, 
followed  by  clean  water,  and  it  will  then 
hold  any  liquid,  acids  and  alkaline  fluids 
alone  excepted. 

II. — When  water  glass  is  brought  into 
contact  with  calcium  chloride,  a  cal- 
cium silicate  is  at  once  formed  which 
is  insoluble  in  water.  It  seems  possible 
that  this  reaction  may  be  used  in  bind- 
ing together  masses  of  sand,  etc.  The 
process  indicated  has  long  been  used  in 
the  preservation  of  stone  which  has  be- 
come "weathered."  The  stone  is  first 
brushed  with  the  water  glass  and  after- 
wards with  a  solution  of  calcium  chlor- 
ide. The  conditions  here  are  of  course 
different. 

Calcium  chloride  must  riot  be  con- 
founded with  the  so-called  "  chloride  of 
lime  "  which  is  a  mixture  of  calcium  hy- 
pochlorite  and  other  bodies. 

To  Fasten  Paper  Tickets  to  Glass  —To 
attach  paper  tickets  to  glass,  the  em- 
ployment of  water  glass  is  efficacious. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  spread  this  prod- 
uct on  the  glass  and  not  on  the  paper, 
and  then  to  apply  the  paper  dry,  which 
should  be  done  immediately.  When  the 
solution  is  dry  the  paper  cannot  be  de- 


ADHES1VES 


tached.  The  silicate  should  be  some- 
what diluted.  It  is  spread  on  the  glass 
with  a  rag  or  a  small  sponge. 

JEWELERS'   CEMENTS. 

Jewelers  and  goldsmiths  require,  for 
the  cementing  of  genuine  and  colored 
gems,  as  well  as  for  the  placing  of  col- 
ored folio  under  certain  stones,  very 
adhesive  gluing  agents,  which  must, 
however,  be  colorless.  In  this  respect 
these  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  the 
so-called  diamond  cement  and  the  regu- 
lar jewelers'  cement.  Diamond  ce- 
ment is  much  esteemed  by  jewelers  for 
cementing  precious  stones  and  corals, 
but  may  also  be  employed  with  ad- 
vantage for  laying  colored  fluxes  of 
glass  on  white  glass.  The  diamond 
cement  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  able 
to  remain  for  some  time  in  contact  with 
water  without  becoming  soft.  It  ad- 
heres best  between  glass  or  between  pre- 
cious stones.  It  is  composed  as  follows: 
Isinglass  8  parts,  gum  ammoniac  1  part, 
galbanum  1  part,  spirit  of  wine  4  parts. 
Soak  the  isinglass  in  water  with  admix- 
ture of  a  little  spirit  of  wine  and  add  the 
solution  of  the  gums  in  the  remainder 
of  the  spirit  of  wine.  Before  use,  heat 
the  diamond  cement  a  little  so  as  to 
soften  it.  Jewelers'  cement  is  used  for 
similar  purposes  as  is  the  diamond  ce- 
ment, and  is  prepared  from:  Isinglass 
(dry)  10  parts,  mastic  varnish  5  parts. 
Dissolve  the  isinglass  in  very  little  water, 
adding  some  strong  spirit  of  wine.  The 
mastic  varnish  is  prepared  by  pouring 
a  mixture  of  highly  rectified  spirit  of 
wine  and  benzine  over  finely  powdered 
mastic  and  dissolving  it  in  the  smallest 
possible  quantity  of  liquid.  The  two 
solutions  of  isinglass  and  mastic  are  in- 
timately ground  together  in  a  porcelain 
dish. 

Armenian  Cement. — The  celebrated 
"  Armenian  "  cement,  so  called  formerly 
used  by  Turkish  and  Oriental  jewelers 
generally,  for  setting  precious  stones, 
"  facing  diamonds,"  rubies,  etc.,  is  made 
as  follows: 

Mastic  gum 10  parts 

Isinglass  (fish  glue)  .      20  parts 
Gum  ammoniac  ....        5  parts 

Alcohol  absolute 60  parts 

Alcohol,  50  per  cent. .      35  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Dissolve  the  mastic  in  the  absolute 
alcohol;  dissolve,  by  the  aid  of  gentle 
heat,  on  the  water  bath,  the  isinglass  in 
the  water,  and  add  10  parts  of  the  dilute 
alcohol.  Now  dissolve  the  ammoniacum 
in  the  residue  of  the  dilute  alcohol.  Add 


the  first  solution  to  the  second,  mix  thor- 
oughly by  agitation  and  then  add  the 
solution  of  gum  ammoniac  and  stir  well 
in.  Finally  put  on  the  water  bath,  and 
keeping  at  a  moderate  heat,  evaporate 
the  whole  down  to  175  parts. 

Cement  for  Enameled  Dials.— The 
following  is  a  good  cement  for  enameled 
dials,  plates,  or  other  pieces:  Grind  into 
a  fine  powder  2A  parts  of  dammar  rosin 
and  2i  parts  of  copal,  using  colorless 
pieces  if  possible.  Next  add  2  parts 
of  Venetian  turpentine  and  enough  spirit 
of  wine  so  that  the  whole  forms  a  thick 
paste.  To  this  grind  3  parts  of  the  finest 
zinc  white.  The  mass  now  has  the 
consistency  of  prepared  oil  paint.  To 
remove  the  yellow  tinge  of  the  cement 
add  a  trifle  of  Berlin  blue  to  the  zinc 
white.  Finally,  the  whole  is  heated  until 
the  spirit  of  wine  is  driven  off  and  a  molt- 
en mass  remains,  which  is  allowed  to  cool 
and  is  kept  for  use.  Heat  the  parts  to  be 
cemented. 

Watch-Lid  Cement.— The  hardest  ce- 
ment for  fixing  on  watch  lids  is  shellac. 
If  the  lids  are  exceedingly  thin  the  en- 
graving will  always  press  through.  Be- 
fore cementing  it  on  the  inside  of  the  lid, 
in  order  not  to  injure  the  polish,  it  is 
coated  with  chalk  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
which  is  first  allowed  to  dry.  Next  melt 
the  shellac  on  the  stick,  heat  the  watch 
lid  and  put  it  on.  After  the  engraving 
has  been  done,  simply  force  the  lid  off  and 
'remove  the  remaining  shellac  from  the 
latter  by  light  tapping.  If  this  does  not 
remove  it  completely  lay  the  lid  in  alco- 
hol, leaving  it  therein  until  all  the  shel- 
lac has  dissolved.  All  that  remains  to  be 
done  now  is  to  wash  out  the  watch  lid. 

Jewelers'  Glue  Cement. — Dissolve  on 
a  water  bath  50  parts  of  fish  glue  in 
a  little  95-per-cent  alcohol  adding  4 
parts,  by  weight,  of  gum  ammoniac. 
On  the  other  hand,  dissolve  2  parts,  by 
weight,  of  mastic  in  10  parts,  by  weight, 
of  alcohol.  Mix  these  two  solutions  and 
preserve  in  a  well-corked  flask.  For 
use  it  suffices  to  soften  it  on  the  water 
bath. 

Casein  Cements. — 

I. — Borax 5  parts 

Water 95  parts 

Casein,  sufficient  quantity. 

Dissolve  the  borax  in  water  and  in- 
corporate enough  casein  to  produce  a 
mass  of  the  proper  consistency. 

II. — The  casein  is  made  feebly  alka- 
line by  means  of  soda  or  potash  lye  and 


ADHESIVES 


then  subjected  for  about  24  hours  to  a 
temperature  of  140°  F.  Next  follow 
the  customary  admixture,  such  as  lime 
and  water  glass,  and  finally,  to  accom- 
plish a  quicker  resinification,  substances 
containing  tannin  are  added.  For  tan- 
nic  admixtures  to  the  partially  disinte- 
grated casein,  slight  quantities — about 
1  per  cent — of  gallic  acid,  cutch,  or 
quercitannic  acid  are  employed.  The 
feebly  alkaline  casein  cement  contain- 
ing cannic  acid  is  used  in  the  well-known 
manner  for  the  gluing  together  of  wood. 

For  Metals.— Make  a  paste  with  16 
ounces  casein,  20  ounces  slaked  lime,  and 
20  ounces  of  sand,  in  water. 

For  Glass. — I. — Dissolve  casein  in  a 
concentrated  solution  of  borax. 

II. — Make  a  paste  of  casein  and 
water  glass. 

Pasteboard  and  Paper  Cement. — I. — 
Let  pure  glue  swell  in  cold  water;  pour 
and  press  off  the  excess;  put  on  the 
water  bath  and  melt.  Paper  or  other 
material  cemented  with  this  is  then 
immediately,  before  the  cement  dries, 
submitted  to  the  action  of  formaldehyde 
and  dried.  The  cement  resists  the  action 
of  water,  even  hot. 

II. — Melt  together  equal  parts  of 
good  pitch  and  gutta  percha.  To  9 
parts  of  this  mass  add  3  parts  of  boiled 
linseed  oil  and  ^  part  litharge.  The 
heat  is  kept  up  until,  with  constant 
stirring,  an  intimate  union  of  all  the  in- 
gredients has  taken  place.  The  mix- 
ture is  diluted  with  a  little  benzine  or 
oil  of  turpentine  and  applied  while  still 
warm.  The  cement  is  waterproof. 

III. — The  National  Druggist  says 
that  experience  with  pasting  or  cement- 
ing parchment  paper  seems  to  show 
that  about  the  best  agent  is  casein 
cement,  made  by  dissolving  casein  in 
a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  borax. 

IV. — The  following  is  recommended 
for  paper  boxes: 

Chloral  hydrate 5  parts 

Gelatin,  white 8  parts 

Gum  arabic 2  parts 

Boiling  water 30  parts 

Mix  the  chloral,  gelatin,  and  gum 
arabic  in  a  porcelain  container,  pour  the 
boiling  water  over  the  mixture  and  let 
stand  for  1  day,  giving  it  a  vigorous 
stirring  several  times  during  the  day. 
In  cold  weather  this  is  apt  to  get  hard 
and  stiff,  but  this  may  be  obviated  by 
standing  the  container  in  warm  water 
for  a  few  minutes.  This  paste  adheres 
to  any  surface  whatever. 


Waterproof  Cements  for  Glass,  Stone- 
ware, and  Metal. — I. — Make  a  paste  of 
sulphur,  sal  ammoniac,  iron  filings,  and 
boiled  oil. 

II. — Mix  together  dry  :  Whiting,  6 
pounds;  plaster  of  Paris,  3  pounds; 
sand,  3  pounds;  litharge,  3  pounds; 
rosin,  1  pound.  Make  to  a  paste  with 
copal  varnish. 

III. — Make  a  paste  of  boiled  oil,  6 
pounds;  copal,  6  pounds;  litharge,  2 
pounds;  white  lead,  1  pound. 

IV. — Make  a  paste  with  boiled  oil, 
3  pounds;  brickdust  2  pounds;  dry 
slaked  lime,  1  pound. 

V. — Dissolve  93  ounces  of  alum  and 
93  ounces  of  sugar  of  lead  in  water  to 
concentration.  Dissolve  separately  152 
ounces  of  gum  arabic  in  25  gallons  of 
water,  and  then  stir  in  62  i  pounds  of 
flour.  Then  heat  to  a  uniform  paste 
with  the  metallic  salts,  but  take  care  not 
to  boil  the  mass. 

VI. — For  Iron  and  Marble  to  Stand  in 
Heat. — In  3  pounds  of  water  dissolve 
first,  1  pound  water  glass  and  then  1 
pound  of  borax.  With  the  solution 
make  2  pounds  of  clay  and  1  pound  of 
barytes,  first  mixed  dry,  to  a  paste. 

VII.— Glue  to  Resist  Boiling  Water.— 
Dissolve  separately  in  water  55  pounds 
of  glue  and  a  mixture  of  40  pounds  of 
bichromate  and  5  pounds  of  alum.  Mix 
as  wanted. 

VIII.  (Chinese  Glue).— Dissolve  shel- 
lac in  10  times  its  weight  of  ammonia. 

IX. — Make  a  paste  of  40  ounces  of 
dry  slaked  lime  10  ounces  of  alum,  and 
50  ounces  of  white  of  egg. 

X.— Alcohol 1,000  parts 

Sandarac 60  parts 

Mastic 60  parts 

Turpentine  oil 60  parts 

Dissolve  the  gums  in  the  alcohol  and 
add  the  oil  and  stir  in.  Now  prepare 
a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  glue  and 
isinglass,  by  soaking  125  parts  of  each 
in  cold  water  until  it  becomes  saturated, 
pouring  and  pressing  off  the  residue,  and 
melting  on  the  water  bath.  This  should 
produce  a  volume  of  glue  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  the  solution  of  gums.  The 
latter  should,  in  the  meantime,  have 
been  cautiously  raised  to  the  boiling 
point  on  the  water  bath,  and  then  mixed 
with  the  hot  glue  solution. 

It  is  said  that  articles  united  with 
this  substance  will  stand  the  strain  of 
cold  water  for  an  unlimited  time,  and 
it  takes  hot  water  even  a  long  time  to 
affect  it. 


ADHESiVES 


JQ. — Burgundy  pitch .   6  parts 

Gutta  percha 1  part 

Pumice  stone,  in  fine 

powder 3  parts 

Melt  the  gutta  percha  very  carefully 
add  the  pumice  stone,  and  lastly  the 
pitch,  and  stir  until  homogeneous. 

Use  while  still  hot.  This  cement  will 
withstand  water  and  dilute  mineral 
acids. 

LEATHER  AND  RUBBER  CEMENTS. 

1. — Use  a  melted  mixture  of  gutta 
percha  and  genuine  asphalt,  applied 
hot.  The  hard-rubber  goods  must  be 
kept  pressed  together  until  the  cement 
has  cooled. 

II. — A  cement  which  is  effective  for 
cementing  rubber  to  iron  and  which  is 
especially  valuable  for  fastening  rub- 
ber bands  to  bandsaw  wheels  is  made 
as  follows:  Powdered  shellac,  1  part; 
strong  water  of  ammonia,  10  parts.  Put' 
the  shellac  in  the  ammonia  water  and 
set  it  away  in  a  tightly  closed  jar  for 
3  or  4  weeks.  By  that  time  the  mixture 
will  become  a  perfectly  liquid  transpar- 
ent mass  and  is  then  ready  for  use. 
When  applied  to  rubber  the  ammonia 
softens  it,  but  it  quickly  evaporates,  leav- 
ing the  rubber  in  the  same  condition  as 
before.  The  shellac  clings  to  the  iron 
and  thus  forms  a  firm  bond  between  the 
iron  and  the  rubber. 
III. — Gutta  percha  white.  1  drachm 
Carbon  disulphide.  .  1  ounce 

Dissolve,  filter,  and  add: 

India  rubber 15  grains 

Dissolve. 

Cement  for  Metal  on  Hard  Rubber. — 
I. — Soak  good  Cologne  glue  and  boil  down 
so  as  to  give  it  the  consistency  of  joiners' 
glue,  and  add  with  constant  stirring, 
enough  sifted  wood  ashes  until  a  homo- 
geneous, moderately  thick  mass  results. 
Use  warm  and  fit  the  pieces  well  together 
while  drying. 

How  to  Unite  Rubber  and  Leather. — 
II.  —  Roughen  both  surfaces,  the  leather 
and  the  rubber,  with  a  sharp  glass  edge; 
apply  to  both  a  diluted  solution  of  gutta 
percha  in  carbon  bisulphide  and  let  this 
solution  soak  into  the  material.  Then 
press  upon  each  surface  a  skin  of  gutta 
percha  fa  of  an  inch  in  thickness  between 
rolls.  The  two  surfaces  are  now  united 
in  a  press,  which  should  be  warm  but  not 
hot.  This  method  should  answer  in  all 
cases  in  which  it  is  applicable.  The 
other  prescription  covers  cases  in  which 
a  press  cannot  be  used.  Cut  30  parts  of 
rubber  into  small  pieces,  and  dissolve 


it  in  140  parts  of  carbon  bisulphide,  the 
vessel  being  placed  on  a  water  bath  of 
30°  C.  (86°  F.).  Further,  melt  10  parts 
of  rubber  with  15  of  colophony,  and  add 
35  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine.  When  the 
rubber  has  been  completely  dissolved, 
the  two  liquids  may  be  mixed.  The 
resulting  cement  must  be  kept  well 
corked. 

To  Fasten  Rubber  to  Wood.— I  — 
Make  a  cement  by  macerating  virgin 

gum  rubber,  or  as  pure  rubber  as  can  be 
ad,  cut  in  small  pieces,  in  just  enough 
naphtha  or  gasoline  to  cover  it.  Let  it 
stand  in  a  very  tightly  corked  or  sealed 
jar  for  14  days,  or  a  sufficient  time  to 
become  dissolved,  shaking  the  mixture 
daily. 

II. — Dissolve  pulverized  gum  shellac, 
1  ounce,  in  9i  ounces  of  strong  ammonia. 
This  of  course  must  be  kept  tightly 
corked.  It  will  not  be  as  clastic  as  the 
first  preparation. 

III. — Fuse  together  shellac  and  gutta 
percha  in  equal  weights. 

IV. — India  rubber 8  ounces 

Gutta  percha 4  ounces 

Isinglass 2  ounces 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  32  ounces 

V. — India  rubber 5  ounces 

Gum  mastic 1  ounce 

Chloroform 3  ounces 

VI. — Gutta  percha 16  ounces 

India  rubber 4  ounces 

Pitch 4  ounces 

Shellac 1  ounce 

Linseed  oil 1  ounce 

Amalgamate  by  heat. 
VII. — Mix  1  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine 
with  10  ounces  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  in 
which  as  much  gutta  percha  as  possible 
has  been  dissolved. 

VIII. — Amalgamate  by  heat: 

Gutta  percha.'. .  . .    100  ounces 
Venice  turpentine.      80  ounces 

Shellac 8  ounces 

India  rubber 2  ounces 

Liquid  storax 10  ounces 

IX. — Amalgamate  by  heat: 

India  rubber 100  ounces 

Rosin 15  ounces 

Shellac 10  ounces 

Then  dissolve  in  bisulphide  of  carbon. 
X. — Make  the  following  solutions  sep- 
arately and  mix: 

(a)  India  rubber 5  ounces 

Chloroform 140  ounces 

(b)  India  rubber 5  ounces 

Rosin    2  ounces 

Venice  turpentine.        1  ounce 
Oil  of  turpentine. .      20  ounces 


ADHESIVES 


Cement   for   Patching   Rubber   Boots 
and  Shoes. — 
I. — India    rubber,     finely 

chopped 100  parts 

Rosin    15  parts 

Shellac.  . .  . .  ..      10  parts 

Carbon      disulphide, 

q.  s.  to  dissolve. 

This    will    not   only   unite   leather  to 
leather,  india  rubber,  etc.,  but  will  unite 
rubber  to  almost  any  substance. 
II. — Caoutchouc,  finely  cut     4  parts 
India    rubber,    finely 

cut ;•••••. 1  part 

Carbon  disulphide  ...    32  parts 

Dissolve  the  caoutchouc  in  the  carbon 
disulphide,  add  the  rubber,  let  macer- 
ate a  few  days,  then  mash  with  a  palette 
knife  to  a  smooth  paste.  The  vessel  in 
which  the  solution  is  made  in  both 
instances  above  must  be  kept  tightly 
closed,  and  should  have  frequent  agita- 
tions. 

III.— Take  100  parts  of  crude  rubber 
or  caoutchouc,  cut  it  up  in  small  bits, 
and  dissolve  it  in  sufficient  carbon  bisul- 
phide, add  to  it  15  parts  of  rosin  and 
10  parts  of  gum  lac.  The  user  must 
not  overlook  the  great  inflammability  and 
exceedingly  volatile  nature  of  the  carbon 
bisulphide. 

Tire  Cements. — 

I. — India  rubber 15  grams 

Chloroform 2  ounces 

Mastic ^  ounce 

Mix  the  india  rubber  and  chloroform 
together,  and  when  dissolved,  the  mastic 
is  added  in  powder.  It  is  then  allowed 
to  stand  a  week  or  two  before  using. 

II. — The  following  is  recommended  as 
very  good  for  cementing  pneumatic  tires  to 
bicycle  wheels: 

Shellac 1  ounce 

Gutta  percha 1  ounce 

Sulphur 45  grains 

Red  lead 45  grains 

Melt  together  the  shellac  and  gutta  per- 
cha, then   add,  with   constant  stirring,  the 
sulphur  and  red  lead.     Use  while  hot. 
III. — Raw  gutta  percha. .    16  ounces 
Carbon  bisulphide.    72  ounces 
Eau  de  Cologne. .  . .    2§  ounces 
This  cement  is  the  subject  of  an  Eng- 
lish    patent    and    is    recommended    for 
patching  cycle  and  motor  tires,  insulat- 
ing electric  wires,  etc. 

IV. — A  good  thick  shellac  varnish  with   j 
which  a  small  amount  of  castor  oil  has   ( 
been  mixed  will  be  found  a  very  excellent   i 
bicycle  rim  cement.     The  formula  rec- 
ommended by  Edel  is  as  follows: 


Shellac 1  pound 

Alcohol ]  pint 

Mix  and  dissolve,  then  add: 

Castor  oil £  ounce 

The  castor  oil  prevents  the  cement 
from  becoming  hard  and  brittle. 

A  cement  used  to  fasten  bicycle  tires 
may  be  made  by  melting  together  at  a 
gentle  heat  equal  parts  of  gutta  percha 
and  asphalt.  Apply  hot.  Sometimes  a 
small  quantity  each  of  sulphur  and  red 
lead  is  added  (about  1  part  of  each  to  20 
parts  of  cement). 

Cements  for  Leather.— 

I. — Gutta  percha 20  parts 

Syrian  asphalt,  pow- 
dered     20  parts 

Carbon  disulphide . .  50  parts 
Oil  of  turpentine  ...  10  parts 
The  gutta  percha,  shredded  fine,  is 
dissolved  in  the  carbon  disulphide  and 
turpentine  oil.  To  the  solution  add  the 
asphalt  and  set  away  for  several  days, 
or  until  the  asphalt  is  dissolved.  The 
cement  should  have  the  consistency  of 
honey.  If  the  preparation  is  thinner 
than  this  let  it  stand,  open,  for  a  few 
days.  Articles  to  be  patched  should 
first  be  washed  with  benzine. 

II. — Glue 1  ounce 

•Starch  paste 2  ounces 

Turpentine 1  drachm 

.Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  g.'ue  in  sufficient  water 
with   heat;    mix   the   starch    paste    with 
water;  add  the  turpentine,   and   finally 
mix  with  the  glue  while  hot. 

III. — Soak  for  one  day  1  pound  of  .com- 
mon glue  in  enough  water  to  cover,  and 
1  pound  of  isinglass  in  ale  droppings. 
Then  mix  together  and  heat  gently  un- 
til boiling.  At  this  paint  add  a  little 
Eure  tannin  and  keep  boiling  for  an 
our.  If  the  glue  and  isinglass  when 
mixed  are  too  thick,  add  water.  This 
cement  should  be  used  warm  and  the 
jointed  leather  pressed  tightly  together 
for  12  hours. 

IV. — A  waterproof  cement  for  leather 
caoutchouc,  or  balata,  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  gutta  percha,  caoutchouc, 
benzoin,  gum  lac,  mastic,  etc.,  in  some 
convenient  solvent  like  carbon  disul- 
phide, chloroform,  ether,  or  alcohol. 
The  best  solvent,  however,  in  the  case  of 
gutta  percha,  is  carbon  disulphide  and 
ether  for  mastic.  The  most  favorable 
proportions  are  as  follows:  Gutta  percha, 
200  to  300  parts  to  100  parts  of  the  sol- 
vent, and  75  to  85  parts  of  mastic  to  100 
parts  of  ether.  From  5  to  8  parts  of 
the  former  solution  are  mixed  with  1 


ADHESIVES 


part  of  the  latter,  and  the  mixture  is 
then  boiled  on  the  water  bath,  or  in  a 
vessel  fitted  with  a  water  jacket. 

V. — Make  a  solution  of  200  to  300 
parts  of  caoutchouc,  gutta  percha  india 
rubber,  benzoin,  or  similar  gum,  in  1,000 
parts  of  carbon  disulphide,  chloroform, 
ether,  or  alcohol,  and  of  this  add  5  to  8 
parts  to  a  solution  of  mastic  (75  to  125 
parts)  in  ether  100  parts,  of  equal  volume 
and  boil  together.  Use  hot  water  as  the 
boiling  agent,  or  boil  very  cautiously  on 
the  water  bath. 

VI. — Forty  parts  of  aluminum  ace- 
tate, 10°  B.,  10  parts  of  glue,  10  parts 
of  rye  flour.  These  materials  are  either 
to  be  simultaneously  mixed  and  boiled, 
or  else  the  glue  is  to  be  dissolved  in  the 
aluminum  acetate,  and  the  flour  stirred 
into  the  solution.  This  is  an  excellent 
cement  for  leather,  and  is  used  in  so- 
called  art  work  with  leather,  and  with 
leather  articles  which  are  made  of  sev- 
eral pieces.  It  is  to  be  applied  warm. 

Rubber  Cement  for  Cloth.— The  fol- 
lowing formulas  have  been  recommended: 

I. — Caoutchouc,  5  parts;  chloroform, 
3  parts.  Dissolve  and  add  gum  mastic 
(powder)  1  part. 

II. — Gutta  percha,  16  parts;  india  rub- 
ber. 4  parts;  pitch,  2  parts;  shellac,  1 
part;  linseed  oil,  2  parts.  Reduce  the 
solids  to  small  pieces,  melt  together  with 
the  oil  and  mix  well. 

III. — The  following  cement  for  mend- 
ing rubber  shoes  and  tires  will  answer 
similar  purposes: 

Caoutchouc  in  shavings ..    10  }    parts 

Rosin 4V      by 

'Gum  turpentine 40  )  weight. 

Oil  turpentine,  enough. 

Melt  together  first  the  caoutchouc  and 
rosin,  then  add  the  gum  turpentine,  and 
when  all  is  liquefied,  add  enough  of  oil 
of  turpentine  to  preserve  it  liquid.  A 
second  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolv- 
ing together: 

Caoutchouc 10  (  p£rts 

Chloroform 280  I  weight. 

For  use  these  two  solutions  are  mixed. 
Wash  the  hole  in  the  rubber  shoe 
over  with  the  cement,  then  a  piece  of 
linen  dipped  in  it  is  placed  over  it;  as 
soon  as  the  linen  adheres  to  the  sole,  the 
cement  is  then  applied  as  thickly  as  re- 
quired. 

CEMENTS  FOR  METALS  AND  FOR  AT- 
TACHING   VARIOUS    SUBSTANCES 
TO  METALS: 
Cements    for    Iron. — I. — To   make  a 

good  cement  for  iron  on  iron,  make  a 


thick  paste,  with  water,  of  powdered! 
iron,  60  parts;  sal  ammoniac,  2  parts, 
and  sulphur  flowers.  1  part.  Use  while 
fresh. 

II. — Sulphur  flowers,  6  parts;  dry 
white  lead  6  parts,  and  powdered  borax, 
1  part.  Mix  by  sifting  and  keep  as  a 
dry  powder  in  a  closed  tin  box.  To  use, 
make  into  a  thin  paste  with  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  and  press  together  immedi- 
ately. This  cement  will  harden  in  5 
days. 

III. — Graphite 50  pounds 

Whiting 15  pounds 

Litharge 15  pounds 

Make  to  a  paste  with  a  boiled  oil. 
IV. — Make  a  paste  of  white  lead  and 
asbestos. 

V. — Make  a  paste  of  litharge  and  glyc- 
erine. Red  lead  may  be  added.  This 
also  does  for  stone. 

VI. — Make  a  paste  of  boiled  oil  of 
equal  parts  of  white  lead,  pipe  clay,  and 
black  oxide  of  manganese. 

VII. — Make  iron  filings  to  a  paste  with 
water  glass. 
VIII. — Sal  ammoniac.  ...      4  ounces 

Sulphur 2  ounces 

Iron  filings 32  ounces 

Make  as  much  as  is  to  be  used  at  once 
to  a  paste  with  a  little  water.  This  re- 
mark applies  to  both  the  following  dry 
recipes: 

IX. — Iron  filings 160  ounces 

Lime 80  ounces 

Red  lead 16  ounces 

Alum 8  ounces 

Sal  ammoniac...        2  ounces 

X. — Clay 10  ounces 

Iron  filings 4  ounces 

Salt 1  ounce 

Borax 1  ounce 

Black     oxide    of 

manganese  ...        2  ounces 
XL— Mix: 

Iron  filings 180  ounces 

Lime 45  ounces 

Salt 8  ounces 

XIL— Mix: 

Iron  filings 140  ounces 

Hydraulic  lime  .  .      20  ounces 

Sand 25  ounces 

Sal  ammoniac.  .  .        3  ounces 
Either  of  these  last  two   mixtures   is 
made  into  a  paste  with  strong  vinegar 
just  before  use. 

XIII. — Mix  equal  weights  of  zinc 
oxide  and  black  oxide  of  manganese 
into  a  paste  with  water  glass. 

XIV. — Copal  varnish,  15  parts;  hy- 
drated  lime,  10  parts;  glue  de  nerfs  (of 
sinews),  5  parts;  fat  drying  oils  5  parts; 


ADHESIVES 


powdered  turpentine,  3  parts;  essence  of 
turpentine,  2  parts.  Dissolve  the  glue 
de  nerjs  on  the  water  bath,  add  all  the 
other  substances,  and  triturate  inti- 
mately. 

XV. — Copal  varnish,  15  parts;  pow- 
dered turpentine,  3  parts;  essence  of  tur- 
pentine, 2  parts;  powdered  fish  glue,  3 
parts;  iron  filings,  3  parts;  ocher,  10 
parts. 

XVI. — To  make  a  cement  for  cast  iron, 
take  16  ounces  cast-iron  borings;  2  ounces 
sal  ammoniac,  and  1  ounce  sulphur.  Mix 
well  and  keep  dry.  When  ready  to  use 
take  1  part  of  this  powder  to  20  parts  of 
cast-iron  borings  and  mix  thoroughly  into 
a  stiff  paste,  adding  a  little  water. 

XVII.— Litharge 2  parts 

Boiled  linseed  oil 2  parts 

White  lead 1  part 

Copal 1  part 

Heat  together  until  of  a  uniform  con- 
sistence and  apply  warm. 

XVIII. — A  cement  for  iron  which  is 
said  to  be  perfectly  waterproof  and  fire- 
proof is  made  by  working  up  a  mixture 
of  equal  weights  of  red  lead  and  litharge 
with  glycerine  till  the  mass  is  perfectly 
homogeneous  and  has  the  consistency 
of  a  glazier's  putty.  This  cement  is 
said  to  answer  well,  even  for  very  large 
iron  vessels,  and  to  be  unsurpassable  for 
stopping  up  cracks  in  large  iron  pans  of 
steam  pipes. 

Cement  for  Metal,  Glass,  and  Porce- 
lain.— A  soft  alloy  is  prepared  by  mixing 
from  30  to  36  parts  of  copper  precipi- 
tated in  the  form  of  a  fine  brown  powder, 
with  sulphuric  acid  of  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.85  in  a  cast-iron  or  porcelain  mor- 
tar and  incorporating  by  stirring  with  75 
parts  of  mercury,  the  acid  being  after- 
wards removed  by  washing  with  water. 
In  from  10  to  14  hours  the  amalgam  be- 
comes harder  than  tin,  but  when  heated  to 
692°  F.,  it  can  be  kneaded  like  wax.  In 
this  condition  it  is  applied  to  the  surface 
to  be  cemented,  and  will  fix  them  firmly 
together  on  cooling. 

Dissolve  1  drachm  of  gum  mastic  in  3 
drachms  of  spirits  of  wine.  In  a  sep- 
arate vessel  containing  water  soak  3 
drachms  of  isinglass.  When  thoroughly 
soaked  take  it  out  of  the  water  and  put 
it  into  5  drachms  of  spirits  of  wine.  Take 
a  piece  of  gum  ammoniacum  the  size  of 
a  large  pea  and  grind  it  up  finely  with  a 
little  spirits  of  wine  and  isinglass  until 
it  has  dissolved.  Then  mix  the  whole 
together  with  sufficient  heat.  It  will  be 
found  most  convenient  to  place  the 
vessel  on  a  hot-water  bath.  Keep  this 


cement  in  a  bottle  closely  stoppered,  and 
when  it  is  to  be  used,  place  it  in  hot 
water  until  dissolved. 

Cements  for  Fastening  Porcelain  to 
Metal. — I. — Mix  equal  parts  of  alcohol 
(95  per  cent)  and  water,  and  make  a 
paste  by  incorporating  the  liquid  with 
300  parts  of  finely  pulverized  chalk  and 
250  parts  of  starch. 

II. — Mix  finely  powdered  burned  lime, 
300  parts,  with  powdered  starch,  250 
parts,  and  moisten  the  mixture  with  a 
compound  of  equal  parts  of  water  and 
alcohol  of  95  per  cent  until  a  paste 
results. 

III. — Cement  or  plaster  can  be  used 
if  the  surfaces  are  sufficiently  large; 
cement  is  the  better  article  when  the 
object  may  be  exposed  to  moisture  or 
subjected  to  much  pressure.  A  process 
which  can  be  recommended  consists  in 
mingling  equal  weights  of  chalk,  brick- 
dust,  clay,  and  Romain  cement.  These 
materials,  pulverized  and  sifted  are  in- 
corporated with  linseed  oil  in  the  pro- 
portion of  half  a  kilo  of  oil  to  3  kilos  of 
the  mingled  powder.  The  Romain  or 
Romanic  cement  is  so  designated  from 
the  district  in  France  where  the  calca- 
reous stone  from  which  it  is  prepared  is 
found  in  considerable  quantity.  Al- 
though its  adhesive  qualities  are  unques- 
tioned, there  are  undoubtedly  American 
cements  equally  as  good. 

IV.— Acetate  of  lead,  46  £  parts  by 
weight;  alum,  46 £  parts  by  weight; 
gum  arabic,  76  parts  by  weight;  flour, 
500  parts  by  weight;  water,  2,000  parts 
by  weight.  Dissolve  the  acetate  of  lead 
and  the  alum  in  a  little  water;  on  the 
other  hand  dissolve  the  gum  arabic  in 
water  by  pouring,  for  instance,  the  2 
liters  of  boiling  water  on  the  gum  arabic 
reduced  to  powder.  When  the  gum  has 
dissolved,  add  the  flower,  put  all  on  the 
fire,  and  stir  well  with  a  piece  of  wood; 
then  add  the  solution  of  acetate  of  lead 
and  the  alum;  agitate  well  so  as  to  pre- 
vent any  lumps  from  forming;  retire  from 
the  fire  before  allowing  to  boil.  This 
glue  is  used  cold,  does  not  peel  off,  and 
is  excellent  to  make  wood,  glass,  card- 
board, etc.  adhere  to  metals. 

Cement  for  Leather  and  Iron. — To 
face  a  cast-iron  pulley  with  leather  apply 
acetic  acid  to  the  face  of  the  pulley  with 
a  brush,  which  will  roughen  it  by  rusting, 
and  then  when  dry  apply  a  cement  made 
of  1  pound  of  fish  glue  and  %  pound  of 
common  glue,  melted  in  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  water.  The  leather  should 
then  be  placed  on  the  pulley  and  dried 
under  pressure. 


ADHESIVES 


Amber  Cements. — I. — To  solder  to- 
gether two  pieces  of  yellow  amber, 
slightly  heat  the  parts  to  be  united  and 
moisten  them  with  a  solution  of  caustic 
soda;  then  bring  the  two  pieces  together 
quickly. 

II. — Dissolve  in  a  closed  bottle  75 
parts  of  cut-up  caoutchouc  in  60  parts  of 
chloroform.  Add  15  parts  of  mastic  and 
let  the  mixture  stand  in  the  cold  until  all 
has  dissolved. 

III. — Moisten  the  pieces  to  be  joined 
with  caustic  potash  and  press  them  to- 
gether when  warm.  The  union  is  so 
perfect  that  no  trace  of  the  juncture  is 
visible.  A  concentrated  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  the  rosin  over  the  amber,  soluble 
in  alcohol,  is  also  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. Another  medium  is  a  solution 
of  hard  and  very  finely  powdered  copal 
in  pure  sulphuric  ether.  Coat  both 
fractures,  previously  well  cleaned,  with 
this  solution  and  endeavor  to  combine 
them  intimately  by  tying  or  pressing. 

IV. — In  30  parts  by  weight  of  copal 
dissolve  30  parts  by  weight  of  alumina 
by  means  of  a  water  bath.  Bathe  the 
surface  to  be  cemented  with  this  gelat- 
inous liquid,  but  very  slightly.  Unite 
the  fractures  and  press  them  together 
firmly  until  the  mixture  is  dry. 

Acid -Proof  Cements  for  Stoneware 
and  Glass. — I. — Mix  with  the  aid  of  heat 
equal  weights  of  pitch,  rosin,  and  plaster 
of  Paris. 

II. — Mix  silicate  of  soda  to  a  paste 
with  ground  glass. 

III. — Mix  boiled  oil  to  a  paste  with 
china  clay. 

IV. — Mix  coal  tar  to  a  paste  with 
pipe  clay. 

V. — Mix  boiled  oil  to  a  paste  with 
quicklime. 

VI.— Mix  with  the  aid  of  heat:  Sul- 
phur, 100  pounds;  tallow,  2  pounds; 
rosin,  2  pounds.  Thicken  with  ground 
glass. 

VII.— Mix  with  the  aid  of  heat: 
Rosin,  2  pounds;  sulphur,  2  pounds; 
brickdust,  4  pounds. 

VIII.— Mix  with  the  aid  of  heat  2 
pounds  of  india  rubber  and  4  pounds  of 
boiled  oil.  Thicken  with  12  pounds  of 
pipe  clay. 

IX. — Fuse  100  pounds  of  india  rub- 
ber with  7  pounds  of  tallow.  Then 
make  to  a  paste  with  dry  slaked  lime  and 
finally  add  20  pounds  of  red  lead. 

X. — Mix  with  the  aid  of  heat:  Rosin, 
24  pounds;  red  ocher,  8  pounds;  boiled 
oil,  2  pounds;  plaster  of  Paris,  4  pounds. 


Acid-Proof  Cement  for  Wood,  Metals, 
etc.— 
I. — Powdered  asbestos ...    2  parts 

Ground  baryta 1  part 

Sodium  water-glass  so- 
lution     2  parts 

Mix. 

II. — To  withstand  hot   nitric  acid  the 
following  is  used: 

Sodium  water-glass  so- 
lution      2  parts 

Sand 1  part 

Asbestos 1  part 

Mix. 

III. — Asbestos 2  parts 

Sulphate  of  barium.  . .    3  parts 
Silicate  of  sodium  ....   2  parts 
By  mixing  these  ingredients  a  cement 
strong    enough    to    resist    the    strongest 
nitric  acid  will  be  obtained. 

IV. — If  hot  acids  are  dealt  with,  the 
following  mixture  will  be  found  to  possess 
still  more  resistant  powers: 
Silicate  of  sodium  (50° 

Baume) 2  parts 

Fine  sand 1  part 

Asbestos 1  part 

Both  these  cements  take  a  few  hours 
to  set.  If  the  cement  is  wanted  to  set 
at  once,  use  silicate  of  potassium,  instead 
of  silicate  of  sodium.  This  mixture  will 
be  instantly  effective  and  possesses  the 
same  power  of  resistance  as  the  other. 

Directions  for  Repairing  Broken  Glass, 
Porcelain,  Bric-a-Brac. — Broken  glass, 
china,  bric-a-brac,  and  picture  frames, 
not  to  name  casts,  require  each  a  differ- 
ent cement — in  fact,  several  different 
cements.  Glass  may  be  beautifully 
mended  to  look  at,  but  seldom  so  as  to 
be  safely  used.  For  clear  glass  the  best 
cement  is  isinglass  dissolved  in  gin.  Put 
2  ounces  of  isinglass  in  a  clean,  wide- 
mouthed  bottle,  add  half  a  pint  of  gin, 
and  set  in  the  sun  until  dissolved.  Shake 
well  every  day,  and  before  using  strain 
through  double  lawn,  squeezing  very 
gently. 

Spread  a  white  cloth  over  the  mend- 
ing table  and  supply  it  with  plenty  of 
clean  linen  rags,  strong  rubber  bands, 
and  narrow  white  tape,  also  a  basin  of 
tepid  water  and  a  clean  soft  towel.  Wash 
the  broken  glass  very  clean,  especially 
along  the  break,  but  take  care  not  to 
chip  it  further.  Wet  both  broken  edges 
well  with  the  glue,  using  a  camel's-hair 
pencil.  Fit  the  break  to  a  nicety,  then 
slip  on  rubber  bands  length-  and  cross- 
wise, every  way  they  will  hold.  If  they 
will  not  hold  true  as  upon  a  stemmed 


ADHESIVES 


thing,  a  vase  or  jug  or  scent  bottle, 
string  half  a  dozen  bands  of  the  same 
size  and  strength  upon  a  bit  of  tape,  and 
tie  the  tape  about  neck  or  base  before 
beginning  the  gluing.  After  the  parts 
are  joined  slip  another  tape  through  the 
same  bands  and  tie  it  above  the  fracture; 
thus  with  all  their  strength  the  bands 

Eull  the  break  together.  The  bands  can 
e  used  thus  on  casts  of  china — in  fact, 
to  hold  anything  mendable.  In  glass 
mending  the  greater  the  pressure  the 
better — if  only  it  stops  short  of  the  break- 
ing point.  Properly  made  the  isinglass 
cement  is  as  clear  as  water.  When  the 
pieces  fit  true  one  on  the  other  the  break 
should  be  hardly  visible,  if  the  pressure 
has  been  great  enough  to  force  out  the 
tiny  bubbles,  which  otherwise  refract 
the  light  and  make  the  line  of  cleavage 
distressingly  apparent.  Mended  glass 
may  be  used  to  hold  dry  things — as  rose 
leaves,  sachets,  violet  powder,  even  can- 
dies and  fruits.  But  it  will  not  bear 
to  have  any  sort  of  liquid  left  standing 
in  it,  nor  to  be  washed  beyond  a  quick 
rinsing  in  tepid  water.  In  wriping  always 
use  a  very  soft  towel,  and  pat  the  vessel 
dry  with  due  regard  to  its  infirmities. 

Mend  a  lamp  loose  in  the  collar  with 
sifted  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  to  a  very 
soft  paste  with  beaten  white  of  egg. 
Have  everything  ready  before  wetting 
up  the  plaster,  and  work  quickly  so  it 
may  set  in  place.  With  several  lamps  to 
mend  wet  enough  plaster  for  one  at  a 
time.  It  takes  less  than  5  minutes  to 
set,  and  is  utterly  worthless  if  one  tries 
working  it  over.  Metal  work  apart 
from  the  glass  needs  the  soldering  iron. 
Dust  the  break  well  with  powdered  rosin, 
tie  the  parts  firmly  together,  lay  the  stick 
of  solder  above  the  break,  and  fetch  the 
iron  down  on  it  lightly  but  firmly.  When 
the  solder  cools,  remove  the  melted  rosin 
with  a  cloth  dipped  in  alcohol. 

Since  breakables  have  so  unhappy  a 
knack  of  fracturing  themselves  in  such 
fashion  they  cannot  possibly  stand  up- 
right, one  needs  a  sand  box.  It  is  only 
a  box  of  handy  size  with  8  inches  of 
clean,  coarse  sand  in  the  bottom.  Along 
with  it  there  should  be  some  small  leaden 
weights,  with  rings  cast  in  them,  run- 
ning from  an  ounce  to  a  quarter  pound. 
Two  of  each  weight  are  needed.  In  use, 
tapes  are  tied  to  the  rings,  and  the  pair  of 
weights  swung  outside  the  edges  of  the 
box,  so  as  to  press  in  place  the  upper 
part  of  a  broken  thing  to  which  the  tapes 
have  been  fastened. 

Set  broken  platters  on  edge  in  the  sand 
box  with  the  break  up.  The  sand  will 
hold  them  firm,  and  the  broken  bit  can 


be  slapped  on.  It  is  the  same  with 
plates  and  saucers.  None  of  these  com- 
monly requires  weighting.  But  very 
fine  pieces  where  an  invisible  seam  is 
wanted  should  be  held  firm  until  partly 
set,  then  have  the  pair  of  heaviest  weights 
accurately  balanced  across  the  broken 
piece.  The  weights  are  also  very  useful 
to  prop  and  stay  topheavy  articles  and 
balance  them  so  they  shall  not  get  out 
of  kilter.  A  cup  broken,  as  is  so  com- 
mon with  cups,  can  have  the  tape  passed 
around  it,  crossing  inside  the  handle, 
then  be  set  firmly  in  the  sand,  face  down, 
and  be  held  by  the  hanging  weights 
pulling  one  against  the  other. 

The  most  dependable  cement  for  china 
is  pure  white  lead,  ground  in  linseed  oil, 
so  thick  it  will  barely  spread  smoothly 
with  a  knife.  Given  time  enough  to 
harden  (some  3  months),  it  makes  a  seam 
practically  indestructible.  The  objec- 
tion to  it  is  that  it  always  shows  in  a 
staring  white  line.  A  better  cement  for 
fine  china  is  white  of  egg  and  plaster.  Sift 
the  plaster  three  times  and  tie  a  generous 
pinch  of  it  loosely  in  mosquito  netting. 
Then  beat  the  egg  until  it  will  stick  to 
the  plaster.  Have  the  broken  egg  very 
clean,  cover  both  with  the  beaten  egg, 
dust  well  with  the  plaster,  fit  together  at 
once,  tie,  using  rubber  bands  if  possible, 
wrap  loosely  in  very  soft  tissue  paper, 
and  bury  head  and  ears  in  the  sand  box, 
taking  care  that  the  break  lies  so  that 
the  sand  will  hold  it  together.  Leave  in 
the  box  24  hours.  After  a  week  the  su- 
perfluous plaster  may  be  gently  scraped 
away. 

General  Formulas  for  Cements  for 
Repairing  Porcelain,  Glassware,  Crock- 
ery, Plaster,  and  Meerschaum. — I. — 
An  excellent  cement  for  joining  broken 
crockery  and  similar  small  articles  can 
be  made  by  melting  4  or  5  parts  of  rosin 
(or,  better  still,  gum  mastic)  with  1  part 
of  beeswax  in  an  iron  spoon  or  similar 
vessel.  Apply  while  hot.  It  will  not 
stand  great  heat. 

II. — An  excellent  cement  for  porcelain 
and  stoneware  is  obtained  by  mixing  20 
parts  of  fish  glue  with  an  equal  weight 
of  crystallizable  acetic  acid  and  evapo- 
rate the  mixture  carefully  to  a  syrupy 
consistency  so  that  it  forms  a  gelatinous 
mass  on  cooling.  For  use  the  cement 
thus  obtained  is  made  liquid  again  by 
heating  and  applied  to  the  fracture  with 
a  brush.  The  pieces  should  now  be 
pressed  firmly  together,  by  winding  a 
twine  tightly  around  them,  until  the 
cement  has  hardened. 

III. — For  luting  vessels  made  of  glass, 


ADHESIVES 


porcelain,  etc.,  which  are  to  be  used  to 
hold  strong  acids,  a  mixture  of  asbestos 
powder,  water  glass,  and  an  indifferent  pow- 
der (permanent  white,  sand,  etc.)  is  rec- 
ommended. To  begin  with,  asbestos 
powder  is  made  into  a  pulp  with  three 
or  four  times  the  quantity  (weight)  of  a 
solution  of  soda  water  glass  (of  30° 
B.).  The  same  is  exceedingly  fat  and 
plastic,  but  is  not  very  well  suited  for 
working,  as  it  shrinks  too  much  and 
cracks  when  drying.  By  an  addition  of 
fine  writing  sand  of  the  same  weight 
as  the  asbestos  used,  the  mass  can  be 
made  less  fat,  so  as  to  obviate  shrinking, 
without  detracting  from  the  plasticity. 
Small  vessels  were  molded  from  it  and 
dried  in  the  air,  to  be  tested  afterwards. 
Put  in  water,  the  hardened  mass  becomes 
soft  again  and  falls  apart.  Brought  into 
contact,  however,  with  very  strong  min- 
eral acids,  it  becomes  even  firmer  and 
withstands  the  liquid  perfectly.  Con- 
centrated nitric  acid  was  kept  in  such 
small  vessels  without  the  mass  being 
visibly  attacked  or  anything  penetrating 
it.  The  action  of  the  acid  manifestly 
has  the  effect  that  silicic  acid  is  set  free 
from  the  water  glass  in  excess,  which 
clogs  up  the  pores  entirely  and  con- 
tributes to  the  lutation.  Later  on,  the 
mass  cannot  be  dissolved  by  pure  water 
any  more.  The  mass  is  also  highly  fire- 
proof. One  of  the  molded  bodies  can 
be  kept  glowing  in  a  Bunsen  gas  flame 
for  about  half  a  day  after  treatment  with 
acid,  without  slagging  in  the  least.  For 
many  purposes  it  ought  to  be  welcome 
to  have  such  a  mass  at  hand.  It  cannot 
be  kept  ready  for  use,  however,  as  it 
hardens  a  few  hours  after  being  pre- 
pared; if  potash  water  glass  is  used,  in- 
stead of  the  soda  'iomposition,  this  in- 
duration takes  place  still  more  quickly. 

IV. — Cement  for  Glass,  Porcelain,  etc. 
Isinglass  (fish  glue)  .  .    50  parts 

Gum  ammoniac 4  parts 

Gum  mastic 2  parts 

Alcohol,  95  per  cent . .    10  parts 
Water,  q.  s. 

Soak  the  isinglass  in  cold  water  over 
night,  or  until  it  has  become  swollen  and 
soft  throughout.  In  the  morning  throw 
off  any  superfluous  fluid  and  throw  the 
isinglass  on  a  clean  towel  or  other  coarse 
cloth,  and  hang  it  up  in  such  a  way  that 
any  free  residual  water  will  drain  away. 
Upon  doing  this  thoroughly  depends,  in 
a  great  measure,  the  strengtn  of  the 
cement.  When  the  gelatin  has  become 
thoroughly  drained  put  it  into  a  flask 
or  other  container,  place  it  in  the  water 
bath  and  heat  carefully  until  it  becomes 


fluid,  being  careful  not  to  let  it  come  to 
a  boil,  as  this  injures  its  adhesive  prop- 
erties (the  same  may  be  said  in  regard 
to  glues  and  gelatins  of  all  kinds).  Dis- 
solve the  gums  in  the  alcohol  and  add 
the  solution  to  the  gelatin  after  remov- 
ing the  same  from  the  water  bath,  and 
letting  it  cool  down  to  about  160°  F. 
Stir  well  together  or  mix  by  agitation. 

The  following  precautions  must  be 
observed:  1.  Both  surfaces  to  be  joined 
must  be  absolutely  clean,  free  from  dust, 
dirt,  grease,  etc.  2.  Where  the  cement 
is  one  that  requires  the  application  of 
heat  before  use,  the  objects  to  be  united 
should  also  be  heated  to  a  point  at  least 
as  high  as  the  melting  point  of  the  cement. 
Otherwise,  the  cement  on  application  is 
chilled  and  consequently  fails  to  make  a 
lasting  joint.  3.  The  thinner  the  layer 
of  cement  the  stronger  the  joint;  avoid, 
therefore,  using  too  much  of  the  binding 
material.  Cover  both  surfaces  to  be 
united,  coapt  them  exactly,  and  press 
together  as  closely  as  possible.  In  this 
manner  the  thinnest  possible  layer  is 
secured.  4.  Bind  the  parts  securely  to- 
gether, and  let  remain  without  loosening 
or  attempting  to  use  the  article  for  2  or 
3  days  or  longer.  A  liquid  cement  ac- 
quires its  full  strength  only  after  evapor- 
ation of  the  fluids  used  as  solvents,  and 
this  can  occur  only  from  the  infinitesimal 
line  of  exposed  surface. 

V. — Liquid  Porcelain  Cement. — Fish 
glue,  20  parts;  glass  acetic  acid,  20  parts; 
heat  together  until  the  mass  gelatinizes 
on  cooling. 

VI. — Take  1  ounce  of  Russian  isin- 
glass, cut  in  small  pieces,  and  bruise 
well;  then  add  6  ounces  of  warm  water, 
and  leave  it  in  a  warm  place  for  from 
24  to  48  hours.  Evaporate  the  re- 
sulting solution  to  about  3  ounces. 
Next  dissolve  ^  ounce  of  mastic  in  4 
ounces  of  alcohol,  and  add  the  mastic 
solution  to  the  isinglass  in  small  quan- 
tities at  a  time,  continuing  the  heat  and 
stirring  well.  While  still  hot  strain  the 
liquid  through  muslin. 

VII. — For  optical  glasses,  Canada  bal- 
sam is  employed,  the  two  pieces  being  firm- 
ly pressed  together.  After  a  while,  espe- 
cially by  humidity,  punctures  will  form, 
and  the  glass  is  separated  by  a  mist  of 
varying  reflexes,  while  in  certain  climates 
the  heat  will  melt  the  balsam.  For  all 
other  glass  articles  which  require  only 
simple  treatment,  such  as  knobs  of  covers, 
plates,  etc.,  silicate  of  potash  is  excel- 
lent. 

VIII.  — Glass  Cement.— Dissolve  in  150 
parts  of  acetic  acid  of  96  per  cent,  100 


ADHESIVES 


parts  of  gelatin  by  the  use  of  heat,  and 
add  ammonium  bichromate,  5  parts. 
This  glue  must  be  kept  away  from  the 
light. 

IX.— White  glue 10  parts 

Potassium  bichromate        2  parts 
Water 100  parts 

The  glue  is  dissolved  in  a  portion  of 
the  water  by  the  aid  of  heat,  the  bichro- 
mate in  the  remainder,  and  the  liquids 
mixed,  the  mixing  being  done  in  a  feebly 
lighted  place,  and  the  mixture  is  then 
kept  in  the  dark.  It  is  applied  in  feeble 
light,  being  reliquefied  by  gentle  heat, 
and  the  glass,  the  fractured  pieces  being 
tightly  clamped  together,  is  then  exposed 
to  a  strong  light  for  some  time.  By  this 
exposure  the  cement  becomes  insoluble. 
This  is  waterproof  cement  for  glass. 

X. — Diamond  Glass  Cement. — Dis- 
solve 100  parts  of  fish  glue  in  150  parts 
of  90  per  cent  alcohol  and  add,  with  con- 
stant stirring,  200  parts  of  powdered 
rosin.  This  cement  must  be  preserved 
in  absolutely  tight  bottles,  as  it  solidifies 
very  quickly. 

XI  — To  unite  objects  of  crystal  dis- 
solve 8  parts  of  caoutchouc  and  100  parts 
of  gum  mastic  in  600  parts  of  chloro- 
form. Set  aside,  hermetically  closed, 
for  8  days;  then  apply  with  a  brush, 
cold. 

XII. — To  make  a  transparent  cement 
for  glass,  digest  together  for  a  week  in 
the  cold  1  ounce  of  india  rubber,  67 
ounces  of  chloroform,  and  40  ounces  of 
mastic. 

XIII. — A  mixture  of  traumaticin,  a 
solution  of  caoutchouc  in  chloroform, 
and  a  concentrated  solution  of  water 
glass  make  a  capital  cement  for  unit- 
ing articles  of  glass.  Not  only  is  the 
joint  very  strong,  but  it  is  transparent. 
Neither  changes  of  temperature  nor 
moisture  affect  the  cement. 

XIV. — A  transparent  cement  for  por- 
celain is  prepared  by  dissolving  75  parts 
of  india  rubber,  cut  into  small  pieces, 
in  a  bottle  containing  60  parts  chloro- 
form; to  this  add  15  parts  green  mastic. 
Let  the  bottle  stand  in  the  cold  until  the 
ingredients  have  become  thoroughly  dis- 
solved. 

XV. — Some  preparations  resist  the  ac- 
tion of  heat  and  moisture  a  short  time, 
but  generally  yield  very  quickly.  The 
following  cement  for  glass  has  proven 
most  resistant  to  liquids  and  heat: 
Silver  litharge  ....  1,000  parts 

White  lead 50  parts 

Boiled  linseed  oil. .  3  parts 

Copal  varnish  ....  1  part 


Mix  the  lead  and  litharge  thoroughly, 
and  the  oil  and  copal  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  preserve  separately.  When 
needed  for  use,  mix  in  the  proportions 
indicated  (150  parts  of  the  powder  to  4 
parts  of  the  liquid)  and  knead  well  to- 
gether. Apply  to  the  edges  of  the  glass, 
bind  the  broken  parts  together,  and  let 
stand  for  from  24  to  48  hours. 

XVI. — To  reunite  plaster  articles  dis- 
solve small  pieces  of  celluloid  in  ether; 
in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  decant,  and  use 
the  pasty  deposit  which  remains  for 
smearing  the  edges  of  the  articles.  It 
dries  rapidly  and  is  insoluble  in  water. 

XVII.— To  Mend  Wedgwood  Mortars. 
— It  is  easy  enough  to  mend  mortars  so 
that  they  may  be  used  for  making  emul- 
sions and  other  light  work  which  does 
not  tax  their  strength  too  much.  But 
a  mended  mortar  will  hardly  be  able  to 
stand  the  force  required  for  powdering 
hard  substances.  A  good  cement  for 
mending  mortars  is  the  following: 

a. — Glass  flour  elutriated.  10  parts 
Fluorspar,    powdered 

and  elutriated 20  parts 

Silicate  of  soda 60  parts 

Both  glass  and  fluorspar  must  be  in 
the  finest  possible  condition,  which  is 
best  done  by  shaking  each  in  fine  pow- 
der, with  water  allowing  the  coarser 
particles  to  deposit,  and  then  to  pour  off 
the  remainder,  which  holds  the  finest 
particles  in  suspension.  The  mixture 
must  be  made  very  rapidly  by  quick 
stirring,  and  when  thoroughly  mixed 
must  be  at  once  applied.  This  is  said 
to  yield  an  excellent  cement. 

b. — Freshly    burnt    plaster 

of  Paris 5  parts 

Freshly  burnt  lime  ....    1  part 
White  of  egg,  sufficient. 

Reduce  the  first  two  ingredients  to  a 
very  fine  powder  and  mix  them  well; 
moisten  the  two  surfaces  to  be  united  with 
a  small  quantity  of  white  of  egg  to  make 
them  adhesive;  then  mix  the  powder  very 
rapidly  with  the  white  of  egg  and  apply 
the  mixture  to  the  broken  surfaces.  If 
they  are  large,  two  persons  should  do  this, 
each  applying  the  cement  to  one  portion. 
The  pieces  are  then  firmly  pressed  to- 
gether and  left  undisturbed  for  several 
da.ys.  The  less  cement  is  used  the  better 
will  the  articles  hold  together. 

c. — If  there  is  no  objection  to  dark- 
colored  cement,  the  very  best  that  can 
be  used  is  probably  marine  glue.  This 
is  made  thus:  Ten  parts  of  caoutchouc  or 
india  rubber  are  dissolved  in  120  parts 
of  benzine  or  petroleum  naphtha,  with 


ADHESIVES 


the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat.  When  the  so- 
lution is  complete,  which  sometimes 
laquires  from  10  to  14  days,  20  parts  of 
asphalt  are  melted  in  an  iron  vessel  and 
the  caoutchouc  solution  is  poured  in  very 
slowly  in  a  fine  stream  and  under  con- 
tinued heating,  until  the  mass  has  be- 
come homogeneous  and  nearly  all  the 
solvent  has  been  driven  off.  It  is  then 
poured  out  and  cast  into  greased  tin 
molds.  It  forms  dark  brown  or  black 
cakes,  which  are  very  hard  to  break. 
This  cement  requires  considerable  heat 
to  melt  it;  and  to  prevent  it  from  being 
burnt  it  is  best  to  heat  a  capsule  contain- 
ing a  piece  of  it  first  on  a  water  bath  until 
the  cake  softens  and  begins  to  be  liquid. 
It  is  then  carefully  wiped  dry  and  heated 
over  a  naked  flame,  under  constant  stir- 
ring, up  to  about  300°  F.  The  edges  of 
the  article  to  be  mended  should,  if  possi- 
ble, also  be  heated  to  at  least  212°  F., 
so  as  to  permit  the  cement  to  be  ap- 
plied at  leisure  and  with  care.  The 
thinner  the  cement  is  applied  the  better 
it  binds. 

Meerschaum  Cements. — I. — If  the  ma- 
terial is  genuine  (natural)  meerschaum 
a  lasting  joint  can  be  made  between  the 
parts  by  proceeding  as  follows:  Clean  a 
clove  or  two  of  garlic  (the  fresher  the 
better)  by  removing  all  the  outside  hull 
of  skin;  throw  into  a  little  mortar  and 
mash  to  a  paste.  Rub  this  paste  over 
each  surface  to  be  united  and  join  quick- 
ly. Bring  the  parts  as  closely  together 
as  possible  and  fasten  in  this  position. 
Have  ready  some  boiling  fresh  milk; 
place  the  article  in  it  and  continue  the 
boiling  for  30  minutes.  Remove  and 
let  cool  slowly.  If  properly  done,  this 
makes  a  joint  that  will  stand  any  ordi- 
nary treatment,  and  is  nearly  invisible. 
For  composition,  use  a  cement  made  of 
quicklime,  rubbed  to  a  thick  cream  with 
egg  albumen. 

II. — Mix  very  fine  meerschaum  shay- 
ings  with  albumen  or  dissolve  casein  in 
water  glass,  stir  finely  powdered  magne- 
sia into  the  mass,  and  use  the  cement 
at  once.  This  hardens  quickly. 

Asbestos  Cement. — Ground  asbestos 
may  be  made  into  a  cement  which  will 
stand  a  high  degree  of  heat  by  simply 
mixing  it  with  a  solution  of  sodium  sili- 
cate. By  subsequent  treatment  with  a 
solution  of  calcium  chloride  the  mass 
may  be  made  insoluble,  silicate  of  cal- 
cium being  formed. 

A  cement  said  to  stand  a  high  degree 
of  heat  and  to  be  suitable  for  cementing 
glass,  porcelain,  or  other  vessels  intended 
to  hold  corrosive  acids,  is  this  one: 


I. — Asbestos 2  parts 

Barium  sulphate 3  parts 

Sodium  silicate 2  parts 

By  mixing  these  ingredients  a  cement 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  strongest 
nitric  acid  will  be  obtained.  If  hot  acids 
are  dealt  with,  the  following  mixture  will 
be  found  to  possess  still  more  resistant 
powers : 

II. — Sodium  silicate 2  parts 

Fine  sand 1  part 

Asbestos  powder 1  part 

Both  these  cements  take  a  few  hours 
to  set.  If  the  cement  is  wanted  to  set  at 
once,  use  potassium  silicate  instead  of 
sodium  silicate.  This  mixture  will  be 
instantly  effective,  and  possesses  the 
same  power  of  resistance  as  the  other. 

Parisian  Cement.  —  Mix  1  part  of 
finely  ground  glass  powder,  obtained 
by  levigation,  with  3  parts  of  finely  pow- 
dered zinc  oxide  rendered  perfectly  free 
from  carbonic  acid  by  calcination.  Be- 
sides prepare  a  solution  of  1  part,  by 
weight,  of  borax  in  a  very  small  quantity 
of  hot  water  and  mix  this  with  50  parts 
of  a  highly  concentrated  zinc  chloride 
solution  of  1.5  to  1.6  specific  gravity. 
As  is  well  known  the  mixture  of  this 
powder  with  the  liquid  into  a  soft  uni- 
form paste  is  accomplished  only  imme- 
diately before  use.  The  induration  to 
a  stonelike  mass  takes  place  within  a 
few  minutes,  the  admixture  of  borax 
retarding  the  solidification  somewhat. 
The  pure  white  color  of  the  powder  may 
be  tinted  with  ocher,  manganese,  etc., 
according  to  the  shade  desired. 

Strong  Cement.  —  Pour  over  well- 
washed  and  cleaned  casein  12|  parts  of 
boiled  linseed  oil  and  the  same  amount 
of  castor  oil.  Boil.  Stir  actively  and 
add  a  small  amount  of  a  saturated  aque- 
ous solution  of  alum;  remove  from  the 
fire  and  set  aside.  After  a  while  a  milky 
looking  fluid  will  separate  and  rise.  This 
should  be  poured  off.  To  the  residue 
add  120  parts  of  rock  candy  syrup  and 
6  parts  of  dextrin. 

A  Cheap  and  Excellent  Cement. — A 
cheap  and  excellent  cement,  insoluble 
after  drying  in  water,  petroleum,  oils, 
carbon  disulphide,  etc.,  very  hard  when 
dry  and  of  very  considerable  tensile 
strength,  is  composed  of  casein  and 
some  tannic-acid  compound,  as,  for  in- 
stance, calcium  tannate,  and  is  prepared 
as  follows: 

First,  a  tannin  solution  is  prepared 
either  by  dissolving  a  tannin  salt,  or  by 
extraction  from  vegetable  sources  (as 
barks  from  certain  trees,  etc.),  to  which 


ADHESIVES 


is  added  clear  lime  water  (obtained  by 
filtering  milk  of  lime,  or  by  letting  the 
milk  stand  until  the  lime  subsides)  until 
no  further  precipitation  occurs,  and  red 
litmus  paper  plunged  in  the  fluid  is 
turned  blue.  The  liquid  is  now  sepa- 
rated from  its  precipitate,  either  by  de- 
cantation  or  otherwise,  and  the  precipi- 
tate is  dried.  In  operating  with  large 
quantities  of  the  substance,  this  is  done 
by  passing  a  stream  of  atmospheric 
air  through  the  same.  The  lime  tan- 
nate  obtained  thus  is  then  mixed  with 
casein  in  proportions  running  from  1 :  1 
up  to  1 :  10,  and  the  mixture,  thoroughly 
dried,  is  milled  into  the  consistency  of  the 
finest  powder.  This  powder  has  now 
only  to  be  mixed  with  water  to  be  ready 
for  use,  the  consistency  of  the  prepara- 
tion depending  upon  the  use  to  which 
it  is  to  be  put. 

Universal  Cement. — Take  gum  arable, 
100  parts,  by  weight;  starch,  75  parts,  by 
weight;  white  sugar,  21  parts,  by  weight; 
camphor,  4  parts,  by  weight.  Dissolve 
the  gum  arabic  in  a  little  water;  also 
dissolve  the  starch  in  a  little  water.  Mix 
and  add  the  sugar  and  camphor.  Boil 
on  the  water  bath  until  a  paste  is  formed 
which,  on  coating,  will  thicken. 

Cement  for  Ivory. — Melt  together 
equal  parts  of  gutta  percha  and  ordinary 

Eitch.     The  pieces  to  be  united  have  to 
e  warmed. 

Cement  for  Belts.— Mix  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  fish  glue  with  equal  parts  of 
whey  and  acetic  acid.  Then  add  50 
parts,  by  weight,  of  garlic  in  paste  form 
and  boil  the  whole  on  the  water  bath. 
At  the  same  time  make  a  solution  of 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  gelatin  in  the 
same  quantity  of  whey,  and  mix  both 
liquids.  To  the  whole  add,  finally,  50 
parts,  by  weight,  of  90-per-cent  alcohol 
and,  after  filtration,  a  cement  is  ob- 
tained which  can  be  readily  applied  with 
a  brush  and  possesses  extraordinary 
binding  qualities. 

Cement  for  Chemical  Apparatus. — 
Melt  together  20  parts  of  gutta  percha, 
10  parts  of  yellow  wax,  and  30  parts  of 
shellac. 

Size  Over  Portland  Cement.  —  The 
best  size  to  use  on  Portland  cement 
molding  for  wall  paper  would  ordinarily 
be  glue  and  alum  size  put  on  thin  and 
warm,  made  in  proportion  of  ^  pound 
of  glue  and  same  weight  of  alum  dis- 
solved in  separate  pails,  then  poured  to- 
gether. 


Aquarium  Cements. — 

I. — Litharge 3  ounces 

Fine  white  sand  ...      3  ounces 
Plaster  of  Paris ....      3  ounces 
Rosin,  in  fine  pow- 
der       1  ounce 

Linseed  oil,  enough. 
Drier,  enough. 

Mix  the  first  three  ingredients,  add 
sufficient  linseed  oil  to  make  a  homogene- 
ous paste,  and  then  add  a  small  quantity 
of  drier.  ^This  should  stand  a  few  hours 
before  it  is  used.  It  is  said  that  glass 
joined  to  iron  with  this  cement  will 
break  before  it  will  come  loose. 

II. — Litharge 1  ounce 

Fine  white  sand. ...      1  ounce 
Plaster  of  Paris.  ...      1  ounce 
Manganese  borate.    20  grains 
Rosin,  in  fine  pow- 
der     3£  pounds 

Linseed  varnish  oil, 
enough. 

III. — Take  equal  parts  of  flowers  of 
sulphur,  ammonium  chloride,  and  iron 
filings,  and  mix  thoroughly  with  boiled 
linseed  oil.  Finally,  add  enough  white 
lead  to  form  a  thin  paste. 
IV. — Powdered  graphite.  6  parts 

Slaked  lime 3  parts 

Barium  sulphate. . .      8  parts 
Linseed  varnish  oil.      7  parts 
V. — Simply  mix  equal  parts  of  white 
and  red  lead  with  a  little  kettle-boiled 
linseed  oil. 

Substitute  for  Cement  on  Grinder 
Disks. — A  good  substitute  in  place  of 
glue  or  various  kinds  of  cement  for  fast- 
ening emery  cloth  to  the  disks  of  grind- 
ers of  the  Gardner  type  is  to  heat  or  warm 
the  disk  and  apply  a  thin  coating  of 
beeswax;  then  put  the  emery  cloth  in 
place  and  allow  to  set  and  cool  under 
pressure. 

Knpckenplombe. — If  1  part  of  thymol 
be  mixed  with  2  parts  of  ipdoform  we 
obtain  a  substance  that  retains  its  fluid- 
ity down  to  72°  C.  (161.6°  F.).  If  the 
temperature  be  carried  down  to  60°  C. 
(140°  F.)  it  suddenly  becomes  solid  and 
hard.  If,  in  its  liquid  condition,  this 
substance  be  mixed  intimately  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  calcined  bone,  it  forms 
a  cement  that  can  be  molded  or  kneaded 
into  any  shape,  that,  at  the  temperature 
of  the  body  (98°  F.),  becomes  as  hard  as 
stone,  a  fact  that  suggests  many  useful 
purposes  to  which  the  mixture  may  be 
put. 

Cement  for  General  Use. — Take  gum 
arabic,  100  parts,  by  weight;  starch,  75 


ADHESIVES 


parts  by  weight;  white  sugar,  21  parts,  by 
weight;  camphor,  4  parts,  by  weight. 
Dissolve  the  gum  arable  in  a  little  water. 
On  the  other  hand,  dissolve  the  starch 
also  in  some  water.  When  this  is  done 
add  the  sugar  and  the  camphor  and  put 
in  a  water  bath.  Boil  until  a  paste  is 
formed,  which  must  be  rather  thin,  be- 
cause it  will  thicken  on  cooling. 

Strong  Cement. — Pour  over  well- 
washed  and  cleaned  casein  12  A  parts 
of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  the  same  amount 
of  castor  oil,  put  on  the  fire  and  bring 
to  a  boil;  stir  actively  and  add  a  small 
amount  of  a  saturated  aqueous  solution 
of  alum;  remove  from  the  fire  and  set 
aside.  After  standing  a  while  a  milky- 
looking  fluid  will  separate  at  the  bottom 
and  rise  to  the  top.  This  should  be 
poured  off  and  to  the  residue  add  120 
parts  of  rock-candy  syrup  and  6  parts  of 
dextrine. 

Syndeticon. — 1. — Slake  100  parts  of 
burnt  lime  with  50  parts  of  water>  pour 
off  the  supernatant  water;  next,  dissolve 
60  parts  of  lump  sugar  in  160  parts  of 
water,  add  to  the  solution  15  parts  of  the 
slaked  lime,  heat  to  70°  or  80°  C.  (158°  to 
176°  F.),  and  set  aside  shaking  fre- 
quently. Finally  dissolve  50  to  60  parts 
of  genuine  Cologne  glue  in  250  parts  of 
the  clear  solution. 

II. — A  solution  of  10  parts  gum  ara- 
bic  and  30  parts  of  sugar  in  100  parts  of 
soda  water  glass. 

III. — A  hot  solution  of  50  parts  of 
Cologne  glue  in  60  parts  of  a  20-per-cent 
aqueous  calcium-chloride  solution. 

IV. —  A  solution  of  50  parts  of  Co- 
logne glue  in  60  parts  of  acetic  acid. 

V. — Soak  isinglass  (fish  bladder)  in 
acetic  acid  of  70  per  cent  until  it  swells  up, 
then  rub  it  up,  adding  a  little  water  dur- 
ing the  process. 

"Shio  Liao." — Under  this  name  the 
Chinese  manufacture  an  excellent  ce- 
ment which  takes  the  place  of  glue,  and 
with  which  gypsum,  marble,  porcelain, 
stone,  and  stoneware  can  be  cemented. 
It  consists  of  the  following  parts  (by 
weight):  Slaked  powdered  lime.  54 
parts;  powdered  alum,  6  parts;  and 
iresh,  well  -  strained  blood,  40  parts. 
These  materials  are  stirred  thoroughly 
until  an  intimately  bound  mass  of  the 
consistency  of  a  more  or  less  stiff  salve 
is  obtained.  In  paste  form  this  mass  is 
used  as  cement;  in  a  liquid  state  it  is 
employed  for  painting  all  sorts  of  arti- 
cles wnich  are  to  be  rendered  waterproof 
and  durable.  Cardboard  covers,  which 
are  coated  with  it  two  or  three  times,  be 


come  as  hard  as  wood.  The  Chinese  paint 
their  houses  with  "shio  liao"  and  glaze 
their  barrels  with  it,  in  which  they  trans- 
port oil  and  other  greasy  substances. 

LUTES. 

Lutes  always  consist  of  a  menstruum 
and  dissolved  or  suspended  solids,  and 
they  must  not  be  attacked  by  the  gases 
and  liquids  coming  in  contact  with  them. 
In  some  cases  the  constituents  of  the  lute 
react  to  form  a  more  strongly  adhering 
mass. 

The  conditions  of  application  are,  in 
brief: 

(a)  Heating  the  composition  to  make 
it  plastic  until  firmly  fixed  in  place. 

(6)   Heating  the  surfaces. 

(c)  Applying  the  lute  with  water  or  a 
volatile  solvent,  which  is  allowed  to  vola- 
tilize. 

(d)  Moistening  the  surfaces  with  wa- 
ter, oil,  etc.  (the  menstruum  of  the  lute 
itself). 

(e~)  Applying  the  lute  in  workable  con- 
dition and  the  setting  taking  place  by 
chemical  reactions. 

(/)    Setting  by  hydration. 

((/)   Setting  by  oxidation. 

These  principles  will  be  found  to  cover 
nearly  all  cases. 

Joints  should  not  be  ill  -  fitting,  de- 
pending upon  the  lute  to  do  what  the 
pipes  or  other  parts  of  the  apparatus 
should  do.  In  most  cases  one  part  of 
the  fitting  should  overlap  the  other,  so 
as  to  make  a  small  amount  of  the  lute 
effective  and  to  keep  the  parts  of  the  ap- 
paratus rigid,  as  a  luted  joint  is  not 
supposed  to  be  a  particularly  strong  one, 
but  rather  one  quickly  applied,  effective 
while  in  place  and  easily  removed. 

Very  moderate  amounts  of  the  lute 
should  be  used,  as  large  amounts  are 
likely  to  develop  cracks,  be  rubbed  off, 
etc. 

A  classification  may  be  given  as  fol- 
lows: 

(1)  Plaster  of  Paris. 

(2)  Hydraulic  cement. 

(3)  Clay. 

(4)  Lime. 

(5)  Asphalt  and  pitch. 

(6)  Rosin. 

(7)  Rubber. 

(8)  Linseed  oil. 

(9)  Casein  and  albumen. 

(10)  Silicates    of   soda  and  oxychlo- 
ride  cements. 

(11)  Flour  and  starch. 

(12)  Miscellaneous,    including    core 
compounds. 

I.  Plaster  of  Paris  is,  of  course,  often 
used  alone  as  a  paste.,  which  quickly 


ADHESIVES 


soliames,  for  gas  and  wood  distillation 
retorts,  etc.,  and  similar  places  where 
quickness  of  setting  is  requisite.  It  is 
more  often,  however,  used  with  some 
fibrous  material  to  give  it  greater  strength. 
Asbestos  is  the  most  commonly  used 
material  of  these,  as  it  will  stand  a  high 
temperature.  When  that  is  not  so  im- 
portant, straw,  plush  trimmings,  hair, 
etc.,  are  used  as  binders,  while  broken 
stone,  glass,  and  various  mineral  sub- 
stances are  used  as  fillers,  but  they  do 
not  add  anything  to  the  strength. 
These  lutes  seem  to  be  particularly  suit- 
able for  oil  vapors  and  hydrocarbon 


Formulas: 

(1)  Plaster  and  water. 

(2)  Plaster  (wet)  and  asbestos. 

(3)  Plaster  (wet)  and  straw. 

(4)  Plaster   (wet)   and    plush   trim- 

mings. 

(5)  Plaster  (wet)  and  hair. 

(6)  Plaster  (wet)  and  broken  stone, 

etc. 

II.  Hydraulic    Cement.  —  Cement    is 
used  either  alone  or  with  sand,  asbestos, 
etc.     These  lutes  are  suitable  for  nitric 
acid.      When  used  with  substances  such 
as  rosin  or  sulphur,  cement  is  probably 
employed   because  it  is   in  such   a   fine 
state  of  division  and  used  as  a  filler  and 
not  because  of  any  powers  of  setting  by 
hydration. 

Formulas: 

(1)  Cement — neat. 

(2)  Cement  and  asbestos. 

(3)  Cement  and  sand. 

III.  Clay. — This  most  frequently  en- 
ters into  the  composition  of  lutes  as  a 
filler,  but  even  then  the  very  finely  divid- 
ed condition  of  certain   grades  renders 
it  valuable,  as  it  gives  body  to  a  liquid, 
such  as  linseed  oil,  which,  unless    stiff- 
ened,  would  be  pervious  to  a  gas,  the 
clay  in  all  cases  being  neutral.     Thus, 
for  luting  pipes  carrying  chlorine,  a  stiff 
paste  of  clay  and  molasses  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Theo.  Koller  in  Die  Surrogate, 
but  it  soon  gives  way. 

Formulas: 

(1)  Clay  and  linseed  oil. 

(2)  Same,  using  fire  clay. 

(3)  Clay  and  molasses. 

(1)   Is  suitable  for  steam,  etc.;    (2)    for 
chlorine,  and  (3)  for  oil  vapors. 

IV.  Lime  is  used  in  the  old  lute  known 
as  putty,  which  consists  of  caustic  lime 
and   linseed  oil.      Frequently  the  lime  is 
replaced  by  chalk  and    china  clay,   but 
the  lime  should  be,  in  part  at  least,  caus- 
tic,   so  as  to  form  a  certain  amount  of 
lime  soap.      Lime  is  also  used  in  silicate 


and  casein  compositions,  which  are  very 
strong  and  useful,  but  will  be  described 
elsewhere. 
Formulas: 

(1)  Lime  and  boiled  oil  to  stiff  mass. 

(2)  Clay,    etc.,    boiled    oil    to    stiff 

mass. 

V.  Asphalt  and  Pitch. —These  sub- 
stances are  used  in  lutes  somewhat  inter- 
changeably. As  a  rule,  pitch  makes  the 
stronger  lutes.  Tar  is  sometimes  used, 
but,  because  of  the  light  oils  and,  fre- 
quently, water  contained,  it  is  not  so 
good  as  either  of  the  others. 

Asphalt  dissolved  in  benzol  is  very 
useful  for  uniting  glass  for  photographic, 
microscopical,  and  other  uses.  Also 
for  coating  wood,  concrete,  etc.,  where 
the  melted  asphalt  would  be  too  thick 
to  cover  well.  Benzol  is  the  cheapest 
solvent  that  is  satisfactory  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  the  only  one  that  is  cheaper 
would  be  a  petroleum  naphtha,  which 
does  not  dissolve  all  the  constituents  of 
the  asphalt.  For  waterproofing  wood, 
brick,  concrete,  etc.,  melted  asphalt 
alone  is  much  used,  but  when  a  little 
paraffine  is  added,  it  improves  its  water- 
proofing qualities,  and  in  particular  cases 
boiled  oil  is  also  added  to  advantage. 

Formulas: 


1.  Refined  lake  asphalt. 

2.  Asphalt 4  parts 

Paraffine   1  part 

3.  Asphalt 10  parts 

Paraffine '. 2  parts 

Boiled  oil 1  part 

Any  of  these  may  be  thinned  with  hot 
benzol  or  toluol.  Toluol  is  less  volatile 
than  benzol  and  about  as  cheap,  if  not 
cheaper,  the  straw-colored  grades  being 
about  24  cents  per  gallon. 

Examples  of  so-called  "stone  cement" 
are: 

4.  Pitch 8  parts 

Rosin 6  parts 

Wax 1  part 

Plaster \  to  *  part 

5.  Pitch 8  parts 

Rosin 7  parts 

Sulphur 2  parts 

Stone  powder 1  part 

These  compositions  are  used  to  unite 
slate  slabs  and  stoneware  for  domestic, 
engineering,  and  chemical  purposes.  Va- 
rious rosin  and  pitch  mixtures  are  used 
for  these  purposes,  and  the  proportions 
of  these  two  ingredients  are  determined 
by  the  consistency  desired.  Sulphur  and 
stone  powder  are  added  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  cracks,  sulphur  acting  chem- 
ically and  stone  powder  mechanically 


ADHESIVES 


Where  the  lute  would  come  in  contact 
with  acid  or  vapors  of  the  same,  lime- 
stone should  not  be  the  powder  used, 
otherwise  it  is  about  the  best.  Wax  is  a 
useful  ingredient  to  keep  the  composi- 
tion from  getting  brittle  with  age. 

A  class  of  lutes  under  this  general 
grouping  that  are  much  used  are  so- 
called  "marine  glues"  (q.  v.).  They 
must  be  tough  and  elastic.  When  used 
for  calking  on  a  vessel  they  must  expand 
and  contract  with  the  temperature  and 
not  crack  or  come  loose. 

Formulas: 

6.  Pitch 3  parts 

Shellac 2  parts 

Pure  crude  rubber  ...      1  part 

7.  Pitch 1  part 

Shellac 1  part 

Rubber  substitute  ....      1  part 

These  are  used  by  melting  over  a 
burner. 

VI.  Rosin,    Shellac,    and    Wax.  —  A 
strong  cement,  used  as  a  stone  cement, 
is: 

1.  Rosin 8  parts 

Wax 1  part 

Turpentine 1  part 

It  has  little  or  no  body,  and  is  used  in 
thin  layers. 

For  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acid 
vapors: 

2.  Rosin 1  part 

Sulphur 1  part 

Fire  clay 2  parts 

Sulphur  gives  great  hardness  and 
permanency  to  rosin  lutes,  but  this  com- 
position is  somewhat  brittle. 

Good  waterproof  lutes  of  this  class 
are: 

3.  Rosin 1  part 

Wax 1  part 

Powdered  stone 2  parts 

4.  Shellac 5  parts 

Wax.... 1  part 

Turpentine 1  part 

Chalk,  etc 8  to  10  parts 

For  a  soft  air-tight  paste  for  ground- 
glass  surfaces: 

5.  Wax 1  part 

Vaseline 1  part 

6.  A    strong    cement,    without    body, 
for  metals   (other  than  copper  or  alloys 
of  same),  porcelain,  and  glass  is  made  by 
letting  1  part  of  finely  powdered  shellac 
stand  with  10  parts  of  ammonia  water 
until  solution  is  effected. 

VII.  Rubber. — Because  of  its  toughness, 
elasticity,   and    resistance    to    alterative 
influences,  rubber  is  a  very  useful  con- 


stituent in  lutes,  but  its  price  makes  its 
use  very  limited. 
Leather  Cement. 

1.  Asphalt 1  part 

Rosin 1  part 

Gutta  percha 4  parts 

Carbon  disulphide.  . .  20  parts 

To  stand  acid  vapors: 

2.  Rubber 1  part 

Linseed  oil 3  parts 

Fire  clay 3  parts 

3.  Plain    Rubber   Cement. — Cut    the 
crude  rubber  in  small  pieces  and  then 
add  the  solvent.      Carbon  disulphide  is 
the  best,  benzol  good  and  much  cheaper, 
but  gasoline  is  probably  most  extensively 
used  because  of  its  cheapness. 

4.  To     make    corks    and    wood    im- 
pervious to  steam  and  water,  soak  them 
in  a  rubber  solution  as  above;  if  it  is 
desired  to  protect  them  from  oil  vapors, 
use  glue  composition.      (See  Section  IX.) 

VIII.  Linseed  Oil.— This  is  one  of  the 
most  generally  useful  substances  we  have 
for  luting  purposes,  if  absorbed  by  a  por- 
ous substance  that  is  inert. 

Formulas:  1.  China  clay  of  general 
utility  for  aqueous  vapors. 

Linseed  oil  of  general  utility  for  aque- 
ous vapors. 

2.  Lime     forming     the     well  -  known 
putty. 

Linseed  oil  forming  the  well-known 
putty. 

3.  Red  or  white  lead  and  linseed  oil. 
These    mixtures    become   very   strong 

when  set  and  are  best  diluted  with  pow- 
dered glass,  clay,  or  graphite.  There 
are  almost  an  endless  number  of  lutes 
using  metallic  oxides  and  linseed  oil.  A 
very  good  one,  not  getting  as  hard  as 
those  containing  lead,  is: 

4.  Oxide  of  iron  and  linseed  oil. 

IX.  Casein,    Albumen,    and    Glue. — 
These,  if  properly  made,   become  very 
tough  and  tenacious;  they  stand  moder- 
ate  heat  and  oil  vapors,   but  not  acid 
vapors. 

1.  Finely  powdered  case- 

in     12  parts 

Slaked  lime  (fresh). .  .    50  parts 

Fine  sand. . ; 50  parts 

Water  to  thick  mush. 
A  very   strong    cement   which   stands 
moderate  heat  is  the  following  : 

2.  Casein    in    very    fine 

powder 1  part 

Rubbed  up  with  sili- 
cate of  soda 3  parts 

A   strong   lute   for   general    purposes. 


ADHESIVES 


which    must    be    used    promptly    when 
made: 

3.  White  of  egg  made  into  a  paste 
with  slaked  lime. 

A  composition  for  soaking  corks, 
wood,  packing,  etc.,  to  render  them  im- 
pervious to  oil  vapors,  is: 

Gelatine  or  good  glue     2  parts 

Glycerine A  to  1  part 

Water 6  parts 

Oil  of  wintergreen, 
etc.,  to  keep  from 
spoiling. 

X.  Silicate  of  Oxy chloride  Cements. — 
For  oil  vapors,  standing  the  highest  heat: 

1.  A  stiff  paste  of  silicate  of  soda  and 
asbestos. 

Gaskets  for  superheated  steam,  re- 
torts, furnaces,  etc.: 

2.  Silicate  of  soda  and  powdered  glass; 
dry  the  mixture  and  heat. 

Not  so  strong,  however,  as  the  follow- 
ing: 

3.  Silicate  of  soda 50  parts 

Asbestos 15  parts 

Slaked  lime 10  parts 

Metal  Cement: 

4.  Silicate  of  soda 1  part 

Oxides  of  metal,  such 

as   zinc    oxide;    lith- 
arge,     iron       oxide, 

singly  or  mixed 1  part 

Very  hard  and  extra  strong  composi- 
tions: 

5.  Zinc  oxide 2  parts 

Zinc  chloride 1  part 

Water  to  make  a  paste. 

6.  Magnesium  oxide  ...     2  parts 
Magnesium  chloride.      1  part 
Water  to  make  a  paste. 

XI.  Flour  and  Starch  Compositions. — 

1.  The    well-known   flaxseed  poultice 
sets  very  tough,  but  does  not  stand  water 
or  condensed  steam. 

2.  Flour  and  molasses,  made  by  mak- 
ing   a    stiff    composition     of    the    two. 
This  is  an  excellent  lute  to  have  at  hand 
at  all  times  for  emergency  use,  etc. 

3.  Stiff  paste  of  flour  and  strong  zinc- 
chloride  solution  forms   a   more  imper- 
vious   lute,   and  is   more   permanent  as 
a  cement.     This  is  good  for  most  pur- 
poses, at  ordinary  temperature,  where  it 
would  not  be  in  contact  with  nitric-acid 
vapors  or  condensing  steam. 

4.  A  mixture  of  dextrine  and  fine  sand 
makes  a  good  composition,  mainly  used 
as  core  compound. 

XII.  Miscellaneous. — 
1.  Litharge. 

Glycerine. 


Mixed  to  form  a  stiff  paste,  sets  and 
becomes  very  hard  and  strong,  and  is  very 
useful   for  inserting  glass  tubes,  etc.,  in 
iron  or  brass. 
For  a  high  heat: 

2.  Alumina 1     part 

Sand 4    parts 

Slaked  lime 1     part 

Borax £  part 

Water  sufficient. 

A  class  of  mixtures  that  can  be  classi- 
fied only  according  to  their  intended  use 
are  core  compounds. 

I. — Dextrine,  about 1  part 

Sand,  about 10  parts 

With  enough  water  to  form  a  paste. 
II. — Powdered   anthracite   coal,    with 
molasses  to  form  a  stiff  paste. 
III. — Rosin,   partly  saponi- 
fied by  soda  lye  ....      1  part 

Flour. 2  parts 

Sand    (with   sufficient 

water) 4  parts 

(These  proportions  are  approximate 
and  the  amount  of  sand  can  be  increased 
for  some  purposes.) 

IV. — Glue,  powdered 1  part 

Flour 4  parts 

Sand    (with   sufficient 

water) 6  parts 

For  some  purposes  the  following  mix- 
ture is  used.     It  does  not  seem  to  be  a 
gasket  or  a  core  compound: 
V.— Oats  (or  wheat)  ground  25  parts 

Glue,  powdered 6  parts 

Sal  ammoniac 1  part 

Paper  read  by  Samuel  S.  Sadtler  before 
the  Franklin  Institute. 

PASTES: 

Dextrine  Pastes. — 

I. — Borax,  powdered..  . .     60  parts 
Dextrine,  light  yellow.   480  parts 

Glucose 50  parts 

Water 420  parts 

By  the  aid  of  heat,  dissolve  the  borax 
in  the  water  and  add  the  dextrine  and 
glucose.  Continue  the  heat,  but  do  not 
let  the  mixture  boil,  and  stir  constantly 
until  a  homogeneous  solution  is  obtained, 
from  time  to  time  renewing  the  water 
lost  by  evaporation  with  hot  water. 
Finally,  bring  up  to  full  weight  (1,000 
parts)  by  the  addition  of  hot  water,  then 
strain  through  flannel.  Prepared  in  this 
manner  the  paste  remains  bright  and 
clear  for  a  long  time.  It  has  extraor- 
dinary adhesive  properties  and  dries  very 
rapidly.  If  care  is  not  taken  to  keep  the 
cooking  temperature  below  the  boiling 
point  of  water,  the  paste  is  apt  to  become 
brown  and  to  be  very  brittle  on  drying. 


ADHESIVES 


II. — Dissolve  in  hot  water  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  dextrine  to  bring  it  to  the 
consistency  of  honey.  This  forms  a 
strong  adhesive  paste  that  will  keep  a 
long  time  unchanged,  if  the  water  is  not 
allowed  to  evaporate.  Sheets  of  paper 
may  be  prepared  for  extempore  labels 
by  coating  one  side  with  the  paste  and 
allowing  it  to  dry;  by  slightly  wetting 
the  gummed  side,  the  label  will  adhere 
to  glass.  This  paste  is  very  useful  in  the 
office  or  laboratory. 

III. — Pour  over  1,000  parts  of  dextrine 
450  parts  of  soft  water  and  stir  the  mix- 
ture for  10  minutes.  After  the  dextrine 
has  absorbed  the  water,  put  the  mixture 
over  the  fire,  or,  preferably,  on  a  water 
bath,  and  heat,  with  lively  stirring  for 
5  minutes,  or  until  it  forms  a  light  milk- 
like  liquid,  on  the  surface  of  which  lit- 
tle bubbles  begin  to  form  and  the  liquid 
is  apparently  beginning  to  boil.  Do 
not  allow  it  to  come  to  a  boil.  Re- 
move from  the  fire  and  set  in  a  bucket 
of  cold  water  to  cool  off.  When  cold 
add  to  every  1,000  parts  of  the  solution 
51  parts  glycerine  and  as  much  salicylic 
acid  as  will  stand  on  the  tip  of  a  knife 
blade.  If  the  solution  is  too  thick,  thin 
it  with  water  that  has  been  boiled  and 
cooled  off  again.  Dp  not  add  any  more 
glycerine  or  the  solution  will  never  set. 

IV.— Soften  175  parts  of  thick  dex- 
trine with  cold  water  and  250  parts  of 
boiling  water  added.  Boil  for  5  minutes 
and  then  add  30  parts  of  dilute  acetic 
acid,  30  parts  glycerine,  and  a  drop  or 
two  of  clove  oil. 

V. — Powder  coarsely  400  parts  dex- 
trine and  dissolve  in  600  parts  of  water. 
Add  20  parts  glycerine  and  10  parts  glu- 
cose and  heat  to  90°  C.  (195°  F.). 

VI.  — Stir  400  parts  of  dextrine  with 
water  and  thin  the  mass  with  200  parts 
more   water,    20   parts   glucose,   and    10 
parts     aluminum     sulphate.      Heat    the 
whole  to  90°  C.   (195°  F.)  in  the  water 
bath  until  the  whole  mass  becomes  clear 
and  liquid. 

VII.  —  Warm  2  parts   of   dextrine,  5 
parts  of  water,    1  part  of  acetic  acid,  1 
part  of  alcohol  together,  with  occasional 
stirring  until  a  complete  solution  is  at- 
tained. 

VIII.  — Dissolve  by  the  aid  of  heat  100 
parts  ot   builders'   glue  in  200  parts  of 
water     add    2    parts    of    bleached    shellac 
dissolved  previously  in  50  parts  of  alcohol. 
Dissolve  by  the  aid  of  heat  50  parts  of  dex- 
trine in  50  parts  of  water,  and  mix  the  two 
solutions    by   stirring  the   second  slowly 
into  the  first.     Strain  the  mixture  through 
a   cloth    into  a  shallow   dish  and   let   it 
harden.      When  needed  cut  off  a  piece  of 


sufficient  size  and  warm  until  it  becomes 
liquid  and  if  necessary  or  advisable  thin 
with  water. 

IX. — Stir  up  10  parts  of  dextrine  with 
sufficient  water  to  make  a  thick  broth. 
Then,  over  a  light  fire,  heat  and  add  25 
parts  of  sodium  water  glass. 

X. — Dissolve  5  parts  of  dextrine  in 
water  and  add  1  part  of  alum. 

Fastening  Cork  to  Metal. — In  fasten- 
ing cork  to  iron  and  brass,  even  when 
these  are  lacquered,  a  good  sealing  wax 
containing  shellac  will  be  found  to  serve 
the  purpose  nicely.  Wax  prepared  with 
rosin  is  not  suitable.  The  cork  surface 
is  painted  with  the  melted  sealing  wax. 
The  surface  of  the  metal  is  heated  with 
a  spirit  flame  entirely  free  from  soot, 
until  the  sealing  wax  melts  when  pressed 
upon  the  metallic  surface.  The  wax  is 
held  in  the  flame  until  it  burns,  and  it  is 
then  applied  to  the  hot  surface  of  the 
metal.  The  cork  surface  painted  with 
sealing  wax  is  now  held  in  the  flame,  and 
as  soon  as  the  wax  begins  to  melt  the 
cork  is  pressed  firmly  on  the  metallic  sur- 
face bearing  the  wax. 

To  Paste  Celluloid  on  Wood,  Tin,  or 
Leather. — To  attach  celluloid  to  wood, 
tin,  or  leather,  a  mixture  of  1  part  of 
shellac,  1  part  of  spirit  of  camphor,  3  to 
4  parts  of  alcohol  and  spirit  of  camphor  (90°) 
is  well  adapted,  in  which  1  part  of  cam- 
phor is  dissolved  without  heating  in  7 
parts  of  spirit  of  wine  of  0.832  specific 
gravity,  adding  2  parts  of  water. 

To  Paste  Paper  Signs  on  Metal  or 
Cloth. — A  piece  of  gutta  percha  of  the 
same  size  as  the  label  is  laid  under  the 
latter  and  the  whole  is  heated.  If  the 
heating  cannot  be  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  spirit  lamp  the  label  should  be  ironed 
down  under  a  protective  cloth  or  paper 
in  the  same  manner  as  woolen  goods  are 
pressed.  This  method  is  also  very  use- 
ful for  attaching  paper  labels  to  minerals. 

Paste  for  Fastening  Leather,  Oilcloth, 
or  Similar  Stuff  to  Table  or  Desk  Tops, 
etc. — Use  the  same  paste  for  leather  as 
for  oilcloth  or  other  goods,  but  moisten 
the  leather  before  applying  the  paste. 
Prepare  the  paste  as  follows:  Mix  2J 
pounds  of  good  wheat  flour  with  2 
tablespoonfuls  of  pulverized  gum  ara- 
bic  or  powdered  rosin  and  2  table- 
spoonfuls  of  pulverized  alum  in  a  clean 
dish  with  water  enough  to  make  a  uni- 
formly thick  batter;  set  it  over  a  slow 
fire  and  stir  continuously  until  the  paste 
is  uniform  and  free  from  lumps.  When 
the  mass  has  become  so  stout  that  the 
wooden  spoon  or  stick  will  stand  in  it 


ADHESIVES 


upright,  it  is  taken  from  the  fire  and 
placed  in  another  dish  and  covered  so 
that  no  skin  will  form  on  top.  When 
cold,  the  table  or  desk  top,  etc.,  is 
covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  the  paste,  the 
cloth,  etc.,  carefully  laid  on  and  smoothed 
from  the  center  toward  the  edges  with 
a  rolling  pin.  The  trimming  of  edges  is 
accomplished  when  the  paste  has  dried. 
To  smooth  out  the  leather  after  pasting,  a 
woolen  cloth  is  of  the  best  service. 

To  Paste  Paper  on  Smooth  Iron. — 
Over  a  water  bath  dissolve  200  parts,  by 
weight,  of  gelatine  in  150  parts,  by  weight, 
of  water;  while  stirring  add  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  acetic  acid,  50  parts  alco- 
hol, and  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  pulver- 
ized alum.  The  spot  upon  which  it  is 
desired  to  attach  the  paper  must  first 
be  rubbed  with  a  bit  of  fine  emery  paper. 

Paste  for  Affixing  Cloth  to  Metal.— 

Starch 20  parts 

Sugar 10  parts 

Zinc  chloride 1  part 

Water 100  parts 

Mix  the  ingredients  and  stir  .until  a 
perfectly  smooth  liquid  results  entirely 
free  from  lumps,  then  warm  gradually 
until  the  liquid  thickens. 

To  Fix  Paper  upon  Polished  Metal.— 
Dissolve  400  parts,  by  weight,  of  dextrine 
in  600  parts,  by  weight,  of  water;  add 
to  this  10  parts,  by  weight,  of  glucose, 
and  heat  almost  to  boiling. 

Albumen  Paste.— Fresh  egg  albumen 
is  recommended  as  a  paste  for  affixing 
labels  on  bottles.  It  is  said  that  labels 
put  on  with  this  substance,  and  well 
dried  at  the  time,  will  not  loosen  even 
when  bottles  are  put  into  water  and  left 
there  for  some  time.  Albumen,  dry,  is 
almost  proof  against  mold  or  ferments. 
As  to  cost,  it  is  but  little  if  any  higher 
than  gum  arabic,  the  white  of  one  egg 
being  sufficient  to  attach  at  least  100 
medium-sized  labels. 

Paste  for  Parchment  Paper.— The  best 
agent  is  made  by  dissolving  casein  in  a 
saturated  aqueous  solution  of  borax. 

Medical  Paste. — As  an  adhesive  agent 
for  medicinal  purposes  Professor  Reihl, 
of  Leipsic,  recommends  the  viscous  sub- 
stance contained  in  the  white  mistletoe. 
It  is  largely  present  in  the  berries  and 
the  bark  of  the  plant;  it  is  called  viscin, 
and  can  be  produced  at  one-tenth  the 
price  of  caoutchouc.  Solutions  in  ben- 
zine mav  be  used  like  those  of  caout- 
chouc without  causing  any  irritation  if 
applied  mixed  with  medicinal  remedies 
to  the  skin. 


Paste  That  Will  Not  Mold.— Mix  good 
white  flour  with  cold  water  into  a  thick 
paste.  Be  sure  to  stir  out  all  the  lumps; 
then  add  boiling  water,  stirring  all  the 
time  until  thoroughly  cooked.  To  6 
quarts  of  this  add  \  pound  light  brown 
sugar  and  \  ounce  corrosive  sublimate, 
dissolved  in  a  little  hot  water.  When  the 
paste  is  cool  add  1  drachm  oil  of  lavender. 
This  paste  will  keep  for  a  long  time. 

Pasting  Wood  and  Cardboard  on 
Metal. — In  a  little  water  dissolve  50  parts 
of  lead  acetate  and  5  parts  of  alum.  In 
another  receptacle  dissolve  75  parts  of 
gum  arabic  in  2,000  parts  of  water. 
Into  this  gum-arabic  solution  pour  500 

Krts  of  flour,  stirring  constantly,  and 
at  gradually  to  the  boiling  point. 
Mingle  the  solution  first  prepared  with 
the  second  solution.  It  should  be  kept 
in  mind  that,  owing  to  the  lead  acetate, 
this  preparation  is  poisonous. 

Agar  Agar  Paste.— The  agar  agar  is 
broken  up  small,  wetted  with  water,  and 
exposed  in  an  earthenware  vessel  to  the  ac- 
tion of  ozone  pumped  under  pressure  into 
the  vessel  from  the  ozonizing  apparatus. 
About  an  hour  of  this  bleaches  the  agar 
agar  and  makes  it  freely  soluble  in  boil- 
ing water,  when  solutions  far  more  con- 
centrated than  has  hitherto  been  possible 
can  be  prepared.  On  cooling,  the  solu- 
tions assume  a  milky  appearance,  but 
form  no  lumps  and  are  readily  relique- 
fied  by  heating.  If  the  solution  is  com- 
pletely evaporated,  as  of  course  happens 
when  the  adhesive  is  allowed  to  dry  after 
use,  it  leaves  a  firmly  holding  mass  which 
is  insoluble  in  cold  water.  Among  the 
uses  to  which  the  preparation  can  be 
applied  are  the  dressing  of  textile  fabrics 
and  paper  sizing,  and  the  production  of 
photographic  papers,  as  well  as  the  or- 
dinary uses  of  an  adhesive. 

Strongly  Adhesive  Paste. — Four  parts 
glue  are  soaked  a  few  hours  in  15  parts 
cold  water,  and  moderately  heated  till 
the  solution  becomes  perfectly  clear, 
when  65  parts  boiling  water  are  added, 
while  stirring.  In  another  vessel  30 
parts  boiled  starch  are  previously  stirred 
together  with  20  parts  cold  water,  so 
that  a  thin,  milky  liquid  without  lumps 
results.  The  boiling  glue  solution  is 
poured  into  this  while  stirring  constantly, 
and  the  whole  is  kept  boiling  another  10 
minutes. 

Paste  for  Tissue  Paper.— 
(a)  Pulverized  gum  ara- 
bic     2  ounces 

White  sugar 4  drachms 

Boiling  water 3  fluidounces 


ADHESIVES 


(6)  Common        laundry 

starch 1^  ounces 

Cold  water 3    fluidounces 

Make  into  a  batter  and  pour  into 

Boiling  water 32    fluidounces 

Mix  (a)  with  (6),  and  keep  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle. 

Waterproof  and  Acidproof  Pastes. — 

I. — Chromic  acid 2£  parts 

Stronger  ammonia. . .    15     parts 

Sulphuric  acid %  part 

Cuprammonium     so- 
lution   30    parts 

Fine  white  paper ....      4     parts 
II. — Isinglass,  a  sufficient 
quantity 

Acetic  acid 1     part 

Water 7    parts 

Dissolve  sufficient  isinglass  in  the  mix- 
ture of  acetic  acid  and  water  to  make  a 
thin  mucilage. 

One  of  the  solutions  is  applied  to  the 
surface  of  one  sheet  of  paper  and  the  other 
to  the  other  sheet,  and  they  are  then 
pressed  together. 

III. — A  fair  knotting  varnish  free 
from  surplus  oil  is  by  far  the  best  adhe- 
sive for  fixing  labels,  especially  on  metal 
surfaces.  It  dries  instantly,  insuring 
a  speedy  job  and  immediate  packing,  if 
needful,  without  fear  of  derangement. 
It  has  great  tenacity,  and  is  not  only 
absolutely  damp-proof  itself,  but  is  actu- 
ally repellent  of  moisture,  to  which  all 
water  pastes  are  subject.  It  costs  more, 
but  the  additional  expense  is  often  infini- 
tesimal compared  with  the  pleasure  of  a 
satisfactory  result. 

Balkan  Paste.— 

Pale  glue 4    ounces 

White  loaf  sugar.  ...      2    ounces 
Powdered  starch. ...      1    ounce 

White  dextrine \  pound 

Pure  glycerine 3    ounces 

Carbolic  acid \  ounce 

Boiling  water 32    ounces 

Cut  up  the  glue  and  steep  it  in  i  pint 
boiling  water;  when  softened  melt  in  a 
saucepan;  add  sugar,  starch,  and  dex- 
trine, and  lastly  the  glycerine,  in  which 
carbolic  acid  has  been  mixed;  add  re- 
mainder of  water,  and  boil  until  it  thick- 
ens. Pour  into  jars  or  bottles. 

Permanent  Paste. — 

I. — Wheat  flour 1  pound 

Water,  cold 1  quart 

Nitric  acid 4  fluidrachms 

Boric  acid 40  grains 

Oil  of  cloves 20  minims 

Mix  the  flour,  boric  acid,  and  water* 
then  strain  the  mixture;  add  fbe  nitric 


acid,  apply  heat  with  constant  stirring 
until  the  mixture  thickens;  when  nearly 
cold  add  the  oil  of  cloves.  This  paste 
will  have  a  pleasant  smell,  will  not  attract 
flies,  and  can  be  thinned  by  the  addition 
of  cold  water  as  needed. 

II. — Dissolve  4  ounces  alum  in  4 
quarts  hot  water.  When  cool  add  as 
much  flour  as  will  make  it  of  the  usual 
consistency;  then  stir  into  it  i  ounce 
powdered  rosin;  next  add  a  little  water 
in  which  a  dozen  cloves  have  been 
steeped;  then  boil  it  until  thick  as  mush, 
stirring  from  the  bottom  all  the  time. 
Thin  with  warm  water  for  use. 

Preservatives  for  Paste. — Various  an- 
tiseptics are  employed  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  flour  paste,  mucilage,  etc.  Boric 
and  salicylic  acids,  oil  of  cloves,  oil  of 
sassafras,  and  solution  of  formaldehyde 
are  among  those  which  have  given  best 
service.  A  durable  starch  paste  is  pro- 
duced by  adding  some  borax  to  the 
water  used  in  making  it.  A  paste  from 
10  parts  (weight)  starch  to  100  parts 
(weight)  water  with  1  per  cent  borax 
added  will  keep  many  weeks,  while  with- 
out this  addition  it  will  sour  after  six 
days.  In  the  case  of  a  gluing  material 
prepared  from  starch  paste  and  joiners' 
glue,  borax  has  also  demonstrated  its  pre- 
serving qualities.  The  solution  is  made 
by  mixing  10  parts  (weight)  starch  into 
a  paste  with  water  and  adding  10  parts 
(weight)  glue  soaked  in  water  to  the  hot 
solution;  the  addition  of  -,-V  part  (weight) 
of  borax  to  the  solution  will  cause  it  to 
keep  for  weeks.  It  is  equal  to  the  best 
glue,  but  should  be  warmed  and  stirred 
before  use. 

Board -Sizing. —  A  cheap  sizing  for 
rough,  weather-beaten  boards  may  be 
made  by  dissolving  shellac  in  sal  soda 
and  adding  some  heavy-bodied  pigment. 
This  size  will  stick  to  grease  spots.  Lin- 
seed oil  may  be  added  if  desired.  Lime- 
water  and  linseed  oil  make  a  good  heavy 
sizing,  but  hard  to  spread.  They  are 
usually  used  half  and  half,  though  these 
proportions  may  be  varied  somewhat. 

Rice  Paste. — Mix  the  rice  flour  with 
cold  water,  and  boil  it  over  a  gentle  fire 
until  it  thickens.  This  paste  is  quite 
white  and  becomes  transparent  on  dry- 
ing. It  is  very  adherent  and  of  great  use 
for  many  purposes. 

Casein  Paste.  —  A  solution  of  tannin, 
prepared  from  a  bark  or  from  commer- 
cial tannin,  is  precipitated  with  lime- 
water,  the  lime  being  added  until  the 

j   solution  just  turns  red  litmus  paper  blue. 

•    The  supernatant  liquid  is  then  decanted, 


ADHESIVES 


39 


and  the  precipitate  is  dried  without  arti- 
ficial heat.  The  resulting  calcium  tan- 
nate  is  then  mixed,  according  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  adhesive  is  intended, 
with  from  1  to  10  times  its  weight  of  dry 
casein  by  grinding  in  a  mill.  The  ad- 
hesive compound  is  soluble  in  water, 
petroleum,  oils,  and  carbon  bisulphide. 
It  is  very  strong,  and  is  applied  m  the 
form  of  a  paste  with  water. 

PASTES  FOR  PAPERHANGERS. 

I. — Use  a  cheap  grade  of  rye  or  wheat 
flour,  mix  thoroughly  with  cold  water  to 
about  the  consistency  of  dough,  or  a  little 
thinner,  being  careful  to  remove  all 
lumps;  stir  in  a  tablespoonful  of  pow- 
dered alum  to  a  quart  of  flour,  then  pour 
in  boiling  water,  stirring  rapidly  until  the 
flour  is  thoroughly  cooked.  Let  this  cool 
before  using,  and  thin  with  cold  water. 

II. — Venetian  Paste. — 
(a)    4  ounces  white  or  fish  glue 

8  fluidounces  cold  water 
(6)     2  fluidounces  Venice  turpentine 
(c)      1  pound  rye  flour 

16  fluidounces  (1  pint)  cold  water 
(d~)  64  fluidounces     (|    gallon)     boiling 

water 

Soak  the  4  ounces  of  glue  in  the  cold 
water  for  4  hours;  dissolve  on  a  water 
bath  (glue  pot),  and  while  hot  stir  in  the 
Venice  turpentine.  Make  up  (c)  into  a 
batter  free  from  lumps  and  pour  into  (d). 
Stir  briskly,  and  finally  add  the  glue  so- 
lution. This  makes  a  very  strong  paste, 
and  it  will  adhere  to  a  painted  surface, 
owing  to  the  Venice  turpentine  in  its 
composition. 

III.— Strong  Adhesive  Paste. — 
(a)  4    pounds  rye  flour 

|  gallon  cold  water 
(6)  1|  gallons  boiling  water 
(c)   2    ounces  pulverized  rosin 

Make  (a)  into  a  batter  free  from  lumps; 
then  pour  into  (6) .  Boil  if  necessary,  and 
while  hot  stir  in  the  pulverized  rosin  a 
little  at  a  time.  This  paste  is  exceed- 
ingly strong,  and  will  stick  heavy  wall 
paper  or  thin  leather.  If  the  paste  be 
too  thick,  thin  with  a  little  hot  water; 
never  thin  paste  with  cold  water. 

IV. —Flour  Paste. — 
(a)    2  pounds  wheat  flour 

32  fluidounces  (1  quart)  cold  water 
(6)     1  ounce  alum 

4  fluidounces  hot  water 
(c)  96  fluidounces    ($    gallon)     boiling 

water 

Work  the  wheat  flour  into  a  batter  free 
from  lumps  with  the  cold  water.  Dis- 
solve the  alum  as  designated  in  (6). 


Now  stir  in  (a)  and  (c)  and,  if  necessary, 
continue  boiling  until  the  paste  thickens 
into  a  semitransparent  mucilage,  after 
which  stir  in  solution  (6).  The  above 
makes  a  very  fine  paste  for  wall  paper. 

V.— Elastic  or  Pliable  Paste. — 
(a)    4  ounces  common  starch 

2  ounces  white  dextrine 
10  fluidounces  cold  water 

(6)     1  ounce  borax 

3  fluidounces  glycerine 

64  fluidounces  (^  gallon)  boiling 
water 

Beat  to  a  batter  the  ingredients  of  (a). 
Dissolve  the  borax  in  the  boiling  water; 
then  add  the  glycerine,  after  which  pour 
(a)  into  solution  (6) .  Stir  until  it  becomes 
translucent.  This  paste  will  not  crack, 
and,  being  very  pliable,  is  used  for  paper, 
cloth,  leather,  and  other  material  where 
flexibility  is  required. 

VI. — A  paste  with  which  wall  paper 
can  be  attached  to  wood  or  masonry, 
adhering  to  it  firmly  in  spite  of  damp- 
ness, is  prepared,  as  usual,  of  rye  flour,  to 
which,  however,  are  added,  after  the  boil- 
ing, 8J  parts,  by  weight,  of  good  linseed- 
oil  varnish  and  8J  parts,  by  weight,  of 
turpentine  to  every  500  parts,  by  weight. 

VII.— Paste  for  Wall  Paper.— Soak  18 
pounds  of  bolus  (bole)  in  water,  after  it 
has  been  beaten  into  small  fragments, 
and  pour  off  the  supernatant  water. 
Boil  10  ounces  of  glue  into  glue  water, 
mix  it  well  with  the  softened  bolus  and 
2  pounds  plaster  of  Paris  and  strain 
through  a  sieve  by  means  of  a  brush. 
Thin  the  mass  with  water  to  the  consist- 
ency of  a  thin  paste.  The  paste  is  now 
ready  for  use.  It  is  not  only  much 
cheaper  than  other  varieties,  but  has  the 
advantage  over  them  of  adhering  better 
to  whitewashed  walls,  and  especially 
such  as  have  been  repeatedly  coated  over 
the  old  coatings  which  were  not  thor- 
oughly removed.  For  hanging  fine  wall 
paper  this  paste  is  less  commendable, 
as  it  forms  a  white  color,,  with  which 
the  paper  might  easily  become  soiled  if 
great  care  is  not  exercised  in  applying 
it.  If  the  fine  wall  paper  is  mounted  on 
ground  paper,  however,  it  can  be  recom- 
mended for  pasting  the  ground  paper  on 
'the  wall. 

LABEL  PASTES : 

Pastes  to  Affix  Labels  to  Tin.— Labels 
separate  from  tin  because  the  paste  be- 
comes too  dry.  Some  moisture  is  pre- 
sumably always  present;  but  more  is 
required  to  cause  continued  adhesion  in  the 
case  of  tin  than  where  the  container  is  of 


ADHESIVES 


glass.  Paste  may  be  kept  moist  by  the 
addition  of  calcium  chloride,  which  is 
strongly  hygroscopic,  or  of  glycerine. 

The  following  formulas  for  pastes  of 
the  type  indicated  were  proposed  by  Leo 
Eliel: 

I. — Tragacanth 1  ounce 

Acacia 4  ounces 

Thymol 14  grains 

Glycerine 4  ounces 

Water,    sufficient   to 

make 2  pints 

Dissolve  the  gums  in  1  pint  of  water, 
strain,  and  add  the  glycerine,  in  which 
the  thymol  is  suspended;  shake  well  and 
add  sufficient  water  to  make  2  pints. 
This  separates  on  standing,  but  a  single 
shake  mixes  it  sufficiently  for  use. 

II. — Rye  flour 8  ounces 

Powdered  acacia. ...      1  ounce 

Glycerine 2  ounces 

Oil  of  cloves 40  drops 

Rub  the  rye  flour  and  acacia  to  a 
smooth  paste  with  8  ounces  of  cold  water; 
strain  through  cheese  cloth,  and  pour 
into  1  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  continue 
the  heat  until  as  thick  as  desired.  When 
nearly  cold  add  the  glycerine  and  oil  of 
cloves. 

III.— Rye  flour 5  parts 

Venice  turpentine. ..      1  part 
Liquid  glue,  a  sufficient  quantity 
Rub  up  the  flour  with  the  turpentine 
and  then  add  sufficient  freshly  prepared 
glue  (glue  or  gelatine  dissolved  in  water) 
to  make  a  stiff  paste.     This  paste  dries 
slowly. 

IV. — Dextrine 2  parts 

Acetic  acid 1  part 

Water 5  parts 

Alcohol,  95  per  cent  .      1  part 
Dissolve  the  dextrine  and  acetic  acid 
in  water  by  heating  together  in  the  water 
bath,  and  to  the  solution  add  the  alcohol. 

V. — Dextrine 3  pounds 

Borax 2  ounces 

Glucose 5  drachms 

Water 3  pints  2  ounces 

Dissolve  the  borax  in  the  water  by 
warming,  then  add  the  dextrine  and  glu- 
cose, and  continue  to  heat  gently  until 
dissolved. 

Another  variety  is  made  by  dissolving' 
a  cheap  Ghatti  gum  in  limewater,  but  it 
keeps  badly. 

VI. — Add  tartaric  acid  to  thick  flour 
paste.  The  paste  is  to  be  boiled  until 
quite  thick,  and  the  acid,  previously  dis- 
solved in  a  little  water,  is  added,  the  pro- 
portion being  about  2  ounces  to  the  pint 
of  paste. 


VII. — Gum  arabic,  50  parts;  glycer- 
ine, 10  parts;  water,  30  parts;  liq.  Stibii 
chlorat.,  2  parts. 

VIII. — Boil  rye  flour  and  strong  glue 
water  into  a  mass  to  which  are  added,  for 
1,000  parts,  good  linseed-oil  varnish  30 
parts  and  oil  of  turpentine  30  parts. 
This  mixture  furnishes  a  gluing  agent 
which,  it  is  claimed,  even  renders  the 
labels  proof  against  being  loosened  by 
moisture. 

IX.— Pour  140  parts  of  distilled  cold 
water  over  100  parts  of  gum  arabic  in  a 
wide-necked  bottle  and  dissolve  by  fre- 
quent shaking.  To  the  solution,  which 
is  ready  after  standing  for  about  3  days, 
add  10  parts  of  glycerine;  later,  20  parts  of 
diluted  acetic  acid,  and  finally  6  parts  of 
aluminum  sulphate,  then  straining  it 
through  a  fine-hair  sieve. 

X. — Good  glue  is  said  to  be  obtained 
by  dissolving  1  part  of  powdered  sugar 
in  4  parts  of  soda  water  glass. 

XI. — A  glue  for  bottle  labels  is  pre- 
pared by  dissolving  borax  in  water; 
soak  glue  in  this  solution  and  dissolve 
the  glue  by  boiling.  Carefully  drop  as 
much  acetic  acid  into  the  solution  as 
will  allow  it  to  remain  thin  on  cooling. 
Labels  affixed  with  this  agent  adhere 
firmly  and  do  not  become  moldy  in  damp 
cellars. 

XII. — Dissolve  some  isinglass  in  acetic 
acid  and  brush  the  labels  over  with  it. 
There  will  be  no  cause  to  complain 
of  their  coming  off,  nor  of  striking 
through  the  paper.  Take  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle,  fill  about  two-thirds  with 
commercial  acetic  acid,  and  put  in  as  much 
isinglass  as  the  liquid  will  hold,  and  set 
aside  in  a  warm  place  until  completely 
dissolved.  When  cold  it  should  form  a 
jelly.  To  use  it  place  the  bottle  in  hot 
water.  The  cork  should  be  well-fit- 
ting and  smeared  with  vaseline  or  melted 
paraffine. 

How  to  Paste  Labels  on  Tin. — Brush 
over  the  entire  back  of  the  label  with  a 
flour  paste,  fold  the  label  loosely  by 
sticking  both  ends  together  without 
creasing  the  center,  and  throw  to  one 
side  until  this  process  has  been  gone 
through  with  the  whole  lot.  Then  unfold 
each  label  and  place  it  on  the  can  in  the 
regular  manner.  The  paste  ought  not 
to  be  thicker  than  maple  syrup.  When 
of  this  consistency  it  soaks  through  the 
label  and  makes  it  pliable  and  in  a  con- 
dition to  be  easily  rubbed  into  position. 
If  the  paste  is  too  thick  it  dries  quickly, 
and  does  not  soak  through  the  label  suf- 
ficiently. After  the  labels  have  been 
placed  upon  the  cans  the  latter  must  be 


ADHESIVES 


kept  apart  until  dry.  In  putting  the 
paste  upon  the  labels  in  the  first  place, 
follow  the  method  of  placing  the  dry 
labels  over  one  another,  back  sides  up, 
with  the  edge  of  each  just  protruding  over 
the  edge  of  the  one  beneath  it,  so  that 
the  fingers  may  easily  grasp  the  label 
after  the  pasting  has  been  done. 

Druggists'  Label  Paste.— This  paste, 
when  carefully  made,  is  an  admirable  one 
for  label  use,  and  a  very  little  will  go  a 
long  way: 

Wheat  flour 4    ounces 

Nitric  acid 1    drachm 

Boric  acid 10    grains 

Oil  of  cloves 5    drops 

Carbolic  acid |  drachm 

Stir  flour  and  water  together,  mixing 
thoroughly,  and  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients. After  the  stuff  is  well  mixed, 
heat  it,  watching  very  carefully  and  re- 
moving the  instant  it  stiffens. 

To  Attach  Glass  Labels  to  Bottles.— 
Melt  together  1  part  of  rosin  and  2  parts 
of  yellow  wax,  and  use  while  warm. 

Photographic  Mountants  (see  also 
Photography). — Owing  to  the  nature  of 
the  different  papers  used  for  printing 
photographs,  it  is  a  matter  of  extreme 
importance  to  use  a  mountant  that  shall 
not  set  up  decomposition  in  the  coating 
of  the  print.  For  example,  a  mountant 
that  exhibits  acidity  or  alkalinity  is  in- 
jurious with  most  varieties  of  paper;  and 
in  photography  the  following  formulas 
for  pastes,  mucilages,  etc.,  have  there- 
fore been  selected  with  regard  to  their 
absolute  immunity  from  setting  up  de- 
composition in  the  print  or  changing  its 
tone  in  any  way.  One  of  the  usual 
mountants  is  rice  starch  or  else  rice  water. 
The  latter  is  boiled  to  a  thick  jelly, 
strained,  and  the  strained  mass  used 
as  an  agglutinant  for  attaching  photo- 
graphic prints  to  the  mounts.  There  is 
nothing  of  an  injurious  nature  whatever 
in  this  mountant,  neither  is  there  in  a 
mucilage  made  with  gum  dragon. 

This  gum  (also  called  gum  traga- 
canth)  is  usually  in  the  form  of  curls 
(i.e.,  leaf  gum),  which  take  a  long  time 
to  properly  dissolve  in  water — several 
weeks,  in  fact — but  during  the  past  few 
years  there  has  been  put  on  the  market  a 
powdered  gum  dragon  which  does  not 
occupy  so  many  days  in  dissolving.  To 
make  a  mucilage  rom  gum  dragon  a 
very  large  volume  of  water  is  required. 
For  example,  1  ounce  of  the  gum,  either 
leaf  or  powder,  will  swell  up  and  con- 
vert 1  gallon  of  water  into  a  thickish 
mucilage  in  the  course  of  2  or  3  weeks. 


Only  cold  water  must  be  used,  and  be- 
fore using  the  mucilage,  all  whitish 
lumps  (which  are  particles  of  undissolved 
gum)  should  be  picked  out  or  else  the 
mucilage  strained.  The  time  of  solution 
can  be  considerably  shortened  (to  a  few 
hours)  by  acidifying  the  water  in  which 
the  gum  is  placed  with  a  little  sulphuric 
or  oxalic  acid;  but  as  the  resultant  muci- 
lage would  contain  traces  of  their  pres- 
ence, such  acids  are  not  permissible 
when  the  gum-dragon  mucilage  is  to  be 
used  for  mounting  photographs. 

Glycerine  and  gum  arabic  make  a  very 
good  adhesive  of  a  fluid  nature  suited 
to  mounting  photographs;  and  although 
glycerine  is  hygroscopic  by  itself,  such 
tendency  to  absorb  moisture  is  checked 
by  the  reverse  nature  of  the  gum  arabic; 
consequently  an  ideal  fluid  mucilage  is 
produced.  The  proportions  of  the  sev- 
eral ingredients  are  these: 
Gum  arabic,  genuine 
(gum  acacia,  not 

Bassora  gum) 4  ounces 

Boiling  water 12  ounces 

Glycerine,  pure 1  ounce 

First  dissolve  the  gum  in  the  water, 
and  then  stir  in  the  glycerine,  and  allow 
al]  debris  from  the  gum  to  deposit  before 
using.  The  following  adhesive  com- 
pound is  also  one  that  is  free  from  chem- 
ical reactions,  and  is  suited  for  photo- 
graphic purposes: 

Water 2  pints 

Gum    dragon,    pow- 
dered   1  ounce 

Gum  arabic,  genuine  4  ounces 

Glycerine 4  ounces 

Mix  the  gum  arabic  with  half  the  wa- 
ter, and  in  the  remainder  of  the  water 
dissolve  the  gum  dragon.  When  both 
solids  are  dissolved,  mix  them  together, 
and  then  stir  in  the  glycerine. 

The  following  paste  will  be  found  a 
useful  mountant: 

Gum  arabic,  genuine  1  ounce 

Rice  starch 1  ounce 

White  sugar 4  ounces 

Water,  q.  s. 

Dissolve  the  gum  in  just  sufficient 
water  to  completely  dissolve  it,  then  add 
the  sugar,  and  when  that  has  completely 
dissolved  stir  in  the  starch  paste,  and 
then  boil  the  mixture  until  the  starch  is 
properly  cooked. 

A  very  strong,  stiff  paste  for  fastening 
cardboard  mounts  to  frames,  wood,  and 
other  materials  is  prepared  by  making 
a  bowl  of  starch  paste  in  the  usual  way, 
and  then  adding  1  ounce  of  Venice  tur- 
pentine per  pound  of  paste,  and  boil- 


ADHESIVES 


ing  and  stirring  the  mixture  until  the 
thick  turpentine  has  become  well  incor- 
porated. Venice  turpentine  stirred  into 
flour  paste  and  boiled  will  also  be  found 
a  very  adhesive  cement  for  fastening 
cardboard,  strawboard,  leatherette,  and 
skiver  leather  to  wood  or  metal;  but 
owing  to  the  resinous  nature  of  the  Venice 
turpentine,  such  pastes  are  not  suitable 
for  mounting  photographic  prints.  The 
following  half-dozen  compounds  are 
suitable  mountants  to  use  with  silver 
prints: 

Alcohol,  absolute. ...    10  ounces 

Gelatine,  good 1  ounce 

Glycerine \  to  1  ounce 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  water  for  an  hour 
or  two  until  it  is  completely  softened; 
take  the  gelatine  out  of  the  water,  and 
allow  it  to  drain,  and  put  it  into  a 
bottle  and  pour  alcohol  over  it;  add  the 
glycerine  (if  the  gelatine  is  soft,  use 
only  \  ounce;  if  the  gelatine  is  hard,  use 
1  ounce  of  the  glycerine),  then  melt  the 
gelatine  by  standing  the  bottle  in  a  vessel 
of  hot  water,  and  shake  up  very  well. 
For  use,  remelt  by  heat.  The  alcohol 
prevents  the  prints  from  stretching  or 
cockling,  as  they  are  apt  to,  under  the 
influence  of  the  gelatine. 

In  the  following  compound,  however, 
only  sufficient  alcohol  is  used  to  serve  as 
an  antiseptic,  and  prevent  the  aggluti- 
nant  from  decomposing  :  Dissolve  4 
ounces  of  photographic  gelatine  in  16 
ounces  of  water  (first  soaking  the  gela- 
tine therein  for  an  hour  or  two  until  it  is 
completely  softened),  then  remove  the 
gelatine  from  the  water,  allow  it  to  drain, 
and  put  it  into  the  bottle,  and  pour  the 
alcohol  over  it,  and  put  in  the  glycerine 
(if  the  gelatine  is  soft,  use  only  \  ounce; 
if  the  gelatine  is  hard,  use  1  ounce  of  the 
glycerine),  then  melt  the  gelatine  by 
standing  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  hot 
water,  and  shake  up  well  and  mix  thor- 
oughly. For  use,  remelt  by  heat.  The 
alcohol  prevents  the  print  from  stretch- 
ing or  cockling  up  under  the  influence  of 
the  gelatine. 

The  following  paste  agglutinant  is  one 
that  is  very  permanent  and  useful  for  all 
purposes  required  in  a  photographic 
studio:  Take  5  pints  of  water,  10  ounces 
of  arrowroot,  1  ounce  of  gelatine,  and  a 
\  pint  (10  fluidounces)  of  alcohol,  and 
proceed  to  combine  them  as  follows: 
Make  arrowroot  into  a  thick  cream  with 
a  little  of  the  water,  and  in  the  remainder 
of  the  water  soak  the  gelatine  for  a  few 
hours,  after  which  melt  the  gelatine  in 
the  water  by  heating  it,  add  the  arrow- 
root paste,  and  bring  the  mixture  to  the 
boil  and  allow  to  boil  for  4  or  5  minutes, 


then  allow  to  cool,  and  mix  in  the  alcohol, 
adding  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  cloves. 

Perhaps  one  or  the  most  useful  com- 
pounds for  photographic  purposes  is  that 
prepared  as  follows:  Soak  4  ounces  of 
hard  gelatine  in  15  ounces  of  water  for  a 
few  hours,  then  melt  the  gelatine  by 
heating  it  in  a  glue  pot  until  the  solution 
is  quite  clear  and  free  from  lumps,  stir 
in  65  fluidounces  of  cold  water  so  that 
it  is  free  from  lumps,  and  pour  in  the 
boiling-hot  solution  of  gelatine  and  con- 
tinue stirring,  and  if  the  starch  is  not 
completely  cooked,  boil  up  the  mixture 
for  a  few  minutes  until  it  "blows,"  being 
careful  to  keep  it  well  stirred  so  as  not 
to  burn;  when  cold  add  a  few  drops  of 
carbolic  acid  or  some  essential  oil  as  an 
antiseptic  to  prevent  the  compound  from 
decomposing  or  becoming  sour. 

A  useful  photographic  mucilage,  which 
is  very  liquid,  is  obtained  by  mixing  equal 
bulks  of  gum-arabic  and  gum-dragon 
mucilages  of  the  same  consistence.  The 
mixture  of  these  mucilages  will  be  con- 
siderably thinner  than  either  of  them 
when  alone. 

As  an  agglutinant  for  general  use  in  the 
studio,  the  following  is  recommended: 
Dissolve  2  ounces  of  gum  arabic  in  5 
ounces  of  water,  and  for  every  250  parts 
of  the  mucilage  add  20  parts  of  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  aluminum,  prepared 
by  dissolving  1  part  of  the  sulphate  in 
20  parts  of  water  (common  alum  should 
not  be  used,  only  the  pure  aluminum 
sulphate,  because  common  alum  is  a 
mixture  of  sulphates,  and  usually  con- 
taminated with  iron  salts).  The  addi- 
tion of  the  sulphate  solution  to  the 
gum  mucilage  renders  the  latter  less 
hygroscopic,  and  practically  waterproof, 
besides  being  very  adhesive  to  any 
materials,  particularly  those  exhibiting  a 
smooth  surface. 

MUCILAGES : 

For  Affixing  Labels  to  Glass  and  Other 
Objects. — I. — The  mucilage  is  made  by 
simply  pouring  over  the  gum  enough 
water  to  a  little  more  than  cover  it,  and 
then,  as  the  gum  swells,  adding  more  water 
from  time  to  time  in  small  portions,  until 
the  mucilage  is  brought  to  such  con- 
sistency that  it  may  be  easily  spread  with 
the  brush.  The  mucilage  keeps  fairly 
well  without  the  addition  of  any  anti- 
septic. 

II. — Tragacanth 1  ounce 

Acacia 4  ounces 

Thymol 14  grains 

Glycerine 4  ounces 

Water,  sufficient  to 
make 2  pints 


ADHESIVES 


Dissolve  the  gums  in  1  pint  of  water, 
strain  and  add  the  glycerine,  in  which 
the  thymol  is  suspended;  shake  well  and 
add  sufficient  water  to  make  2  pints. 
This  separates  on  standing,  but  a  single 
shake  mixes  it  sufficiently  for  use. 

III. — Rye  flour 8  ounces 

Powdered  acacia.      1  ounce 

Glycerine 2  ounces 

Oil  of  cloves 40  drops 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Rub  the  rye  flour  and  the  acacia  to  a 
smooth  paste  with  8  ounces  of  cold  water; 
strain  through  cheese  cloth,  and  pour 
into  1  pint  of  boiling  water  and  continue 
the  heat  until  as  thick  as  desired.  When 
nearly  cold  add  the  glycerine  and  oil  of 
cloves. 

IV. — One  part,  by  weight,  of  traga- 
canth,  when  mixed  with  95-per-cent  alco- 
hol to  form  4  fluidounces,  forms  a  liquid  in 
which  a  portion  of  the  tragacanth  is  dis- 
solved and  the  remainder  suspended; 
this  remains  permanently  fluid,  never 
deteriorates,  and  can  be  used  in  place  of 
the  present  mucilage;  4  to  8  minims  to 
each  ounce  of  mixture  is  sufficient  to 
suspend  any  of  the  insoluble  substances 
usually  given  in  mixtures. 

V. — To  250  parts  of  gum-arabic  muci- 
lage add  20  parts  of  water  and  2  parts  of 
sulphate  of  alumina  and  heat  until  dis- 
solved. 

VI. — Dissolve  \  pound  gum  traga- 
canth, powdered,  J  pound  gum  arabic, 
powdered,  cold  water  to  the  desired  con- 
sistency, and  add  40  drops  carbolic  acid. 

Mucilage  of  Acacia. — Put  the  gum, 
which  should  be  of  the  best  kind,  in  a  flask 
the  size  of  which  should  be  large  enough 
to  contain  the  mucilage  with  about  one- 
fifth  of  its  space  to  spare  (i.  e.,  the  product 
should  fill  it  about  four -fifths  full).  Now 
tare,  and  wash  the  gum  with  distilled  wa- 
ter, letting  the  latter  drain  away  as  much 
as  possible  before  proceeding  further. 
Add  the  requisite  quantity  of  distilled 
water  slowly,  which,  however,  should 
first  have  added  to  it  about  10  per  cent  of 
limewater.  Now  cork  the  flask,  and  lay 
it,  without  shaking,  horizontally  in  a  cool 
place  and  let  it  remain  quietly  for  about 
3  hours,  then  give  it  a  half  turn  to  the 
right  without  disturbing  its  horizontal 
position.  Repeat  this  operation  three  or 
four  times  during  the  day,  and  keep  it 
up  until  the  gum  is  completely  dissolved 
(which  will  not  be  until  the  fourth  day 
probably),  then  strain  through  a  thin 
cloth  previously  wet  with  distilled  wa- 
ter, avoiding,  in  so  doing,  the  formation 
of  foam  or  bubbles.  This  precaution 
should  also  be  observed  in  decantation 


of  the  percolate  into  smaller  bottles  pro- 
vided with  paraffine  corks.  The  small 
amount  of  lime  water,  as  will  be  under- 
stood, is  added  to  the  solvent  water  in 
order  to  prevent  the  action  of  free  acid. 

Commercial  Mucilage.  —  Dissolve  \ 
pound  white  glue  in  equal  parts  water 
and  strong  vinegar,  and  add  \  as  much 
alcohol  and  \  ounce  alum  dissolved  in  a 
little  water.  To  proceed,  first  get  good 
glue  and  soak  in  cold  water  until  it 
swells  and  softens.  Use  pale  vinegar. 
Pour  off  the  cold  water,  then  melt  the 
glue  to  a  thick  paste  in  hot  water,  and 
add  the  vinegar  hot.  When  a  little  cool 
add  the  alcohol  and  alum  water. 

To  Render  Gum  Arabic  More  Ad- 
hesive.— I. — Add  crystallized  aluminum 
sulphate  in  the  proportion  of  2  dissolved 
in  20  parts  of  water  to  250  parts  of  con- 
centrated gum  solution  (75  parts  of  gum 
in  175  parts  of  water). 

II. — Add  to  250  parts  of  concentrated 
gum  solution  (2  parts  of  gum  in  5  parts 
of  water)  2  parts  of  crystallized  alumi- 
num sulphate  dissolved  in  20  parts  of 
water.  This  mixture  glues  even  unsized 
paper,  pasteboard  on  pasteboard,  wood 
on  wood,  glass,  porcelain,  and  other 
substances  on  which  labels  frequently  do 
not  adhere  well. 

Envelope  Gum. — The  gum  used  by 
the  United  States  Government  on  postage 
stamps  is  probably  one  of  the  best  that 
could  be  used  not  only  for  envelopes  but 
for  labels  as  well.  It  will  stick  to  almost 
any  surface.  Its  composition  is  said  to 
be  the  following: 

Gum  arabic 1  part 

Starch 1  part 

Sugar 4  parts 

Water,  sufficient  to 
give  the  desired  con- 
sistency. 

The  gum  arabic  is  first  dissolved  in 
some  water,  the  sugar  added,  then  the 
starch,  after  which  the  mixture  is  boiled 
for  a  few  minutes  in  order  to  dissolve 
the  starch,  after  which  it  is  thinned  down 
to  the  desired  consistency. 

Cheaper  envelope  gums  can  be  made 
by  substituting  dextrine  for  the  gum 
arabic,  glucose  for  the  sugar,  and  adding 
boric  acid  to  preserve  and  help  stiffen  it. 

Mucilage  to  Make  Wood  and  Paste- 
board Adhere  to  Metals. — Dissolve  50 
parts,  by  weight,  of  lead  acetate  together 
with  5  parts,  by  weight,  of  alum  in  a  little 
water.  Make  a  separate  solution  of  75 
parts,  by  weight,  of  gum  arabic  in  2,000 
parts,  by  weight,  of  water,  stir  in  this  500 


ADHESIVES 


parts,  by  weight,  of  flour,  and  heat  slowly 
to  boiling,  stirring  the  while.  Let  it  cool 
somewhat,  and  mix  with  it  the  solution 
containing  the  lead  acetate  and  alum, 
stirring  them  well  together. 

Preservation  of  Gum  Solution. — Put  a 
small  piece  of  camphor  in  the  mucilage 
bottle.  Camphor  vapors  are  generated 
which  kill  all  the  bacterial  germs  that 
have  entered  the  bottle.  The  gum  main- 
tains its  adhesiveness  to  the  last  drop. 

ADULTERANTS  IN  FOODS: 

See  Foods. 

ADUROL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

JESCO  -QUININE : 
See  Horse  Chestnut. 

AGAR  AGAR  PASTE: 

See  Adhesives. 

AGATE,  BUTTONS  OF  ARTIFICIAL. 

Prepare  a  mixture  or  frit  of  33  parts 
of  quartz  sand,  65  parts  calcium  phos- 
phate, and  2  parts  of  potash.  The  frit, 
which  has  been  reduced  by  heat  to  the 
fusing  point,  is  finely  ground,  intimately 
mingled  with  a  small  quantity  of  kaolin 
and  pressed  in  molds  which  yield  button- 
shaped  masses.  These  masses,  after  hav- 
ing been  fired,  are  given  a  transparent 
glaze  by  any  of  the  well-known  processes. 

AGATE   (IMITATION): 

See  Gems,  Artificial. 

AGING  OF  SILK: 

See  Silk. 

AGING,  SILVER  AND  GOLD: 

See  Plating. 

AIR   BATH. 

This  air  bath  is  employed  in  cases 
in  which,  upon  drying  or  heating  sub- 
stances, acid  vapors  arise  because  the 
walls  of  the  bath  are  not  attacked  by 
them.  For  the  production  of  the  drying 
apparatus  take  a  flask  with  the  bottom 
burst  off  or  a  bell  jar  tubulated  above. 
This  is  placed  either  upon  a  sand  bath 
or  upon  asbestos  paper,  previously  laid 
upon  a  piece  of  sheet  iron.  The  sand 
bath  or  the  sheet  iron  is  put  on  a  tripod, 
so  that  it  can  be  heated  by  means  of  a 
burner  placed  underneath.  The  sub- 
stance to  be  dried  is  placed  in  a  glass  or 
porcelain  dish,  which  is  put  under  the 
bell  jar,  and  if  desired  the  drying  dish 
may  be  hung  on  the  tripod.  For  regu- 
lating the  temperature  the  tubulure  of 
the  jar  is  closed  with  a  pierced  cork, 


through  whose  aperture  the  thermom- 
eter is  thrust.  In  order  to  permit  the 
vapors  to  escape,  the  cork  is  grooved 
lengthwise  along  the  periphery. 

AIR  BUBBLES  IN  GELATINE: 
See  Gelatine. 

AIR,  EXCLUSION  OF,   FROM  SOLU- 
TIONS: 
See  Photography. 

AIR-PURIFYING. 

Ozonatine  is  a  fragrant  air-purifying 
preparation  consisting  of  dextrogyrate 
turpentine  oil  scented  with  slight  quan- 
tities of  fragrant  oils. 

ALABASTER  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

ALBATA  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 


ALBUMEN    IN    URINE,    DETECTION 
OF. 

Patein  (Pharm.  Zeit.)  recommends  the 
following  test  for  albumen  in  urine: 
Dissolve  250  grams  of  citric  acid  in  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  water,  add  enough 
ammonia  to  neutralize,  then  50  grams 
of  alcohol,  and  finally  enough  water  to 
make  1  liter.  To  the  acid  (or  acidulated) 
urine,  one-tenth  its  volume  of  the  ammo- 
nium-citrate solution  made  as  above  is 
added,  and  the  whole  heated  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  appearance  of  the  faint- 
est turbidity  is  said  to  indicate  with  pos- 
itive certainty  the  presence  of  albumen. 

ALBUMEN  PAPER: 
See  Photography. 

ALBUMEN  PASTE: 
See  Adhesives. 

Alcohol 

After  the  manuscript  of  this  book  was 
ready  for  the  press,  Congress  passed  the 
bill  which  has  since  become  a  law,  whereby 
the  prohibitive  tax  on  industrial  or  de- 
natured alcohol  is  removed.  So  impor- 
tant is  this  legislative  measure  that  the 
Editor  has  deemed  it  wise  to  insert  an 
article  on  the  sources  of  alcohol  and  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol  from  farm  prod- 
ucts. Because  the  first  portion  of  the 
book  was  in  type  when  this  step  was  de- 
cided upon,  the  Editor  was  compelled  to 
relegate  to  a  later  page  a  monograph 
which  should  properly  have  appeared 
here.  The  reader  will  find  the  matter 
on  alcohol  referred  to  under  the  heading 


ALCOHOL 


"Spirit";  likewise  methods  of  denaturing 
and  a  list  of  denaturants. 
ALCOHOL,  DILUTION  OF: 
See  Tables. 

Alcohol,  Tests  for  Absolute.—  The 
committee  for  the  compilation  of  the 
German  Arzneibuch  established  the  fol- 
lowing tests  for  the  determination  of  ab- 
solute alcohol: 

Absolute  alcohol  is  a  clear,  colorless,  vol- 
atile, readily  imflammable  liquid  which 
burns  with  a  faintly  luminous  flame. 
Absolute  alcohol  has  a  peculiar  odor,  a 
burning  taste,  and  does  not  affect  litmus 
paper.  Boiling  point,  78.50.  Specific 
gravity,  0.795  to  0.797.  One  hundred 
parts  contain  99.7  to  99.4  parts,  by  vol- 
ume, or  99.6  to  99.0  parts,  by  weight,  of 
alcohol. 

Absolute  alcohol  should  have  no  for- 
eign smell  and  should  mix  with  water 
without  cloudiness. 

After  the  admixture  of  5  drops  of  sil- 
ver-nitrate solution,  10  cubic  centimeters 
of  absolute  alcohol  should  not  become 
turbid  or  colored  even  on  heating. 

A  mixture  of  10  cubic  centimeters  of 
absolute  alcohol  and  0.2  cubic  centimeter 
of  potash  lye  evaporated  down  to  1  cubic 
centimeter  should  not  exhibit  an  odor  of 
fusel  oil  after  supersaturation  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid. 

Five  cubic  centimeters  of  sulphuric 
acid,  carefully  covered,  in  a  test  tube, 
with  a  stratum  of  5  cubic  centimeters  of 
absolute  alcohol,  should  not  form  a  rose- 
colored  zone  at  the  surface  of  contact, 
even  on  standing  for  some  time. 

The  red  color  of  a  mixture  of  10  cubic 
centimeters  of  absolute  alcohol  and  1 
cubic  centimeter  of  potassium -perman- 
ganate solution  should  not  pass  into 
yellow  before  20  minutes. 

Absolute  alcohol  should  not  be  dyed 
by  hydrogen  sulphide  water  or  by  aque- 
ous ammonia. 

Five  cubic  centimeters  of  absolute  al- 
cohol should  not  leave  behind  a  weighable 
residue  after  evaporation  on  water  bath. 

Absolute  Alcohol. — If  gelatine  be  sus- 
pended in  ordinary  alcohol  it  will  absorb 
the  water,  but  as  it  is  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
that  substance  will  remain  behind,  and 
thus  nearly  absolute  alcohol  will  be  ob- 
tained without  distillation. 

Perfumed  Denaturized  Alcohol. — 
East  India  lemon  oil  1,250  parts 

Mirbane  oil 1,000  parts 

Cassia  oil 50  parts 

Clove  oil 75  parts 

Lemon  oil 100  parts 

Amyl  acetate 500  parts 

Spirit  (95  per  cent)  .  7,000  parts 


Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  spirit  and  add 
the  amyl  acetate.  The  mixture  serves 
for  destroying  the  bad  odor  of  denatur- 
ized  spirit  in  distilling.  Use  50  parts  of 
the  perfume  per  1,000  parts  of  spirit. 

Solid  Alcohol.— I.— Heat  1,000  parts  of 
denaturized  alcohol  (90  per  cent)  in  a  flask 
of  double  the  capacity  on  the  water  bath 
to  about  140°  F.,  and  then  mix  with  28  to 
30  parts  of  well-dried,  rasped  Venetian 
soap  and  2  parts  of  gum  lac.  After  re- 
peated shaking,  complete  dissolution 
will  take  place.  The  solution  is  put, 
while  still  warm,  into  metallic  vessels, 
closing  them  up  at  once  and  allowing  the 
mixture  to  cool  therein.  The  admix- 
ture of  gum  lac  effects  a  better  preserva- 
tion and  also  prevents  the  evaporation  of 
the  alcohol.  On  lighting  the  solid  spirit 
the  soap  remains  behind. 

II. — Smaragdine  is  a  trade  name  for 
solidified  alcohol.  It  consists  of  alcohol 
and  gun  cotton,  colored  with  malachite 
green.  It  appears  in  the  market  in  the 
form  of  small  cubes. 

Alcohol  in  Fermented  Beers. — Expe- 
rience has  shown  that  \  pound  of  sugar 
to  1  gallon  of  water  yields  about  2  per  cent 
of  proof  spirit,  or  about  1  per  cent  of  ab- 
solute alcohol.  Beyond  this  amount  it  is 
not  safe  to  go,  if  the  legal  limit  is  to  be 
observed,  yet  a  ginger  beer  brewed  with 
|  pound  per  gallon  of  sugar  would  be  a 
very  wishy-washy  compound,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  that  a  much  larger  quantity 
is  generally  used.  The  more  sugar  that 
is  used — up  to  H  or  1J  pounds  per  gallon 
— the  better  the  •  drink  will  be  and  the 
more  customers  will  relish  it;  but  it  will 
be  as  "strong"  as  lager  and  contain  per- 
haps 5  per  cent  of  alcohol,  which  will  make 
it  anything  but  a  "temperance"  drink. 
Any  maker  who  is  using  as  much  as  even 
£  pound  of  sugar  per  gallon  is  bound  to 
get  more  spirit  than  the  law  allows. 
Meanwhile  it  is  scarcely  accurate  to  term 
ginger  beers,  etc.,  non-alcoholic. 

Alcohol  Deodorizer. — 

Alcohol 160    ounces 

Powdered  quicklime.  300    grains 

Powdered  alum 150    grains 

Spirit  of  nitrous  ether       1£  drachms 

Mix  the  lime  and  alum  intimately  by 

'trituration;  add  the  alcohol  and  shake 

well;  then  add  the  spirit  of  nitrous  ether; 

set  aside  for  7  days  and  filter  through 

animal  charcoal. 

Denaturized  Alcohol. — There  are  two 
general  classes  or  degrees  of  denaturizing, 
viz.,  the  "complete"  and  the  "incom- 
plete," according  to  the  purpose  for 


ALCOHOL 


which  the  alcohol  so  denaturized  is  to  be 
ultimately  used. 

J. — Complete  denaturization  by  the 
German  system  is  accomplished  by  the 
addition  to  every  100  liters  (equal  to  26£ 
gallon*  >  of  spirits: 

(a)  '1  "wo  and  one-half  liters  of  the  "stand- 
ard* 'leiiaturizer,  made  of  4  parts  of 
wood  alcohol,  1  part  of  pyridiiie  (a  nitro- 
genous base  obtained  by  distilling  bone 
oil  or  coal  tar),  with  the  addition  of  50 
grams  to  each  liter  of  oil  of  lavender  or 
rosemary. 

(6)  One  and  one-fourth  liters  of  the 
above  "standard"  and  2  liters  of  benzol 
with  every  100  liters  of  alcohol. 

II. — Incomplete  denaturization — i.  e., 
sufficient  to  prevent  alcohol  from  being 
drunk,  but  not  to  disqualify  it  from  use 
for  various  special  purposes,  for  which 
the  wholly  denaturized  spirits  would  be 
unavailable — is  accomplished  by  several 
methods  as  follows,  the  quantity  and 
nature  of  each  substance  given  being 
the  prescribed  dose  for  each  100  liters 
(26*  gallons)  of  spirits: 

(c)  Five  liters  of  wood  alcohol  or  | 
liter  of  pyridiiie. 

(d~)  Twenty  liters  of  solution  of  shellac, 
containing  1  part  gum  to  2  parts  alcohol 
of  90-per-cent  purity.  Alcohol  for  the 
manufacture  of  celluloid  and  pegamoid 
is  denaturized. 

(e)  By  the  addition  of  1  kilogram  of 
camphor  or  2  liters  oil  of  turpentine  or 
\  liter  benzol  to  each  100  liters  of  spirits. 
Alcohol  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  ethers,  aldehyde,  agaricin,  white  lead, 
bromo-silver  gelatines,  photographic  pa- 
pers and  plates,  electrode  plates,  collo- 
dion, salicylic  acid  and  salts,  aniline 
chemistry,  and  a  great  number  of  other 
purposes,  is  denaturized  by  the  addition 
of — 

(/)  Ten  liters  sulphuric  ether,  or  1 
part  of  benzol,  or  \  part  oil  of  turpentine, 
or  0.025  part  of  animal  oil. 

For  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  and 
inks  alcohol  is  denaturized  by  the  addi- 
tion of  oil  of  turpentine  or  animal  oil, 
and  for  the  production  of  soda  soaps  by 
the  addition  of  1  kilogram  of  castor  oil. 
Alcohol  for  the  production  of  lanolin  is 
prepared  by  adding  5  liters  of  benzine  to 
each  hectoliter  of  spirits. 

ALE. 

The  ale  of  the  modern  brewer  is  man- 
ufactured in  several  varieties,  which  are 
determined  by  the  wants  of  the  consumer 
and  the  particular  market  for  which  it 
is  intended.  Thus,  the  finer  kinds  of 
Burton,  East  India,  Bavarian,  and  other 
like  ales,  having  undergone  a  thorough 


fermentation,  contain  only  a  small  quan- 
tity of  undecomposed  sugar  and  gum, 
varying  from  1  to  5  per  cent.  Some  of 
these  are  highly  "hopped"  or  "bittered," 
the  further  to  promote  their  preservation 
during  transit  and  change  of  temper- 
ature. Mild  or  sweet  ales,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  less  accentuated  by  lengthened 
fermentation,  and  abound  in  saccharine 
and  gummy  matter.  They  are,  there- 
fore, more  nutritious,  though  less  intox- 
icating, than  those  previously  referred  to. 

In  brewing  the  finer  kinds  of  ales,  pale 
malt  and  the  best  hops  of  the  current 
season's  growth  are  always  employed; 
and  when  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  liquor 
possessing  little  color,  very  great  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  their  selection.  With  the 
same  object,  the  boiling  is  conductedwith 
more  than  the  usual  precautions,  and  the 
fermentation  is  carried  on  at  a  somewhat 
lower  temperature  than  that  commonly 
allowed  for  other  varieties  of  beer.  For 
ordinary  ale,  intended  for  immediate  use, 
the  malt  may  be  all  pale;  but,  if  the  liquor 
be  brewed  for  keeping,  and  in  warm 
weather,  when  a  slight  color  is  not  objec- 
tionable, one-fifth,  or  even  one-fourth  of 
amber  malt  may  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed. From  4i  to  6  pounds  of  hops  is 
the  quantity  commonly  used  to  the  one- 
fourth  of  malt,  for  ordinary  ales;  and  7 
pounds  to  10  pounds  for  "keeping"  ales. 
The  proportions,  however,  must  greatly 
depend  on  the  intended  quality  and  de- 
scription of  the  brewing  and  the  period 
that  will  be  allowed  for  its  maturation. 

The  stronger  varieties  of  ale  usually 
contain  from  6  to  8  per  cent  of  "absolute 
alcohol";  ordinary  strong  ale,  41  to  6  per 
cent;  mild  ale,  3  to  4  percent;  and  table  ale, 
1  to  1*  per  cent  (each  by  volume);  togeth- 
er with  some  undecomposed  saccharine, 
gummy,  and  extractive  matter,  the  bitter 
and  narcotic  principles  of  the  hop,  some 
acetic  acid  formed  by  the  oxidation  of 
the  alcohol,  and  very  small  and  variable 
quantities  of  mineral  and  saline  matter. 

Ordinary  ale-wort  (preferably  pale), 
sufficient  to  produce  1  barrel,  is  slowly 
boiled  with  about  3  handfuls  of  hops, 
and  12  to  14  pounds  of  crushed  groats, 
until  the  whole  of  the  soluble  matter  of 
the  latter  is  extracted.  The  resulting 
liquor,  after  being  run  through  a  coarse 
strainer  and  become  lukewarm,  is  fer- 
mented with  2  or  3  pints  of  yeast;  and, 
as  soon  as  the  fermentation  is  at  its 
height,  is  either  closely  bunged  up  for 
draft  or  is  at  once  put  into  strong  stone- 
ware bottles,  which  are  then  well  corked 
and  wired. 

White  ale  is  said  to  be  very  nutritious, 
though  apt  to  prove  laxative  to  those  un- 


ALLOYS 


47 


accustomed  to  its  use.  It  is  drunk  in  a 
state  of  effervescence  or  lively  fermenta- 
tion; the  glass  or  cup  containing  it  being 
kept  in  constant  motion,  when  removed 
irom  the  mouth,  until  the  whole  is  con- 
sumed, in  order  that  the  thicker  portion 
may  not  subside  to  the  bottom. 

ALE,  GINGER: 

See  Beverages. 

ALFENIDE  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

ALKALI,  HOW  TO  DETECT: 

See  Soaps. 

ALKALOIDS,  ANTIDOTES  TO: 

See  Atropine. 

Alloys 

No  general  rules  can  be  given  for 
alloying  metals.  Alloys  differing  greatly 
in  fusibility  are  commonly  made  by 
adding  the  more  fusible  ones,  either  in 
the  melted  state  or  in  small  portions  at  a 
time,  to  the  other  melted  or  heated  to 
the  lowest  possible  temperature  at  which 
a  perfect  union  will  take  place  between 
them.  The  mixture  is  usually  effected 
under  a  flux,  or  some  material  that  will 
promote  liquefaction  and  prevent  vola- 
tilization and  unnecessary  exposure  to 
the  air.  Thus,  in  melting  lead  and  tin 
together  for  solder,  rosin  or  tallow  is 
thrown  upon  the  surface  is  rubbed  with 
sal  ammoniac;  and  in  combining  some 
metals,  powdered  charcoal  is  used  for 
the  same  purpose.  Mercury  or  quick- 
silver combines  with  many  metals  in  the 
cold,  forming  AMALGAMS,  or  easily  fusible 
alloys  (q.  v.). 

Alloys  generally  possess  characteris- 
tics unshared  by  their  component  metals. 
Thus,  copper  and  zinc  form  brass, 
which  has  a  different  density,  hardness, 
and  color  from  either  of  its  constituents. 
Whether  the  metals  tend  to  unite  in 
atomic  proportions  or  in  any  definite 
ratio  is  still  undetermined.  The  evi- 
dence afforded  by  the  natural  alloys  of 
gold  and  silver,  and  by  the  phenomena 
accompanying  the  cooling  of  several 
alloys  from  the  state  of  fusion,  goes  far 
to  prove  that  such  is  the  case  (Rud- 
berg).  The  subject  is,  however,  one  of 
considerable  difficulty,  as  metals  and 
metallic  compounds  are  generally  solu- 
ble in  each  other,  and  unite  by  simple 
fusion  and  contact.  That  they  do  not 
combine  indifferently  with  each  other, 
but  exercise  a  species  of  elective  affinity 
not  dissimilar  to  other  bodies,  is  clearly 


shown  by  the  homogeneity  and  superior 
quality  of  many  alloys  in  which  the  con- 
stituent metals  are  in  atomic  proportion. 
The  variation  of  the  specific  gravity  and 
melting  points  of  alloys  from  the  mean 
of  those  of  their  component  metals  also 
affords  strong  evidence  of  a  chemical 
change  having  taken  place.  Thus,  alloys 
generally  melt  at  lower  temperatures  than 
their  separate  metals.  They  also  usually 
possess  more  tenacity  and  hardness  than 
the  mean  of  their  constituents. 

Matthiessen  found  that  when  weights 
are  suspended  to  spirals  of  hard-drawn 
wire  made  of  copper,  gold,  or  platinum, 
they  become  nearly  straightened  when 
stretched  by  a  moderate  weight;  but 
wires  of  equal  dimensions  composed  of 
copper-tin  (12  per  cent  of  tin),  silver- 
platinum  (36  per  cent  of  platinum),  and 
gold-copper  (84  percent  of  copper)  scarce- 
ly undergo  any  permanent  change  in  form 
when  subjected  to  tension  by  the  same 
weight. 

The  same  chemist  gives  the  following 
approximate  results  upon  the  tenacity 
of  certain  metals  and  wires  hard-drawn 
through  the  same  gauge  (No.  23) : 

Pounds 

Copper,  breaking  strain 25-30 

Tin,  breaking  strain under  7 

Lead,  breaking  strain under  7 

Tin-lead  (20%  lead) about  7 

Tin-copper  (12%  copper).  .  .about  7 

Copper-tin  (12%  tin) about  80-90 

Gold  (12%  tin) 20-25 

Gold-copper  (8.4%  copper) 70-75 

Silver  (8.4%  copper) 45-50 

Platinum  (8.4%  copper) 45-50 

Silver-platinum  (30%  platinum) .    75-80 

On  the  other  hand,  the  malleability, 
ductility,  and  power  of  resisting  oxygen 
of  alloys  is  generally  diminished.  The 
alloy  formed  of  two  brittle  metals  is 
always  brittle;  that  of  a  brittle  and  a  duc- 
tile metal,  generally  so;  and  even  two 
ductile  metals  sometimes  unite  to  form 
a  brittle  compound.  The  alloys  formed 
of  metals  having  different  fusing  points 
are  usually  malleable  while  cold  and 
brittle  while  hot.  The  action  of  the  air 
on  alloys  is  generally  less  than  on  their 
simple  metals,  unless  the  former  are 
heated.  A  mixture  of  1  part  of  tin  and 
3  parts  of  lead  is  scarcely  acted  on  at 
common  temperatures;  but  at  a  red  heat 
it  readily  takes  fire,  and  continues  to 
burn  for  some  time  like  a  piece  of  bad 
turf.  In  like  manner,  a  mixture  of  tin 
and  zinc,  when  strongly  heated,  de- 
composes both  moist  air  and  steam  with 
rapidity. 

The  specific  gravity  of  alloys  is  rarely 


48 


ALLOYS 


the  arithmetical  mean  of  that  of  their 
constituents,  as  commonly  taught;  and 
in  many  cases  considerable  condensation 
or  expansion  occurs.  When  there  is  a 
strong  affinity  between  two  metals,  the 
density  of  their  alloy  is  generally  greater 
than  the  calculated  mean;  and  vice  versa, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table: 

ALLOYS  HAVING  A  DENSITY 
Greater  than  the  Mean  of  their  Constit- 
uents: 

Copper  and  bismuth, 
Copper  and  palladium, 
Copper  and  tin, 
Copper  and  zinc, 
Gold  and  antimony, 
Gold  and  bismuth, 
Gold  and  cobalt, 
Gold  and  tin, 
Gold  and  zinc, 
Lead  and  antimony, 
Palladium  and  bismuth, 
Silver  and  antimony, 
Silver  and  bismuth, 
Silver  and  lead, 
Silver  and  tin, 
Silver  and  zinc. 

Less  than  the  Mean  of  their  Constituents: 
Gold  and  copper, 
Gold  and  iridium, 
Gold  and  iron, 
Gold  and  lead, 
Gold  and  nickel, 
Gold  and  silver, 
Iron  and  antimony, 
Iron  and  bismuth, 
Iron  and  lead, 
Nickel  and  arsenic, 
Silver  and  copper, 
Tin  and  antimony, 
Tin  and  lead, 
Tin  and  palladium, 
Zinc  and  antimony. 

Compounding  Alloys. — Considerable 
experience  is  necessary  to  insure  success 
in  compounding  alloys,  especially  when 
the  metals  employed  vary  greatly  in 
fusibility  and  volatility.  The  following 
are  rules  supplied  by  an  experienced 
workman: 

1.  Melt  the  least  fusible,  oxidizable, 
and  volatile  first,  and  then  add  the  others 
heated  to  their  point  of  fusion  or  near  it. 
Thus,  if  it  is  desired  to  make  an  alloy  of 
exactly  1  part  of  copper  and  3  of  zinc,  it 
will  be  impossible  to  do  so  by  putting 
proportions  of  the  metals  in  a  crucible 
and  exposing  the  whole  to  heat.  Much 
of  the  zinc  would  fly  off  in  vapor  before 
the  copper  was  melted.  First,  melt  the 
copper  and  add  the  zinc,  which  has  been 
melted  in  another  crucible.  The  zinc 


should  be  in  excess,  as  some  of  it  will  be 
lost  anyway. 

2.  Some  alloys,  as  copper  and  zinc, 
copper  and  arsenic,  may  be  formed  by 
exposing  heated  plates  of  the  least  fusi- 
ble metal  to  the  vapor  of  the  other.     In 
making  brass  in  the  large  way,  thin  plates 
of  copper  are  dissolved,  as  it   were,  in 
melted  zinc  until  the  proper  proportions 
have  been  obtained. 

3.  The  surface  of  all  oxidizable  metals 
should  be  covered  with  some  protecting 
agent,  as  tallow  for   very  fusible   ones, 
rosin  for  lead  and  tin,  charcoal  for  zinc, 
copper,  etc. 

^4.  Stir  the  metal  before  casting  and 
if  possible,  when  casting,  with  a  white- 
wood  stick;  this  is  much  better  for  the 
purpose  than  an  iron  rod. 

5.  If  possible,  add  a  small  portion  of 
old  alloy  to  the  new.  If  the  alloy  is  re- 
quired to  make  sharp  castings  and 
strength  is  not  a  very  great  oVject,  the 
proportion  of  old  alloy  to  the  new  should 
be  increased.  In  all  cases  a  new  or 
thoroughly  well-cleansed  crucible  should 
be  used. 

To  obtain  metals  and  metallic  alloys 
from  their  compounds,  such  as  oxides, 
sulphides,  chlorides,  etc.,  a  process  lately 
patented  makes  use  of  the  reducing 
qualities  of  aluminum  or  its  alloys  with 
magnesium.  The  finely  powdered  ma- 
terial (e.  g.,  chromic  oxide)  is  placed  in  a 
crucible  mixed  with  aluminum  oxide. 
The  mixture  is  set  afire  by  means  of  a 
soldering  pipe  or  a  burning  magnesium 
wire,  and  the  desired  reaction  takes  place. 
For  igniting,  one  may  also  employ  with 
advantage  a  special  priming  cartridge 
consisting  of  pulverized  aluminum  to 
which  a  little  magnesium  may  be  mixed, 
and  peroxide  of  magnesia,  which  is 
shaped  into  balls  and  lighted  with  a 
magnesium  wire.  By  suitable  additions 
to  the  pulverized  mixture,  alloys  con- 
taining aluminum,  magnetism,  chro- 
mium, manganese,  copper,  iron,  boron, 
silicic  acid,  etc.,  are  obtained. 

ALUMINUM  ALLOYS. 

M.  H.  Pecheux  has  contributed  to  the 
Comptes  Rendus,  from  time  to  time,  the 
results  of  his  investigations  into  the  alloys 
of  aluminum  with  soft  metals,  and  the 
following  constitutes  a  brief  summary  of 
his  observations: 

Lead. — When  aluminum  is  melted 
and  lead  is  added  in  proportion  greater 
than  10  per  cent,  the  metals  separate  on 
cooling  into  three  layers — lead,  alumi- 
num, and  between  them  an  alloy  contain- 
ing from  90  to  97  per  cent  of  aluminum. 


ALLOYS 


The  albys  with  93,  95,  and  98  per  cent  have 
densities  of  2.745,  2.674,  and  2.600  re- 
spectively, and  melting  points  near  that 
of  aluminum.  Their  color  is  like  that 
of  aluminum,  but  they  are  less  lustrous. 
All  are  malleable,  easily  cut,  softer  than 
aluminum,  and  have  a  granular  fracture. 
On  remelting  they  become  somewhat 
richer  in  lead,  through  a  tendency  to 
liquation.  They  do  not  oxidize  in  moist 
air,  nor  at  their  melting  points.  They 
are  attacked  in  the  cold  by  hydrochloric 
and  by  strong  sulphuric  acid,  with  evo- 
lution of  hydrogen,  and  by  strong  nitric 
acid  when  hot;  strong  solution  of  po- 
tassium hydroxide  also  attacks  them. 
They  are  without  action  on  distilled 
water,  whether  cold  or  hot. 

Zinc. — Well-defined  alloys  were  ob- 
tained, corresponding  to  the  formulas 
Zn3Al,  Zn2Al,  ZnAl,  ZnAl2,  ZnAl3, 
ZnAl4,  ZnAl6,  ZnAl10,  ZnAl12.  Their 
melting  points  and  densities  all  lie  be- 
tween those  of  zinc  and  aluminum,  and 
those  containing  most  zinc  are  the  hard- 
est. They  are  all  dissolved  by  cold 
hydrochloric  acid  and  by  hot  dilute  nitric 
acid.  Cold  concentrated  nitric  acid  at- 
tacks the  first  three,  and  cold  dilute  acid 
the  first  five.  The  Zn3Al,  ZnAlR,  ZnAl10, 
and  ZnAl12  are  only  slightly  affected  by 
cold  potassium-hydroxide  solution;  the 
others  are  strongly  attacked,  potassium 
zincate  and  aluminate  probably  being 
formed. 

Tin. — A  filed  rod  of  tin-aluminum  alloy 
plunged  in  cold  water  gives  off  for  some 
minutes  bubbles  of  gas,  composed  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  explosive  pro- 
portions. An  unfiled  rod,  or  a  filed  rod 
of  either  aluminum  or  tin,  is  without 
action,  though  the  unfiled  rod  of  alloy 
will  act  on  boiling  water.  The  filed  rod 
of  alloy,  in  faintly  acid  solution  of  cop- 
per or  zinc  sulphate,  becomes  covered 
with  a  deposit  of  copper  or  zinc,  while 
bubbles  of  oxygen  are  given  off.  M. 
Pecheux  believes  that  the  metals  are  truly 
alloyed  only  at  the  surface,  and  that  filing 
lays  bare  an  almost  infinitely  numerous 
series  of  junctions  of  the  two  metals, 
which,  heated  by  the  filing,  act  as  ther- 
mocouples. 

Bismuth. — By  the  method  used  for 
lead,  bismuth  alloys  were  obtained  con- 
taining 75,  85,  88,  and  94  per  cent  of 
aluminum,  with  densities  2.86,  2.79, 
2.78.  and  2.74  respectively.  They  were 
sonorous,  brittle,  finely  grained,  and 
homogeneous,  silver-white,  and  with 
melting  points  between  those  of  their  con- 
stituents, but  nearer  that  of  aluminum. 
They  are  not  oxidized  in  air  at  the  tem- 


perature of  casting,  but  are  readily  at- 
tacked by  acids,  concentrated  or  dilute, 
and  by  potassium-hydroxide  solution. 
The  filed  alloys  behave  like  those  of  tin, 
but  still  more  markedly. 

Magnesium. — These  were  obtained 
with  66,  68,  73,  77,  and  85  per  cent 
of  aluminum,  and  densities  2.24,  2.47, 
2.32,  2.37,  2.47.  They  are  brittle,  with 
large  granular  fracture,  silver-white,  file 
well,  take  a  good  polish,  and  have  melt- 
ing points  near  that  of  aluminum. 
Being  viscous  when  melted,  they  are  dif- 
ficult to  cast,  and  when  slowly  cooled 
form  a  gray,  spongy  mass  which  cannot 
be  remelted.  They  do  not  oxidize  in 
air  at  the  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
burn  readily  at  a  bright-red  heat.  They 
are  attacked  violently  by  acids  and  by 
potassium-hydroxide  solution,  decom- 
pose hydrogen  peroxide,  and  slowly  de- 
compose water  even  in  the  cold. 

Tin,  Bismuth,  and  Magnesium. —The 
action  of  water  on  these  alloys  just  re- 
ferred to  has  been  recently  demonstrated 
on  a  larger  scale,  5  to  6  cubic  centimeters 
of  hydrogen  having  been  obtained  in  20 
minutes  from  2  cubic  centimeters  of  the 
filed  tin  alloy.  The  bismuth  alloy  yield- 
ed more  hydrogen  than  the  tin  alloy,  and 
the  magnesium  alloy  more  than  the  bis- 
muth alloy.  The  oxygen  of  the  decom- 
posed water  unites  with  the  aluminum. 
Larger  quantities  of  hydrogen  are  ob- 
tained from  copper-sulphate  solution, 
apart  from  the  decomposition  of  this 
solution  by  precipitation  of  copper  at  the 
expense  of  the  metal  alloyed  with  the 
aluminum.  The  alloys  of  aluminum 
with  zinc  and  lead  do  not  decompose 
pure  water,  but  do  decompose  the  water 
of  copper-sulphate  solution,  and,  more 
slowly,  that  of  zinc-sulphate  solution. 

Aluminum  is  a  metal  whose  properties 
are  very  materially  influenced  by  a  pro- 
portionately small  addition  of  copper. 
Alloys  of  99  per  cent  aluminum  and  1  per 
cent  of  copper  are  hard,  brittle,  and  bluish 
in  color;  95  per  cent  of  aluminum  and  5 
per  cent  of  copper  give  an  alloy  which  can 
be  hammered,  but  with  10  per  cent  of  cop- 
per the  metal  can  no  longer  be  worked. 
With  80  per  cent  and  upward  of  copper 
are  obtained  alloys  of  a  beautiful  yellow 
color,  and  these  mixtures,  containing  from 
5  to  10  percent  of  aluminum  and  from  90 
to  95  per  cent  of  copper,  are  the  genuine 
aluminum  bronzes.  The  10-per-cent  al- 
loys are  of  a  pure  golden-yellow  color; 
with  5  per  cent  of  aluminum  they  are 
reddish  yellow,  like  gold  heavily  alloyed 
with  copper,  and  a  2-per-cent  admix- 
ture is  01  an  almost  pure  copper  red 


50 


ALLOYS 


As  the  proportion  of  copper  increases, 
the  brittleness  is  diminished,  and  alloys 
containing  10  per  cent  and  less  of  aluminum 
can  be  used  for  industrial  purposes,  the 
best  consisting  of  90  per  cent  of  copper  and 
10  of  aluminum.  The  hardness  of  this 
alloy  approaches  that  of  the  general 
bronzes,  whence  its  name.  It  can  be 
stretched  out  into  thin  sheets  between 
rollers,  worked  under  the  hammer,  and 
shaped  as  desired  by  beating  or  pressure, 
in  powerful  stamping  presses.  On  ac- 
count of  its  hardness  it  takes  a  fine  pol- 
ish, and  its  peculiar  greenish-gold  color 
resembles  that  of  gold  alloyed  with  cop- 
per and  silver  together. 

Alloys  with  a  still  greater  proportion  of 
copper  approach  this  metal  more  and 
more  nearly  in  their  character;  the  color 
of  an  alloy,  for  instance,  composed  of 
95  per  cent  of  copper  and  5  per  cent  of  alu- 
minum, can  be  distinguished  from  pure 
gold  only  by  direct  comparison,  and  the 
metal  is  very  hard,  and  also  very  mal- 
leable. 

Electrical  Conductivity  of  Aluminum 
Alloys. — During  three  years'  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  copper-aluminum  alloys 
in  one  test  gradually  diminished  in  con- 
ductivity in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
copper  they  contained.  The  nickel-copper 
aluminum  alloys,  which  show  such  re- 
markably increased  tensile  strength  as 
compared  with  good  commercial  alumi- 
num, considerably  diminished  in  total  con- 
ductivity. On  the  other  hand,  the  man- 
ganese-copper aluminum  alloys  suffered 
comparatively  little  diminution  in  total 
conductivity,  and  one  of  them  retained 
comparatively  high  tensile  strength.  It 
was  thought  that  an  examination  of 
the  structure  of  these  alloys  by  aid  of 
microphotography  might  throw  some 
light  on  the  great  difference  which  exists 
between  some  of  their  physical  proper- 
ties. For  instance,  a  nickel-copper  alu- 
minum alloy  has  1.6  times  the  tensile 
strength  of  ordinary  commercial  alumi- 
num. Under  a  magnification  of  800 
diameters  practically  no  structure  could 
be  discovered.  Considering  the  re- 
markable crystalline  structure  exhibited 
by  ordinary  commercial  aluminum  near 
the  surface  of  an  ingot,  when  allowed  to 
solidify  at  an  ordinary  rate,  the  want  of 
structure  in  these  alloys  must  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  process  of  drawing  down. 
The  inference  is  that  the  great  differ- 
ence which  exists  between  their  tensile 
strengths  and  other  qualities  is  not  due 
to  variation  in  structure. 

Colored  Alloys  of  Aluminum. — A  pur- 
ple scintillating  composition  is  produced 


by  an  alloyage  of  78  parts  of  gold  and  22 
parts  aluminum,  \\ith  platinum  a  gold- 
colored  alloy  is  obtained;  with  palladium 
a  copper-colored  one;  and  with  cobalt 
and  nickel  one  of  a  yellow  color.  Easily 
fusible  metals  of  the  color  of  aluminum 
give  white  alloys.  Metal  difficult  of 
fusion,  such  as  iridium,  osmium,  tita- 
nium, etc.,  appear  in  abnormal  tones  of 
color  through  such  alloyages. 

Aluminum -Brass. — Aluminum,  1  per 
cent;  specific  gravity,  8.35 ;  tensile  strength, 
40.  Aluminum,  3  per  cent;  specific  grav- 
ity, 8.33;  tensile  strength,  65.  The  last 
named  is  harder  than  the  first. 

Aluminum-Copper. —  Minikin  is  prin- 
cipally aluminum  with  a  small  percent- 
age of  copper  and  nickel.  It  is  alloyed 
by  mixing  the  aluminum  and  copper, 
then  adding  the  nickel.  It  resembles 
palladium  and  is  very  strong. 

Aluminum  -  Silver. — I. —  Silver,  3  per 
cent;  aluminum,  97  per  cent.  A  hand- 
some color. 

II. — A  silver  aluminum  that  is  easily 
worked  into  various  articles  contains 
about  one-fourth  silver  and  three-fourths 
of  aluminum. 

Aluminum -Tin. — Bourbon  metal  is 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  aluminum 
and  tin;  it  solders  readily. 

Aluminum -Tungsten. — A  new  metal 
alloy  consisting  of  aluminum  and  tung- 
sten is  used  of  late  in  France  in  the  (4m- 
struction  of  conveyances,  especially  (Car- 
riages, bicycles,  and  motor  vehicles. 
The  French  call  it  partinium;  the  com- 
position of  the  new  alloy  varies  according 
to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  used.  It 
is  considerably  cheaper  than  aluminum, 
almost  as  light,  and  has  a  greater  resist- 
ance. The  strength  is  stated  at  32  to  37 
kilograms  per  square  millimeter. 

Aluminum-Zinc.  —  Zinc,  3  per  cent: 
aluminum,  97  per  cent.  Very  ductile, 
white,  and  harder  than  aluminum. 

AMALGAMS : 

See  Fusible  Alloys. 

Anti-Friction  Bearing  or  Babbitt  Met- 
als.— These  alloys  are  usually  supported  by 
bearings  of  brass,  into  which  it  is  poured 
after  they  have  been  tinned,  and  heated 
and  put  together  with  an  exact  model  of 
the  axle,  or  other  working  piece,  plastic 
clay  being  previously  applied,  in  the 
usual  manner,  as  a  lute  or  outer  mold. 
Soft  gun  metal  is  also  excellent,  and  is 
much  used  for  bearings.  They  all  be- 
come less  heated  in  working  than  the 


ALLOYS 


51 


harder  metals,  and  less  grease  or  oil  is  con- 
sequently  required  when  they  are  used. 

I. — An  anti-friction  metal  of  excellent 
quality  and  one  that  has  been  used  with 
success  is  made  as  follows  :  17  parts 
zinc;  1  part  copper;  li  parts  antimony; 
prepared  in  the  following  way:  Melt  the 
copper  in  a  small  crucible,  then  add  the 
antimony,  and  lastly  the  zinc,  care  being 
taken  not  to  burn  the  zinc.  Burning 
can  be  prevented  by  allowing  the  copper 
and  antimony  to  cool  slightly  before  add- 
ing the  zinc.  This  metal  is  preferably 
cast  into  the  shape  desired  and  is  not 
used  as  a  lining  metal  because  it  requires 
too  great  a  heat  to  pour.  It  machines 
nicely  and  takes  a  fine  polish  on  bearing 
surfaces.  It  has  the  appearance  of 
aluminum  when  finished.  Use  a  lubri- 
cating oil  made  from  any  good  grade  of 
machine  oil  to  which  3  parts  of  kerosene 
have  been  added. 

II. — Copper,  6  parts;  tin,  12  parts; 
lead,  150  parts;  antimony,  30  parts; 
wrought  iron,  1  part;  cast  iron,  1  part. 
For  certain  purposes  the  composition  is 
modified  as  follows:  Copper,  16  parts; 
tin,  40  parts;  lead,  120  parts;  antimony, 
24  parts;  wrought  iron,  1  part;  cast  iron, 
1  part.  In  both  cases  the  wrought  iron 
is  cut  up  in  small  pieces,  and  in  this  state 
it  will  melt  readily  in  fused  copper  and 
cast  iron.  After  the  mixture  has  been 
well  stirred,  the  tin,  lead,. and  antimony 
are  added;  these  are  previously  melted  in 
separate  crucibles,  and  when  mingled  the 
whole  mass  is  again  stirred  thoroughly. 
The  product  may  then  be  run  into  ingots, 
to  be  employed  when  needed.  When 
run  into  the  molds  the  surface  should  be 
well  skimmed,  for  in  this  state  it  oxidizes 
rapidly.  The  proportions  may  be  varied 
without  materially  affecting  the  results. 

III.— From  tin,  16  to  20  parts;  anti- 
mony, 2  parts;  lead,  1  part;  fused  to- 
gether, and  then  blended  with  copper, 
80  parts.  Used  where  there  is  much 
friction  or  high  velocity. 

IV. — Zinc,  6  parts;  tin,  1  part;  cop- 
per, 20  parts.  Used  when  the  metal  is 
exposed  to  violent  shocks. 

V. — Lead,  1  part;  tin,  2  parts;  zinc, 
4  parts;  copper,  68  parts.  Used  when 
the  metal  is  exposed  to  heat. 

VI. — Tin,  48  to  50  parts;  antimony,  5 
parts;  copper,  1  part. 

VII.— (Fenton's.)  Tin,  with  some 
zinc,  and  a  little  copper. 

VIII.  — (Ordinary.)  Tin,  or  hard 
pewter,  with  or  without  a  small  portion 
of  antimony  or  copper.  Without  the 
last  it  is  apt  to  spread  out  under  the 
weight  of  heavy  machinery.  Used  for 
the  bearings  of  locomotives,  etc. 


The  following  two  compositions  are 
for  motor  and  dynamo  shafts:  100 
pounds  tin;  10  pounds  copper;  10  pounds 
antimony. 

83A-  pounds  tin;  8-J  pounds  antimony; 
8J  pounds  copper. 

IX.— Lead,  75  parts;  antimony,  23 
parts;  tin,  2  parts. 

X. — Magnolia  Metal. — This  is  com- 
posad  of  40  parts  of  lead,  7*  parts  of 
antimony,  2i  of  tin,  J  of  bismuth,  J  of 
aluminum,  and  J  of  graphite.  It  is  used 
as  an  anti-friction  metal,  and  takes  its 
name  from  its  manufacturer's  mark, 
a  magnolia  flower. 

ARGENTAN : 

See  German  Silver,  under  this  title. 

BELL  METAL. 

The  composition  of  bell  metal  raries 
considerably,  as  may  be  seen  below: 

I. — (Standard.)  Copper,  78  parts; 
tin,  22  parts;  fused  together  and  cast. 
The  most  sonorous  of  all  the  alloys  of 
copper  and  tin.  It  is  easily  fusible,  and 
has  a  fine  compact  grain,  and  a  vitreous 
conchoidal  and  yellowish-red  fracture. 
According  to  Klaproth,  the  finest-toned 
Indian  gongs  have  this  composition. 

II.  —  (Founder's  Standard.)  Copper, 
77  parts;  tin,  21  parts;  antimony,  2  parts. 
Slightly  paler  and  inferior  to  No.  I. 

III. — Copper,  80  parts;  tin,  20  parts. 
Very  deep-toned  and  sonorous.  Used 
in  China  and  India  for  the  larger  gongs, 
tam-tams, 'etc. 

IV.— Copper,  78  to  80  parts;  tin,  22  to 
20  parts.  Usual  composition  of  Chinese 
cymbals,  tam-tams,  etc. 

V.— Copper,  75  (=  3)  parts;  tin,  25 
(=1)  part.  Somewhat  brittle.  In  frac- 
ture, semivitreous  and  bluish-red.  Used 
for  church  and  other  large  bells. 

VI.— Copper,  80  parts;  tin,  10|  parts; 
zinc,  5 1  parts;  lead,  4J  parts.  English 
bell  metal,  according  to  Thomson.  In- 
ferior to  the  last;  the  lead  being  apt  to 
form  isolated  drops,  to  the  injury  of  the 
uniformity  of  the  alloy. 

VIL— Copper,  68  parts;  tin,  32  parts. 
Brittle;  fracture  conchoidal  and  ash- 

gray.  Best  proportions  for  house  bells, 
and  bells,  etc.;  for  which,  however,  2 
of  copper  and  1  of  tin  is  commonly 
substituted  by  the  founders. 

VIII.— Copper,  72  parts;  tin,  26*  parts; 
iron,  1 A  parts.  Used  by  the  Paris  houses 
for  the  bells  of  small  clocks. 

IX. — Copper,  72  parts;  tin,  26  parts; 
zinc,  2  parts.  Used,  like  the  last,  for 
very  small  bells. 

X.— Copper,  70  parts;  tin,  26  parts; 


ALLOYS 


zinc,  2  parts.  Used  for  the  bells  of  repeat- 
ing watches. 

XI. — Melt  together  copper,  100  parts; 
tin,  25  parts.  After  being  cast  into  the 
required  object,  it  should  be  made  red- 
hot,  and  then  plunged  immediately  into 
cold  water  in  order  to  impart  to  it  the 
requisite  degree  of  sonorousness.  For 
cymbals  and  gongs. 

XII. — Melt  together  copper,  80  parts; 
tin,  20  parts.  When  cold  it  has  to  be 
hammered  out  with  frequent  annealing. 

XIII. — Copper,  78  parts;  tin,  22  parts; 
This  is  superior  to  the  former,  and  it  can 
be  rolled  out.  For  tam-tams  and  gongs. 

XIV.— Melt  together  copper,  72  parts; 
tin,  26  to  56  parts;  iron  -fy  part.  Used 
in  making  the  bells  of  ornamental  French 
clocks. 

Castings  in  bell  metal  are  all  more  or 
less  brittle;  and,  when  recent,  have  a 
color  varying  from  a  dark  ash-gray  to 
grayish-white,  which  is  darkest  in  the 
more  cuprous  varieties,  in  which  it 
turns  somewhat  on  the  yellowish-red  or 
bluish-red.  The  larger  the  proportion 
of  copper  in  the  alloy,  the  deeper  and 
graver  the  tone  of  the  bells  formed  of 
it.  The  addition  of  tin,  iron,  or  zinc, 
causes  them  to  give  out  their  tones  sharp- 
er. Bismuth  and  lead  are  also  often 
used  to  modify  the  tone,  which  each 
metal  affects  differently.  The  addition 
of  antimony  and  bismuth  is  frequently 
made  by  the  founder  to  give  a  more  crys- 
talline grain  to  the  alloy.  All  these 
conditions  are,  however,  prejudicial  to 
the  sonorousness  of  bells,  and  of  very 
doubtful  utility.  Rapid  refrigeration 
increases  the  sonorousness  of  all  these 
alloys.  Hence  M.  D'Arcet  recommends 
that  the  "pieces"  be  heated  to  a  cherry- 
red  after  they  are  cast,  and  after  having 
been  suddenly  plunged  into  cold  water, 
that  they  be  submitted  to  well-regulated 
pressure  by  skillful  hammering,  until  they 
assume  their  proper  form ;  after  which  they 
are  to  be  again  heated  and  allowed  to  cool 
slowly  in  the  air.  This  is  the  method 
adopted  by  the  Chinese  with  their  gongs, 
etc.,  a  casing  of  sheet  iron  being  em- 
ployed by  them  to  support  and  protect 
the  pieces  during  the  exposure  to  heat. 
In  a  general  way,  however,  bells  are 
formed  and  completed  by  simple  casting. 
This  is  necessarily  the  case  with  all  very 
large  bells.  Where  the  quality  of  their 
tones  is  the  chief  object  sought  after,  the 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  use  com- 
mercially pure  copper.  The  presence 
of  a  very  little  lead  or  any  similar  metal 
greatly  lessens  the  sonorousness  of  this 
alloy;  while  that  of  silver  increases  it. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  large  bell  is 


seldom  uniform  through  its  whole  sub- 
stance; nor  can  the  specific  gravity  from 
any  given  portion  of  its  constituent  met- 
als be  exactly  calculated  owing  to  the 
many  interfering  circumstances.  The 
nearer  this  uniformity  is  approached,  or, 
in  other  words,  chemical  combination  is 
complete,  the  more  durable  and  finer- 
toned  will  be  the  bell.  In  general,  it  is 
found  necessary  to  take  about  one-tenth 
more  metal  than  the  weight  of  the  in- 
tended bell,  or  bells,  in  order  to  allow  for 
waste  and  scorification  during  the  opera- 
tions of  fusing  and  casting. 

BISMUTH  ALLOYS. 

Bismuth  possesses  the  unusual  quality 
of  expanding  in  cooling.  It  is,  there- 
fore, introduced  in  many  alloys  to  reduce 
or  check  shrinkage  in  the  mold. 

For  delicate  castings,  and  for  taking 
impressions  from  dies,  medals,  etc.,  va- 
rious bismuth  alloys  are  in  use,  whose 
composition  corresponds  to  the  follow- 
ing figures: 

I      II     III    IV 

Bismuth 6       5        2        8 

Tin 3        2        1        3 

Lead 13       3       1       5 

V.— Cliche  Metal.— This  alloy  is  com- 
posed of  tin,  48  parts;  lead,  32.5;  bis- 
muth, 9;  and  antimony,  10.5.  It  is  es- 
pecially well  adapted  to  dabbing  rollers 
for  printing  cotton  goods,  and  as  it  pos- 
sesses a  considerable  degree  of  hardness, 
it  wears  well. 

VI. — For  filling  out  defective  places  in 
metallic  castings,  an  alloy  of  bismuth  1 
part,  antimony  3,  lead  8,  can  be  ad- 
vantageously used. 

VII.— For  Cementing  Glass.— Most 
of  the  cements  in  ordinary  use  are  dis- 
solved, or  at  least  softened,  by  petro- 
leum. An  alloy  of  lead  3  parts,  tin  2, 
bismuth  2.5,  melting  at  212°  F.,  is  not 
affected  by  petroleum,  and  is  therefore 
very  useful  for  cementing  lamps  made  of 
metal  and  glass  combined. 

LIPOWITZ'S  BISMUTH  ALLOY : 
See  Cadmium  Alloys. 

BRASS. 

In  general  brass  is  composed  of  two- 
thirds  copper  and  one-third  zinc,  but  a 
little  lead  or  tin  is  sometimes  advanta- 
geous, as  the  following: 

I. — Red  copper,  66  parts;  zinc,  34 
parts;  lead,  1  part. 

II. — Copper,  66  parts;  zinc,  32  parts; 
tin,  1  part;  lead,  1  part. 

III.— Copper,  64.5  parts;  zinc,  33.5 
parts;  lead,  1.5  parts;  tin,  0.5  part. 

Brass -Aluminum. — A  small  addition  of 
aluminum  to  brass  (1.5  to  8  per  cent)  great- 


ALLOYS 


53 


ly  increases  its  hardness  and  elasticity, 
and  this  alloy  is  also  easily  worked  for  any 
purpose.  Brass  containing  8  per  cent  of 
aluminum  has  the  valuable  property  of 
being  but  slightly  affected  by  acids  or  gases. 
A  larger  percentage  of  aluminum  makes 
the  brass  brittle.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
aluminum  brass  decreases  very  materi- 
ally in  volume  in  casting,  and  the  casts 
must  be  copied  slowly  or  they  will  be 
brittle.  It  is  an  alloy  easily  made,  and 
its  low  price,  combined  with  its  excellent 
qualities,  would  seem  to  make  it  in  many 
cases  an  advantageous  substitute  for  the 
expensive  phosphorous  bronze. 

Bristol  Brass  (Prince's  Metal).— This 
alloy,  which  possesses  properties  similar 
to  those  of  French  brass,  is  prepared  in 
the  following  proportions: 

I  II         III 

Copper 75.7     67.2     60.8 

Zinc 24.3     32.8     39.2 

Particular  care  is  required  to  prevent 
the  zinc  from  evaporating  during  the  fus- 
ing, and  for  this  purpose  it  is  customary 
to  put  only  half  of  it  into  the  first  melting, 
and  to  add  the  remainder  when  the  first 
mass  is  liquefied. 

Brass -Iron  (Aich's  Metal).— This  is 
a  variety  of  brass  with  an  admixture  of 
iron,  which  gives  it  a  considerable  degree 
of  tenacity.  It  is  especially  adapted  for 
purposes  which  require  a  hard  and,  at 
the  same  time,  tenacious  metal.  Analyses 
of  the  various  kinds  of  this  metal  show 
considerable  variation  in  the  proportions. 
Even  the  amount  of  iron,  to  which  the 
hardening  effect  must  be  attributed,  may 
vary  within  wide  limits  without  materi- 
ally modifying  the  tenacity  which  is  the 
essential  characteristic  of  this  alloy. 

I. — The  best  variety  of  Aich's  metal 
consists  of  copper,  60  parts;  zinc,  38.2; 
iron,  1.8.  The  predominating  quality  of 
this  alloy  is  its  hardness,  which  is  claimed 
to  be  not  inferior  to  that  of  certain  kinds 
of  steel.  It  has  a  beautiful  golden-yellow 
color,  and  is  said  not  to  oxidize  easily,  a 
valuable  property  for  articles  exposed  to 
the  action  of  air  and  water. 

II. — Copper,  60.2  parts;  zinc,  38.2; 
iron,  1.6.  The  permissible  variations 
in  the  content  of  iron  are  from  0.4  to  3 
per  cent. 

Sterro  metal  may  properly  be  consid- 
ered in  connection  with  Aich's  metal, 
since  its  constituents  are  the  same  and 
its  properties  very  similar.  The  principal 
difference  between  the  two  metals  is 
that  sterro  metal  contains  a  much  larger 
amount  of  iron.  The  composition  of 
this  alloy  varies  considerably  with  dif- 
ferent manufacturers. 


III. — Two  varieties  of  excellent  qual- 
ity are  the  product  of  the  Rosthorn  fac- 
tory, in  Lower  Austria — copper,  55.33 
parts;  zinc,  41.80;  iron,  4.66.  Also 

IV. — English  sterro  metal  (Gedge's 
alloy  for  ship  sheathing),  copper,  60 
parts;  zinc,  38.125;  iron,  1.5. 

The  great  value  of  this  alloy  lies  in  its 
strength,  which  is  equaled  only  by  that 
of  the  best  steel.  As  an  illustration  of 
this,  a  wrought-iron  pipe  broke  with  a 
pressure  of  267  atmospheres,  while  a 
similar  pipe  of  sterro  metal  withstood  the 
enormous  pressure  of  763  atmospheres 
without  cracking.  Besides  its  remark- 
able strength,  it  possesses  a  high  degree 
of  elasticity,  and  is,  therefore,  particular- 
ly suitable  for  purposes  which  require 
the  combination  of  these  two  qualities, 
such  as  the  construction  of  hydraulic 
cylinders.  It  is  well  known  that  these 
cylinders,  at  a  certain  pressure,  begin  to 
sweat,  that  is,  the  interior  pressure  is  so 
great  that  the  water  permeates  through 
the  pores  of  the  steel.  With  a  sterro 
metal  cylinder,  the  pressure  can  be  con- 
siderably increased  without  any  mois- 
ture being  perceptible  on  the  outside  of 
the  cylinder. 

Sterro  metal  can  be  made  even  more 
hard  and  dense,  if  required  for  special 
purposes,  but  this  is  effected  rather  by 
mechanical  manipulation  than  by  any 
change  in  the  chemical  composition.  If 
rolled  or  hammered  in  heat,  its  strength 
is  increased,  and  it  acquires,  in  addition, 
an  exceedingly  high  degree  of  tenacity. 
Special  care  must  be  taken,  however,  in 
hammering  not  to  overheat  the  metal, 
as  in  this  case  it  would  become  brittle  and 
might  crack  under  the  hammer.  Sterro 
metal  is  especially  suitable  for  all  the 
purposes  for  which  the  so-called  red 
metal  has  been  in  the  past  almost  ex- 
clusively used.  Axle  bearings,  for  ex- 
ample, made  of  sterro  metal  have  such 
excellent  qualities  that  many  machine 
factories  are  now  using  this  material 
entirely  for  the  purpose. 

Cast  Brass. — The  various  articles  of 
bronze,  so  called,  statuettes,  clock  cases, 
etc.,  made  in  France,  where  this  industry 
has  attained  great  perfection  and  exten- 
sive proportions,  are  not,  in  many  cases^ 
genuine  bronze,  but  fine  cast  brass.  Fol- 
lowing are  the  compositions  of  a  few 
mixtures  of  metals  most  frequently  used 
by  French  manufacturers: 

Copper  Zinc  Tin  Lead 

1 63.70  33.55  2.50  0.25 

II 64.45  32.44  0.25  2.86 

HI 70.90  24.05  2.00  3.05 

IV..           .    72.43  22.75  1.87  2.95 


ALLOYS 


Their  special  advantage  is  that  they 
can  be  readily  cast,  worked  with  file  and 
chisel,  and  easily  gilded. 

To  Cast  Yellow  Brass. — If  good,  clean, 
yellow  brass  sand  castings  are  desired, 
the  brass  should  not  contain  over  30  per 
cent  of  zinc.  This  will  assure  an  alloy  of 
good  color  and  one  which  will  run  free 
and  clean.  Tin  or  lead  may  be  added 
without  affecting  the  property  of  casting 
clean.  A  mixture  of  7  pounds  of  copper, 
3  pounds  of  spelter,  4  ounces  of  tin,  and 
3  ounces  of  lead  makes  a  good  casting 
alloy  and  one  which  will  cut  free  and  is 
strong.  If  a  stronger  alloy  be  desired, 
more  tin  may  be  added,  but  4  ounces  is 
usually  sufficient.  If  the  alloy  be  too 
hard,  reduce  the  proportion  of  tin. 

Leaf  Brass. — This  alloy  is  also  called 
Dutch  gold,  or  imitation  gold  leaf.  It 
is  made  of  copper,  77.75  to  84.5  parts; 
zinc-,  15.5  to  22.25.  Its  color  is  pale  or 
bright  yellow  or  greenish,  according  to 
the  proportions  of  the  metals.  It  has  an 
unusual  degree  of  ductility. 

Malleable  Brass.— This  metal  is  af- 
fected less  by  sea  water  than  pure  copper, 
and  was  formerly  much  used  for  ship 
sheathing,  and  for  making  nails  and 
rivets  which  were  to  come  in  contact  with 
sea  water.  At  the  present  day  it  has 
lost  much  of  its  importance,  since  all  the 
larger  ships  are  made  of  steel.  It  is 
usually  composed  of  copper,  60  to  62 
parts;  and  zinc,  40  to  38  parts.  It  is 
sometimes  called  yellow  metal,  or  Miintz 
metal  (called  after  its  inventor),  and  is 
prepared  with  certain  precautions,  di- 
rected toward  obtaining  as  fine  a  grain 
as  possible,  experience  having  shown 
that  only  a  fine-grained  alloy  of  uniform 
density  can  resist  the  action  of  the  sea 
water  evenly.  A  metal  of  uneven  den- 
sity will  wear  in  holes.  To  obtain  as 
uniform  a  grain  as  possible,  small  sam- 
ples taken  from  the  fused  mass  are  cooled 
quickly  and  examined  as  to  fracture.  If 
tney  do  not  show  the  desired  uniform 
grain,  some  zinc  is  added  to  the  mass. 
After  it  has  permeated  the  whole  mass, 
a  fresh  sample  is  taken  and  tested,  this 
being  continued  until  the  desired  result 
is  reached.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
remark  that  considerable  experience  is 
required  to  tell  the  correct  composition 
of  the  alloy  from  the  fracture.  The  mass 
is  finally  poured  into  molds  and  rolled 
cold.  Malleable  brass  can  be  worked 
warm,  like  iron,  being  ductile  in  heat,  a 
valuable  quality. 

Experiments  with  malleable  brass 
show  that  all  alloys  containing  up  to 
58.33  per  cent  of  copper  and  up  to  41.67 


per  cent  of  zinc  are  malleable.  There  is, 
in  addition,  a  second  group  of  such  al- 
loys, with  61.54  per  cent  of  copper  and 
38.46  per  cent  of  zinc,  which  are  also 
malleable  in  heat. 

The  preparation  of  these  alloys  re- 
quires considerable  experience,  and  is 
best  accomplished  by  melting  the  metals 
together  in  the  usual  manner,  and  heating 
the  fused  mass  as  strongly  as  possible. 
It  must  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  char- 
coal dust  to  prevent  oxidation  of  the  zinc. 
The  mass  becomes  thinly  fluid,  and  an 
intimate  mixture  of  the  constituents  is 
effected.  Small  pieces  of  the  same  alloy 
are  thrown  into  the  liquid  mass  until  it 
no  longer  shows  a  reflecting  surface, 
when  it  is  cast  into  ingots  in  iron  molds. 
The  ingots  are  plunged  into  water  while 
still  red-hot,  and  acquire  by  this  treat- 
ment a  very  high  degree  of  ductility.  The 
alloy,  properly  prepared,  has  a  fibrous 
fracture  and  a  reddish-yellow  color. 

Sheet  Brass  (For  Sheet  and  Wire).— 
In  the  preparation  of  brass  for  the  manu- 
facture of  wire,  an  especially  pure  qual- 
ity of  copper  must  be  used;  without  this, 
all  efforts  to  produce  a  suitable  quality  of 
brass  will  be  in  vain.  That  pure  copper 
is  indispensable  to  the  manufacture  of 
good,  ductile  brass  may  be  seen  from  the 
great  difference  in  the  composition  of  the 
various  kinds,  all  of  which  answer  their 
purpose,  but  contain  widely  varying 
quantities  of  copper  and  zinc.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  composition  of 
some  excellent  qualities  of  brass  suitable 
for  making  sheet  and  wire: 


Brass  Sheet  —  Source 

Cop- 
per 

Zinc 

Lead 

Tin 

Jemappes  
Stolberg  

64.6 
64.8 
70.1 
68.1 
71.5 
71.1 
70.1 
72.73 
63.66 
70.16 
68.98 

33.7 
32.8 
29.26 
31.9 

28.5 
27.6 
29.9 
27.27 
33.02 
27.45 
29.54 

1.4 
2.0 
0.38 

0.2 
0.4 
0.17 

Romilly  
Rosthorn  (Vienna). 
Rosthorn  (Vienna). 
Rosthorn  (Vienna). 
Iserlohn  &  Romilly 
Liidenscheid  
(Brittle)  
Heeermiihl.  . 

1.3 

2.52 
0.79 
0.97 

0.20 

Oker 

Brass  Wire  — 
England       

70.29 
71.89 
70.16 
71.36 

29.26 
27.63 
27.45 
28.15 

0.28 
0.85 
0.2 

0.17 
6.79 

Augsburg  
Neustadt  

Neustadt 

Neustadt 

71.5 

28.5 

Neustadt 

71.0 

27.6 

(Good  quality)  .... 
(Brittle)  
For  wire  and  sheet. 

65.4 
65.5 
67.0 

34.6 
32.4 
32.0 

2.1 
0.5 

0.5 

ALLOYS 


55 


As  the  above  figures  show,  the  per- 
centage of  zinc  in  the  different  kinds  of 
brass  lies  between  27  and  34.  Recently, 
alloys  containing  a  somewhat  larger 
quantity  of  zinc  have  been  used,  it  hav- 
ing been  found  that  the  toughness  and 
ductility  of  the  brass  are  increased  there- 
by, without  injury  to  its  tenacity.  Al- 
loys containing  up  to  37  per  cent  of  zinc 
possess  a  high  degree  of  ductility  in  the 
cold,  and  are  well  adapted  for  wire  and 
sheet. 

Gilders'  Sheet  Brass. — Copper,  1  part; 
zinc,  1  part;  tin,  A  part;  lead,  -fa  part. 
Very  readily  fusible  and  very  dense. 

White  Brass. — Birmingham  platina  is 
an  alloy  of  a  pure  white,  almost  silver- 
white  color,  remaining  unaffected  by 
tolerably  long  exposure  to  the  atmos- 
phere. Unfortunately  this  alloy  is  so 
brittle  that  it  can  rarely  be  shaped  ex- 
cept by  casting.  It  is  used  only  in  the 
manufacture  of  buttons.  The  alloy  is 
poured  into  molds  giving  rather  sharp 
impressions  and  allowing  the  design  on 
the  button  (letters  or  coat  of  arms)  to 
stand  out  prominently  with  careful 
stamping.  The  composition  of  this 
alloy,  also  known  by  the  name  of  plati- 
num lead,  is  as  follows: 

I  II 

Copper 46.5        4 

Zinc 53.5      16 

III. — Zinc,  80  parts;  copper,  10  parts; 
iron,  10  parts. 

BRITANNIA  METAL. 

Britannia  metal  is  an  alloy  consisting 
principally  of  tin  and  antimony.  Many 
varieties  contain  only  these  two  metals, 
and  may  be  considered  simply  as  tin 
hardened  with  antimony,  while  others 
contain,  in  addition,  certain  quantities  of 
copper,  sometimes  lead,  and  occasion- 
ally, though  rarely  on  account  of  its  cost, 
bismuth.  Britannia  metal  is  always  of  a 
silvery-white  color,  with  a  bluish  tinge, 
and  its  hardness  makes  it  capable  of 
taking  a  high  polish,  which  is  not  lost 
through  exposure  to  the  air.  Ninety  per 
cent  of  tin  and  10  per  cent  of  antimony 
gives  a  composition  which  is  the  best  for 
many  purposes,  especially  for  casting,  as 
it  fills  out  the  molds  well,  and  is  readily 
fusible.  In  some  cases,  where  articles 
made  from  it  are  to  be  subjected  to  con- 
stant wear,  a  harder  alloy  is  required. 
In  the  proportions  given  above,  the  metal 
is  indeed  much  harder  than  tin,  but 
would  still  soon  give  way  under  usage. 

A  table  is  appended,  giving  the  com- 
position of  some  of  the  varieties  of  Bri- 
tannia metal  and  their  special  names. 


Tin 

Anti- 
mony 

Cop- 
per 

Zinc 

Lead 

English  

81.90 

16.25 

1.84 

English  

90.62 

7.81 

1.46 

English  

90.1 

6.3 

3.1 

6.5 

.... 

English  

85.4 

9.660.81 

3.06 

Pewter  

81.2 

5.7 

1.60 

11.5 

Pewter  

89.3 

7.6 

1.8 

1.8 

Tutania  

91.4 

0.7 

6.3 

7.6 

Queen's  metal 

88.5 

7.1 

3.5 

0.9 

German  

72.0 

24.0 

4.0 

German  

84.0 

9.0 

2.0 

5.6 

German   (for 

casting)  

20.0 

64.0 

10.0 

6.0 

Malleable  (for 

casting)  .... 

48.0 

3.0 

48.0 

1.0 

Britannia  metal  is  prepared  by  melting 
the  copper  alone  first,  then  adding  a 
part  of  the  tin  and  the  whole  of  the  an- 
timony. The  heat  can  then  be  quickly 
moderated,  as  the  melting  point  of  the 
new  alloy  is  much  lower  than  that  of 
copper.  Finally,  the  rest  of  the  tin  is 
added,  and  the  mixture  stirred  constantly 
for  some  time  to  make  it  thoroughly 
homogeneous. 

An  alloy  which  bears  a  resemblance 
to  Britannia  metal  is  Ashberry  metal, 
for  which  there  are  two  formulas. 


Copper 2 

Tin. 8 

Antimony 14 

Zinc 1 

Nickel 2 


II 

3 

79 
15 

2 
1 


BRONZES. 

The  composition  of  bronze  must  be 
effected  immediately  before  the  casting, 
for  bronze  cannot  be  kept  in  store  ready 

Erepared.  In  forming  the  alloy,  the  re- 
-actory  compound,  copper,  is  first  melted 
separately,  the  other  metals,  tin,  zinc, 
etc.,  previously  heated,  being  then 
added;  the  whole  is  then  stirred  and  the 
casting  carried  out  without  loss  of  time. 
The  process  of  forming  the  alloy  must  be 
effected  quickly,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
loss  of  zinc,  tin,  or  lead  through  oxida- 
tion, and  also  no  interruption  to  the 
flow  of  metal,  as  metal  added  after  an 
interval  of  time  will  not  combine  per- 
fectly with  the  metal  already  poured  in. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  to  ascertain 
the  specific  weights  of  the  metals,  for 
the  heavier  metal  will  naturally  tend  to 
sink  to  the  bottom  and  the  lighter  to 
collect  at  the  top.  Only  in  this  way, 
and  by  vigorous  stirring,  can  the  com- 
plete blending  of  the  two  metals  be 
secured.  In  adding  the  zinc,  great  care 


56 


ALLOYS 


must  be  taken  that  the  latter  sinks  at 
once  to  the  level  of  the  copper,  otherwise 
a  considerable  portion  will  be  volatilized 
before  reaching  the  copper.  When  the 
castings  are  made,  they  must  be  cooled 
as  quickly  as  possible,  for  the  compo- 
nents of  bronze  have  a  tendency  to  form 
separate  alloys  of  various  composition, 
thus  producing  the  so-called  tin  spots. 
This  is  much  more  likely  to  occur  with  a 
slow  than  with  a  sudden  cooling  of  the 
mass. 

Annealing  Bronze. — This  process  is 
more  particularly  employed  in  the  prep- 
aration of  alloys  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  cymbals,  gongs,  bells,  etc.  The  alloy 
is  naturally  brittle,  and  acquires  the 
properties  essential  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  intended  only  after  casting. 
The  instruments  are  plunged  into  cold 
water  while  red-hot,  hammered,  re- 
heated, and  slowly  cooled,  when  they 
become  soft  and  sonorous.  The  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin  has  the  peculiar  prop- 
erty that,  whereas  steel  becomes  hard 
through  cooling,  this  mixture,  when 
cooled  suddenly,  becomes  noticeably  soft 
and  more  malleable.  The  alloy  is 
heated  to  a  dark-red  heat,  or,  in  the  case 
of  thin  articles,  to  the  melting  point  of 
lead,  and  then  plunged  in  cold  water. 
The  alloy  may  be  hammered  without 
splitting  or  breaking. 

Aluminum  Bronze. — This  is  prepared 
by  melting  the  finest  copper  in  a  cruci- 
ble, and  adding  the  aluminum.  The 
copper  is  cooled  thereby  to  the  thickly 
fluid  point,  but  at  the  moment  of  the 
combination  of  the  two  metals,  so  much 
heat  is  released  that  the  alloy  becomes 
white  hot  and  thinly  fluid.  Aluminum 
bronze  thus  prepared  is  usually  brittle, 
and  acquires  its  best  qualities  only  after 
having  been  remelted  several  times.  It 
may  be  remarked  that,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  bronze  of  the  best  quality,  only  the  very 
purest  copper  must  be  used;  with  an  infe- 
rior quality  of  copper,  all  labor  is  wasted. 
Aluminum  bronze  is  not  affected  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air;  and  its  beautiful  color 
makes  it  very  suitable  for  manufactur- 
ing various  ornamental  articles,  includ- 
ing clock  cases,  door  knobs,  etc. 

Aluminum  bronze  wire  is  almost  as 
strong  as  good  steel  wire,  and  castings 
made  from  it  are  almost  as  hard  as  steely 
iron;  its  resistance  to  bending  or  sag- 
ging is  great. 

I. — A  good  formula  is  90  to  95  per  cent 
of  aluminum  and  5  to  10  per  cent  of  cop- 
per, of  golden  color,  which  keeps  well  in 
the  air,  without  soon  becoming  dull  and 
changing  color  like  pure  copper  and  its 


alloys  with  tin  and  zinc  (bronze,  brass, 
etc.).  It  can  be  cast  excellently,  can  be 
filed  well  and  turned,  possesses  an  ex- 
traordinary hardness  and  firmness,  and 
attains  a  high  degree  of  polish;  it  is 
malleable  and  forgeable.  On  the  latter 
quality  are  founded  applications  which 
were  formerly  never  thought  of,  viz.: 
forged  works  of  art  for  decorative  pur- 
poses. An  alloy  of  95  parts  aluminum 
and  5  parts  copper  is  used  here.  The 
technical  working  of  bronze  is  not  mate- 
rially different  from  that  of  iron.  The 
metal,  especially  in  a  hot  condition,  is 
worked  like  iron  on  the  anvil,  with  ham- 
mer and  chisel,  only  that  the  tempera- 
ture to  be  maintained  in  forging  lies 
between  dark  and  light  cherry  red.  If 
the  articles  are  not  forged  in  one  piece 
and  the  putting  together  of  the  separate 
parts  becomes  necessary,  riveting  or 
soldering  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Besides 
forging,  aluminum  bronze  is  well  suited 
for  embossing,  which  is  not  surprising  con- 
sidering the  high  percentage  of  copper. 
After  finishing  the  pieces,  the  metal  can 
be  toned  in  manifold  ways  by  treatment 
with  acid. 

II. — Copper,  89  to  98  per  cent;  alu- 
minum and  nickel,  1  to  2  per  cent.  Alu- 
minum and  nickel  change  in  the  opposite 
way,  that  is  to  say,  in  increasing  the  per- 
centage of  nickel  the  amount  of  alu- 
minum is  decreased  by  the  equal  quan- 
tity. It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
best  ratio  is  aluminum,  9.5  per  cent; 
nickel,  1  to  1.5  per  cent  at  most.  In 
preparing  the  alloy  a  deoxidizing  agent 
is  added,  viz.,  phosphorus  to  0.5  per 
cent;  magnesium  to  1.5  per  cent.  The 
phosphorus  should  always  be  added  in 
the  form  of  phosphorous  copper  or  phos- 
phor aluminum  of  exactly  determined 
percentage.  It  is  first  added  to  the 
copper,  then  the  aluminum  and  the 
nickel,  and  finally  the  magnesium,  the 
last  named  at  the  moment  of  liquidity, 
are  admixed. 

III. — A  gold  bronze,  containing  3  to 
5  per  cent  aluminum;  specific  gravity. 
8.37  to  8.15.  Handsome  golden  color. 
This  alloy  oxidizes  less  on  heating  than 
copper  and  iron,  and  is  therefore  espe- 
cially adapted  for  locomotive  fireboxes 
and  spindles,  etc. 

IV. — A  steel  bronze  containing  on  an 
average  8.5  per  cent  aluminum  (includ- 
ing 1  per  cent  silicium);  specific  gravity, 
7.7.  Very  ductile  and  tough,  but  slightly 
elastic;  hence  its  use  is  excluded  where, 
with  large  demands  upon  tension  and 
pressure,  no  permanent  change  of  form 
must  ensue.  This  is  changed  by  work- 
ing, such  as  rolling,  drawing,  etc.  Es- 


ALLOYS 


57 


pecially  useful  where  infrangibility  is  de- 
sired, as  in  machinery,  ordnance,  etc. 
At  high  temperature  this  bronze  loses  its 
elasticity  again. 

V. — This  contains  8.5  per  cent  alu- 
minum and  1 A  to  2  per  cent  silicium.  Its 
use  is  advisable  in  cases  where  the  metal 
is  to  possess  a  good  elasticity,  even  in 
the  cast  state,  and  to  retain  it  after 
being  worked  in  red  heat. 

VI. — An  acid  bronze,  containing  10 
per  cent  aluminum;  specific  gravity, 
7.65.  Especially  serviceable  to  resist 
oxidation  and  the  action  of  acids. 

VII. — Diamond     bronze,     containing 

10  per  cent  aluminum  and  2  per  cent 
silicium.      Specific    gravity,    7.3.      Very 
hard;  of  great  firmness,  but  brittle. 

Art  Bronzes.  (See  also  Aluminum 
Bronzes  and  Japanese  Bronzes  under 
this  title.) — I. — Copper,  84  parts;  zinc, 

11  parts;  tin,  5  parts. 

II. — Copper,  90  parts;  zinc,  6  parts; 
tin,  2  parts;  lead,  2  parts. 

III. — Copper,  65  parts;  zinc,  30  parts; 
tin,  5  parts. 

IV. — Copper,  90  parts;  tin,  5  parts;  zinc, 
4  parts;  lead,  1  part. 

V. — Copper,  85  parts;  zinc,  10  parts; 
tin,  3  parts;  lead,  2  parts. 

VI. — Copper,  72  parts;  zinc,  23  parts; 
tin,  3  parts;  lead,  2  parts. 

Statuary  Bronze. — Many  of  the  an- 
tique statues  were  made  of  genuine 
bronze,  which  has  advantages  for  this 
purpose,  but  has  been  superseded  in 
modern  times  by  mixtures  of  metals 
containing,  besides  copper  and  tin — the 
constituents  of  real  bronze — a  quantity 
of  zinc,  the  alloy  thus  formed  being 
really  an  intermediate  product  between 
bronze  and  brass.  The  reason  for  the 
use  of  such  mixtures  lies  partly  in  the 
comparative  cheapness  of  their  produc- 
tion as  compared  with  genuine  bronze, 
and  partly  in  the  purpose  for  which  the 
metal  is  to  be  used.  A  thoroughly  good 
statuary  bronze  must  become  thinly  fluid 
in  fusing,  fill  the  molds  out  sharply,  allow 
of  being  easily  worked  with  the  file,  and 
must  take  on  the  beautiful  green  coating 
called  patina,  after  being  exposed  to  the 
air  for  a  short  time. 

Genuine  bronze,  however  strongly 
heated,  does  not  become  thin  enough  to 
fill  out  the  molds  well,  and  it  is  also 
difficult  to  obtain  homogeneous  castings 
from  it.  Brass  alone  is  also  too  thickly 
fluid,  and  not  hard  enough  for  the  re- 
quired fine  chiseling  or  chasing  of  the 
finished  object.  Alloys  containing  zinc 
and  tin,  in  addition  to  copper,  can  be 
prepared  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will 


become  very  thinly  fluid,  and  will  give 
fine  castings  which  can  easily  be  worked 
with  the  file  and  chisel.  The  best  pro- 
portions seem  to  be  from  10  to  18  per 
cent  of  zinc  and  from  2  to  4  per  cent 
of  tin.  In  point  of  hardness,  statuary 
bronze  holds  an  intermediate  position 
between  genuine  bronze  and  brass, 
being  harder  and  tougher  than  the  latter, 
but  not  so  much  so  as  the  former. 

Since  statuary  bronze  is  used  prin- 
cipally for  artistic  purposes,  much  de- 
pends upon  the  color.  This  can  be  varied 
from  pale  yellow  to  orange  yellow  by 
slightly  varying  the  content  of  tin  or 
zinc,  which  must,  of  course,  still  be  kept 
between  the  limits  given  above.  Too 
much  tin  makes  the  alloy  brittle  and  dif- 
ficult to  chisel;  with  too  much  zinc,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  warm  tone  of  color  is 
lost,  and  the  bronze  does  not  acquire  a 
fine  patina. 

The  best  proportions  for  statuary 
bronze  are  very  definitely  known  at  the 
present  day;  yet  it  sometimes  happens 
that  large  castings  have  not  the  right 
character.  They  are  either  defective  in 
color,  or  they  dc  not  take  on  a  fine  patina, 
or  they  are  difficult  to  chisel.  These 
phenomena  may  be  due  to  the  use  of 
impure  metals — containing  oxides,  iron, 
lead,  etc. — or  to  improper  treatment  of 
the  alloy  in  melting.  With  the  most 
careful  work  possible,  there  is  a  consid- 
erable loss  in  melting — 3  per  cent  at  the 
very  least,  and. sometimes  as, much  as  10. 
This  is  due  to  the  large  proportion  of 
zinc,  and  it  is  evident  that,  in  conse- 
quence of  it,  the  nature  of  the  alloy  will 
be  different  from  what  might  be  expected 
from  the  quantities  of  metals  used  in  its 
manufacture. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  slight  vari- 
ations in  composition  quickly  change 
the  color  of  the  alloy.  The  following 
table  gives  a  series  of  alloys  of  different 
colors,  suitable  for  statuary  bronze: 


Cop- 
per 

Zinc 

Tin 

Color 

I.. 

84.42 

11.28 

4.30 

Reddish  yellow 

II... 

84.00 

11.00 

5.00 

Orange  red 

III... 

83.05 

13.03 

3.92 

Orange  red 

IV... 

83.00 

12.005.00 

Orange  red 

V... 

81.05 

15.32  3.63  Orange  yellow 

VI... 

81.00 

15.00 

4.00  Orange  yellow 

VII... 

78.09 

18.47 

3.44  Orange  yellow 

VIII... 

73.58 

23.273.15 

Orange  yellow 

IX...  73.00 

23.004.00 

Pale  orange 

X... 

70.36 

26.882.76 

Pale  yellow 

XI... 

70.00 

27.003.00 

Pale  yellow 

XII...  65.95 

31.56 

2.49 

Pale  yellow 

58 


ALLOYS 


Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  bronze 
metal  is  the  alloy  used  in  France  for  more 
than  a  century.  It  contains  91.60  per 
cent  of  copper,  5.33  per  cent  of  zinc,  1.70 
per  cent  of  tin,  and  1.37  per  cent  of  lead. 
Somewhat  more  zinc  is  taken  for  articles 
to  be  gilded. 

Bismuth  Bronze. — Copper,  52  parts; 
nickel,  30  parts;  zinc,  12  parts;  lead,  5 
parts;  bismuth,  1  part.  For  metallic 
mirrors,  lamp  reflectors,  etc. 

Gun  Bronze. — See  Phosphor  Bronze 
under  this  title. 

Japanese  Bronzes. — The  formulas  given 
below  contain  a  large  percentage  of  lead, 
which  greatly  improves  the  patina.  The  in- 
gredients and  the  ratio  of  their  parts  for  sev- 
eral sorts  of  modern  Japanese  bronze  follow: 

I.— Copper,  81.62  per  cent;  tin,  4.61 
per  cent;  lead,  10.21  per  cent. 

II.— Copper,  76.60  per  cent;  tin,  4.38 
per  cent;  lead,  11.88  per  cent;  zinc,  6.53 
per  cent. 

III.— Copper,  88.55  per  cent;  tin,  2.42 
per  cent;  lead,  4.72  per  cent;  zinc,  3.20 
per  cent. 

Sometimes  a  little  antimony  is  added 
just  before  casting,  and  such  a  composi- 
tion would  be  represented  more  nearly 
by  this  formula: 

IV.— Copper,  68.25  per  cent;  tin,  5.47 
per  cent;  zinc,  8.88  per  cent;  lead,  17.06 
per  cent;  antimony,  0.34  per  cent. 

For  imitation  Japanese  bronze,  see 
Plating  under  Bronzing. 

Machine  Bronze. — I. — Copper,  89  per 
cent;  tin,  11  per  cent. 

II. — Copper,  80  per  cent;  tin,  16  per 
cent. 

Phosphor  Bronze. — Phosphor  bronze 
is  bronze  containing  varying  amounts 
of  phosphorus,  from  a  few  hundredths 
of  1  per  cent  to  1  or  2  per  cent.  Bronze 
containing  simply  copper  and  tin  is  very 
liable  to  be  defective  from  the  presence 
of  oxygen,  sulphur,  or  occluded  gases. 
Oxvgen  causes  the  metal  to  be  spongy 
and  weak.  Sulphur  and  occluded  gases 
cause  porosity.  ^  Oxygen  gets "  into  the 
metal  by  absorption  from  the  air.  It  can 
be  eliminated  by  adding  to  the  metal 
something  which  combines  with  the  oxy- 
gen and  then  fluxes  off.  Such  deoxidizers 
are  zinc,  antimony,  aluminum,  man- 
ganese, silicon,  and  phosphorus.  Sul- 
phur and  occluded  gases  can  be  elimi- 
nated by  melting  the  metal,  exposing  it  to 
the  air,  and  letting  it  thus  absorb  some 
oxygen,  which  then  burns  the  sulphur 
and  gas.  The  oxygen  can  then  be  re- 
moved by  adding  one  of  the  above- 
mentioned  deoxidizers.  The  important 
use  of  phosphorus  in  bronze  is,  there- 


fore, to  remove  oxygen  and  also  indirect- 
ly to  destroy  occluded  gas  and  sulphur. 

A  bronze  is  sometimes  made  with  an 
extra  high  percentage  of  phosphorus, 
namely,  6  per  cent.  This  alloy  is  made 
so  as  to  have  phosphorus  in  convenient 
form  for  use,  and  the  process  of  manu- 
facture is  as  follows:  Ninety  pounds 
of  copper  are  melted  under  charcoal  in 
a  No.  70  crucible,  which  holds  about 
200  pounds  of  metal  when  full;  11 
pounds  of  tin  are  added  and  the  metal  is 
allowed  to  become  hot.  The  crucible  is 
then  removed  from  the  furnace  and  7 
pounds  of  phosphorus  are  introduced 
in  the  following  manner:  A  3-gallon 
stone  jar,  half  full  of  dilute  solution 
of  blue  vitriol,  is  weighed.  Then  the 
weights  are  increased  7  pounds,  and 
phosphorus  in  sticks  about  4  inches 
long  is  added  till  the  scales  balance 
again.  The  phosphorus  is  left  in  this 
solution  half  an  hour  or  longer,  the  phos- 
phorus being  given  a  coating  of  copper, 
so  that  it  may  be  dried  and  exposed  to 
the  air  without  igniting.  Have  ready 
a  pan  about  30  inches  square  and  6 
inches  deep,  containing  about  2  inches  of 
water.  Over  the  water  is  a  wire  netting, 
which  is  laid  loose  on  ledges  or  supports 
along  the  inner  sides  of  the  pan.  On  the 
netting  is  blotting  paper,  and  on  this  the 
phosphorus  is  laid  to  dry  when  taken 
out  of  the  blue-vitriol  solution..  The  pan 
also  has  a  lid  which  can  be  put  down  in 
case  of  ignition  of  the  phosphorus. 

The  phosphorus  is  now  ready  for 
introduction  into  the  metal.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  a  cup-shaped  instru- 
ment called  a  retort  or  phosphorizer. 
One  man  holds  the  retort  on  the  rim  of 
the  crucible  in  a  horizontal  position.  A 
second  man  takes  about  three  pieces  of 
phosphorus  and  throws  them  into  the 
retort.  The  first  man  then  immediately 
plunges  the  mouth  of  the  retort  below 
the  surface  of  the  metal  before  the  phos- 
phorus has  a  chance  to  fall  or  flow  out. 
Of  course  the  phosphorus  immediately 
melts  and  also  Tbegins  to  volatilize.  As 
the  phosphorus  comes  in  contact  with 
the  metal,  it  combines  with  it.  This 
process  is  continued  till  all  the  7  pounds 
of  phosphorus  has  been  put  into  the  metal. 
The  metal  is  then  poured  into  slabs  about 
3  inches  by  4  inches  by  1  inch  thick.  The 
metal  is  so  hard  that  a  greater  thickness 
would  make  it  difficult  to  break  it  up. 
When  finished,  the  metal  contains,  by 
analysis,  6  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  When 
phosphorus  is  to  be  added  to  metal,  a 
little  of  this  hardener  is  employed.  ^ 

Copper  is  a  soft,  ductile  metal,  with  its 
melting  point  at  about  2,000°  F.  Mol- 


ALLOYS 


ten  copper  has  the  marked  property  of 
absorbing  various  gases.  Jt  is  for  this 
reason  that  it  is  so  difficult  to  make  sound 
castings  of  clear  copper.  Molten  copper 
combines  readily  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air,  forming  oxide  of  copper,  which  dis- 
solves in  the  copper  and  mixes  homo- 
geneously with  it. 

A  casting  made  from  such  metal  would 
be  very  spongy.  The  bad  effect  of  oxy- 
gen is  intended  to  be  overcome  by  adding 
zinc  to  the  extent  of  1  per  cent  or  more. 
This  result  can  be  much  more  effectively 
attained  by  the  use  of  aluminum,  man- 
ganese, or  phosphorus.  The  action  of 
these  substances  is  to  combine  with  the 
oxygen,  and  as  the  product  formed  sepa- 
rates and  goes  to  the  surface,  the  metal 
is  left  in  a  sound  condition.  Aluminum 
and  manganese  deoxidize  copper  and 
bronze  very  effectively,  and  the  oxide 
formed  goes  to  the  surface  as  a  scum. 
When  a  casting  is  made  from  such  metal, 
the  oxide  or  scum,  instead  of  freeing  it- 
self from  the  casting  perfectly,  generally 
remains  in  the  top  part  of  the  casting 
mixed  with  the  metal,  as  a  fractured 
surface  will  show.  Phosphorus  deox- 
idizes copper,  and  the  oxide  formed 
leaves  the  metal  in  the  form  of  a  gas,  so 
that  a  casting  made  from  such  metal 
shows  a  clean  fracture  throughout,  al- 
though the  metal  is  not  so  dense  as  when 
aluminum  or  manganese  is  used. 

Copper  also  has  the  property  of  ab- 
sorbing or  occluding  carbon  monoxide. 
But  the  carbonic  oxide  thus  absorbed 
is  in  a  different  condition  from  the  oxy- 
gen absorbed.  When  oxygen  is  ab- 
sorbed by  copper,  the  oxygen  combines 
chemically  with  the  copper  and  loses  its 
own  identity  as  a  gas.  But  when  coal 
gas  is  absorbed  by  the  copper,  it  keeps 
its  own  physical  identity  and  simply  ex- 
ists in  the  copper  in  a  state  of  solution. 
All  natural  waters,  such  as  lake  water, 
river  water,  spring  water,  etc.,  contain 
air  in  solution  or  occlusion.  When  such 
water  is  cooled  and  frozen,  just  at  the 
time  of  changing  from  the  liquid  to  the 
solid  state,  the  dissolved  gas  separates 
and  forms  air  bubbles,  which  remain 
entangled  in  the  ice.  The  carbonic 
oxide  which  is  dissolved  or  occluded  in 
copper  acts  in  exactly  the  same  way. 

Hydrogen  acts  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  carbonic  oxide.  Sulphur  also 
has  a  bad  effect  upon  copper  and  bronze. 
Sulphur  combines  with  copper  and  other 
metals,  forming  sulphide  of  copper,  etc. 
When  molten  copper  or  bronze  contain- 
ing sulphur  comes  in  contact  with  air  it 
absorbs  some  oxygen,  and  this  in  turn 
combines  with  the  sulphur  present, 


forming  sulphur  dioxide,  which  is  a  gas 
which  remains  occluded  in  the  metal. 

Tin  is  a  soft,  white  metal,  melting  at 
440°  F.  Toward  gases  it  acts  something 
like  copper,  but  not  in  so  marked  a  de- 
gree. Although^copper  and  tin  are  both 
soft,  vet  when  mixed  they  make  a  harder 
metal.  When  bronze  cools  from  the 
molten  state,  the  copper  and  the  copper- 
tin  alloy  tend  to  crystallize  by  themselves. 
The  quicker  the  cooling  occurs  the  less 
separation  will  there  be,  and  also  the 
fracture  will  be  more  homogeneous  in  ap- 
pearance. 

Gun  bronze  contains  copper  and  tin 
in  the  proportion  of  9  or  10  parts  of 
copper  to  1  of  tin.  This  is  the  metal 
used  when  an  ordinary  bronze  casting 
is  wanted.  A  harder  bronze  is  copper 
and  tin  in  the  ratio  of  6  to  1.  This  is 
often  used  as  a  bearing  metal.  When 
either  of  these  metals  is  to  be  turned  in 
the  machine  shop,  they  should  contain 
about  3  per  cent  of  lead,  which  will  make 
them  work  very  much  better,  but  it  also 
decreases  their  tensile  strength.  Bear- 
ing metal  now  generally  contains  about 
10  per  cent  of  lead,  with  copper  and  tin 
in  varying  ratios.  The  large  percentage 
of  lead  is  put  in  that  the  metal  may  wear 
away  slower.  Lead,  although  a  metal 
having  properties  similar  to  tin,  acts  en- 
tirely different  toward  copper.  Copper 
and  tin  have  a  good  deal  of  affinity  fo? 
each  other,  but  copper  and  lead  show 
no  attraction  at  all  for  each  other.  Cop- 
per and  tin  mix  in  all  proportions,  but 
copper  and  lead  mix  only  to  a  very  limit- 
ed extent.  About  3  per  cent  of  lead  can 
be  mixed  with  copper.  With  bronze 
about  15  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  of  lead 
can  be  mixed.  In  bearing  bronze  the 
lead  keeps  its  own  physical  properties, 
so  that  the  constituent  lead  melts  long 
before  the  metal  attains  a  red  heat.  It 
sometimes  happens  when  a  bearing  runs 
warm  that  the  lead  actually  sweats  out 
and  forms  pimples  on  the  metal.  Or, 
sometimes,  in  remelting  a  bearing  bronze 
casting  the  lead  may  be  seen  to  drop 
out  while  the  metal  is  warming  up.  All 
of  these  metals,  however,  should  contain 
something  to  flux  or  deoxidize  them, 
such  as  zinc,  manganese,  aluminum, 
silicon,  antimony,  or  phosphorus. 

The  phosphor  bronze  bearing  metal  in 
vogue  has  the  following  composition :  Cop- 
per, 79.7  per  cent;  tin,  10  per  cent;  lead, 
10  percent;  and  phosphorus,  0.3  per  cent. 

Melt  140  pounds  of  copper  in  a  No. 
70  pot,  covering  with  charcoal.  When 
copper  is  all  melted,  add  17i  pounds  of 
tin  to  17i  pounds  of  lead,  and  allow  the 
metal  to  become  sufficiently  warm,  but 


60 


ALLOYS 


not  any  hotter  than  is  needed.  Then 
add  10  pounds  of  "hardener"  (made  as 
previously  described)  and  stir  well.  Re- 
move from  furnace,  skim  off  the  char- 
coal, cool  the  metal  with  gates  to  as  low 
a  temperature  as  is  consistent  with  get- 
ting a  good  casting,  stir  well  again,  and 
pour.  The  molds  for  this  kind  of  work 
are  faced  with  plumbago. 

There  are  several  firms  that  make 
phosphor-bronze  bearings  with  a  com- 
position similar  to  the  above  one,  and 
most  of  them,  or  perhaps  all,  make  it  by 
melting  the  metals  and  then  charging 
with  phosphorus  to  the  extent  of  0.7  to 
1  per  cent.  But  some  metal  from  all 
brands  contains  occluded  gas.  So  that 
after  such  metal  is  cast  (in  about  two 
minutes  or  so)  the  metal  will  ooze  or 
sweat  out  through  the  gate,  and  such  a 
casting  will  be  found  to  be  porous.  But 
not  one  such  experience  with  metal  made 
as  described  above  has  yet  been  found. 

This  practical  point  should  be  heeded, 
viz.,  that  pig  phosphor  bronze  should  be 
brought  to  the  specifications  that  the 
metal  should  have  shrunk  in  the  ingot 
mold  in  cooling,  as  shown  by  the  con- 
cave surface  of  the  upper  side,  and  that 
it  should  make  a  casting  in  a  sand  mold 
without  rising  in  the  gate  after  being 
poured. 

In  bearing  metal,  occluded  gas  is  very 
objectionable,  because  the  gas,  in  trying 
to  free  itself,  shoves  the  very  hard  cop- 
per-tin compound  (which  has  a  low 
melting  point  and  remains  liquid  after 
the  copper  has  begun  to  set)  into  spots, 
and  thus  causes  hard  spots  in  the  metal. 

Phosphorus  is  very  dangerous  to  han- 
dle, and  there  is  great  risk  from  fire  with 
it,  so  that  many  would  not  care  to  handle 
the  phosphorus  itself.  But  phosphor 
copper  containing  5  per  cent  of  phos- 
phorus, and  phosphor  tin  containing  2  to 
7  per  cent  of  phosphorus,  and  several 
other  such  alloys  can  be  obtained  in  the 
market.  It  may  be  suggested  to  those 
who  wish  to  make  phosphor  bronze,  but 
do  not  want  to  handle  phosphorus  itself, 
to  make  it  by  using  the  proper  amounts 
of  one  of  these  high  phosphorus  alloys. 
In  using  phosphorus  it  is  only  necessary 
to  use  enough  to  thoroughly  deoxidize 
the  metal,  say  0.3  per  cent.  More  than 
this  will  make  the  metal  harder,  but  not 
any  sounder. 

Phosphor  bronze  is  not  a  special  kind 
of  alloy,  but  any  bronze  can  be  made 
into  phosphor  bronze;  it  is,  in  fact,  sim- 
ply a  -deoxidized  bronze,  produced  under 
treatment  with  phosphorus  compounds. 

Although  the  effect  of  phosphorus  in 
improving  the  quality  of  bronze  has  been 


known  for  more  than  fifty  years,  it  is  only 
of  late  that  the  mode  for  preparing  phos- 
phor bronze  has  been  perfected.  It  is 
now  manufactured  in  many  localities. 
Besides  its  action  in  reducing  the  oxides 
dissolved  in  the  alloy,  the  phosphorus 
exerts  another  very  material  influence 
upon  the  properties  of  the  bronze.  The 
ordinary  bronzes  consist  of  mixtures  in 
which  the  copper  is  really  the  only  crys- 
tallized constituent,  since  the  tin  crys- 
tallizes with  great  difficulty.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  this  dissimilarity  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  two  metals,  the  alloy  is  not 
so  solid  as  it  would  be  if  both  were  crys- 
tallized. The  phosphorus  causes  the 
tin  to  crystallize,  and  the  result  is  a  more 
homogeneous  mixture  of  the  two  metals. 

If  enough  phosphorus  is  added,  so 
that  its  presence  can  be  detected  in  the 
finished  bronze,  the  latter  may  be  con- 
sidered an  alloy  of  crystallized  phosphor 
tin  with  copper.  If  the  content  of  phos- 
phor is  still  more  increased,  a  part  of  the 
copper  combines  with  the  phosphorus, 
and  the  bronze  then  contains,  besides 
copper  and  tin,  compounds  of  crystal- 
lized copper  phosphide  with  phosphide 
of  tin.  The  strength  and  tenacity  of  the 
bronze  are  not  lessened  by  a  larger 
amount  of  phosphorus,  and  its  hardness 
is  considerably  increased.  Most  phos- 
phor bronzes  are  equal  in  this  respect  to 
the  best  steel,  and  some  even  surpass  it 
in  general  properties. 

The  phosphorus  is  added  to  the  bronze 
in  the  form  of  copper  phosphide  or  phos- 
phide of  tin,  the  two  being  sometimes 
used  together.  They  must  be  specially 
prepared  for  this  purpose,  and  the  best 
methods  will  be  here  given.  Copper 
phosphide  is  prepared  by  heating  a  mix- 
ture of  4  parts  of  superphosphate  of  lime, 
2  parts  of  granulated  copper,  and  1  part 
of  finely  pulverized  coal  in  a  crucible  at  a 
temperature  not  too  high.  The  melted 
copper  phosphide,  containing  14  per  cent 
of  phosphorus,  separates  on  the  bottom 
of  the  crucible. 

Tin  phosphide  is  prepared  as  follows: 
Place  a  bar  of  zinc  in  an  aqueous  solution 
of  tin  chloride.  The  tin  will  be  separated 
in  the  form  of  a  sponge-like  mass.  Col- 
lect it,  and  put  it  into  a  crucible,  upon 
the  bottom  of  which  sticks  of  phosphorus 
have  been  placed.  Press  the  tin  tightly 
into  the  crucible,  and  expose  to  a  gentle 
heat.  Continue  the  heating  until  flames 
of  burning  phosphorus  are  no  longer 
observed  on  the  crucible.  The  pure  tin 
phosphide,  in  the  form  of  a  coarsely 
crystalline  mass,  tin-white  in  color,  will 
be  found  on  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 

To  prepare  the  phosphor  bronze,  the 


ALLOYS 


61 


alloy  to  be  treated  is  melted  in  the  usual 
way,  and  small  pieces  of  the  copper  phos- 
phide and  tin  phosphide  are  added. 

Phosphor  bronze,  properly  prepared, 
has  nearly  the  same  melting  point  as  that 
of  ordinary  bronze.  In  cooling,  how- 
ever, it  has  the  peculiarity  of  passing 
directly  from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state, 
without  first  becoming  thickly  fluid.  In 
a  melted  state  it  retains  a  perfectly  bright 
surface,  while  ordinary  bronze  in  this 
condition  is  always  covered  with  a  thin 
film  of  oxide. 

If  phosphor  bronze  is  kept  for  a  long 
time  at  the  melting  point,  there  is  not 
any  loss  of  tin,  but  the  amount  of  phos- 
phorus is  slightly  diminished. 

The  most  valuable  properties  of  phos- 
phor bronze  are  its  extraordinary  te- 
nacity and  strength.  It  can  be  rolled, 
hammered,  and  stretched  cold,  and  its 
strength  is  nearly  double  that  of  the  best 
ordinary  bronze.  It  is  principally  used 
in  cases  where  great  strength  and  power 
of  resistance  to  outward  influences  are  re- 
quired, as,  for  instance,  in  objects  which 
are  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  sea  water. 

Phosphor  bronze  containing  about  4 
per  cent  of  tin  is  excellently  well  adapted 
for  sheet  bronze.  With  not  more  than  5 
per  cent  of  tin,  it  can  be  used,  forged, 
for  firearms.  Seven  to  10  per  cent  of 
tin  gives  the  greatest  hardness,  and  such 
bronze  is  especially  suited  to  the  manu- 
facture of  axle  bearings,  cylinders  for 
steam  fire  engines,  cogwheels,  and,  in 
general,  for  parts  of  machines  where 
great  strength  and  hardness  are  required. 
Phosphor  bronze,  if  exposed  to  the  air, 
soon  becomes  covered  with  a  beautiful, 
closely  adhering  patina,  and  is  therefore 
well  adapted  to  purposes  of  art.  The 
amount  of  phosphorus  added  varies 
from  0.25  to  2.5  per  cent,  according  to 
the  purpose  of  the  bronze.  The  com- 


position  of  a  number  of  kinds  of  phos- 
phor bronze  is  given  below: 

Cop- 
per 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead 

Iron 

Phos- 
pho- 
rus 

I. 
II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 
VIII. 
IX. 
X. 
XI. 

85.55 

77.85 
72.50 
73.50 
74.50 
83.50 
90.34 
90.86 
94.71 

9.85 
4-15 
4-15 
11.00 
8.00 
6.00 
11.00 
8.00 
8.90 
8.56 
4.39 

3.77 

8-20 
7.65 
17.00 
19.00 
11.00 
3.00 

0.62 
4-15 
4-15 

trs. 

0.05 
0.5-3 
.25-2 

0.76 
0.196 
0.053 

I  for  axle  bearings,  II  and  III  for 
harder  and  softer  axle  bearings,  IV  to 
VIII  for  railroad  purposes,  IV  especially 
for  valves  of  locomotives,  V  and  VI  axle 
bearings  for  wagons,  VII  for  connecting 
rods,  VIII  for  piston  rods  in  hydraulic 
presses. 

Steel  Bronze.— Copper,  60;  ferro- 
manganese  (containing  70  to  80  per  cent 
manganese),  40;  zinc,  15. 

Silicon  Bronze. — Silicon,  similarly  to 
phosphorus,  acts  as  a  deoxidizing  agent, 
and  the  bronzes  produced  under  its 
influence  are  very  ductile  and  elastic,  do 
not  rust,  and  are  very  strong.  On  ac- 
count of  these  qualities  silicon  bronze 
is  much  used  for  telegraph  and  telephone 
wires.  The  process  of  manufacture  is 
similar  to  that  of  phosphor  bronze;  the 
silicon  is  used  in  the  form  of  copper  sili- 
cide.  Some  good  silicon  bronzes  are 
as  follows: 

I  II 

Copper 97.12      97.37 

Tin 1.14         1.32 

Zinc l.io         1.27 

Silicon 0.05        0.07 

Sun  Bronze.— The  alloy  called  sun 
bronze  contains  10  parts  of  aluminum, 
30  to  50  parts  of  copper,  and  40  to  60 
parts  of  cobalt.  The  mixture  known  by 
the  name  of  metalline  has  25  per  cent  of 
aluminum,  30  of  copper,  10  of  iron,  and 
35  of  cobalt.  These  alloys  melt  at  a  point 
approaching  the  melting  point  of  copper, 
are  tenacious,  ductile,  and  very  hard. 

Tobin  Bronze.— This  alloy  is  nearly 
similar  in  composition  and  properties  to 
Delta  metal. 

II 

59.00 
38.40 
2.16 
0.11 
0.31 


III 

61.20 
37.14 
0.90 
0.18 
0.35 


IV 

82.67 
3.23 

12.40 
0.10 
2.14 
0.07 

0.005 


Copper. .  .  61.203 

Zinc 27.440 

Tin 0.906 

Iron 0.180 

Lead 0.359 

Silver 

Phospho-  ) 
rus       $ 

The  alloy  marked  IV  is  sometimes 
called  deoxidized  bronze. 

Violet-colored  bronze  is  50  parts  cop- 
per and  50  parts  antimony. 

CADMIUM  ALLOYS: 

See  also  Fusible  Alloys. 

Lipowitz's  Alloy. — I. — This  alloy  is 
composed  of  cadmium,  3  parts;  tin,  4; 
bismuth,  15;  and  lead,  8.  The  simplest 
method  of  preparation  is  to  heat  the 
metals,  in  small  pieces,  in  a  crucible, 
stirring  constantly,  as  soon  as  fusion 


ALLOYS 


begins,  with  a  stick  of  hard  wood.  The 
stirring  is  important,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  metals,  whose  specific  gravity  varies 
considerably,  from  being  deposited  in 
layers.  The  alloy  softens  at  140°  F.  and 
melts  completely  at  158°  P.  The  color 
is  silvery  white,  with  a  luster  like  polished 
silver,  and  the  metal  can  be  bent,  ham- 
mered, and  turned.  These  properties 
would  make  it  valuable  for  many  pur- 
poses where  a  beautiful  appearance  is  of 
special  importance,  but  on  account  of 
the  considerable  amount  of  cadmium 
and  bismuth  which  it  contains,  it  is 
rather  expensive,  and  therefore  limited 
in  use.  Casts  of  small  animals,  insects, 
lizards,  etc.,  have  been  prepared  from 
it,  which  were  equal  in  sharpness  to 
the  best  galvanoplastic  work.  Plaster  of 
Paris  is  poured  over  the  animal  to  be 
cast,  and  after  sharp  drying,  the  animal 
is  removed  and  the  mold  filled  up  with 
Lipowitz's  metal.  The  mold  is  placed 
in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  by  heating  to 
the  boiling  point  the  metal  is  melted  and 
deposited  in  the  finest  impressions  of  the 
mold. 

This  alloy  is  most  excellent  for  solder- 
ing tin,  lead,  Britannia  metal,  and  nickel, 
being  especially  adapted  to  the  last  two 
metals  on  account  of  its  silver-white 
color.  But  here  again  its  costliness  pre- 
vents its  general  use,  and  cheaper  alloys 
possessing  the  same  properties  have  been 
sought.  In  cases  where  the  silver-white 
color  and  the  low  melting  point  are  not 
of  the  first  importance,  the  alloys  given 
below  may  very  well  be  used  in  the  place 
of  it. 

II. — Cadmium  alloy  (melting  point, 
170°  P.):  Cadmium,  2  parts;  tin,  3;  lead, 
11;  bismuth,  16. 

III. — Cadmium  alloy  (melting  point, 
167°  F.):  Cadmium,  10  parts;  tin,  3;  lead, 
8;  bismuth,  8. 

Cadmium  alloys  (melting  point,  203° 
P.): 

IV  V  VI 

Cadmium 1     1     1  parts 

Tin 231" 

Bismuth 35     2     " 

VII. — A  very  fusible  alloy,  melting  at 
150°  F.,  is  composed  of  tin,  1  or  2  parts; 
lead,  2  or  3;  bismuth,  4  or  15;  cadmium, 
1  or  2. 

VIII.— Wood's  alloy  melts  between 
140°  and  161.5°  F.  It  is  composed  of 
lead,  4  parts;  tin,  2;  bismuth,  5  to  8; 
cadmium,  1  to  2.  In  color  it  resembles 
platinum,  and  is  malleable  to  a  certain 
extent. 

IX. — Cadmium  alloy  (melting  point, 
179.5°  F.):  Cadmium,  1  part;  lead,  6 


parts;  bismuth,  7.  This,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, can  be  used  for  soldering  in  hot 
water. 

X. — Cadmium  alloy  (melting  point, 
300°  F.):8  Cadmiiim,  2  parts;  tin,  4;  lead, 
2.  This  is  an  excellent  soft  solder,  with  a 
melting  point  about  86  degrees  below  that 
of  lead  and  tin  alone. 

Cadmium  Alloys  with  Gold,  Silver,  and 
Copper.— I.— Gold,  750  parts;  silver,  166 
parts;  cadmium,  84  parts.  A  malleable 
and  ductile  alloy  of  green  color. 

II. — Gold,  750  parts;  silver,  125  parts; 
and  cadmium,  125  parts.  Malleable  and 
ductile  alloy  of  yellowish-green  hue. 

III. —Gold,  746  parts;  silver,  ^  114 
parts;  copper,  97  parts;  and  cadmium, 
43  parts.  Likewise  a  malleable  and 
ductile  alloy  of  a  peculiar  green  shade. 
All  these  alloys  are  suitable  for  plating. 
As  regards  their  production,  each  must 
be  carefully  melted  together  from  its 
ingredients  in  a  covered  crucible  lined 
with  coal  dust,  or  in  a  graphite  crucible. 
Next,  the  alloy  has  to  be  remelted  in  a 
graphite  crucible  with  charcoal  (or  rosin 
powder)  and  borax.  If,  in  spite  thereof, 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  cadmium 
should  have  evaporated,  the  alloy  must 
be  re-fused  once  more  with  an  addition  of 
cadmium. 

ALLOYS  FOR    CASTING    COINS,  ME- 
DALLIONS, ETC. 

Alloys  which  fulfill  the  requirements  of 
the  medalist,  and  capable,  therefore,  of 
reproducing  all  details,  are  the  following: 
I      II 

Tin 3       6  parts 

Lead 13       8     " 

Bismuth 6     14     " 

III. — A  soft  alloy  suitable  to  take  im- 
pressions of  woodcuts,  coins,  metals,  en- 
gravings, etc.,  and  which  must  melt  at 
a  low  degree  of  heat,  is  made  out  of  bis- 
muth, 3  parts;  tin,  li  parts;  lead,  2^ 
parts;  and  worn-out  type,  1  part. 

Acid-proof  Alloy. — This  alloy  is  char- 
acterized by  its  power,  of  resisting  the 
action  of  acids,  and  is  therefore  especially 
adapted  to  making  cocks,  pipes,  etc., 
which  are  to  come  in  contact  with  acid 
fluids.  It  is  composed  of  copper,  zinc, 
lead,  tin,  iron,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  an- 
timony, in  the  following  proportions: 

Copper 74.75  parts 

Zinc 0.61     " 

Lead 16.35     " 

Tin 0.91     " 

Iron 0.43     " 

Nickel    )  0  24     " 

Cobalt  f   °'24 

Antimony 6.78     " 


ALLOYS 


63 


Albata  Metal. — Copper,  40  parts;  zinc, 
32  parts;  and  nickel,  8  parts. 

Alfenide  Metal. — Copper,  60  parts; 
zinc,  30;  nickel,  10;  traces  of  iron. 

Bath  Metal.— This"  alloy  is  used  es- 
pecially in  England  for  the  manufacture 
of  teapots,  and  is  very  popular  owing  to 
the  fine  white  color  it  possesses.  It 
takes  a  ^  high  polish,  and  articles  made 
from  this  alloy  acquire  in  the  course  of 
time,  upon  only  being  rubbed  with  a 
white  cloth,  a  permanent  silver  luster. 
The  composition  of  Bath  metal  is  cop- 
per, 55  parts;  zinc,  45  parts* 

Baudoin  Metal. — This  is  composed  of 
72  parts  of  copper,  16.6  of  nickel,  1.8  of 
cobalt,  1  of  zinc;  J  per  cent  of  aluminum 
may  be  added. 

CASTING  COPPER : 

Macht's  Yellow  Metal.— I. —This  alloy 
consists  of  33  parts  of  copper  and  25  of 
zinc.  It  has  a  dark  golden-yellow  color, 
great  tenacity,  and  can  be  forged  at  a 
red  heat,  properties  which  make  it  es- 
pecially suitable  for  fine  castings. 

II. — Yellow. — Copper,  67  to  70  parts; 
zinc,  33  to  30  parts. 

III.— Red.— Copper,  82  parts;  zinc, 
18  parts. 

Copper  Arsenic. — Arsenic  imparts  to 
copper  a  very  fine  white  color,  and  makes 
it  very  hard  and  brittle.  Before  Ger- 
man silver  was  known,  these  alloys  were 
sometimes  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
such  cast  articles  as  were  not  to  come  in 
contact  with  iron.  When  exposed  to  the 
air,  they  soon  lose  their  whiteness  and 
take  on  a  brownish  shade.  On  account 
of  this,  as  well  as  the  poisonous  character 
of  tne  arsenic,  they  are  very  little  used 
at  the  present  time.  Alloys  of  copper 
and  arsenic  are  best  prepared  by  pressing 
firmly  into  a  crucible  a  mixture  of  70 
parts  of  copper  and  30  of  arsenic  (the 
copper  to  be  used  in  the  form  of  fine 
shavings)  and  fusing  this  mixture  in  a 
furnace  with  a  good  draught,  under  a 
cover  of  glass. 

Copper  Iron. — The  alloys  of  copper 
and  iron  are  little  used  in  the  industries 
of  the  present  day,  but  it  would  seem 
that  in  earlier  times  they  were  frequently 
prepared  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  hardness  to  copper; 
for  in  antique  casts,  consisting  princi- 
pally of  copper,  we  regularly  find  large 
quantities  of  iron,  which  leads  to  the  sup- 
position that  they  were  added  intention- 
ally. 

These  alloys,  when  of  a  certain  com- 


position, have  considerable  strength  and 
hardness.  With  an  increase  in  the  quan- 
tity of  "the  iron  the  hardness  increases, 
but  the  solidity  is  lessened.  A  copper 
and  iron  alloy  of  considerable  strength, 
and  at  .the  same  time  very  hard,  is 
made  of  copper,  66  parts;  iron,  34. 
These  alloys  acquire,  on  exposure  to  air, 
an  ugly  color  inclining  toward  black, 
and  are  therefore  not  adapted  for  arti- 
cles of  art. 

Copper  Nickel.— A.  Morrell,  of  New 
York,  has  obtained  a  patent  on  a  nickel- 
copper  alloy  which  he  claims  is  valu- 
able on  account  of  its  noncorrosive 
qualities,  therefore  making  it  desirable 
for  ships,  boiler  tubes,  and  other  uses 
where  the  metal  comes  much  in  contact 
with  water.  The  process  of  making  the 
metal  is  by  smelting  ore  containing  sul- 
phide of  nickel  and  copper,  and  besem- 
erizing  the  resultant  matter.  This  is 
calcined  in  order  to  obtain  the  nickel 
and  copper  in  the  form  of  oxides.  The 
latter  are  reduced  in  reverberating  fur- 
nace with  carbon,  or  the  like,  so  as  to 
produce  an  alloy  which  preferably  con- 
tains 2  parts  of  nickel  and  1  part  of 
copper. 

Delta  Metal. — An  alloy  widely  used  for 
making  parts  of  machinery,  and  also 
for  artistic  purposes,  is  the  so-called 
Delta  metal.  This  is  a  variety  of  brass 
hardened  with  iron;  some  manufacturers 
add  small  quantities  of  tin  and  lead; 
also,  in  some  cases,  nickel.  The  follow- 
ing analysis  of  Delta  metal  (from  the  fac- 
tory at  Diisseldorf)  will  show  its  usual 
composition: 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

Copper.  .  .  . 
Zinc 

55.94 
41.61 
0.72 
0.87 
0.81 
tra- 
ces. 
0.013 

55.80 
40.07 
1.82 
1.28 
0.96 
tra- 
ces. 
0.011 

55.82 
41.41 
0.76 
0.86 
1.38 
0.06 

tra- 
ces. 

54.22 

42.25 
1.10 
0.99 
1.09 
0.16 

0.02 

58.6: 
38.95 
0.67 
1.62 

b'.ii 

Lead 

Iron.  .  .  . 

Manganese 
Nickel  

Phosphorus 

I  is  cast,  II  hammered,  III  rolled, 
and  IV  hot-stamped  metal.  Delta 
metal  is  produced  by  heating  zinc  very 
strongly  in  crucibles  (to  about  1600°  F.), 
and  adding  ferromanganese  or  "spiegel- 
eisen,"  producing  an  alloy  of  95  per  cent 
zinc  and  5  per  cent  of  iron.  Copper  and 
brass  and  a  very  small  amount  of  copper 
phosphate  are  also  added. 


ALLOYS 


Gong  Metal. — A  sonorous  metal  for 
cymbals,  gongs,  and  tam-tams  consists 
of  100  parts  of  copper  with  25  parts  tin. 
Ignite  the  piece  after  it  is  cast  and  plunge 
it  into  cold  water  immediately. 

Production  of  Minargent. — This  alloy 
consists  of  copper,  500  parts;  nickel, 
350;  tungsten,  25,  and  aluminum,  5.  The 
metal  obtained  possesses  a  handsome 
white  color  and  greatly  resembles  silver. 

Minofor. — The  so-called  Minofor  metal 
is  composed  of  copper,  tin,  antimony,  zinc, 
and  iron  in  the  following  proportions: 

I          II 

Copper 3.26       4 

Tin 67.53     66 

Antimony 17.00     20 

Zinc 8.94        9 

Iron 1 

Minargent  and  Minofor  are  sometimes 
used  in  England  for  purposes  in  which  the 
ordinary  Britannia  metal,  2  parts  tin  and 
1  part  antimony,  might  equally  well  be 
employed;  the  latter  surpasses  both  of 
them  in  beauty  of  color,  but  they  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  harder. 

Retz  Alloy. — This  alloy,  which  resists 
the  corrosive  action  of  alkalies  and  acids, 
is  composed  of  15  parts  of  copper,  2.34 
of  tin,  1.82  of  lead,  and  1  of  antimony. 
It  can  be  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of 
receivers,  for  which  porcelain  and  ebo- 
nite are  usually  employed. 

Ruoltz  Metal.  —  This  comprises  20 
parts  of  silver,  50  of  copper,  30  of  nickel. 
These  proportions  may,  however,  vary. 

Tissier's  Metal. — This  alloy  contains 
arsenic,  is  of  a  beautiful  tombac  red 
color,  and  very  hard.  Its  composition 
varies  a  great  deal,  but  the  peculiar  alloy 
which  gives  the  name  is  composed  of 
copper,  97  parts;  zinc,  2  parts;  arsenic, 
1  or  2.  It  may  be  considered  a  brass 
with  a  very  high  percentage  of  copper, 
and  hardened  by  the  addition  of  arsenic. 
It  is  sometimes  used  for  axle  bearings, 
but  other  alloys  are  equally  suitable  for 
this  purpose,  and  are  to  be  preferred  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  arsenic,  which 
is  always  dangerous. 

FILE  ALLOYS. — Many  copper-tin  al- 
loys are  employed  for  the  making  of  files 
which,  in  distinction  from  the  steel  files, 
are  designated  composition  files.  Such 
alloys  have  the  following  compositions: 
Geneva  Composition  Files. — 

I  II 

Copper 64.4        62 

Tin 18.0       20 

Zinc 10.0        10 

Lead 7.6         8 


VogePs  Composition  Files. — 

III      IV       V 

Copper 57.0    61.5    73.0 

Tin 28.5    31.0    19.0 

Zinc 78.0    ....       8,0 

Lead 7.0      8.5      8.0 

VI. — Another  alloy  for  composition 
files  is  copper,  8  parts;  tin,  2;  zinc,  l,and 
lead,  1 — fused  under  a  cover  of  borax. 

EASILY   FUSIBLE    OR   PLASTIC   AL- 
LOYS. 

(These  have  a  fusing  point  usually 
below  300°  F.) 

(See  also  Solders.) 

I.  Rose's  Alloy.  —  Bismuth,   2   parts; 
lead,  1  part;  tin,  1  part.      Melting  point, 
200°  F. 

II.  Darcet  Alloy. — This  is  composed  of 
8  parts  of  bismuth,  5  of  lead,  and  3  of  tin. 
It  melts  at  176°  F.     To  impart  greater 
fusibility,  -fo  part  of  mercury  is  added; 
the  fusing  is  then  lowered  to  149°  F. 

III.— Newton  alloy  melt3  at  212°  F., 
and  is  composed  of  5  parts  of  bismuth,  2 
of  lead,  and  3  of  tin. 
IV.— Wood's  Metal.— 

Tin 2  parts 

Lead 4  parts 

Bismuth 5  to  8  parts 

This  silvery,  fine-grained  alloy  fuses 
between  151°  and  162°  F.,  and  is  ex- 
cellently adapted  to  soldering. 

V. — Bismuth,   7   parts;  lead,   6  parts; 

cadmium,  1  part.     Melting  point,  180°  F. 

VI.— Bismuth,  7  to  8  parts;  lead,  4; 

tin,  2;  cadmium,  1  to  2.      Melting  point, 

149°  to  160°  F. 

Other  easily  fusible  alloys : 

VII          VIII 

1  2 

1  2 

1  1 

258°  F.      283° 


IX 

3 
3 
1 
311° 


Lead 

Tin 

Bismuth 

Melting  Point. . . 

Fusible  Alloys  for  Electric  Installa- 
tions.— These  alloys  are  employed  in 
electric  installations  as  current  inter- 
rupters. Serving  as  conductors  on  a 
short  length  of  circuit,  they  melt  as  soon 
as  the  current  becomes  too  strong.  Fol- 
lowing is  the  composition  of  some  of 
these  alloys. 


Fusing 
temper- 
ature 

Lead 

Tin 

Bis- 
muth 

Cad- 
mium 

I.. 

203°  F. 

250 

500 

500 

II... 

193°  F. 

397 

532 

71 

III... 

168°  F. 

344 

94 

500 

62 

IV... 

153°  F. 

260|      148 

522 

70 

V... 

150°  F. 

249 

142 

501 

108 

VI... 

145°  F. 

267 

136 

500 

100 

ALLOYS 


65 


These  alloys  are  prepared  by  melting 
the  lead  in  a  stearine  bath  and  adding 
successively,  and  during  the  cooling, 
first,  the  cadmium;  second,  the  bismuth; 
third,  the  tin.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  proceed  in  this  manner,  since  these 
metals  fuse  at  temperatures  ranging 
from  850°  F.  (for  lead),  to  551°  F.  (for 
tin). 

Fusible  Safety  Alloys  for  Steam 
Boilers.— 


Bis- 
muth 

Lead 

Zinc 

Melting 
point 

Atmos. 
pres- 
sure 

L. 

8 

5 

3 

212°  F. 

1 

II 

8 

8 

4 

235°  F 

1   5 

III 

8 

8 

3 

253°  F 

2 

IV.    . 

8 

10 

8 

266°  F 

2  5 

V  

8 

12 

8 

270°  F. 

3 

VI  

8 

16 

14 

280°  F. 

3.5> 

VII  

8 

16 

12 

285°  F. 

4 

VIII  

8 

22 

24 

309°  F. 

5 

IX  

8 

32 

36 

320°  F. 

6 

X  

8 

32 

28 

330°  F. 

7 

XI  

8 

30 

24 

340°  F. 

8 

Lipowitz  Metal. — This  amalgam  is  pre- 
pared as  follows:  Melt  in  a  dish,  cad- 
mium, 3  parts,  by  weight;  tin,  4  parts; 
bismuth,  15  parts;  and  lead,  8  parts, 
adding  to  the  alloy,  while  still  in  fusion, 
2  parts  of  quicksilver  previously  heated 
to  about  212°  F.  The  amalgamation 
proceeds  easily  and  smoothly.  The 
liquid  mass  in  the  dish,  which  should 
be  taken  from  the  fire  immediately  upon 
the  introduction  of  the  mercury,  is  stirred 
until  the  contents  solidify.  While  Lipo- 
witz alloy  softens  already  at  140°  F.  and 
fuses  perfectly  at  158°,  the  amalgam  has 
a  still  lower  fusing  point,  which  lies 
around  143|°  F. 

This  amalgam  is  excellently  adapted 
for  the  production  of  impressions  of 
various  objects  of  nature,  direct  im- 
pressions of  leaves,  and  other  delicate 
parts  of  plants  having  been  made  with  its 
aid  which,  in  point  of  sharpness,  are 
equal  to  the  best  plaster  casts  and  have 
a  very  pleasing  appearance.  The  amal- 
gam has  a  silver- white  color  and  a 
fine  gloss.  It  is  perfectly  constant 
to  atmospheric  influences.  This  amal- 
gam has  also  been  used  with  good  suc- 
cess for  the  making  of  small  statuettes 
and  busts,  which  are  hollow  and  can  be 
readily  gilt  or  bronzed  by  electro-depo- 
sition. The  production  of  small  statues 
is  successfully  carried  out  by  making  a 
hollow  gypsum  mold  of  the  articles  to 
be  cast  and  heating  the  mold  evenly  to 


about  140°  F.  A  corresponding  quan- 
tity of  the  molten  amalgam  is  then  poured 
in  and  the  mold  moved  rapidly  to  and 
fro,  so  that  the  alloy  is  thrown  against  the 
sides  all  over.  The  shaking  should  be 
continued  until  it  is  certain  that  the  amal- 
gam has  solidified.  When  the  mold 
has  cooled  off  it  is  taken  apart  and 
the  seams  removed  by  means  of  a  sharp 
knife.  If  the  operation  is  carried  on 
correctly,  a  chasing  of  the  cast  mass  be- 
comes unnecessary,  since  the  alloy  fills 
out  the  finest  depressions  of  the  mold 
with  the  greatest  sharpness. 

Amalgam  for  Plaster. — Tin,  1  part; 
bismuth,  1  part;  mercury,  1  part.  Melt 
the  bismuth  and  the  tin  together,  and 
when  the  two  metals  are  in  fusion  add 
the  mercury  while  stirring.  For  use, 
rub  up  the  amalgam  with  a  little  white  of 
egg  and  brush  like  a  varnish  on  the 
plaster  articles. 

Plastic  Metal  Composition. — I.  Copper 
oxide  is  reduced  by  means  of  hydrogen 
or  copper  sulphate  by  boiling  a  solution 
of  the  same  in  water  with  some  zinc  filings 
in  order  to  obtain  entirely  pure  copper. 
Of  the  copper  powder  obtained  in  this  man- 
ner, 20,  30,  or  36  parts,  by  weight,  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  hardness  desired  for 
the  composition  (the  greater  the  quantity 
of  copper  used  the  harder  will  the  composi- 
tion become),  are  thoroughly  moistened 
in  a  cast-iron  or  porcelain  mortar  with 
sulphuric  acid  of  1.85  specific  gravity; 
70  parts,  by  weight,  of  mercury  are  then 
added  to  this  paste,  the  whole  being  con- 
stantly stirred.  When  all  the  copper 
has  been  thoroughly  amalgamated  with 
the  mercury,  the  sulphuric  acid  is  washed 
out  again  with  boiling  water,  and  in  12 
hours  after  it  has  become  cold  the  com- 
position will  be  so  hard  that  it  can  be 
polished.  It  is  impervious  to  the  action 
of  dilute  acids,  alcohol,  ether,  and  boil- 
ing water.  It  contains  the  same  specific 
gravity,  alike  in  the  soft  or  the  hard  con- 
dition. When  used  as  a  cement,  it  can 
at  any  time  be  rendered  soft  and  plastic 
in  the  following  manner:  If  applied 
while  hot  and  plastic  to  the  deoxidized 
surfaces  of  two  pieces  of  metal,  these 
latter  will  unite  so  firmly  that  in  about  10 
or  12  hours  the  metal  may  be  subjected 
to  any  mechanical  process.  The  prop- 
erties of  this  composition  render  it 
very  useful  for  various  purposes,  and  it 
forms  a  most  effective  cement  for  fine 
metal  articles  which  cannot  be  soldered 
in  fire. 

II. — Bismuth,  5.5  parts;  lead,  3;  tin, 
1.5. 

III.     Alloy     d'Homburg.  —  Bismuth, 


66 


ALLOYS 


3  parts;  lead,  3;  tin,   3.     This  alloy  is 
fusible  at  251°   F.,   and  is   of  a  silvery 
white.     It  is  employed  for  reproductions 
of  medals. 

IV.  Alloy  Valentine  Rose.— Bismuth, 

4  to  6  parts;  lead,  2  parts;  tin,  2  to  3  parts. 
This  alloy  fuses  at  212°  to  250°  F. 

V.  Alloy     Rose    pere.  —  Bismuth,     2 
parts;  lead,  2;  tin,  2.     This  alloy  fuses 
at  199°  F. 

The  remainder  are  plastic  alloys  for 
reproducing  cuts,  medals,  coins,  etc.: 

VI. — Bismuth,  4  parts;  lead,  2  parts; 
tin,  1  part. 

VII. — Bismuth,  3  parts;  lead,  3  parts; 
tin,  2  parts. 

VIII.  —  Bismuth,  4  parts;  lead,  2  parts; 
tin,  2  parts. 

IX. — Bismuth,  5  parts;  lead,  2  parts; 
tin,  3  parts. 

X. — Bismuth,  2  parts;  lead,  2  parts; 
tin,  2  parts. 

Quick -Water.  —  That  the  amalgam 
may  easily  take  hold  of  bronze  objects 
and  remain  there,  it  is  customary  to 
coyer  the  perfectly  cleansed  and  shining 
article  with  a  thin  coat  of  mercury,  which 
is  usually  accomplished  by  dipping  it  into 
a  so-called  quick-water  bath. 

In  the  form  of  minute  globules  the 
mercury  immediately  separates  itself 
from  the  solution  and  clings  to  the  bronze 
object,  which  thereupon  presents  the 
appearance  of  being  plated  with  silver. 
After  it  has  been  well  rinsed  in  clean 
water,  the  amalgam  may  be  evenly  and 
without  difficulty  applied  with  the 
scratch  brush. 

This  quick- water  (in  reality  a  solution 
of  mercurous  nitrate),  is  made  in  the  sim- 
plest manner  by  taking  10  parts  of  mer- 
cury and  pouring  over  it  11  parts  of 
nitric  acid  of  a  specific  gravity  equal  to 
1.33;  now  let  it  stand  until  every  part 
of  the  mercury  is  dissolved;  then,  while 
stirring  vigorously,  add  540  parts  of 
water.  This  solution  must  be  kept  in 
closed  flasks  or  bottles  to  prevent  im- 
purities, such  as  dust,  etc.,  from  falling 
into  it. 

The  preparatory  work  on  the  object 
to  be  gilded  consists  mainly  in  cleansing 
it  from  every  trace  of  oxidation.  First, 
it  must  be  well  annealed  by  placing  it  in 
a  bed  of  glowing  coal,  care  being  exer- 
cised that  the  heating  be  uniform. 
When  cooled,  this  piece  is  plunged  into 
a  highly  diluted  sulphuric-acid  bath  in 
order  to  dissolve  in  a  measure  the  oxide. 
Next  it  is  dipped  in  a  36°  nitric-acid  bath, 
of  a  specific  gravity  equal  to  1.33,  and 
brushed  off  with  a  long  brush;  it  is  now 
dipped  into  nitric  acid  into  which  a  little 


lampblack  and  table  salt  have  been 
thrown.  It  is  now  ready  for  washing 
in  clean  water  and  drying  in  unsoiled 
sawdust.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  the  surface  to  be  gilded  should  ap- 
pear of  a  pale  yellow  tint  all  over.  If  it 
be  too  smooth  the  gold  will  not  take  hold 
easily,  and  if  it  be  too  dull  it  will  require 
too  much  gold  to  cover  it. 

GOLD  ALLOYS: 

Colored  Gold  Alloys.— The  alloys  of 
gold  with  copper  have  a  reddish  tinge; 
those  of  gold  with  silver  are  whiter,  and 
an  alloy  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  to- 
gether is  distinguished  by  a  greenish 
tone.  Manufacturers  of  gold  ware 
make  use  of  these  different  colors,  one 
piece  being  frequently  composed  of 
several  pieces  of  varying  color.  Below 
are  given  some  of  these  alloys,  with  their 
colors: 


Gold 

Silver 

Copper 

Steel 

Cad- 
mium 

I.. 

2.6 

1.0 

II.. 

75.0 

16.6 

8.4 

III.. 

74.6 

11.4 

9.7 

4.3 

IV.. 

75.0 

12.6 

12.5 

V. 

1.0 

2  0 

VI.. 

4.0 

3.0 

1.0 

VII.. 

14.7 

7.0 

6.0 

.... 

.... 

VIII.. 

14.7 

9.0 

4.0 

IX.. 

3.0 

1.0 

1.0 

X.. 

10.0 

1.0 

4.0 

XI.. 

1.0 

1.0 

XII.. 

1.0 

2.0 

XIII.. 

30.0 

3.6 

.... 

2.6 

XIV.. 

4.0 

.... 

1.0 

XV. 

29.0 

11.0 

XVI 

1   3 

1   0 

Nos.  I,  II,  III,  and  IV  are  green  gold; 
No.  Vis  pale  yellow;  Nos.  VI,  VII,  and 
VIII  bright  yellow;  Nos.  IX  and  X  pale 
red;  Nos.  XI  and  XII  bright  red;  Nos. 
XIII,  XIV,  and  XV  gray;  while  No. 
XVI  exhibits  a  bluish  tint.  The  finished 
gold  ware,  before  being  put  upon  the 
market,  is  subjected  to  a  special  treat- 
ment, consisting  either  in  the  simple 
pickling  or  in  the  so-called  coloring, 
which  operation  is  conducted  especially 
with  alloys  of  low  degree  of  fineness,  the 
object  being  to  give  the  layers  a  super- 
ficial layer  of  pure  gold. 

The  presence  of  silver  considerably 
modifies  the  color  of  gold,  and  the  jewel- 
er makes  use  of  this  property  to  obtain 
alloys  of  various  shades.  The  following 
proportions  are  to  be  observed,  viz.: 


ALLOYS 


67 


Gold    Silver  Copper 
Color  of  Gold  per        per        per 

1,000     1,000    1,000 

I.   Green 750  250  .  .  . 

II.   Dead  leaves..  ..  700  300  ... 

III.  Sea  green GOO  400  ... 

IV.  Pink 750  200  50 

V.   English  yellow..  750  125  125 

VI.   English  white.  ..  750  150      100 

VII.   Whiter 750  170        80 

VIII.   Less  white 750  190        60 

IX.  Red 750      ...      250 

Other  colored  gold  alloys  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

X.  Blue. — Fine  gold,  75;  iron,  25. 

XI.  Dark     Gray.  —  Fine     gold,     94; 
iron,  6. 

XII.  Pale    Gray. —  Fine    gold,     191; 
iron,  9. 

XIII.  Cassel  Yellow.  —  Fine  gold,  75; 
fine  silver,  12A;  rose  copper,  12^. 

The  above  figures  are  understood  to 
be  by  weight. 

The  gold  solders,  known  in  France 
under  the  names  of  soudures  au  quart 
(13  i  carat),  au  tiers  (12  carat),  and  au 
deux  (9  carai),  are  composed  of  3,  2,  or 
1  part  of  gold  respectively,  with  1  part  of 
an  alloy  consisting  of  two-thirds  silver  and 
one-third  copper.  Gold  also  forms  with 
aluminum  a  series  of  alloys  of  greatly  vary- 
ing coloration,  the  most  curious  of  them, 
composed  of  22  parts  of  aluminum  for  88 
parts  of  gold,  possessing  a  pretty  purple 
shade.  But  all  these  alloys,  of  a  highly 
crystalline  base,  are  very  brittle  and  can- 
not be  worked,  for  which  reason  their 
handsome  colorings  have  not  yet  been 
capable  of  being  utilized. 

Enameling  Alloys. —  I.  Transparent. 
—This  alloy  should  possess  the  property 
of  transmitting  rays  of  light  so  as  to  give 
the  highest  possible  effect  to  the  enamel. 
The  alloy  of  gold  for  transparent  green 
should  be  pale;  a  red  or  copper  alloy 
does  not  do  for  green  enamel,  the  copper 
has  a  tendency  to  darken  the  color  and 
thus  take  away  a  part  of  its  brilliancy. 
The  following  alloy  for  transparent 
green  possesses  about  the  nearest  print, 
in  color,  to  the  enamel — which  should 
represent,  as  near  as  possible,  the  color 
and  brilliancy  of  the  emerald — that  can 
be  arrived  at: 

ozs.  dwts.    grs. 

Fine  gold 0     18        8 

Fine  silver 0        1        6 

Fine  copper 0       0     10 

No  borax  must  be  used  in  the  melting 
of  this  alloy,  it  being  of  a  more  fusible 
nature  than  the  ordinary  alloy,  and  will 
not  take  so  high  a  heat  in  enameling. 

II.  Fed  Enamel. — The  enamel  which 
forms  this  color  being  of  a  higher  fusing 


point,  if  proper  care  be  not  taken,  the 
gold  will  melt  first,  and  the  work  become 
ruined.  In  the  preparation  of  red  enam- 
el, the  coloring  matter  is  usually  an  oxide 
of  gold,  and  this  so  raises  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  it  melts  that,  in  order  to 
prevent  any  mishap,  the  gold  to  be  enam- 
eled on  should  be  what  is  called  a  22- 
carat  red,  that  is,  it  should  contain  a 
preponderance  of  copper  in  the  alloying 
mixture  so  as  to  raise  the  fusing  point  of 
the  gold.  The  formula  is: 

ozs.  dwts.  grs. 

Fine  gold 0      18        8 

Fine  silver 0        0      10 

Fine  copper 0        1        6 

Gold-leaf  Alloys. — All  gold  made  into 
leaf  is  more  or  less  alloyed.  The  gold 
used  by  the  goldbeater  is  alloyed  ac- 
cording to  the  variety  of  color  required. 
Fine  gold  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  in- 
capable of  being  reduced  to  thin  leaves. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  although 
its  use  for  ordinary  purposes  is  unde- 
sirable on  account  of  its  greater  cost.  It 
also  adheres  by  contact  of  one  leaf  with 
another,  thus  causing  spoiled  material 
and  wasted  labor;  but  for  work  exposed 
to  the  weather  it  is  much  preferable,  as 
it  is  more  durable  and  does  not  tarnish 
or  change  color. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal 
classes  of  leaf  recognized  and  ordinarily 
prepared  by  beaters  with  the  proportion 
of  alloy  they  contain: 

Gold         Silver  Copper 
grs.  grs.       grs. 

I.  Red  gold...  456-460  ...    20-24 

II.  Pale  red.  ..        464  ...           16 

III.  Extra  deep.        456  12          12 

IV.  Deep 444  24          12 

V.  Citron 440  30          10 

VI.  Yellow 408  72      

VII.  Pale  yellow  384  96      

VIII.  Lemon..  ..  360  120 

IX.  Green  or  pale  312  168  .... 

X.  White 240  240  .... 

Gold-Plate  Alloys.— Gold,  92  parts; 
copper,  8  parts. 

II. — Gold,  84  parts;  copper,  16  parts. 
III. — Gold,  75  parts;  copper,  25  parts. 

IMITATION  GOLD. 

I. — One  hundred  parts,  by  weight,  of 
copper  of  the  purest  quality;  14  of  zinc 
or  tin;  6  of  magnesia;  |  of  sal  ammoniac, 
limestone,  and  cream  of  tartar.  The 
copper  is  first  melted,  then  the  magnesia, 
sal  ammoniac,  limestone,  and  cream  of 
tartar  in  powder  are  added  separately 
and  gradually.  The  whole  mass  is  kept 
stirred  for  a  half  hour,  the  zinc  or  tin 
being  dropped  in  piece  by  piece,  the  stir- 


68 


ALLOYS 


ring  being  kept  up  till  they  melt.  Fi- 
nally the  crucible  is  covered  and  the  mass 
is  kept  in  fusion  35  minutes  and,  the  same 
being  removed,  the  metal  is  poured  into 
molds,  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  The 
alloy  thus  made  is  said  to  be  fine-grained, 
malleable,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  does 
not  easily  oxidize. 

II. — An  invention,  patented  in  Ger- 
many, covers  a  metallic  alloy,  to  take 
the  place  of  gold,  which,  even  if  exposed 
for  some  time  to  the  action  of  ammonia- 
cal  and  acid  vapors,  does  not  oxidize  or 
lose  its  gold  color.  It  can  be  rolled  and 
worked  Tike  gold  and  has  the  appearance 
of  genuine  gold  without  containing  the 
slightest  admixture  of  that  metal.  The 
alloy  consists  of  copper  and  antimony  in 
the  approximate  ratio  of  100  to  6,  and  is 
produced  by  adding  to  molten  copper, 
as  soon  as  it  has  reached  a  certain  degree 
of  heat,  the  said  percentage  of  antimony. 
When  the  antimony  has  likewise  melted 
and  entered  into  intimate  union  with  the 
copper,  some  charcoal  ashes,  magne- 
sium, and  lime  spar  are  added  to  the  mass 
when  the  latter  is  still  in  the  crucible. 

III.  Aluminum  Gold.  —  This  alloy, 
called  Nuremberg  gold,  is  used  for  mak- 
ing cheap  gold  ware,  and  is  excellent  for 
this  purpose,  as  its  color  is  exactly  that  of 
pure  gold,  and  does  not  change  in  the  air. 
Articles  made  of  Nuremberg  gold  need 
no  gilding,  and  retain  their  color  under 
the  hardest  usage;  even  the  fracture  of 
this  alloy  shows  the  pure  gold  color.  The 
composition  is  usually  90  parts  of  cop- 
per, 2.5  of  gold,  and  7.5  of  aluminum. 

IV. — Imitation  gold,  capable  of  being 
worked  and  drawn  into  wire,  consists  of 
950  parts  copper,  45  aluminum,  and  2  to 
5  of  silver. 

V. — Chrysochalk  is  similar  in  com- 
position to  Mannheim  gold: 

I       II 

Copper 90.5    58.68 

Zinc 7.9    40.22 

Lead 1.6      1.90 

In  color  it  resembles  gold,  but  quickly 
loses  its  beauty  if  exposed  to  the  air,  on 
account  of  the  oxidation  of  the  copper. 
It  can,  however,  be  kept  bright  for  a  long 
time  by  a  coating  of  colorless  varnish, 
which  excludes  the  air  and  prevents 
oxidation.  Chrysochalk  is  used  for 
most  of  the  ordinary  imitations  of  gold. 
Cheap  watch  chains  and  jewelry  are 
manufactured  from  it,  and  it  is  widely 
used  by  the  manufacturers  of  imitation 
bronze  ornaments. 

Mannheim  Gold  or  Similor. — Mann- 
heim gold  is  composed  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  tin,  in  proportions  about  as  follows: 


I          II 

Copper 83.7      89.8 

Zinc 9.3        9.9 

Tin 7.0        0.6 

It  has  a  fine  yellow  color,  and  was 
formerly  much  used  in  making  buttons 
and  pressed  articles  resembling  gold. 
Later  alloys,  however,  surpass  it  in  color, 
and  it  has  fallen  somewhat  into  disuse. 
One  variety  of  Mannheim  gold,  so 
called,  contains  1.40  parts  of  brass 
(composition  3  Cu2 1  Zn)  to  10  of  copper 
and  0.1  of  zinc. 

Mosaic  Gold. — This  is  an  alloy  com- 
posed— with  slight  deviations — of  100 
parts  of  copper  and  50  to  55  of  zinc.  It 
has  a  beautiful  color,  closely  resembling 
that  of  gold,  and  is  distinguished  by  a 
very  fine  grain,  which  makes  it  especially 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  castings 
which  are  afterwards  to  be  gilded.  The 
best  method  of  obtaining  a  thoroughly 
homogeneous  mixture  of  the  two  metals 
is  first  to  put  into  the  crucible  one-half 
of  the  zinc  to  be  used,  place  the  cover 
upon  it,  and  fuse  the  mixture  under  a 
cover  of  borax  at  as  low  a  temperature 
as  possible.  Have  ready  the  other  half 
of  the  zinc,  cut  into  small  pieces  and 
heated  almost  to  melting,  and  when  the 
contents  of  the  crucible  are  liquid  throw 
it  in,  a  small  portion  at  a  time,  stirring 
constantly  to  effect  as  intimate  a  mixture 
of  the  metals  as  possible. 

Oreiide  or  Oroide  (French  Gold).— The 
so-called  French  gold,  when  polished,  so 
closely  resembles  genuine  gold  in  color 
that  it  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from 
it.  Besides  its  beautiful  color,  it  has  the 
valuable  properties  of  being  very  ductile 
and  tenacious,  so  that  it  can  easily  be 
stamped  into  any  desired  shape;  it  also 
takes  a  high  polish.  It  is  frequently 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  spoons, 
forks,  etc.,  but  is  unsuitable  for  this  pur- 
pose on  account  of  the  large  amount  of 
copper  contained  in  it,  rendering  it  in- 
jurious to  health.  The  directions  for 
preparing  this  alloy  vary  greatly.  The 
products  of  some  Paris  factories  show 
the  following  composition: 

I       II        III 

Copper 90    80.5    86.21 

Zinc 10    14.5    31.52 

Tin 0.48 

Iron 0.24 

A  special  receipt  for  orei'de  is  the  fol- 
lowing: 

IV. — Melt    100   parts  of  copper  and 

add,   with  constant  stirring,   6  parts   of 

magnesia,    3.6    of   sal  ammoniac,  1.8  of 

j  lime,  and  9  of  crude  tartar.     Stir  again 


ALLOYS 


thoroughly,  and  add  17  parts  of  granu- 
lated zinc,  and  after  mixing  it  with  the 
copper  by  vigorous  stirring  keep  the 
alloy  liquid  for  one  hour.  Then  care- 
fully remove  the  scum  and  pour  off  the 
alloy. 

Pinchbeck. — This  was  first  manufac- 
tured in  England.  Its  dark  gold  color 
is  the  best  imitation  of  gold  alloyed  with 
copper.  Being  very  ductile,  it  can  easily 
be  rolled  out  into  thin  plates,  which  can 
be  given  any  desired  shape  by  stamping. 
It  does  not  readily  oxidize,  and  thus 
fulfills  all  the  requirements  for  making 
cheap  jewelry,  which  is  its  principal  use. 

Copper 88.8    93.6 

Zinc 11.2      6.4 

Or 

Copper 2.1    1.28 

Zinc 0.7 

Brass 1.0      0.7 

Palladium.  Gold. — Alloys  of  gold,  cop- 
per, silver,  and  palladium  have  a  brown- 
ish-red color  and  are  nearly  as  hard  as  iron. 
They  are  sometimes  (although  rarely) 
used  for  the  bearings  for  the  axles  of  the 
wheels  of  fine  watches,  as  they  invite  little 
friction  and  do  not  rust  in  the  air.  The 
composition  used  in  the  Swiss  and  Eng- 
lish watch  factories  consists  usually  of 
gold  18  parts,  copper  13  parts,  silver  11, 
and  palladium  6. 

Talmi  Gold. — The  name  of  talmi  gold 
was  first  applied  to  articles  of  jewelry, 
chains,  earrings,  bracelets,  etc.,  brought 
from  Paris,  and  distinguished  by  beau- 
tiful workmanship,  a  low  price,  and 
great  durability.  Later,  when  this  al- 
loy had  acquired  a  considerable  reputa- 
tion, articles  were  introduced  under  the 
same  name,  but  which  were  really  made 
of  other  metals,  and  which  retained  their 
beautiful  gold  color  only  as  long  as  they 
were  not  used.  The  fine  varieties  of  talmi 
gold  are  manufactured  from  brass,  cop- 
per, or  tombac,  covered  with  a  thin  plate 
of  gold,  combined  with  the  base  by  roll- 
ing, under  strong  pressure.  The  plates 
are  then  rolled  out  by  passing  through 
rollers,  and  the  coating  not  only  acquires 
considerable  density,  but  adheres  so 
closely  to  the  base  that  the  metal  will 
keep  its  beautiful  appearance  for  years. 
Of  late,  many  articles  of  talmi  gold 
have  been  introduced  whose  gold  coat- 
ing is  produced  by  electroplating,  and 
is  in  many  cases  so  thin  that  hard 
rubbing  will  bring  through  the  color  of 
the  base.  Such  articles,  of  course,  are 
not  durable.  In  genuine  talmi  gold,  the 
coating,  even  though  it  may  be  thin,  ad- 
heres very  closely  to  the  base,  for  the  rea- 


son that  the  two  metals  are  actually 
welded  by  the  rolling,  and  also  because 
alloyed  gold  is  always  used,  which  is 
much  harder  than  pure  gold.  The  pure 
gold  of  electroplating  is  very  soft.  The 
composition  of  some  varieties  of  talmi 
gold  are  here  given.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  content  of  gold  varies  greatly,  and 
the  durability  of  the  alloy  will,  of  course, 
correspond  to  this.  The  alloys  I,  II,  III 
are  genuine  Paris  talmi  gold;  IV,  V,  and 

VI  are    electroplated    imitations;    and 

VII  is  an  alloy  of  a  wrong  composition, 
to  which  the  gold  does  not  adhere  firmly: 


I. 
II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 
VII. 

j 
1 

Copper 
89.9 
90.8 
90.0 
90.7 
88.2 
87.5 
83.1 
93.5 
84.5 
86.0 

Zinc 
9.3 
8.3 
8.9 
89.0  i 
11.4 
12.4  i 
17.0  ' 
6.6  ' 
15.8 
12.0 

Tin         Iron 


Gold 
1.3 
0.9 
0.9 

0.5 

0.3 

0.05 


1.1       0.3 


Japanese  Alloys. — In  Japan  some 
specialties  in  metallic  alloys  are  in  use  of 
which  the  composition  is  as  follows: 

Shadke  consists  of  copper  with  from  1  to 
10  per  cent  of  gold.  Articles  made  from 
this  alloy  are  laid  in  a  pickle  of  blue 
vitriol,  alum,  and  verdigris,  until  they 
acquire  a  bluish-black  color. 

Gui-shi-bu-ichi  is  an  alloy  of  copper 
containing  30  to  50  per  cent  of  silver.  It 
possesses  a  peculiar  gray  shade. 

Mokume  consists  of  several  composi- 
tions. Thus,  about  30  gold  foils  (gen- 
uine) are  welded  together  with  shadke, 
copper,  silver,  and  gui-shi-bu-ichi  and 
pierced.  The  pierced  holes  are,  after 
firmly  hammering  together  the  plates, 
filled  up  with  the  above-named  pickle. 

The  finest  Japanese  brass  consists  of 
10  parts  copper  and  8  parts  zinc,  and  is 
called  siachu.  The  bell  metal  kara  kane 
is  composed  of  copper  10  parts,  tin  10 
parts,  iron  0.5  part,  and  zinc  1.5  parts. 
The  copper  is  first  fused,  then  tne  re- 
maining metals  are  added  in  rotation. 

GERMAN  SILVER  OR  ARGENTAN. 

The  composition  of  this  alloy  varies 
considerably,  but  from  the  adjoined  fig- 
ures an  average  may  be  found,  whicn 
will  represent,  approximately,  the  normal 
composition: 

Copper 50  to  66  parts 

Zinc 19  to  31  parts 

Nickel 13  to  18  parts 

The  properties  of  the  different  kinds, 
such  as  their  color,  ductility,  fusibility, 


70 


ALLOYS 


etc.,  vary  with  the  proportions  of  the 
single  metals.  For  making  spoons,  forks, 
cups,  candlesticks,  etc.,  the  most  suitable 
proportions  are  50  parts  of  copper,  25  of 
zinc,  and  25  of  nickel.  This  metal  has 
a  beautiful  blue-white  color,  and  does 
not  tarnish  easily. 

German  silver  is  sometimes  so  brittle 
that  a  spoon,  if  allowed  to  fall  upon  the 
floor,  will  break;  this,  of  course,  indicates 
faulty  composition.  But  the  following 
table  will  snow  how  the  character  of  the 
alloy  changes  with  the  varying  percent- 
age of  the  metals  composing  it: 


Copper 

Zinc 

Nickel 

Quality 

I. 

8 

3.5 

4 

Finest  quality. 

II. 

8 

3.5 

6 

Beautiful,    but 

refractory. 

III. 

8 

6.5 

3 

Ordinary, 

readily    fus- 

ible. 

IV. 
V. 

52 
59 

26.0 
30.0 

22 
11 

First  quality. 
Second  quality. 

VI. 

63 

31.0 

6 

Third  quality. 

The  following  analyses  give  further 
particulars  in  regard  to  different  kinds 
of  German  silver: 


For  sheet 

Cop- 
per 

Zinc 

Nickel 

Lead 

Iron 

(French)  .... 

50.0 

31.3 

18.7 

(French)  .... 

50.0 

30.0 

20.0 

(French)  .... 

58.3 

25.0 

16.7 

Vienna  

50.0 

25.0 

25.0 

Vienna  

55.6 

22.0 

22.0 

Vienna  

60.0 

20.0 

20.0 

Berlin  

54.0 

28.0 

18.0 

Berlin  

55.5 

29.1 

17.5 

English  

63.34 

17.01 

19.13 

. 

. 

English  

62.40 

22.15 

15.05 

. 

.  .  . 

English  

62.63 

26.05 

10.85 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

English  

57.40 

25. 

13.0 

. 

3.0 

Chinese  

26.3 

36.8 

36.8 

Chinese  

43.8 

40.6 

15.6 

Chinese  

45.7 

36.9 

17.9 

Chinese  

40.4 

25.4 

31.6 

2.6 

Castings  J48.5 

24.3 

24.3 

2.9 

.  . 

Castings  

54.5 

21.8 

21.8 

1.9 

. 

Castings  

58.3 

19.4 

19.4 

2.9 

'.  '.  '. 

Castings  
Castings  

57.8 
57. 

27.1 
20.0 

14.3 
20.0 

0.8 
3.0 

In  some  kinds  of  German  silver  are 
found  varying  quantities  of  iron,  man- 
ganese, tin,  and  very  frequently  lead, 
added  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the 
properties  of  the  alloy  or  cheapening  the 
cost  of  production.  But  all  these  metals 
have  a  detrimental  rather  than  a  bene- 
ficial effect  upon  the  general  character  of 
the  alloy,  and  especially  lessen  its  power 


of  resistance  to  the  action  of  dilute  acids, 
one  of  its  most  valuable  properties. 
Lead  makes  it  more  fusible;  tin  acts 
somewhat  as  in  bronze,  making  it  denser 
and  more  resonant,  and  enabling  it  to 
take  a  higher  polish.  With  iron  or  man- 
ganese the  alloy  is  whiter,  but  it  be- 
comes at  the  same  time  more  refractory 
a-nd  its  tendency  toward  brittleness  is 
increased. 

SUBSTITUTES    FOR    GERMAN     SIL- 
VER. 

There  are  many  formulas  for  alloys 
which  claim  to  be  substitutes  for  Ger- 
man silver;  but  no  one  of  them  has  yet 
become  an  article  of  general  commerce. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  note  these  ma- 
terials briefly,  giving  the  composition  of 
the  most  important. 

Nickel  Bronze. — This  is  prepared  by 
fusing  together  very  highly  purified 
nickel  (99.5  per  cent)  with  copper,  tin, 
arid  zinc.  A  bronze  is  produced  contain- 
ing 20  per  cent  of  nickel,  light-colored 
and  very  hard. 

Bismuth  Bronze. — 

I        II      III     IV 

Copper 25.0    45.0    69.0    47.0 

Nickel 24.0    32.5    10.0    30.9 

Antimony 50.0      

Bismuth 1.0      1.0      1.0      0.1 

Tin 16.0    15.0      1.0 

Zinc 21.5    20.0    21.0 

Aluminum 1.0      ... 

I  is  hard  and  very  lustrous,  suitable 
for  lamp  reflectors  and  axle  bearings;  II 
is  hard,  resonant,  and  not  affected  by 
sea  water,  for  parts  of  ships,  pipes,  tele- 
graph wires,  and  piano  strings;  III  and 
IV  are  for  cups,  spoons,  etc. 

Manganese  Argentan. — 

Copper 52  to  50  parts 

Nickel 17  to  15     " 

Zinc 5  to  10  •    " 

Manganese 1  to    5     " 

Copper,  with  15  per 

cent  phosphorus .      3  to    5     ** 

Readily  cast  for  objects  of  art. 

Aphtite.— 

Iron 66  parts 

Nickel 23     " 

Tungsten 4     ** 

Copper 5 

Arguzoid. — 

Copper 55 . 78    parts 

Zinc 23.198     " 

Nickel 13.406     " 

Tin 4.035     " 

Lead 3.544     " 

Silver  white,  almost  ductile,  suited  for 
artistic  purposes. 


ALLOYS 


71 


Ferro  -  Argentan.  — 

Copper 70 . 0  parts 

Nickel 20.0     « 

Zinc 5.5     " 

Cadmium 4.5     " 

Resembles  silver;  worked  like  German 
silver. 

Silver  Bronze. — Manganese,  18  per 
cent;  aluminum,  1.2  per  cent;  silicium, 
5  per  cent;  zinc,  13  per  cent;  copper,  67.5 
per  cent.  The  electric  resistance  of  sil- 
ver bronze  is  greater  than  that  of  Ger- 
man silver,  hence  it  ought  to  be  highly 
suitable  for  rheostats. 

Instrument  Alloys.  —  The  following 
are  suitable  for  physical  and  optical  in- 
struments, metallic  mirrors,  telescopes, 
etc.: 

I. — Copper,  62  parts;  tin,  33  parts; 
lead,  5  parts. 

II. — Copper,  80;  antimony,  11 ;  lead,  9. 

III.— Copper,  10;  tin,  10;  antimony, 
10;  lead,  4C. 

IV.— Copper,  30;  tin,  50;  silver,  2; 
arsenic,  1. 

V.— Copper,  66;  tin,  33. 

VI.— Copper,  64;  tin,  26. 

VII.— Steel,  90';  nickel,  10. 

VIII.— Platinum,  60;  copper,  40. 

IX.— Platinum,  45;  steel,  55. 

X. — Platinum,  55;  iron,  45. 

XI.— Platinum,  15;  steel,  85. 

XII. — Platinum,  20;  copper,  79;  ar- 
senic, 1. 

XIII.— Platinum,  62;  iron,  28;  gold, 
10. 

XIV.— Gold,  48;  zinc,  52. 

XV.— Steel,  50;  rhodium,  50. 

XVI.— Platinum,  12;  iridium,  88. 

XVII.— Copper,  89.5;  tin,  8,5;  zinc,  2. 

LEAD  ALLOYS. 

The  following  alloys,  principally  lead, 
are  used  for  various  purposes: 

Bibra  Alloy.— This  contains  8  parts  of 
bismuth,  9  of  tin,  and  38  to  40  of  lead. 

Metallic  Coffins.— Tin,  40  parts;  lead, 
45  parts;  copper,  15  parts. 

Plates  for  Engraving.— I.— Lead,  84 
parts;  antimony,  16  parts. 

II. — Lead,  86  parts;  antimony,  14 
parts. 

III. — Lead,  87  parts;  antimony,  12 
parts;  copper,  1  part. 

IV.— Lead,  81  parts;  antimony,  14 
parts;  tin,  5  parts. 

V.— Lead,  73  parts;  antimony,  17 
parts;  zinc,  10  parts. 

VI.— Tin,  53  parts;  lead,  43  parts; 
antimony,  4  parts. 


Hard  lead  is  made  of  lead,  84  parts; 
antimony,  16  parts. 

Sheet  Metal  Alloy.— 

Tin 35       parts 

Lead 250       parts 

Copper 2.5  parts 

Zinc 0.5  part 

This  alloy  has  a  fine  white  color,  and 
can  be  readily  rolled  into  thin  sheets. 
For  that  reason  it  is  well  adapted  for 
lining  tea  chests  and  for  the  production 
of  tobacco  and  chocolate  wrappers.  The 
copper  and  zinc  are  used  in  the  form 
of  fine  shavings.  The  alloy  should  be 
immediately  cast  into  thin  plates,  which 
can  then  be  passed  through  rolls. 

MAGNETIC  ALLOYS. 

Alloys  which  can  be  magnetized  most 
strongly  are  composed  of  copper,  man- 
ganese, and  aluminum,  the  quantities  of 
manganese  and  aluminum  being  pro- 
portional to  their  atomic  weights  (55.0  to 
27.1,  or  about  2  to  1).  The  maximum 
magnetization  increases  rapidly  with 
increase  of  manganese,  but  alloys  con- 
taining much  manganese  are  exceedingly 
brittle  and  cannot  be  wrought.  The 
highest  practicable  proportion  of  man- 
ganese at  present  is  24  per  cent. 

These  magnetic  alloys  were  studied  by 
Hensler,  Haupt,  and  Starck,  and  Gum- 
lich  has  recently  examined  them  at  the 
Physikalisch  -  technische  Reichsanstalt, 
with  very  remarkable  and  interesting  re- 
sults. 

The  two  alloys  examined  were  com- 
posed as  follows: 

Alloy  I. — Copper,  61.5  per  cent;  man- 
ganese, 23.5  per  cent;  aluminum,  15  per 
cent;  lead,  0.1  per  cent,  with  traces  of  iron 
and  silicon. 

Alloy  II. — Copper,  67.7  per  cent; 
manganese,  20.5  per  cent;  aluminum, 
10.7  per  cent;  lead,  1.2  per  cent,  with 
traces  of  iron  and  silicon. 

Alloy  II  could  be  worked  without  dif- 
ficulty, but  alloy  I  was  so  brittle  that  it 
broke  under  the  hammer.  A  bar  7  inches 
long  and  I  inch  thick  was  obtained  by 
grinding.  This  broke  in  two  during  the 
measurements,  but,  fortunately,  without 
invalidating  them.  Such  a  material  is 
evidently  unsuited  to  practical  uses. 

The  behavior  of  magnetic  alloys  at 
high  temperatures  is  very  peculiar.  Al- 
loy I  is  indifferent  to  temperature  chan- 
ges, which  scarcely  affect  its  magnetic 
properties,  but  the  behavior  of  alloy  II  is 
very  different.  Prolonged  heating  to  230° 
F.  produces  a  great  increase  in  its  capa- 
bility of  magnetization,  which,  after  544 
hours'  heating,  rises  from  1.9  to  3.2  kilo- 


ALLOYS 


fauss,  approaching  the  strength  of  alloy 
.  But  when  alloy  II  is  heated  to  329° 
F.,  its  capability  of  magnetization  fails 
again  and  the  material  suffers  permanent 
injury,  which  can  be  partly,  but  not 
wholly,  cured  by  prolonged  heating. 

Another  singular  phenomenon  was 
exhibited  by  both  of  these  alloys.  When 
a  bar  of  iron  is  magnetized  by  an  electric 
current,  it  acquires  its  full  magnetic 
strength  almost  instantaneously  on  the 
closure  of  the  circuit.  The  magnetic 
alloys,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  attain 
their  full  magnetization  for  several  min- 
utes. In  some  of  the  experiments  a 
gradual  increase  was  observed  even  after 
the  current  had  been  flowing  five  minutes. 
In  magnetic  strength  alloy  I  proved 
far  superior  to  alloy  II,  which  con- 
tained smaller  proportions  of  manga- 
nese and  aluminum.  Alloy  I  showed 
magnetic  strengths  up  to  4.5  kilogauss, 
while  the  highest  magnetization  ob- 
tained with  alloy  II  was  only  1.9  kilo- 
gauss.  But  even  alloy  II  may  be  called 
strongly  magnetic,  for  its  maximum  mag- 
netization is  about  one-tenth  that  of  good 
wrought  iron  (18  to  20  kilogauss),  or 
one-sixth  that  of  cast  iron  (10  to  12 
kilogauss).  Alloy  I  is  nearly  equal  in 
magnetic  properties  to  nickel,  which  can 
be  magnetized  up  to  about  5  kilogauss. 

MANGANESE  ALLOYS : 

Manganese  bronze  is  a  bronze  de- 
prived of  its  oxide  by  an  admixture  of 
manganese.  The  manganese  is  used  as 
copper  manganese  containing  10  to  30 
per  cent  manganese  and  added  to  the 
bronze  to  the  amount  of  0.5  to  2  per  cent. 

Manganese  Copper. — The  alloys  of 
copper  with  manganese  have  a  beauti- 
ful silvery  color,  considerable  ductility, 
great  hardness  and  tenacity,  and  'are 
more  readily  fusible  than  ordinary 
bronze.  A  special  characteristic  is  that 
they  exactly  fill  out  the  molds,  with- 
out the  formation  of  blowholes,  and  pre- 
sent no  difficulties  in  casting. 

Cupromanganese  is  suitable  for  many 
purposes  for  which  nothing  else  but 
bronze  can  advantageously  be  used,  and 
the  cost  of  its  production  is  no  greater 
than  that  of  genuine  bronze.  In  pre- 
paring the  alloy,  the  copper  is  used  in  the 
form  of  fine  grains,  obtained  by  pouring 
melted  copper  into  cold  water.  These 
copper  grains  are  mixed  with  the  dry 
oxide  of  manganese,  and  the  mixture  put 
into  a  crucible  holding  about  66  pounds. 
Enough  space  must  be  left  in  the  cruci- 
ble to  allow  a  thick  cover  of  charcoal, 
as  the  manganese  oxidizes  easily.  The 
crucible  is  placed  in  a  well-drawing 


wind  furnace  and  subjected  to  a  strong 
white  heat.  The  oxide  of  manganese  is 
completely  reduced  to  manganese,  which 
at  once  combines  with  the  copper  to  form 
an  alloy.  In  order  to  prevent,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  access  of  air  to  the  fusing 
mass,  it  is  advisable  to  cover  the  crucible 
with  a  lid  which  has  an  aperture  in  the 
center  for  the  escape  of  the  carbonic 
oxide  formed  during  the  reduction. 

When  the  reduction  is  complete  and 
the  metals  fused,  the  lid  is  removed  and 
the  contents  of  the  crucible  stirred  with 
an  iron  rod,  in  order  to  make  the  alloy 
as  homogeneous  as  possible.  By  re- 
peated remelting  of  the  cupromanganese 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  man- 
ganese is  reconverted  into  oxide;  it  is, 
therefore,  advisable  to  make  the  casts 
directly  from  the  crucible.  When  poured 
out,  the  alloy  rapidly  solidifies,  and  re- 
sembles in  appearance  good  German 
silver.  Another  reason  for  avoiding  re- 
melting  is  that  the  crucible  is  strongly 
attacked  by  the  cupromanganese,  and 
can  be  used  but  a  few  times. 

The  best  kinds  of  cupromanganese 
contain  between  10  and  30  per  cent  of 
manganese.  They  have  a  beautiful 
white  color,  are  hard,  tougher  than  cop- 
per, and  can  be  worked  under  the  ham- 
mer or  with  rolls.  Some  varieties  of 
cupromanganese  which  are  especially 
valuable  for  technical  purposes  are  given 
below: 

I      II     III  IV 

Copper 75     60     65     60 

Manganese.      25     25     20     20 

Zinc 15        5      .. 

Tin 10 

Nickel 10     10 

Manganin. — This  is  an  alloy  of  copper, 
nickel,  and  manganese  for  electric  re- 
sistances. 

MIRROR  ALLOYS : 

Amalgams  for  Mirrors. — I. — Tin,  70 
parts;  mercury,  30  parts. 

II. — For  curved  mirrors.  Tin,  1  part; 
lead,  1  part;  bismuth,  1  part;  mercury,  9 
parts. 

III.— For  glass  balls.  Tin,  80  parts; 
mercury,  20  parts. 

IV. — Metallic  cement.  Copper,  30 
parts;  mercury,  70  parts. 

V. — Mirror  metal. — Copper,  100  parts; 
tin,  50  parts;  Chinese  copper,  8  parts; 
lead,  1  part;  antimony,  I  part. 

Reflector  Metals.  —  I.  —  (Cooper's.) 
Copper,  35  parts;  platinum,  6;  zinc,  2; 
tin,  16.5;  arsenic,  1.  On  account  of  the 
hardness  of  this  alloy,  it  takes  a  very 
high  polish;  it  is  impervious  to  the  effects 
of  the  weather,  and  is  therefore  remark- 


ALLOYS 


ably  well  adapted  to  the  manufacture 
of  mirrors  for  fine  optical  instruments. 

II.  —  (Duppler's.)  Zinc,  20  parts;  sil- 
ver, 80  parts. 

III.— Copper,  66.22  parts;  tin,  33.11 
parts;  arsenic,  0.67  part. 

IV. — Copper,  64  parts;  tin,  32  parts; 
arsenic,  4  parts. 

V.— Copper,  82.18  parts;  lead,  9.22 
parts;  antimony,  8.60  parts. 

VI.  — (Little's.)  Copper,  69.01  parts; 
tin,  30.82  parts;  zinc,  2.44  parts;  arsenic, 
1.83  parts. 

Speculum  Metal. — Alloys  consisting 
of  2  parts  of  copper  and  1  of  tin  can 
be  very  brilliantly  polished,  and  will 
serve  for  mirrors.  Good  speculum  metal 
should  have  a  very  fine-grained  fracture, 
should  be  white  and  very  hard,  the  high- 
est degree  of  polish  depending  upon  these 
qualities.  A  composition  to  meet  these 
requirements  must  contain  at  least  35  to 
36  per  cent  of  copper.  Attempts  have 
frequently  been  made  to  increase  the 
hardness  of  speculum  metal  by  additions 
of  nickel,  antimony,  and  arsenic.  With 
the  exception  of  nickel,  these  substances 
have  the  effect  of  causing  the  metal  to 
lose  its  high  luster  easily,  any  consid- 
erable quantity  of  arsenic  in  particular 
having  this  effect. 

The  real  speculum  metal  seems  to  be 
a  combination  of  the  formula  Cu4Sn, 
composed  of  copper  68.21  per  cent,  tin 
31.7.  An  alloy  of  this  nature  is  some- 
times separated  from  ordnance  bronze 
by  incorrect  treatment,  causing  the  so- 
called  tin  spots;  but  this  has  not  the  pure 
white  color  which  distinguishes  the  spec- 
ulum metal  containing  31.5  per  cent  of  tin. 
By  increasing  the  percentage  of  copper 
the  color  gradually  shades  into  yellow; 
with  a  larger  amount  of  tin  into  blue.  It 
is  dangerous  to  increase  the  tin  too  much, 
as  this  changes  the  other  properties  of  the 
alloy,  and  it  becomes  too  brittle  to  be 
worked.  Below  is  a  table  showing  differ- 
ent compositions  of  speculum  metal.  The 
standard  alloy  is  undoubtedly  the  best. 

Arse-     Sil- 

Copper     Tin       Zinc       nic      ver 
Standard 

alloy 68.21    31.7 

Otto's 

alloy 68.5      31.5      

Richard- 

son's  alloy  65.3      30.0    0.7      2.        2. 
Sollit's     al- 
loy  64.6      31.3    4.1  Nickel 

Chinese 
speculum 
metal.  ..  80.83  .  ...  8.5  Anti- 


OldRoman  63.39  19.05 


mony 
17.29  Lead 


PALLADIUM  ALLOYS. 

I. — An  alloy  of  palladium  24  parts, 
gold  80,  is  white,  hard  as  steel,  unchange- 
able in  the  air,  and  can,  like  the  other 
alloys  of  palladium,  be  used  for  dental 
purposes. 

II.— Palladium  6  parts,  gold  18,  sil- 
ver 11,  and  copper  13,  gives  a  reddish- 
brown,  hard,  and  very  fine-grained 
alloy,  suitable  for  the  bearings  of  pivots 
in  clock  works. 

The  alloys  of  most  of  the  other  plati- 
num metals,  so  called,  are  little  used  on 
account  of  their  rarity  and  costliness. 
Iridium  and  rhodium  give  great  hardness 
to  steel,  but  the  commercial  rhodium 
and  iridium  steel,  so  called,  frequently 
contains  not  a  trace  of  either.  The  alloy 
of  iridium  with  osmium  has  great  hard- 
ness and  resistance  and  is  recommended 
for  pivots,  fine  instruments,  and  points 
of  ship  compasses. 

Palladium  Silver. — This  alloy,  com- 
posed of  9  parts  of  palladium  and  1  of 
silver,  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  den- 
tal purposes,  and  is  well  suited  to  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  teeth,  as  it  does 
not  oxidize.  An  alloy  even  more  fre- 
quently used  than  this  consists  of  plati- 
num 10  parts,  palladium  8,  and  gold  6. 

Palladium  Bearing  Metal. — This  alloy 
is  extremely  hard,  and  is  used  instead  of 
jewel  bearings  in  watches.  It  is  com- 
posed of  palladium  24  parts,  gold  72, 
silver  44,  copper  92. 

PLATINUM  ALLOYS. 

Platinum  has  usually  been  alloyed 
with  silver  in  goldsmith's  work,  2  parts 
silver  to  1  of  platinum  being  taken  to 
form  the  favorite  "platinum  silver." 
The  object  has  been  to  produce  an  alloy 
having  a  white  appearance,  which  can  be 
polished,  and  at  the  same  time  has  a 
low  melting  point.  In  addition  to  this 

Elatinum  alloy  the  following  are  well 
nown: 

I. — A  mixture  of  7  parts  platinum  with 
3  parts  iridium.  This  gives  to  platinum 
the  hardness  of  steel,  which  can  be  still 
further  increased  by  taking  4  parts  of 
iridium. 

II. — An  alloy  of  9  parts  platinum  and 
1  part  iridium  is  used  by  the  French  in 
the  manufacture  of  measuring  instru- 
ments of  great  resisting  power. 

Compounds  of  copper,  nickel,  cad- 
mium, and  tungsten  are  also  used  in  the 
construction  of  parts  of  watches;  the  lat- 
ter acquire  considerable  hardness  with- 
out becoming  magnetic  or  rusting  like 
steel. 

III. — For  this  purpose  a  compound  of 


ALLOYS 


62.75  parts  platinum,  18  parts  copper, 
1.25  parts  cadmium,  and  18  parts  nickel 
is  much  recommended. 

IV.  —  Very    ductile    platinum -copper 
alloys  have  also  been  made,  e.  g.,  the  so- 
called  Cooper  gold,  consisting  of  3  parts 
platinum  and  13  parts  copper,  which  is 
almost  equal  to  18-carat  gold  in  regard 
to  color,  finish,  and  ductility.     If  4  per 
cent  of   platinum  is  taken,  these  latter 
alloys  acquire  a  rose-red  color,  while  a 
golden-yellow  color  can  be  produced  by 
further  adding  from  1  to  2  per  cent  (in 
all  5  to  6  per  cent)  of  platinum.     The 
last-named  alloy  is  extensively  used  for 
ornaments,  likewise  alloy  V. 

V.  — ^?en     parts    platinum,    60    parts 
nickel,  and  220  parts  brass,  or  2  parts 
platinum,    1    part  nickel    and  silver  re- 
spectively,  2    parts    brass,   and   5    parts 
copper;  this  also  gives  a  golden-yellow 
color. 

VI. — Fqr  table  utensils  a  favorite  alloy 
is  composed  of  1  part  platinum,  100  parts 
nickel,  and  10  parts  tin.  Articles  made 
of  the  latter  alloy  are  impervious  to  at- 
mospheric action  and  keep  their  polish 
for  a  long  time.  Pure  white  platinum 
alloys  have  for  some  time  been  used  in 
dental  work,  and  they  have  also  proved 
serviceable  for  jewelry. 

VII. — A  mixture  of  30  parts  platinum, 
10  parts  gold,  and  3  parts  silver,  or  7 
parts  platinum,  2  parts  gold,  and  3  parts 
silver. 

VIII. — For  enameled  articles:  Plati- 
num, 35  parts;  silver,  65  parts.  First 
fuse  the  silver,  then  add  the  platinum 
in  the  spongy  form.  A  good  solder  for 
this  is  platinum  80  parts,  copper  20 
parts. 

IX. — For  pens:  Platinum,  4  parts; 
silver,  3  parts;  copper,  1  part. 

Platinum  Gold. — Small  quantities  of 
platinum  change  the  characteristics  of 
gold  in  many  respects.  With  a  small 
percentage  the  color  is  noticeably  lighter 
than  that  of  pure  gold,  and  the  alloys  are 
extremely  elastic;  alloys  containing  more 
than  20  per  cent  of  platinum,  however, 
almost  entirely  lose  their  elasticity.  The 
melting  point  of  the  platinum-gold  alloy 
is  high,  and  alloys  containing  70  per  cent 
of  platinum  can  be  fused  only  in  the 
flame  of  oxyhydrogen  gas,  like  platinum 
itself.  Alloys  with  a  smaller  percentage 
of  platinum  can  be  prepared  in  furnaces, 
but  require  the  strongest  white  heat. 
In  order  to  avoid  the  chance  of  an  im- 
perfect alloy  from  too  low  a  temperature, 
it  is  always  safer  to  fuse  them  with  the 
oxyhydrogen  flame.  The  alloys  of  plat- 
inum and  gold  have  a  somewhat  lim- 


ited application.  Those  which  contain 
from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  platinum  are 
used  for  sheet  and  wire  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artificial  teeth. 

Platinum-Gold  Alloys  for  Dental  Pur- 
poses.— 

I      II    III 

Platinum 6     14      10 

Gold 246 

Silver 1        6 

Palladium ....        8 

Platinum  Silver. — An  addition  of  plat- 
inum to  silver  makes  it  harder,  but  also 
more  brittle,  and  changes  the  white  color 
to  gray.  An  alloy  which  contains  only 
a  very  small  percentage  of  platinum  is 
noticeably  darker  in  color  than  pure 
silver.  Such  alloys  are  prepared  under 
the  name  of  platine  au  titre,  containing 
between  17  and  35  per  cent  of  plati- 
num. They  are  almost  exclusively  used 
for  dental  purposes. 

Imitation  Platinum. — I. — Brass,  100 
parts;  zinc,  65  parts. 

II. — Brass,  120  parts;  zinc,  75  parts. 

III. — Copper,  5  parts;  nickel,  4  parts; 
zinc,  li  parts;  antimony,  1  part;  lead,  1 
part;  iron,  1  part;  tin,  1  part. 

Cooper's  Pen  Metal.— This  alloy  is 
especially  well  adapted  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  pens,  on  account  of  its  great  hard- 
ness, elasticity,  and  power  of  resistance 
to  atmospheric  influences,  and  would 
certainly  have  superseded  steel  if  it  were 
possible  to  produce  it  more  cheaply  than 
is  the  case.  The  compositions  most  fre- 
quently used  for  pen  metal  are  copper 
1  part,  platinum  4,  and  silver  3;  or, 
copper  21,  platinum  50,  and  silver  36. 

Pens  have  been  manufactured,  con- 
sisting of  several  sections,  each  of  a  dif- 
ferent alloy,  suited  to  the  special  purpose 
of  the  part.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
sides  of  the  pen  are  made  of  the  elastic 
composition  just  described;  the  upper 
part  is  of  an  alloy  of  silver  and  platinum; 
and  the  point  is  made  either  of  minute  cut 
rubies  or  of  an  extremely  hard  alloy  of 
osmium  and  iridium,  joined  to  the  body 
of  the  pen  by  melting  in  the  flame  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe.  The  price  of 
such  pens,  made  of  expensive  materials 
and  at  the  cost  of  great  labor,  is  of  course 
exceedingly  high,  but  their  excellent 
qualities  repay  the  extra  expense.  They 
are  not  in  the  least  affected  by  any  kind 
of  ink,  are  most  durable,  and  can  be  used 
constantly  for  years  without  showing  any 
signs  of  wear. 

The  great  hardness  and  resistance  to 
the  atmosphere  of  Cooper's  alloys  make 
them  very  suitable  for  manufacturing; 


ALLOYS 


mathematical  instruments  where  great 
precision  is  required.  It  can  scarcely 
be  calculated  how  long  a  chronometer, 
for  instance,  whose  wheels  are  construct- 
ed of  this  alloy,  will  run  before  showing 
any  irregularities  due  to  wear.  In  the 
construction  of  such  instruments,  the 
price  of  the  material  is  not  to  be  taken 
into  account,  since  the  cost  of  the  labor 
in  their  manufacture  so  far  exceeds  this. 

PEWTER. 

This  is  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead  only, 
or  of  tin  with  antimony  and  copper. 
The  first  is  properly  called  pewter. 
Three  varieties  are  known  in  trade: 

I  (Plate   Pewter).— From  tin,  79   per 
cent;  antimony,  7  per  cent;  bismuth  and 
copper,    of   each   2   per   cent;   fused   to- 
gether.     Used  to  make  plates,  teapots, 
etc.     Takes  a  fine  polish. 

II  (Triple    Pewter).— From    tin,     79 
per  cent;  antimony,   15   per  cent;  lead, 
6  per  cent;  as  the  last.     Used  for  msxior 
articles,  syringes,  toys,  etc. 

III  (Ley     Pewter). — From     tin,     80 
per  cent;  lead,  20  per  cent.     Used  for 
measures,  inkstands,  etc. 

According  to  the  report  of  a  P^rench 
commission,  pewter  containing  more 
than  18  parts  of  lead  to  82  parts  of  tin  is 
unsafe  for  measures  for  wine  and  similar 
liquors,  and,  indeed,  for  any  other  uten- 
sils exposed  to  contact  with  food  or 
beverages.  The  legal  specific  gravity 
of  pewter  in  France  is  7.764;  if  it  be 
greater,  it  contains  an  excess  of  lead, 
and  is  liable  to  prove  poisonous.  The 
proportions  of  these  metals  may  be  ap- 
proximately determined  from  the  specific 
gravity;  but  correctly  only  by  an  assay 
for  the  purpose. 

SILVER  ALLOYS : 

Aluminum  Silver. — Aluminum  and 
silver  form  beautiful  white  alloys  which 
are  considerably  harder  than  pure  alu- 
minum, and  take  a  very  high  polish.  They 
have  the  advantage  over  copper  alloys 
of  being  unchanged  by  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  of  retaining  their  white  color. 

The  properties  of  aluminum  and  silver 
alloys  vary  considerably  according  to 
the  percentage  of  aluminum. 

I. — An  alloy  of  100  parts  of  aluminum 
and  5  parts  of  silver  is  very  similar  to 
pure  aluminum,  but  is  harder  and  takes 
a  finer  polish. 

II. — One  hundred  and  sixty-nine  parts 
of  aluminum  and  5  of  silver  make  an 
elastic  alloy,  recommended  for  watch 
springs  and  dessert  knives. 

III. — An  alloy  of  equal  parts  of  silver 
and  aluminum  is  as  hard  as  bronze. 


IV. — Five  parts  of  aluminum  and  1 
part  of  silver  make  an  alloy  that  is  eas- 
ily worked. 

V. — Also  aluminum,  3  parts,  and  sil- 
ver, 1  part. 

VI.  Tiers -Argent. —This  alloy  is  pre- 
pared chiefly  in  Paris,  and  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  various  utensils.  As  in- 
dicated by  its  name  (one-third  silver), 
it  consists  of  33.33  parts  of  silver  and 
66.66  parts  of  aluminum.  Its  advan- 
tages over  silver  consist  in  its  lower  price 
and  greater  hardness;  it  can  also  be 
stamped  and  engraved  more  easily  than 
the  alloys  of  copper  and  silver. 

VII. — This  is  a  hard  alloy  which  has 
been  found  very  useful  for  the  operating 
levers  of  certain  machines,  such  as  the 
spacing  lever  of  a  typewriter.  The  metal 
now  generally  used  for  this  purpose  by 
the  various  typewriter  companies  is  "alu- 
minum silver,"  or  "silver  metal."  The 
proportions  are  given  as  follows: 

Copper 57 . 00 

Nickel 20 . 00 

Zinc.. 20.00 

Aluminum 3.00 

This  alloy  when  used  on  typewriting 
machines  is  nickel-plated  for  the  sake  of 
the  first  appearance,  but  so  far  as  corro- 
sion is  concerned,  nickeling  is  unneces- 
sary. The  alloy  is  stiff  and  strong  and 
cannot  be  bent  to  any  extent  without 
breaking,  especially  if  the  percentage  of 
aluminum  is  increased  to  3.5  per  cent; 
it  casts  free  from  pinholes  and  blow» 
holes;  the  liquid  metal  completely  fills 
the  mold,  giving  sharp,  clean  castings, 
true  to  pattern;  its  cost  is  not  greater 
than  brass;  its  color  is  silver  white, 
and  its  hardness  makes  it  susceptible  to 
a  high  polish. 

Arsenic. — Alloys  which  contain  small 
quantities  of  arsenic  are  very  ductile, 
have  a  beautiful  white  color,  and  were 
formerly  used  in  England  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  tableware.  They  are  not, 
however,  suitable  for  this  purpose,  on 
account  of  the  poisonous  character  of 
the  arsenic.  They  are  composed  usually 
of  49  parts  of  silver,  49  of  copper,  and  2 
of  arsenic. 

China  Silver. — Copper,  65.24  per  cent; 
tin,  19.52  per  cent;  nickel,  13.00  per  cent; 
silver,  2.05  per  cent. 

Copper -Silver. — When  silver  is  alloyed 
with  copper  only  one  proportion  is  known 
which  will  give  a  uniform  casting.  The 
proportion  is  72  per  cent  silver  to  28  per 
cent  copper.  With  more  silver  than  72 
per  cent  the  center  of  a  cast  bar  will  be 


ALLOYS 


richer  than  the  outside,  which  chills 
first;  while  with  a  less  percentage  than 
72  per  cent  the  center  of  the  bar  will  be 
poorer  and  the  outside  richer  than  the 
average.  This  characteristic  of  silver- 
copper  alloys  is  known  to  metallurgists 
as  "segregation." 

When  nickel  is  added  to  the  silver  and 
copper,  several  good  alloys  may  be 
formed,  as  the  following  French  com- 
positions: 

I  II  III 

Silver 33  40  20 

Copper.  .  .  .  37-42  30-40  45-55 
Nickel 25-30  20-30  25-35 

The  whitening  of  alloys  of  silver  and 
copper  is  best  accomplished  by  anneal- 
ing the  alloy  until  it  turns  black  on  the 
surface.  Cool  in  a  mixture  of  20  parts,  by 
weight,  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to 
1,000  parts  of  distilled  water  and  leave 
therein  for  some  time.  In  place  of  the 
sulphuric  acid,  40  parts  of  potassium 
bisulphate  may  be  used  per  1,000  parts 
of  liquid.  Repeat  the  process  if  neces- 
sary. 

Copper,  Silver,  and  Cadmium  Alloys. 
— Cadmium  added  to  silver  alloys  gives 
great  flexibility  and  ductility,  without 
affecting  the  white  color;  these  proper- 
ties are  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of 
silver-plated  ware  and  wire.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  metals  vary  in  these  al- 
loys. Some  of  the  most  important  vari- 
eties are  given  below. 

Silver     Copper   Cadmium 

1 980          15  5 

II 950          15  35 

III 900          18  82 

IV 860          20          180 

V 666         25         309 

VI 667         50         284 

VII 500         50         450 

In  preparing  these  alloys,  the  great 
volatility  of  cadmium  must  be  taken 
into  account.  It  is  customary  to  pre- 
pare first  the  alloy  of  silver  and  copper, 
and  add  the  cadmium,  which,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  alloys  of  silver  and  zinc,  must 
be  wrapped  in  paper.  After  putting  it 
in,  the  mass  is  quickly  stirred,  and  the 
alloy  poured  immediately  into  the  molds. 
This  is  the  surest  way  to  prevent  the 
volatilization  of  the  cadmium. 

Silver,  Copper,  Nickel,  and  Zinc  Alloys. 
— These  alloys,  from  the  metals  con- 
tained in  them,  may  be  characterized  as 
argentan  or  German  silver  with  a  cer- 
tain percentage  of  silver.  They  have 
been  used  for  making  small  coins,  as  in 
the  older  coins  of  Switzerland.  Being 
quite  hard,  they  have  the  advantage  of 


wearing  well,  but  soon  lose  their  beau- 
tiful white  color  and  take  on  a  disagree- 
able shade  of  yellow,  like  poor  brass. 
The  silver  contained  in  them  can  be 
regained  only  by  a  laborious  process, 
which  is  a  great  drawback  to  their  use 
in  coinage.  The  composition  of  the 
Swiss  fractional  coins  is  as  follows: 

20  cen-      10  cen-         5  cen- 
times        times  times 

Silver 15  10  5 

Copper 50  55  ,        60 

Nickel.... 25  25  25 

Zinc 10  10  10 

Mousset's  Alloy.— Copper,  59.06;  sil- 
ver, 27.56;  zinc,  9.57;  nickel,  3.42.  This 
alloy  is  yellowish  with  a  reddish  tinge, 
but  white  on  the  fractured  surface.  It 
ranks  next  after  Argent- Ruolz,  which 
also  contains  sometimes  certain  quanti- 
ties of  zinc,  and  in  this  case  may  be 
classed  together  with  the  alloy  just  de- 
scribed. The  following  alloys  can  be 
rolled  into  sheet  or  drawn  into  wire: 


Silver 33.3 

Copper 41.8 

Nickel 8.6 

Zinc..             .  16.3 


II 

34 

42 

8 

16 


III 

40.0 

44.6 

4.6 

10.8 


Japanese  (Gray)  Silver. — An  alloy  is 
prepared  in  Japan  which  consists  of 
equal  parts  of  copper  and  silver,  and 
which  is  given  a  beautiful  gray  color  by 
boiling  in  a  solution  of  alum,  to  which 
copper  sulphate  and  verdigris  are  added. 
The  so-called  "mokum,"  also  a  Japanese 
alloy,  is  prepared  by  placing  thin  plates 
of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  the  alloy  just 
described  over  each  other  and  stretch- 
ing them  under  the  hammer.  The  cross 
sections  of  the  thin  plates  obtained  in 
this  way  show  the  colors  of  the  different 
metals,  which  give  them  a  peculiar 
striped  appearance.  Mokum  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  decorations  upon  gold 
and  silver  articles. 

Silver-Zinc. — Silver  and  zinc  have 
great  affinity  for  each  other,  and  alloys 
of  these  two  metals  are  therefore  easily 
made.  The  required  quantity  of  zinc, 
wrapped  in  paper,  is  thrown  into  the 
melted  and  strongly  heated  silver,  the 
mass  is  thoroughly  stirred  with  an  iron 
rod,  and  at  once  poured  out  into  molds. 
Alloys  of  silver  and  zinc  can  be  obtained 
which  are  both  ductile  and  flexible.  An 
alloy  consisting  of  2  parts  of  zinc  and  1 
of  silver  closely  resembles  silver  in  color, 
and  is  quite  ductile.  With  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  zinc  the  alloy  becomes  brittle. 
In  preparing  the  alloy,  a  somewhat  larger 
quantity  of  zinc  must  be  taken  than  the 


ALLOYS 


77 


finished  alloy  is  intended  to  contain,  as  a 
small  amount  always  volatilizes. 

Imitation  Silver  Alloys. — There  are  a 
number  of  alloys,  composed  of  different 
metals,  which  resemble  silver,  and  may 
be  briefly  mentioned  here. 

I. — Warne's  metal  is  composed  of  tin 
10  parts,  bismuth  7,  and  cobalt  3.  It 
is  white,  fine-grained,  but  quite  difficult 
to  fuse. 

II. — Tonca's  metal  contains  coppei  5 
parts,  nickel  4,  tin  1,  lead  1,  iron  1, 
zinc  1,  antimony  1.  It  is  hard,  difficult 
to  fuse,  not  very  ductile,  and  cannot  be 
recommended. 

III. — Trabuk  metal  contains  tin  87.5, 
nickel  5.5,  antimony  5,  bismuth  5. 

IV. — Tourun-Leonard's  metal  is  com- 
posed of  500  parts  of  tin  and  64  of  bell 
metal. 

V. — Silveroid  is  an  alloy  of  copper, 
nickel,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead. 

VI.— Minargent.  Copper,  100  parts; 
nickel,  70  parts;  tungsten,  5  parts;  alu- 
minum, 1  part. 

VII. — Nickel,  23  parts;  aluminum, 
5  parts;  copper,  5  parts;  iron,  65  parts; 
tungsten,  4  parts. 

VIII.— Argasoid.  Tin,  4.035;  lead, 
3.544;  copper,  55.780;  nickel,  13.406; 
zinc,  23.198;  iron,  trace. 

SOLDERS : 

See  Solders. 

STEEL  ALLOYS: 

See  also  Steel. 

For  Locomotive  Cylinders. — This  mix- 
ture consists  of  20  per  cent  steel  castings, 
old  steel,  springs,  etc.;  20  per  cent  No.  2 
coke  iron,  and  60  per  cent  scrap.  From 
this  it  is  stated  a  good  solid  metal  can  be 
obtained,  the  castings  being  free  from 
honeycombing,  and  finishing  better  than 
the  ordinary  cast-iron  mixture,  over  which 
it  has  the  advantage  of  24  per  cent  great- 
er strength.  Its  constituents  are:  Sili- 
con, 1.51;  manganese,  0.33;  phosphorus, 
0.65;  sulphur,  0.068;  combined  carbon, 
0.62;  graphite,  2.45. 

Nickel  steel  is  composed  of  nickel  36 
per  cent,  steel  64  per  cent. 

Tungsten  steel  is  crucible  steel  with 
5  to  12  per  cent  tungsten. 

STEREOTYPE  METAL. 

>     Lead 2  parts 

Tin 3  parts 

Bismuth 5  parts 

The  melting  point  of  this  alloy  is  196° 
F.  The  alloy  is  rather  costly  because 
of  the  amount  of  bismuth  which  it 
contains.  The  following  mixtures  are 
cheaper: 


Tin  ........ 

Lead  ....... 

Bismuth  ____ 

Antimony 


I     II  III 

131 
1       5     1.5 

283 


IV 

2 
2 
5 
1 


TIN  ALLOYS: 

Alloys  for  Dentists'  Molds  and  Dies. 
—I.  —  Very  hard.  Tin,  16  parts;  anti- 
mony, 1  part;  zinc,  1  part. 

II.—  Softer  than  the  former.  Tin,  8 
parts;  zinc,  1  part;  antimony,  1  part. 

III.  —  Very  hard.  Tin,  12  parts;  an- 
timony, 2  parts;  copper,  1  part. 

Cadmium  Alloy,  about  the  Hardness 
of  Zinc.  —  Tin,  10  parts;  antimony,  1  part; 
cadmium,  1  part. 

Tin-Lead.  —  Tin  is  one  of  those  metals 
which   is    not   at  all   susceptible   to   the 
action  of  acids,  while  lead,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  very  easily  attacked  by  them. 
In  such   alloys,    consequently,    used  for 
cooking    utensils,    the    amount    of    lead 
must  be  limited,  and  should  properly  not 
exceed  10  or  15  per  cent;  but  cases  have 
been  known  in  which  the  so-called  tin  con- 
tained a  third  part,  by  weight,  of  lead. 

Alloys  containing  from   10  to  15  per 
cent  of  lead  have  a  beautiful  white  color, 
are  considerably  harder  than  pure  tin, 
and  much  cheaper.      Many  alloys  of  tin 
and  lead  are  very  lustrous,  and  are  used 
for  stage  jewelry  and  mirrors  for  reflect- 
ing the  light  of  lamps,  etc.      An  especially 
brilliant    alloy   is    called    "Fahlun    bril- 
liants."    It  is  used  for  stage  jewelry,  and 
consists  of  29  parts  of  tin  and  19  of  lead. 
It  is  poured  into  molds    faceted   in   the 
same  way  as  diamonds,  and  when  seen 
by  artificial  light,  the  effect  is  that  of  dia- 
monds.     Other  alloys  of  tin  and  lead  are 
employed  in  the   manufacture   of  toys. 
These    must   fill    the    molds    well,   and 
must   also   be   cheap,    and   therefore   as 
much   as   50   per  cent   of  lead  is   used. 
Toys  can  also  be  made  from  type  metal, 
which  is   even  cheaper  than  the  alloys 
of  tin  and  lead,  but  has  the  disadvantage 
of   readily   breaking   if   the   articles   are 
sharply    bent.     The    alloys    of    tin    and 
lead  give  very  good  castings,  if  sharp  iron 
or  brass  molds  are  used. 

Lead  ...............    19  parts 

Tin  ................    29  parts 

This  alloy  is  very  bright  and  possesses 
a  permanent  sheen.  It  is  well  adapted 
for  the  making  of  artificial  gems  for 
stage  use.  It  is  customary  in  carrying 
out  the  process  to  start  with  two  parts  of 
tin  and  one  part  of  lead.  Tin  is  added 
until  a  sample  drop  which  is  allowed  to 
fall  upon  an  iron  plate  forms  a  mirror. 
The  artificial  gems  are  produced  by 


78 


ALLOYS 


dipping  into  the  molten  alloy  pieces  of 
glass  cut  to  the  proper  shape.  The  tin 
coating  of  metal  which  adheres  to  the 
glass  cools  rapidly  and  adheres  tena- 
ciously. Outwardly  these  artificial  gems 
appear  rough  and  gray,  but  inwardly  they 
are  highly  reflective  and  quite  deceptive 
when  seen  in  artificial  light. 

If  the  reflective  surfaces  be  coated 
with  red,  blue,  or  green  aniline,  various 
colored  effects  can  be  obtained.  In- 
stead of  fragile  glass  the  gems  may  be 
produced  by  means  of  well-polished 
pieces  of  steel  or  bronze. 

Other  Tin-Lead   Alloys. —  Percentage 
of  lead  and  specific  gravity. 
P.O.  S.G.     P.O.  S.  G. 

0 7.290     28 8.105 

1 7.316     29 8.137 

2 7.342     30 8.169 

3 7.369     31 8.202 

4 7.396     32 8.235 

5 7.423     33 8.268 

6 7.450     34 8.302 

7 7.477     35 8.336 

8 7.505     36 8.379 

9 7.533     37 8.405 

10 7.562     38 8.440 

11 7.590     39 8.476 

12 7.619     40 8.512 

13 7.648     41 8.548 

14 7.677     42 8.584 

15 7.706     43 8.621 

16 7.735     44 8.658 

17 7.764     45 8.695 

18 7.794     46 8.732 

19 7.824     47 8.770 

20 7.854     48 8.808 

21 7.885     49 8.846 

22 7.916     50 8.884 

23 7.947     60 9.299 

24 7.978     70 9.736 

25 8.009     80 10.225 

26 8.041      90 10.767 

27 8.073   100 11.370 

Tin  Statuettes,  Buttons,  etc.— 

I.— Tin 4  parts 

Lead 3  parts 

This  is  a  very  soft  solder  which  sharp- 
ly reproduces  all  details. 

Another  easily  fusible  alloy  but  some- 
what harder,  is  the  following: 

II.— Tin 8  parts 

Lead 6  parts 

Antimony 0.5  part 

Miscellaneous  Tin  Alloys. — I. — Alger 

Metal. — Tin,    90    parts;    antimony,    10 

parts.  This  alloy  is  suitable  as  a  protector. 

II.  Argentine  Metal. — Tin,  85.5  per  cent; 

antimony,  14.5  per  cent. 

III. — Ashberry  metal  is  composed  of 
78  to  82  parts  of  tin,  16  to  20  of  antimony, 
2  to  3  of  copper. 


IV.  Quen's  Metal.— Tin,  9  parts;  lead, 
1  part;  antimony,  1  part;  bismuth,  1  part. 

Type  Metal. — An  alloy  which  is  to 
serve  for  type  metal  must  be  readily 
cast,  fill  out  the  molds  sharply,  and 
be  as  hard  as  possible.  It  is  difficult  to 
satisfy  all  these  requirements,  but  an 
alloy  of  antimony  and  lead  answers  the 
purpose  best.  At  the  present  day  there 
are  a  great  many  formulas  for  type 
metal  in  which  other  metals  besides 
lead  and  antimony  are  used,  either  to 
make  the  alloy  more  readily  fusible,  as 
in  the  case  of  additions  of  bismuth,  or 
to  give  it  greater  power  of  resistance, 
the  latter  being  of  especial  importance 
for  types  that  are  subjected  to  constant 
use.  Copper  and  iron  have  been  rec- 
ommended for  this  purpose,  but  the 
fusibility  of  the  alloys  is  greatly  im- 
paired by  these,  and  the  manufacture  of 
the  types  is  consequently  more  difficult 
than  with  an  alloy  of  lead  and  antimony 
alone.  In  the  following  table  some  al- 
loys suitable  for  casting  type  are  given: 

T_OJ  Anti-  Cop-  Bis-  y.         rr.-     Nick- 

Lead  mony  per  muth Zmc    Tm      el 

I       3  1        ..       ..       

II       5  1         

III  10  1        

IV  10  2        ..        1 

V     70  18  2      ..      ..      10      .. 

VI     60       20        ....      . .      20 

VII     55       25        20      .. 

VIII     55       30        15      .. 

IX   100       30         8       2      ..      20        8 
X       6        ..          4      ..      90      .... 

The  French  and  English  types  contain 
a  certain  amount  of  tin,  as  shown  by  the 
following  analyses: 

English  Types  '       Drench 
I  II          III 

Lead 69.2     61.3     55.0       55 

Antimony...      19.5      18.8     22.7       30 

Tin 9.1     20.2     22.1       15 

Copper 1.7      

Ledebur  gives  the  composition  of  type 
metal  as  follows: 

I          II         III         IV 

Lead 75         60         80         82 

Antimony...      23          25          20          14.8 

Tin 22          15          ..  3.2 

WATCHMAKERS'  ALLOYS: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 
WHITE  METALS. 

The  so-called  white  metals  are  em- 
ployed almost  exclusively  for  bearings. 
(See  Anti-friction  Metals  under  Alloys.) 
In  the  technology  of  mechanics  an  ac- 
curate distinction  is  made  between  the 
different  kinds  of  metals  for  bearings; 
and  they  may  be  classed  in  two  groups, 
red  brass  and  white  metal.  The  red- 


ALLOYS 


79 


brass  bearings  are  characterized  by  great 
hardness  and  power  of  resistance,  and 
are  principally  used  for  bearings  of  heav- 
ily loaded  and  rapidly  revolving  axles. 
For  the  axles  of  large  and  heavy  fly- 
wheels, revolving  at  great  speed,  bearings 
of  red  brass  are  preferable  to  white  metal, 
though  more  expensive. 

In  recent  years  many  machinists  have 
found  it  advantageous  to  substitute  for 
the  soft  alloys  generally  in  use  for  bear- 
ings a  metal  almost  as  hard  as  the  axle 
itself.  Phosphor  bronze  (q.  v.)  is  fre- 
quently employed  for  this  purpose,  as  it 
can  easily  be  made  as  hard  as  wrought 
or  cast  steel.  In  this  case  the  metal  is 
used  in  a  thin  layer,  and  serves  only, 
as  it  were,  to  fill  out  the  small  interstices 
caused  by  wear  on  the  axle  and  bearing, 
the  latter  being  usually  made  of  some 
rather  easily  fusible  alloy  of  lead  and  tin. 
Such  bearings  are  very  durable,  but  ex- 
pensive, and  can  only  be  used  for  large 
machines.  For  small  machines,  ?*»£- 
ning  gently  and  uniformly,  wrhite-metal 
bearings  are  preferred,  and  do  excellent 
work,  if  the  axle  is  not  too  heavily  loaded. 
For  axles  which  have  a  high  rate  of  revo- 
lution, bearings  made  of  quite  hard 
metals  are  chosen,  and  with  proper  care 
— which,  indeed,  must  be  given  to  bear- 
ings of  any  material — they  will  last  for  a 
long  time  without  needing  repair. 


:  :  :  :8 


J888  i8  i   888 


500 
>O*O 


8888885S$.gS8  i  £888888 

10  c<i  o  <o  co  o  «o  i>  cO  pi  10    •    •  oi  06 1>  »o  <N  c<i  I-H 

000000t>-       O500i-Hl>t>-i-(     •     •  t^ CO .-H »O  <— i 


Illllll 


iliifiss 

«  o  ®«.e,«3  o  o 


OoOHKW^&;feWWtf>>00 


Other  white  bearing  metals  are: 

XXI. — Tin,  8.5;  antimony,  10;  cop- 
per, 5  parts. 

XXII.— Tin,  42;  antimony,  16;  lead, 
42  parts. 

XXIII. — Tin,  72;  antimony,  26;  cop- 
per, 2  parts. 

XXIV. —Tin,  81;  antimony,  12.5; 
copper,  6.5  parts. 

White    Metals    Based    on    Copper.  — 

I. — Copper,  65  parts;  arsenic,  55  parts. 

II. — Copper,  64  parts;  arsenic,  50 
parts. 

III. — Copper,  10  parts;  zinc,  20  parts; 
nickel,  30  parts. 

IV.— Nickel,  70  parts;  copper,  30 
parts;  zinc,  20  parts. 

V. — Nickel,  60  parts;  copper,  30  parts; 
zinc,  30  parts, 

VI. — Copper,  8  parts;  nickel,  4  parts; 
zinc,  4  parts. 

VII. — Copper,  10  parts;  nickel,  5 
parts;  zinc,  5  parts. 

VIII.— Copper,  8  parts;  nickel,  3 
parts;  zinc,  4  parts. 

IX. — Copper,  50  parts;  nickel,  25 
parts;  zinc,  25  parts. 

X. — Copper,  55  parts;  nickel,  24 
parts;  zinc,  21  parts. 

XI. — Copper,  55  parts;  nickel,  24  parts; 
zinc,  16  parts;  iron,  2  parts;  tin,  3  parts. 

IX,  X,  and  XI  are  suitable  for  table- 
ware. 

XII. — Copper,  67  parts,  and  arsenic, 
53  parts. 

XIII. — Copper,  63  parts,  and  arsenic, 
57  parts. 

XII  and  XIII  are  bright  gray,  un- 
affected by  the  temperature  of  boiling  wa- 
ter; they  are  fusible  at  red  heat. 

White  Metals  Based  on  Platinum.— 

I. — Platinum,  1  part;  copper,  4  parts; 
or  platinum,  1*  parts;  copper,  3£  parts. 

II. — Platinum,  10  parts;  tin,  90  parts; 
or  platinum,  8  parts;  tin,  92  parts. 

III. — Platinum,  7  parts;  copper,  13 
parts;  tin,  80  parts. 

IV.— Platinum,  2  parts;  steel,  98  parts. 

V.— Platinum,  2.5  parts;  steel,  97.5 
parts. 

IV  and  V  are  for  gun  metal. 

Miscellaneous  White-Metal  Alloys. — 

I. — For  lining  cross-head  slides:  Lead, 
65  parts;  antimony,  25  parts;  copper, 
10  parts.  Some  object  to  white  metal 
containing  lead  or  zinc.  It  has  been 
found,  however,  that  lead  and  zinc 
have  properties  of  great  use  in  these 
alloys. 

II. — Tin,  85  parts;  antimony,  7£ 
parts;  copper,  7i  parts. 

III. — Tin,  90  parts;  copper,  3  parts; 
antimony,  7  parts. 


80 


ALUMINUM   AND   ITS   TREATMENT 


ZINC  ALLOYS: 

Bidery  Metal.  —  This  is  sometimes 
composed  of  31  parts  of  zinc,  2  parts  of 
copper,  and  2  parts  of  lead;  the  whole  is 
melted  on  a  layer  of  rosin  or  wax  to  avoid 
oxidation.  This  metal  is  very  resistive; 
it  does  not  oxidize  in  air  or  moisture.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  town  of  Bider, 
near  Hyderabad  (India),  where  it  was 
prepared  for  the  first  time  industrially 
for  the  manufacture  of  different  utensils. 

Other  compositions  of  Indian  Bidery 
metal  (frequently  imitated  in  England) 
are  about  as  follows: 


P.O. 
Copper. . .      3.5 

Zinc 93.4 

Tin 

Lead..  3.1 


P.O. 

11.4 

84.3 

1.4 

2.9 


P.O. 

16 

112 

2 
4 


Erhardt  recommends  the  following  as 
being  both  ductile  and  hard: 

Zinc 89  to  93 

Tin 9  to    6 

Lead 2  to    4 

Copper 2  to    4 

The  tin  is  first  melted,  and  the  lead, 
zinc,  and  copper  added  successively. 

Zinc -Nickel. —Zinc,  90  parts;  nickel, 
10  parts.  Used  in  powder  form  for 
painting  and  cloth  printing  purposes. 

Platine  for  Dress  Buttons. — Copper, 
43  parts;  zinc,  57  parts. 

UNCLASSIFIED  ALLOYS : 

Alloys  for  Drawing  Colors  on  Steel. — 
Alloys  of  various  composition  are  suc- 
cessfully used  for  drawing  colors  on  steel. 
To  draw  to  a  straw  color  use  2  parts  of 
lead  and  1  part  of  tin,  and  melt  in  an 
iron  ladle.  Hold  the  steel  piece  to  be 
drawn  in  the  alloy  as  it  melts  and  it  will 
turn  to  straw  color.  This  mixture  melts 
at  a  temperature  of  about  437°  F.  For 
darker  yellow  use  9  parts  of  lead  to  4 
parts  of  tin,  which  melts  at  458°  F.  For 
purple,  use  3  parts  of  lead  to  1  part 
of  tin,  the  melting  temperature  being 
482°  F.  For  violet,  use  9  parts  of  lead 
to  2  parts  of  tin,  which  melts  at  494°  F. 
Lead  without  any  alloy  will  draw  steel 
to  a  dark  blue.  The  above  apply  to 
steel  only  since  iron  requires  a  somewhat 
greater  neat  and  is  more  or  less  uncer- 
tain in  handling. 

Alloy  for  Pattern  Letters  and  Figures. 
— A  good  alloy  for  casting  pattern  letters 
and  figures  and  similar  small  parts  of 
brass,  iron,  or  plaster  molds,  is  made  of 
lead  80  parts,  and  antimony  20  parts. 
A  better  alloy  will  be  lead  70  parts,  an- 


timony and  bismuth  each  15  parts.  To 
insure  perfect  work  the  molds  should 
be  quite  hot  by  placing  them  over  a  Bun- 
sen  burner. 

Alloy  for  Caliper  and  Gage -Rod  Cast- 
ings.— A  mixture  of  30  parts  zinc  to  70 
parts  aluminum  gives  a  light  and  durable 
alloy  for  gage  rods  and  caliper  legs;  the 
gage  rods  must  be  steel  tipped,  for  the 
alloy  is  soft  and  wears  away  too  rapidly 
for  gage  points. 

Alloys  for  Small  Casting  Molds.— Tin, 
75  parts,  and  lead,  22  parts;  or  75  parts 
of  zinc  and  25  parts  of  tin;  or  30  parts  of 
tin  and  70  parts  of  lead;  or  60  parts  of 
lead  and  40  parts  of  bismuth. 

ALLOYS  FOR  METAL  FOIL: 
See  Metal  Foil. 

ALMOND  COLD  CREAM: 
See   Cosmetics. 

ALMOND  LIQUEURS: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

ALTARS,  Tp  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

ALUM : 

Burnt  Alum. — I. — Heat  the  alum  in  a 
porcelain  dish  or  other  suitable  vessel 
till  it  liquefies,  then  raise  and  continue 
the  heat,  not  allowing  it  to  exceed  400°, 
till  aqueous  vapor  ceases  to  be  disen- 
gaged, and  the  salt  has  lost  47  per  cent  of 
its  weight.  Reduce  the  residue  to  pow- 
der, and  preserve  it  in  a  well-stoppered 
bottle.  — Cooley. 

II. — Heat  ordinary  alum  (alumina 
alum)  with  constant  stirring  in  an  iron 
pan  in  which  it  will  first  melt  quietly, 
and  then  commence  to  form  blisters. 
Continue  heating  until  a  dry  white  mass 
of  a  loose  character  remains,  which  is 
powdered  and  kept  in  well-closed  glasses. 

ALUM  BATH: 
See  Photography. 


Aluminum  and  its  Treatment 

HOW  TO  COLOR  ALUMINUM: 

Blanching  of  Aluminum. — Aluminum 
is  one  of  the  metals  most  inalterable  by 
air;  nevertheless,  the  objects  of  aluminum 
tarnish  quickly  enough  without  being 


ALUMINUM   AND    ITS   TREATMENT 


81 


Altered.  They  may  be  restored  to  their 
mat  whiteness  in  the  following  manner: 
Immerse  the  aluminum  articles  in  a 
boiling  bath  of  caustic  potash;  next 
plunge  them  quickly  into  nitric  acid, 
rinse  and  let  dry.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  this  method  is  applicable  only 
to  pieces  entirely  of  aluminum. 

Decolorized  Aluminum. — Gray  or  un- 
sightly aluminum  may  be  restored  to  its 
white  color  by  washing  with  a  mixture 
of  30  parts  of  borax  dissolved  in  1,000 
parts  of  water,  with  a  few  drops  of  am- 
monia added. 

Mat  Aluminum. — In  order  to  impart 
to  aluminum  the  appearance  of  mat 
silver,  plunge  the  article  into  a  hot  bath 
composed  of  a  10-per-cent  solution  of 
caustic  soda  saturated  with  kitchen  salt. 
Leave  it  in  the  bath  for  15  to  20  seconds, 
then  wash  and  brush;  put  back  into  the 
bath  for  half  a  minute,  wash  anew  and 
dry  in  sawdust. 

To  Blacken  Aluminum. — I. — The  sur- 
face of  the  sheet  to  be  colored  is  polished 
with  very  fine  emery  powder  or  finest 
emery  cloth.  After  polishing  pour  a 
thin  layer  of  olive  oil  over  the  surface 
and  heat  slowly  over  an  alcohol  flame. 
Large  sheets  must,  of  course,  be  heated 
in  the  drying  oven.  After  a  short  while 
pour  on  oil  again,  in  order  to  obtain  ab- 
solute uniformity  of  the  coating,  and  heat 
the  plate  once  more.  Under  the  action 
of  the  heat  the  plate  turns  first  brown, 
then  black,  according  to  the  degrees  of 
heat.  When  the  desired  coloration  has 
been  attained,  the  plate  is  polished  over 
again,  after  cooling,  with  a  woolen  rag 
or  soft  leather. 

II.— White  arsenic 1  ounce 

Sulphate  of  iron  ....      1  ounce 
Hydrochloric  acid  .  .    12  ounces 

Water 12  ounces 

When  the  arsenic  and  iron  are  dis- 
solved by  the  acid  add  the  water.  The 
aluminum  to  be  blackened  should  be 
well  cleaned  with  fine  emery  powder 
and  washed  before  immersing  in  the 
blackening  solution.  When  the  deposit 
of  black  is  deep  enough  dry  off  with  fine 
sawdust  and  lacquer. 

Decorating  Aluminum.— A  process  for 
decorating  aluminum,  patented  in  Ger- 
many, prescribes  that  the  objects  be  first 
corroded,  which  is  usually  done  with 
caustic  soda  lye,  or,  better  still,  by  a  new 
method  which  consists  in  heating  3  parts 
of  sulphuric  acid  with  1  part  of  water  to 
140°  to  158°  F.,  in  an  enameled  vessel. 
Into  this  liquid  dip  the  aluminum  arti- 


cles, rinsing  them  off  clean  and  then  dry- 
ing them  well.  The  corroded  articles 
are  now  placed  in  a  bath  consisting  of 
1,000  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent), 
1.50  parts  of  antimony,  250  parts  of 
chemically  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  100 
parts  of  manganous  nitrate,  and  20  parts 
of  purified  and  finally  elutriated  graph- 
ite. In  this  bath,  which  is  heated  to 
86°-95°  F.,  the  objects  are  left  until 
fumes  develop  around  them,  which  takes 
place  in  a  few  seconds.  Now  they  are 
put  over  a  coal  fire  or  similar  arrange- 
ment until  the  alcohol  is  burned  up  and 
there  is  no  more  smoke.  After  they  are 
somewhat  cooled  off,  they  are  laid  into 
cold  water  and  worked  with  a  brush,  then 
rinsed  with  water  and  well  dried.  The 
pieces  are  now  provided  with  a  gray  me- 
tallic coating,  consisting  mainly  of  anti- 
mony, manganese,  and  graphite.  This 
metallic  layer  renders  them  capable  of  re- 
ceiving a  lacquer  which  is  best  prepared 
from  1,000  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent), 
50  parts  of  sandarac,  100  parts  of  shellac, 
and  100  parts  of  nigrosine  (black  aniline 
color).  Then  the  articles  are  quickly 
but  thoroughly  rinsed  off,  dried  in 
warmed  air  for  a  few  minutes,  and  baked 
in  ovens  or  over  a  moderate  coal  fire 
until  they  do  not  smoke  any  more  and  no 
more  gloss  can  be  seen.  Finally  they 
are  rubbed  with  a  cotton  rag  saturated 
with  thin  linseed-oil  varnish,  and  the  ob- 
jects thus  treated  now  appear  dull  black, 
like  velvet.  The  covering  withstands  all 
action  of  the  weather,  so  that  cooking 
vessels  coated  with  this  varnish  on  the 
outside  can  be  placed  on  the  fire  without 
injury  to  the  coating.  If  the  articles  are 
engraved,  the  aluminum  appears  almost 
glossy  white  under  the  black  layer  at  the 
engraved  places.  When  the  pieces  have 
been  provided  with  the  gray  metallic 
coating,  colored  lacquer  may  also  be 
applied  with  the  brush.  In  this  manner 
paintings,  etc.,  may  be  done  on  alu- 
minum, while  not  possible  on  unprepared 
aluminum  surfaces,  which  will  not  retain 
them. 

Making  Castings  in  Aluminum. — The 
method  adopted  in  preparing  molds 
and  cores  for  aluminum  work  is  neces- 
sarily somewhat  the  same  as  for  brass, 
but  there  are  particular  points  which 
need  attention  to  insure  successful  work. 
Both  in  the  sand  and  the  making  of  the 
molds  there  are  some  small  differences 
which  make  considerable  variation  in 
the  results,  and  the  temperature  at  which 
the  metal  is  poured  is  a  consideration  of 
some  importance. 

In  selecting  the  sand,   which  should 


ALUMINUM   AND   ITS   TREATMENT 


not  have  been  previously  used,  that  of  a 
fine  grain  should  be  chosen,  but  it  should 
not  have  any  excess  of  aluminous  matter, 
or  it  will  not  permit  of  the  free  escape 
of  gases  and  air,  this  being  an  important 
matter.  Besides  this,  the  sand  must  be 
used  as  dry  as  possible  consistent  with  its 
holding  against  the  flow  of  the  metal, 
and  having  only  moderate  compression 
in  ramming. 

In  making  the  molds  it  is  necessary 
to  remember  that  aluminum  has  a  large 
contraction  in  cooling,  and  also  that'  at 
certain  temperatures  it  is  very  weak  and 
tears  readily,  while  all  metals  shrink 
away  from  the  mold  when  this  is 
wholly  outside  the  casting,  but  they 
shrink  on  to  cores  or  portions  of  the 
mold  partly  inclosed  by  metal.  Thus, 
if  casting  a  plate  or  bar  of  metal,  it  will 
shrink  away  from  the  mold  in  all  direc- 
tions; but  if  casting  a  square  frame,  it 
shrinks  away  from  the  outside  only, 
while  it  shrinks  on  to  the  central  part 
or  core.  With  brass,  or  iron,  or  such 
metals,  this  is  not  of  much  importance, 
but  with  some  others,  including  alumi- 
num, it  is  of  great  importance,  because 
if  the  core  or  inclosed  sand  will  not  give 
somewhat  with  the  contraction  of  the 
metal,  torn  or  fractured  castings  will  be 
the  result.  Both  for  outside  and  inside 
molds,  and  with  cores  used  with  alu- 
minum, the  sand  should  be  compressed 
as  little  as  possible,  and  hard  ramming 
must  in  every  case  be  avoided,  particu- 
larly where  the  metal  surrounds  the  sand. 
The  molds  must  be  very  freely  vented, 
and  not  only  at  the  joint  of  the  mold, 
but  by  using  the  vent  wire  freely  through 
the  body  of  the  mold  itself;  in  fact,  for 
brass  the  venting  would  be  considered 
excessive.  With  aluminum  it  is,  how- 
ever, necessary  to  get  the  air  off  as  rapid- 
ly as  possible,  because  the  metal  soon 
gets  sluggish  in  the  mold,  and  unless  it 
runs  up  quickly  it  runs  faint  at  the  edges. 
The  ingates  should  be  wide  and  of  fair 
area,  but  need  careful  making  to  prevent 
their  drawing  where  they  enter  the  cast- 
ing, the  method  of  doing  this  being 
known  to  most  molders. 

If  it  is  considered  desirable  to  use  a 
specially  made-up  facing  sand  for  the 
molds  where  the  metal  is  of  some  thick- 
ness, the  use  of  a  little  pea  or  bean  meal 
will  be  all  that  is  necessary.  To  use  this, 
first  dry  as  much  sand  as  may  be  re- 
quired and  pass  through  a  20-mesh  sieve, 
and  to  each  bushel  of  the  fine  sand  rub 
in  about  4  quarts  of  meal,  afterwards 
again  passing  through  the  sieve  to  insure 
regular  mixing.  This  sand  should  then 
be  damped  as  required,  being  careful 


that  all  parts  are  equally  moist,  rubbing 
on  a  board  being  a  good  way  to  get  it 
tough,  and  in  good  condition,  with  the 
minimum  of  moisture. 

The  molds  should  not  be  sleeked  with 
tools,  but  they  may  be  dusted  over  with 
plumbago  or  steatite,  smoothing  with 
a  camel's-hair  brush,  in  cases  in  which  a 
very  smooth  face  is  required  on  the 
castings.  Preferably,  however,  the  use 
of  the  brush  even  should  be  avoided. 
Patterns  for  aluminum  should  be  kept 
smooth  and  well  varnished. 

In  melting  the  metal  it  is  necessary  to 
use  a  plumbago  crucible  which  is  clean 
and  wnich  has  not  been  used  for  other 
metals.  Clay  or  silica  crucibles  are  not 
good  for  this  metal,  especially  silica,  on 
account  of  the  metal  absorbing  silicon 
and  becoming  hard  under  some  condi- 
tions of  melting.  A  steady  fire  is  neces- 
sary, and  the  fuel  should  reach  only 
about  halfway  up  the  crucible,  as  it  is 
not  desirable  to  overheat  the  crucible  or 
metal.  The  metal  absorbs  heat  for 
some  time  and  then  fuses  with  some  ra- 
pidity, hence  the  desirability  of  a  steady 
heat;  and  as  the  metal  should  be  poured 
when  of  a  claret  color  under  the  film  of 
oxide  which  forms  on  the  surface,  too 
rapid  a  heating  is  not  advisable.  The 
molding  should  always  be  well  in  ad- 
vance of  the  pouring,  because  the  metal 
should  be  used  as  soon  as  it  is  ready;  for 
not  only  is  waste  caused,  but  the  metal 
loses  condition  if  kept  in  a  molten  state 
for  long  periods.  The  metal  should  be 
poured  rapidly,  but  steadily,  and  when 
cast  up  there  should  not  be  a  large  head 
of  metal  left  on  top  of  the  runner.  In 
fact,  it  is  rather  a  disadvantage  to  leave 
a  large  head,  as  this  tends  to  draw  rather 
than  to  feed  the  casting. 

With  properly  prepared  molds,  and 
careful  melting,  fluxes  are  not  required, 
but  ground  cryolite — a  fluoride  of  sodium 
and  aluminum — is  sometimes  used  to 
increase  the  fluidity  of  the  metal.  In 
using  this,  a  few  ounces  according  to 
the  bulk  of  metal  to  be  treated  is  put 
into  the  molten  metal  before  it  is  taken 
from  the  furnace,  and  well  stirred  in, 
and  as  soon  as  the  reaction  apparently 
ceases  the  pot  is  lifted  and  the  metal  at 
once  skimmed  and  poured.  The  use  of 
sodium  in  any  form  with  aluminum  is 
very  undesirable,  however,  and  should 
be  avoided,  and  the  same  remark  applies 
to  tin,  but  there  is  no  objection  to  alloy- 
ing with  zinc,  when  the  metal  thus  pro- 
duced is  sold  as  an  alloy. 

Aluminum  also  casts  very  well  in  molds 
of  plaster  of  Paris  and  crushed  bath 
brick  when  such  molds  are  perfectly  dry 


ALUMINUM    AND    ITS   TREATMENT 


and  well  vented,  smoothness  being  se- 
cured by  brushing  over  with  dry  stea- 
tite or  plumbago.  When  casting  in 
metal  molds,  these  should  be  well 
brushed  out  with  steatite  or  plumbago, 
and  made  fairly  hot  before  pouring,  as  in 
cold  molds  the  metal  curdles  and  be- 
comes sluggish,  with  the  result  that  the 
castings  run  up  faint. 

To  Increase  the  Toughness,  Density, 
and  Tenacity  of  Aluminum. — For  the 
purpose  of  improving  aluminum,  with- 
out increasing  its  specific  gravity,  the 
aluminum  is  mixed  with  4  to  7  per  cent 
of  phosphorus,  whereby  the  density,  te- 
nacity, and  especially  the  toughness  are 
said  to  be  enhanced. 

WORKING  OF  SHEET  ALUMINUM: 
The  great  secret,  if  there  is  any,  in 
working  aluminum,  either  pure  or  al- 
loyed, consists  in  the  proper  lubricant 
and  the  shape  of  the  tool.  Another 
great  disadvantage  in  the  proper  working 
of  the  metal  is  that,  when  a  manufac- 
turer desires  to  make  up  an  article,  he 
will  procure  the  pure  metal  in  order  to 
make  his  samples,  which,  of  course,  is 
harder  to  work  than  the  alloy.  But  the 
different  grades  of  aluminum  sheet  which 
are  on  the  market  are  so  numerous  for 
different  classes  of  work  that  it  might 
be  advisable  to  consider  them  for  a  mo- 
ment before  passing  to  the  method  of 
working  them. 

The  pure  metal,  to  begin  with,  can 
be  purchased  of  all  degrees  of  hardness, 
from  the  annealed,  or  what  is  known  as 
the  "dead  soft"  stock,  to  the  pure  alumi- 
num hard  rolled.  Then  comes  a  harder 
grade  of  alloys,  running  from  "dead 
soft"  metal,  which  will  draw  up  hard,  to 
the  same  metal  hard  rolled;  and,  still 
again,  another  set  of  alloys  which,  per- 
haps, are  a  little  harder  still  when  hard 
rolled,  and  will,  when  starting  with  the 
"dead  soft,"  spin  up  into  a  utensil  which, 
when  finished,  will  probably  be  as  stiff  as 
brass.  These  latter  alloys  are  finding 
a  large  sale  for  replacing  brass  used  in  all 
classes  of  manufactured  articles. 

To  start  with  lathe  work  on  aluminum, 
probably  more  difficulty  has  been  found 
nere,  especially  in  working  pure  metal, 
and  more  complaints  are  heard  from 
this  source  than  from  any  other.  As 
stated  before,  however,  these  difficulties 
can  all  be  readily  overcome,  if  the  proper 
tools  and  the  proper  lubricants  are  used, 
as  automatic  screw  machines  are  now 
made  so  that  they  can  be  operated  when 
working  aluminum  just  as  readily  as 
when  they  are  working  brass,  and  in 
some  cases  more  readily.  To  start  with 


the  question  of  the  tool,  this  should  be 
made  as  what  is  known  as  a  "shearing 
tool,"  that  is,  instead  of  a  short,  stubby 
point,  such  as  would  be  used  in  turning 
brass,  the  point  should  be  lengthened 
out  and  a  lot  of  clearance  provided  on 
the  inside  of  the  tool,  so  as  to  give  the 
chips  of  the  metal  a  good  chance  to  free 
themselves  and  not  cause  a  clogging 
around  the  point  of  the  tool — a  simi- 
lar tool,  for  instance,  to  what  would  be 
used  for  turning  wood. 

The  best  lubricant  to  be  used  would 
be  coal  oil  or  water,  and  plenty  of  it.  The 
latter  is  almost  as  good  as  coal  oil  if 
enough  of  it  is  used,  and  with  either  of 
these  lubricants  and  a  tool  properly 
made,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  what- 
soever in  the  rapid  working  of  aluminum, 
either  on  the  lathe  or  on  automatic  screw 
machines. 

To  go  from  the  lathe  to  the  drawing 
press,  the  same  tools  here  would  be  used 
in  drawing  up  shapes  of  aluminum  as 
are  used  for  drawing  up  brass  or  other 
metals;  the  only  precaution  necessary 
in  this  instance  being  to  use  a  proper 
lubricant,  which  in  this  case  is  a  cheap 
grade  of  vaseline,  or  in  some  cases  lard 
oil,  but  in  the  majority  of  instances  better 
results  will  be  secured  by  the  use  of 
vaseline.  Aluminum  is  probably  sus- 
ceptible of  deeper  drawing  with  less 
occasion  to  anneal  than  any  of  the  other 
commercial  metals.  It  requires  but 
one-third  or  one-fourth  of  as  much  an- 
nealing as  brass  or  copper.  For  in-- 
stance,  an  article  which  is  now  manu- 
factured in  brass,  requiring,  say,  three  or 
four  operations  before  the  article  is  fin- 
ished, would  probably  have  to  be  an- 
nealed after  every  operation.  With 
aluminum,  however,  if  the  proper  grade 
is  used,  it  is  generally  possible  to  perform 
these  three  operations  without  annealing 
the  metal  at  all,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
produce  a  finished  article  which,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  is  as  stiff  as  an 
article  made  of  sheet  brass. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the 
fact  of  starting  with  the  proper  grade  of 
metal,  for  either  through  ignorance  or 
by  not  observing  this  point  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  majority  of  the  complaints 
that  aluminum  "has  been  tried  and  found 
wanting."  If,  however,  it  should  be 
found  necessary  to  anneal  aluminum, 
this  can  be  readily  accomplished  by 
heating  it  in  an  ordinary  muffle,  being 
careful  that  the  temperature  shall  not 
be  too  high— about  650°  or  700°  F.  The 
best  test  as  to  when  the  metal  has 
reached  the  proper  temperature  is  to  take 
a  soft  pine  stick  and  draw  it  across  the 


84 


ALUMINUM    AND   ITS   TREATMENT 


metal.  If  it  chars  the  stick  and  leaves 
a  black  mark  on  the  metal,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently annealed  and  is  in  a  proper  con- 
dition to  proceed  with  further  opera- 
tion. 

Next  taking  up  the  question  of  spin- 
ning aluminum,  success  again  depends 
particularly  on  starting  with  the  proper 
metal.  The  most  satisfactory  speed 
for  articles  from  5  to  8  inches  in  diam- 
eter is  about  2,600  revolutions  a  minute, 
and  for  larger  or  smaller  diameters  the 
speed  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  give 
tne  same  velocity  at  the  circumference. 
Aluminum  is  a  very  easy  metal  to  spin 
and  no  difficulty  should  be  found  at  all 
in  spinning  the  proper  grades  of  sheets. 
Several  factories  that  are  using  large 
quantities  of  aluminum  now,  both  for 
spinning  and  stamping,  are  paying  their 
men  by  the  piece  the  same  amount  that 
they  formerly  paid  on  brass  and  tin  work, 
and  it  is  stated  that  the  men  working  on 
this  basis  make  anywhere  from  10  to 
20  per  cent  more  wages  by  working  alu- 
minum. 

After  aluminum  has  been  manufac- 
tured into  the  shape  of  an  article,  the  next 
process  is  the  finishing  of  it.  The  best 
polish  can  be  obtained  by  first  cutting 
down  the  metal  with  an  ordinary  rag  buff 
on  which  use  tripoli,  and  then  finish  it 
with  a  dry  red  rouge  which  comes  in  the 
lump  form,  or  that  which  is  known  as 
"White  Diamond  Rouge."  One  point, 
however,  that  it  is  necessary  to  observe 
carefully  is  that  both  the  tripoli  and  the 
rouge  should  be  procured  ground  as  fine 
as  it  is  possible  to  grind  them;  for,  if  this 
is  not  done,  the  metal  will  have  little  fine 
scratches  all  over  it,  and  will  not  appear 
as  bright  and  as  handsome  as  it  other- 
wise would. 

If  it  is  desired  to  put  on  a  frosted  ap- 
pearance, this  can  either  be  done  by 
scratch  brushing  or  sand  blasting.  A 
brass  wire  scratch  brush,  made  of 
crimped  wire  of  No.  32  to  No.  36  B.  & 
S.  gage,  with  three  or  four  rows  of  bris- 
tles, will  probably  give  the  best  results. 
This  work  of  scratch  brushing  can  be 
somewhat  lessened,  however,  if,  before 
applying  the  scratch  brush  to  the  surface 
of  the  aluminum,  the  article  is  first  cut 
down  by  the  use  of  a  porpoise-hide  wheel 
and  fine  Connecticut  sand,  placing  the 
sand  between  the  surface  of  the  alumi- 
num and  the  wheel,  so  that  the  skin  and 
the  irregularities  on  the  surface  are  re- 
moved, and  then  putting  the  article  on 
a  buffing  wheel  before  attempting  to 
scratch  brush  it.  This  method,  how- 
ever, is  probably  more  advantageous  in 
the  treating  of  aluminum  castings  than 


for  articles  manufactured  out  of  the  sheet 
metal,  as  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is 
simply  necessary  before  scratch  brushing 
to  cut  down  the  article  with  tripoli,  and 
then  polish  it  with  rouge  as  already  de- 
scribed, before  putting  on  the  scratch 
brush;  in  this  way  the  brush  seems  to 
take  hold  quicker  and  better,  and  to  pro- 
duce a  more  uniform  polish. 

An  effect  similar  to  the  scratch-brush 
finish  can  be  got  by  sand  blasting,  and 
by  first  sand  blasting  and  then  scratch 
brushing  the  sheets,  a  good  finish  is  ob- 
tained with  very  much  less  labor  than  by 
scratch  brushing  alone.  Another  very 
pretty  frosted  effect  is  procured  by  first 
sand  blasting  and  then  treated  as  here- 
inafter described  by  "dipping"  and 
"frosting,"  and  many  variations  in  the 
finish  of  aluminum  can  be  got  by  varying 
the  treatment,  either  by  cutting  down 
with  tripoli  and  polishing,  scratch  brush- 
ing, sand  blasting,  dipping,  and  frosting, 
and  by  combinations  of  those  treatments. 
A  very  pretty  mottled  effect  is  secured  on 
aluminum  by  first  polishing  and  then 
scratch  brushing  and  then  holding  the 
aluminum  against  a  soft  pine  wheel,  run 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed  on  a  lathe,  and  by 
careful  manipulation,  quite  regular  forms 
of  a  mottled  appearance  can  be  obtained. 

The  dipping  and  frosting  of  aluminum 
sheet  is  probably  the  cheapest  way  of 
producing  a  nice  finish.  First  remove 
all  grease  and  dirt  from  the  article  by 
dipping  in  benzine,  then  dip  into  water 
in  order  that  the  benzine  adhering  to 
the  article  may  be  removed,  so  as  not  to 
affect  the  strength  of  the  solution  into 
which  it  is  next  dipped.  After  they  have 
been  taken  out  of  the  water  and  well 
shaken,  the  articles  should  be  plunged  in 
a  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  caus- 
tic potash,  and  left  there  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  until  the  aluminum  starts 
to  turn  black.  Then  they  should  be 
removed,  dipped  in  water  again,  and  then 
into  a  solution  of  concentrated  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acid,  composed  of  24  parts 
of  nitric  acid  to  1  part  of  sulphuric  acid. 
After  being  removed,  the  article  should 
be  washed  thoroughly  in  water  and  dried 
in  hot  sawdust  in  the  usual  way.  This 
finish  can  also  be  varied  somewhat  by 
making  the  solution  of  caustic  soda  of 
varying  degrees  of  strength,  or  by  adding 
a  small  amount  of  common  salt  to  the 
solution. 

In  burnishing  the  metal  use  a  blood- 
stone or  a  steel  burnisher.  In  burnish- 
ing use  a  mixture  of  melted  vaseline  and 
coal  oil,  or  a  solution  composed  of  2 
tablespoonfuls  of  ground  borax  dissolved 
in  about  a  quart  of  hot  water,  with  a  few 


AMALGAMS 


85 


drops  of  ammonia  added.  In  engrav- 
ing, which  adds  materially  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  finished  castings,  book  cov- 
ers, picture  frames,  and  similar  articles 
made  of  sheet,  probably  the  best  lubri- 
cant to  use  on  an  engraver's  tool  in  order 
to  obtain  a  clean  cut,  which  is  bright,  is 
naphtha  or  coal  oil,  or  a  mixture  of  coal 
oil  and  vaseline.  The  naphtha,  how- 
ever, is  preferred,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  does  not  destroy  the  satin  finish  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  cut,  as  the  other 
lubricants  are  very  apt  to  do.  There  is, 
however,  as  much  skill  required  in  using 
and  making  a  tool  in  order  to  give  a 
bright,  clean  cut  as  there  is  in  the  choice 
of  the  lubricant  to  be  used.  The  tool 
should  be  made  somewhat  on  the  same 
plan  as  the  lathe  tools  already  outlined. 
That  is,  they  should  be  brought  to  a 
sharp  point  and  be  "cut  back"  rather 
far,  so  as  to  give  plenty  of  clearance. 

There  has  been  one  class  of  work  in 
aluminum  that  has  been  developed 
lately  and  only  to  a  certain  extent,  in 
which  there  are  great  possibilities,  and 
that  is  in  drop  forging  the  metal.  Some 
very  superior  bicycle  parts  have  been 
manufactured  by  drop  forging.  This  can 
be  accomplished  probably  more  readily 
with  aluminum  than  with  other  metals, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  necessary 
with  all  the.  alloys  to  work  them  hot; 
consequently,  they  can  be  worked  and 
handled  more  rapidly. 

ALUMINUM,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

ALUMINUM  ALLOYS: 
See  Alloys. 

ALUMINUM  BRONZE: 
See  Alloys  under  Bronzes. 

ALUMINUM  CASTINGS: 
See  Casting. 

ALUMINUM  PAPER: 
See  Paper. 

ALUMINUM  PLATING: 

See  Plating. 

ALUMINUM  POLISHES: 
See  Polishes. 


Amalgams 

See  also  Easily  Fusible  Alloys  under 
Alloys. 

The  name  amalgam  is  given  to  al- 
loys of  metals  containing  mercury.  The 
term  comes  to  us  from  the  alchemists. 
It  signifies  softening,  because  an  excess 


of  mercury  dissolves  a  large  number  of 
metals. 

Preparation  of  Amalgams. — Mercury 
forms  amalgams  with  most  metals.  It 
unites  directly  and  readily,  either  cold  or 
hot,  with  potassium,  sodium,  barium, 
strontium,  calcium,  magnesium,  zinc, 
cadmium,  tin,  antimony,  lead,  bismuth, 
silver,  and  gold;  directly,  but  more  dif- 
ficultly, with  aluminum,  copper,  and 
palladium.  This  combination  takes 
place  oftenest  at  the  ordinary  temper- 
ature; certain  metals,  however,  like 
aluminum  and  antimony,  combine  only 
when  heated  in  presence  of  quicksilver. 

Quicksilver  has  no  direct  action  on 
metals  of  high  fusing  points:  manganese, 
iron,  nickel,  cobalt,  uranium,  platinum, 
and  their  congeners.  Still,  amalgams 
of  these  metals  can  be  obtained  of  buty- 
rous  consistency,  either  by  electrolysis  of 
their  saline  solutions,  employing  quick- 
silver as  the  negative  electrode,  or  by  the 
action  of  an  alkaline  amalgam  (potas- 
sium or  sodium),  on  their  concentrated 
and  neutral  saline  solutions.  These 
same  refractory  metals  are  also  amalga- 
mated superficially  when  immersed  in 
the  amalgam  of  sodium  or  of  ammonium 
in  presence  of  water. 

Processes  for  preparing  amalgams  by 
double  decomposition  between  an  alkaline 
amalgam  and  a  metallic  salt,  or  by  elec- 
trolysis of  saline  solutions,  with  employ- 
ment of  mercury  as  the  negative  elec- 
trode, apply  a  fortiori  to  metals  capable 
of  combining  directly  with  the  quick- 
silver. The  latter  of  these  methods  is 
especially  utilized  for  the  preparation  of 
alkaline  earthy  metals  by  electrolytic 
decomposition  of  the  solutions  of  their 
salts  or  hydrated  oxides  with  quicksilver 
as  a  cathode. 

General  Properties  of  Amalgams. — 
Amalgams  are  liquid  when  the  quick- 
silver is  in  great  excess;  solid,  but  readily 
fusible,  when  the  alloyed  metal  pre- 
dominates. 

They  have  a  metallic  luster,  and  a 
metallic  structure  which  renders  them 
brittle.  They  even  form  crystallized 
metallic  combinations  of  constant  propor- 
tions, dissolved  in  an  excess  of  quick- 
silver, when  the  excess  is  separated  by 
compression  in  a  chamois  skin,  or  by 
filtration  in  a  glass  funnel  of  slender 
stem,  terminating  with  an  orifice  almost 
capillary. 

According  as  the  fusing  heat  of  a  metal 
is  less  or  greater  than  its  combination 
heat  with  quicksilver,  the  amalgamation 
of  this  metal  produces  an  elevation  or  a 
lowering  of  temperature.  Thus  potas- 


86 


AMALGAMS 


sium,  sodium,  and  cadmium,  in  alloy 
with  quicksilver,  disengage  heat;  while 
zinc,  antimony,  tin,  bismuth,  lead,  and 
silver  combine  with  mercury  with  ab- 
sorption of  heat.  The  amalgamation  of 
162  parts  of  quicksilver  with  21  parts  of 
lead,  12  parts  of  tin  or  of  antimony,  and 
28.5  parts  of  bismuth,  lowers  the  tem- 
perature of  the  mixture  79°  F. 

Amalgams  formed  with  disengage- 
ment of  heat  are  electro-negative  with 
reference  to  the  metals  alloyed  with  the 
quicksilver.  The  products  with  absorp- 
tion of  heat  are  electro-negative  with  ref- 
erence to  the  metals  combined  with  the 
quicksilver;  consequently,  in  a  battery 
of  elements  of  pure  cadmium  and  amal- 
gamated cadmium,  the  cadmium  will  be 
the  negative  pole;  in  case  of  zinc  and 
amalgamated  zinc,  the  zinc  will  be  the 
positive  pole. 

Heat  decomposes  all  amalgams,  va- 
porizing the  mercury  and  leaving  the 
metal  alloys  as  a  residue. 

Water  is  decomposed  by  the  amal- 
gams of  potassium  and  sodium,  because 
the  heat  of  formation  of  these  amalgams, 
although  considerable,  is  even  less  than 
the  heat  disengaged  by  potassium  and 
sodium,  on  decomposing  water.  The 
alkaline  amalgams  may,  therefore,  serve 
as  a  source  of  nascent  hydrogen  in  pres- 
ence of  water,  giving  rise  to  an  action 
less  energetic,  and  often  more  advan- 
tageous, than  that  of  the  alkaline  metals 
alone.  Thus  is  caused  the  frequent  em- 
ployment of  sodium  amalgam  for  hydro- 
genizing  a  large  number  of  bodies.  As 
a  consequence  of  their  action  on  water, 
the  alkaline  amalgams  are  changed  by 
moist  air,  with  production  of  free  alkali 
or  alkaline  carbonate. 

Applications  of  Potassium  Amalgams. 
— I. — They  furnish  a  process  for  prepar- 
ing potassium  by  the  decomposition  of 
potash  by  the  electric  current,  by  em- 
ploying quicksilver  as  the  cathode,  and 
vaporizing  the  quicksilver  of  the  amal- 
gam formed  by  heating  this  in  a  current 
of  dry  hydrogen. 

II. — They  can  serve  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  amalgams  of  the  metals,  other 
than  those  of  the  alkaline  group,  by  de- 
composing the  salts  of  these  metals,  with 
formation  of  a  salt  of  potash  and  of  the 
amalgam  of  the  metal  corresponding  to 
the  original  salt. 

III. — They  can  be  employed  as  a 
source  of  nascent  hydrogen  in  presence 
of  water  for  hydrogenizing  many  sub- 
stances. 

Applications  of  Sodium  Amalgams. — 
These  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the 


potassium  amalgams,  but  the  sodium 
amalgams  are  employed  almost  exclu- 
sively, because  sodium  is  easier  to  handle 
than  potassium,  and  is  cheaper.  These 
employments  are  the  following: 

I. — Sodium  amalgam  furnishes  a  proc- 
ess for  the  preparation  of  sodium  when 
soda  is  decomposed  by  means  of  the 
electric  current,  employing  quicksilver 
as  the  cathode,  and  afterwards  vaporizing 
the  quicksilver  of  the  amalgam  formed 
by  heating  this  in  a  current  of  dry  hy- 
drogen. 

II. — Amalgams  of  sodium  serve  for 
the  preparation  of  amalgams  of  the  oth- 
er metals,  particularly  alkaline  earthy 
metals  and  metals  of  high  fusing  points, 
by  decomposing  the  salts  of  these  metals, 
with  formation  of  a  salt  of  soda  and  of 
the  amalgam  of  the  metal  corresponding 
to  the  original  salt. 

III. — They  serve  for  amalgamating 
superficially  the  metals  of  high  fusing 
point,  called  "refractory,"  such  as  iron 
and  platinum,  when  a  well-cleaned  plate 
of  these  metals  is  immersed  in  sodium 
amalgam  in  presence  of  water. 

IV. — An  amalgam  of  2  or  3  per  cent  of 
sodium  is  employed  in  the  processes  of 
extraction  of  gold  by  amalgamation.  It 
has  the  property  of  rendering  quick- 
silver more  brilliant,  and  consequently 
more  energetic,  by  acting  as  a  deoxidant 
on  the  pellicle  of  oxide  formed  on  its 
surface  in  presence  of  certain  ores, 
which,  by  keeping  it  separated  from  the 
particles  of  gold,  destroy  its  activity. 
Sodium  amalgam  of  3  per  cent  is  utilized 
with  success  for  the  amalgamated  plates 
employed  in  crushers  and  other  appa- 
ratus for  treating  the  ores  of  gold.  If  a 
few  drops  of  this  amalgam  are  spread 
on  a  plate  of  copper,  of  tin,  or  of  zinc,  a 
brilliant  coating  of  an  amalgam  of  tin, 
copper,  or  zinc  is  immediately  formed. 

V. — Amalgams  of  from  2  to  8  per  cent 
of  sodium  serve  frequently  in  laborato- 
ries for  reducing  or  hydrogenizing  or- 
ganic combinations,  -without  running 
the  risk  of  a  partial  destruction  of  these 
compounds  by  too  intense  action,  as 
may  occur  by  employing  free  sodium 
instead  of  its  amalgam. 

Applications  of  Barium  Amalgams.— 
These  can,  by  distillation,  furnish  bari- 
um. It  is  one  of  the  processes  for  pre- 
paring this  metal,  which,  when  thus  ob- 
tained, almost  always  retains  a  little 
sodium. 

Applications  of  Strontium  Amalgams. 

— These   amalgams,   washed   and   dried 

1   rapidly  immediately  after  their  prepara- 

I   tion,  and  then  heated  to  a  nascent  red 


AMALGAMS 


87 


in   a   current  of  dry   hydrogen,   yield   a 
fused  mass  of  strontium. 

Applications  of  Cadmium  Amalgams. — 
Amalgams  of  cadmium,  formed  of  equal 
weights  of  cadmium  and  quicksilver, 
have  much  power  of  cohesion  and  are 
quite  malleable;  the  case  is  the  same  with 
an  amalgam  formed  of  1  part  of  cad- 
mium and  2  parts  of  quicksilver.  They 
are  used  as  dental  cements  for  plugging 
teeth;  for  the  same  purpose  an  amalgam 
of  2  parts  of  quicksilver,  1  part  of  cad- 
mium, and  2  parts  of  tin  may  be  used. 

Applications  of  Zinc  Amalgams. — The 
principal  employment  of  zinc  amalgams 
is  their  use  as  a  cathode  or  negative  elec- 
trode in  the  batteries  of  Munson,  Dan- 
iels, and  Lechanche.  This  combination 
is  designed  to  render  the  zinc  non-attack- 
able by  the  exciting  liquid  of  the  battery 
with  open  circuit.  The  action  of  the 
mercury  is  to  prevent  the  zinc  from  form- 
ing a  large  number  of  small  voltaic  ele- 
ments when  foreign  bodies  are  mingled 
with  the  metal;  in  a  word,  the  giving  to 
ordinary  zinc  the  properties  of  pure  zinc, 
and  consequently  of  causing  a  great  sav- 
ing in  expense. 

For  amalgamating  a  zinc  plate  it  is 
plunged  for  a  few  seconds  into  water  in 
which  there  is  one-sixteenth  in  volume 
of  sulphuric  acid,  then  rubbing  with 
a  copper-wire  brush  which  has  been 
dipped  in  the  quicksilver.  The  mercury 
takes  more  readily  on  the  zinc  when, 
after  the  zinc  has  been  cleaned  with 
water  sharpened  with  sulphuric  acid, 
it  is  moistened  with  a  solution  of  corro- 
sive sublimate,  which  is  reduced  and 
furnishes  a  first  very  thin  coat  of  amal- 
gam, on  which  the  quicksilver  is  im- 
mediately fixed  by  simple  immersion 
without  rubbing. 

The  zinc  of  a  battery  may  be  amalga- 
mated by  putting  at  the  bottom  of  the 
compartment  containing  each  element, 
a  little  quicksilver  in  such  a  way  that  the 
zinc  touches  the  liquid.  The  amalga- 
mation is  effected  under  the  influence  of 
the  current,  but  this  process  applies  only 
on  condition  that  the  zinc  alone  touches 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  containing  the 
quicksilver. 

Applications  of  Manganese  Amalgams. 
— These  may  serve  for  the  preparation 
of  manganese.  For  this  purpose  it  is 
sufficient  to  distill  in  a  current  of  pure 
Lydrogen.  The  manganese  remains  in 
the  form  of  a  grayish  powder. 

Applications  of  Tin  Amalgams. — I. — 
Tinning  of  glass.  This  operation  is 
accomplished  in  the  following  manner : 


On  a  cast-iron  table,  quite  horizontal,  a 
sheet  of  tin  of  the  dimensions  of  the  glass 
is  spread  out  and  covered  with  a  layer  of 
quicksilver,  5  or  6  millimeters  in  thick- 
ness. The  glass  is  made  to  slide  on  the 
sheet  of  tin  in  such  a  way  as  to  drive  off 
the  excess  of  quicksilver;  wrhen  the  two 
surfaces  are  covered  without  interposi- 
tion of  air,  weights  are  placed  on  the 
glass.  In  a  few  days,  the  glass  may  be 
removed,  having  been  covered  with  an 
adhering  pellicle  of  amalgam  of  4  parts 
of  tin  and  1  part  of  quicksilver.  (See 
also  Mirrors.) 

II. — An  amalgam  consisting  of  2  parts 
of  zinc  and  1  part  tin  may  be  used  for 
covering  the  cushions  of  frictional  elec- 
tric machines.  This  amalgam  is  pre- 
pared by  first  melting  the  zinc  and  tin  in 
a  crucible  and  adding  the  quicksilver 
previously  heated. 

III. — Mention  has  been  made  of  the 
cadmium  amalgam  employed  for  plug- 
ging teeth,  an  amalgam  of  2  parts  of 
quicksilver,  2  parts  of  tin,  and  1  part  of 
cadmium.  For  the  same  purpose  an 
amalgam  of  tin,  silver,  and  gold  is  em- 
ployed. (See  also  Cements,  Dental.) 

Applications  of  Copper  Amalgams. — 
I. — An  amalgam  of  30  per  cent  of  copper 
has  been  employed  for  filling  teeth. 
This  use  has  been  abandoned  on  account 
of  the  inconvenience  occasioned  by  the 
great  changeableness  of  the  product. 

II. — The  amalgam  of  30  per  cent  of 
copper,  designated  by  the  name  of  "me- 
tallic mastic,"  is  an  excellent  cement  for 
repairing  objects  and  utensils  of  porce- 
lain. For  this  employment,  the  broken 
surfaces  are  heated  to  662°  F.,  and  a  little 
of  the  amalgam,  previously  heated  to  the 
consistency  of  melted  wax,  is  applied. 

III. — Copper  amalgam,  of  30  to  45 
per  cent  of  copper,  rendered  plastic  by 
heating  and  grinding,  may  serve  for  ob- 
taining with  slight  compression  copies  of 
delicate  objects,  which  may,  after  hard- 
ening of  the  amalgam,  be  reproduced, 
either  in  wax  or  by  galvanic  process. 

IV. — According  to  Debray,  when  a 
medal,  obtained  with  an  amalgam  of 
45  per  cent  of  copper,  by  compression  in 
the  soft  state,  in  molds  of  gutta  percha, 
is  heated  progressively  to  redness  in  an 
atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  the  quicksilver 
is  volatilized  gradually,  and  the  particles 
of  copper  come  together  without  fusion 
in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  faithful 
reproduction,  formed  exclusively  of  me- 
tallic copper,  of  the  original  medal. 

V. — In  the  metallurgy  of  gold  the 
crushers  are  furnished  with  amalga- 
mated plates  of  copper  for  retaining  the 
gold.  The  preparation  of  these  plates, 


88 


AMALGAMS 


which  are  at  least  0.128  inches  in  thick- 
ness, is  delicate,  requiring  about  two 
weeks.  They  are  freed  from  greasy  mat- 
ter by  rubbing  with  ashes,  or,  better, 
with  a  little  sand  and  caustic  soda,  or  if 
more  rapid  action  is  desired,  with  a  cloth 
dipped  in  dilute  nitric  acid;  they  are 
washed  with  water,  then  with  a  solution 
of  potassium  cyanide,  and  finally  brushed 
with  a  mixture  of  sal  ammoniac  and  a 
little  quicksilver,  until  the  surface  is 
completely  amalgamated.  They  are 
finally  made  to  absorb  as  much  quick- 
silver as  possible.  But  the  plates  thus 
treated  are  useful  for  only  a  few  days 
when  they  are  sufficiently  covered  with  a 
layer  of  gold  amalgam;  in  the  meantime 
they  occasion  loss  of  time  and  of  gold. 
So  it  is  preferable  to  cover  them  arti- 
ficially with  a  little  gold  amalgam,  which 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  gold  in  quick- 
silver. Sometimes  the  amalgam  of  gold 
is  replaced  by  an  amalgam  of  silver, 
which  is  readily  poured  and  more  eco- 
nomical. 

Another  method  giving  better  results 
consists  in  silvering  copper  slabs  by  elec- 
troplating and  covering  them  with  a  layer 
of  silver.  Then  it  is  only  necessary  to 
apply  a  little  quicksilver,  which  adheres 
quite  rapidly,  so  that  they  are  ready  for 
use  almost  immediately,  and  are  quite 
active  at  the  outset. 

These  amalgamation  slabs  ought  to 
be  cleaned  before  each  operation.  Po- 
tassium cyanide  removes  fatty  matter, 
and  sal  ammoniac  the  oxides  of  the  low 
metals. 

Applications  of  Lead  Amalgams. — 
These  meet  with  an  interesting  employ- 
ment for  the  autogenous  soldering  of 
lead.  After  the  surfaces  to  be  soldered 
have  been  well  cleaned,  a  layer  of  lead 
amalgam  is  applied.  It  is  afterwards 
sufficient  to  pass  along  the  line  of  junc- 
tion a  soldering  iron  heated  to  redness, 
in  order  that  the  heat  should  cause  the 
volatilization  of  the  quicksilver,  and  that 
the  lead,  liberated  in  a  state  of  fine  divi- 
sion, should  be  melted  and  cause  the 
adherence  of  the  two  surfaces.  The 
only  precaution  necessary  is  to  avoid 
breathing  the  mercurial  vapor,  which  is 
quite  poisonous. 

Applications  of  Bismuth  Amalgams. — 
The  amalgam  formed  of  1  per  cent  of 
bismuth  and  4  parts  of  quicksilver  will 
cause  the  strong  adherence  of  glass.  It 
is  employed  with  advantage  in  the  tin- 
ning of  glass  globes.  For  this  operation 
it  is  poured  into  a  dry  hot  receiver,  and 
then  passed  over  the  whole  surface  of 
the  glass;  it  solidifies  on  cooling.  For 


the  purpose  of  economizing  the  bismuth, 
the  price  of  which  is  high,  the  preceding 
amalgam  is  replaced  by  another  com- 
posed of  2  parts  of  quicksilver,  1  part  of 
bismuth,  1  part  of  lead,  and  1  part  of  tin. 
The  bismuth,  broken  into  small  frag- 
ments, is  added  to  the  tin  and  lead,  pre- 
viously melted  in  the  crucible,  and  when 
the  mixture  of  the  three  metals  becomes 
fluid,  the  quicksilver  is  poured  in,  while 
stirring  with  an  iron  rod.  The  impuri- 
ties floating  on  the  surface  are  removed, 
and  when  the  temperature  is  sufficiently 
lowered  this  amalgam  is  slbwly  poured 
into  the  vessels  to  be  tinned,  which  have 
been  previously  well  cleaned  and  slightly 
heated.  M.  Ditte  recommends  for  the 
same  employment,  as  a  very  strong  ad- 
herent to  the  glass,  an  amalgam  obtained 
by  dissolving  hot  2  parts  of  bismuth  and 
1  part  of  lead  in  a  solution  of  1  part  of 
tin  in  10  parts  of  quicksilver.  By  caus- 
ing a  quantity  of  this  amalgam  to  move 
around  the  inside  of  a  receiver,  clean, 
dry,  and  slightly  heated,  the  surface  will 
be  covered  with  a  thin,  brilliant  layer, 
which  hardens  quite  rapidly. 

For  the  injection  of  anatomical  pieces 
an  amalgam  formed  of  10  parts  of  quic  c- 
silver,  50  parts  of  bismuth,  31  parts  of 
lead,  and  18  parts  of  tin,  fusible  at  77.5° 
and  solidifiable  at  60°  C.,  is  made  use  of; 
or,  again,  an  amalgam  composed  of  9 
parts  of  Darcet  alloy  and  1  part  of  quick- 
silver fusible  at  127J°  F.,  and  pasty  at  a 
still  lower  temperature.  This  last  amal- 
gam may  also  be  used  for  filling  carious 
teeth.  The  Darcet  alloy,  as  known,  con- 
tains 2  parts  of  bismuth,  1  part  of  lead, 
and  1  part  of  tin,  and  melts  at  199^°  F. 
The  addition  of  1  part  of  quicksilver 
lowers  the  fusing  point  to  104°  F. 

Applications  of  Silver  Amalgams.  — I. — 
In  the  silvering  of  mirrors  by  the  Petit- 
jean  method,  which  has  almost  univer- 
sally replaced  tinning,  the  property  of 
silver  in  readily  amalgamating  is  taken 
advantage  of,  by  substituting  the  glass 
after  silvering  to  the  action  of  a  dilute 
solution  of  double  cyanide  of  mercury 
and  potassium  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
form  an  amalgam  of  white  and  brilliant 
silver  adhering  strongly  to  the  glass.  To 
facilitate  the  operation  and  utilize  all  the 
silver,  while  economizing  the  double  cya- 
nide, M.  Lenoir  has  recommended  the 
following:  Sprinkle  the  glass  at  the  time 
when  it  is  covered  with  the  mercurial 
solution  with  very  fine  zinc  powder, 
which  precipitates  the  quicksilver  and 
regulates  the  amalgamation. 

II. — The  metallurgy  of  silver  also 
takes  advantage  of  the  property  of  this 


AMALGAMS 


89 


metal  in  combining  cold  with  quicksil- 
ver; this  for  the  treatment  of  poor  silver 
ores. 

In  the  Saxon  or  Freiburg  process  for 
treating  silver  ores,  recourse  is  had  to 
quicksilver  in  the  case  of  amalgam  in 
amalgamating  casks,  in  which  the  ore, 
after  grinding,  is  shaken  with  disks  of 
iron,  and  with  mercury  and  water.  The 
amalgam,  collected  and  filtered  under 
strong  pressure,  contains  from  30  to  33 
per  cent  of  silver.  It  is  distilled  either 
in  cylindrical  retorts  of  cast  iron,  fur- 
nished with  an  exit  tube  immersed  in 
the  water  for  condensing  the  mercurial 
vapors,  or  on  plates  of  iron,  arranged 
over  each  other  along  a  vertical  iron 
stem,  supported  by  a  tripod  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  tank  filled  with  water,  and 
covered  with  an  iron  receiver,  which  is 
itself  surrounded  with  ignited  charcoal. 
It  should  be  remarked  that  the  last  por- 
tions of  quicksilver  in  a  silver  amalgam 
submitted  to  distillation  are  voiaiiiized 
only  under  the  action  of  a  high  and  pro- 
longed temperature. 

Applications  of  Gold  Amalgams. — I.  — 
Gilding  with  quicksilver.  This  process 
of  gilding,  much  employed  formerly,  is 
now  but  little  used.  It  can  be  applied 
only  to  metals  slightly  fusible  and  capa- 
ble of  amalgamation,  like  silver,  copper, 
bronze,  and  brass.  Iron  can  also  be 
gilded  by  this  method,  provided  it  is 
previously  covered  with  a  coating  of 
copper.  To  perform  this  gilding  the 
surface  is  well  cleaned,  and  the  gold 
amalgam,  consisting  of  2  parts  of  gold 
and  1  part  of  quicksilver,  prepared  as 
mentioned  before,  is  applied.  The  piece 
is  afterwards  heated  to  about  the  red,  so 
as  to  volatilize  the  mercury.  The  gold 
remains,  superficially  alloyed  with  the 
metal,  and  forms  an  extremely  solid 
layer  of  deadened  gold,  which  can  be 
afterwards  polished.  The  volatilization 
should  be  effected  under  a  chimney  hav- 
ing strong  draught,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
poisonous  action  of  the  mercurial  vapors. 

II. — The  amalgamation  of  gold  finds 
its  principal  applications  in  the  treatment 
of  auriferous  ores.  The  extraction  of 
small  spangles  of  gold  scattered  in  gold- 
bearing  sands  is  based  on  the  ready 
dissolution  of  gold  in  quicksilver,  and 
on  the  formation  of  an  amalgam  of  solid 
gold  by  compression  and  filtering  through 
a  chamois  skin,  in  a  state  more  or  less 
liquid.  The  spangles  of  gold  are  shaken 
with  about  their  weight  of  quicksilver, 
collected  in  the  cavities  of  sluices  and 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  sand. 
The  gold  is  dissolved  and  the  sand  re- 


mains. The  amalgam  thus  obtained  is 
compressed  in  a  chamois  skin,  so  as  to 
separate  the  excess  of  mercury  which 
passes  through  the  pores  of  the  skin;  or, 
yet  again,  it  is  filtered  through  a  glass 
funnel  having  a  very  slender  stem,  with 
almost  capillary  termination.  In  both 
cases  an  amalgam  of  solid  gold  remains, 
which  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  heat 
in  a  crucible  or  cast-iron  retort,  com- 
municating with  a  bent-iron  tube,  of 
which  the  extremity,  surrounded  with  a 
cloth  immersed  in  water,  is  arranged 
above  a  receiver  lialf  full  of  water.  The 
quicksilver  is  vaporized  and  condensed 
in  the  water.  The  gold  remains  in  the 
retort. 

The  property  of  gold  of  combining 
readily  with  quicksilver  is  also  used  in 
many  kinds  of  amalgamating  apparatus 
for  extraction  and  in  the  metallurgy  of 
gold. 

In  various  operations  it  is  essential 
to  keep  the  quicksilver  active  by  preserv- 
ing its  limpidity.  For  this  purpose 
potassium  cyanide  and  ammonium 
chloride  are  especially  employed;  some- 
times wood  ashes,  carbonate  of  soda, 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  nitrate  of  potash, 
cupric  sulphate,  sea  salt,  and  lime;  the 
latter  for  precipitating  the  soluble  sul- 
phates proceeding  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  pyrites. 

The  amalgamation  of  gold  is  favored 
by  a  temperature  of  38°  to  45°  C.  (100° 
to  113°  F.),  and  still  more  by  the  em- 
ployment of  quicksilver  in  the  nascent 
state.  This  last  property  is  the  base  of 
the  Designol  process,  which  consists  in 
treating  auriferous  or  auro-argentiferous 
ores,  first  ground  with  sea  salt,  in  revolv- 
ing cylinders  of  cast  iron,  with  iron  and 
mercury  bichloride,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  mercury  precipitated  collects  the  gold 
and  eventually  the  silver  more  effica 
ciously. 

Gold  Amalgam. — Eight  parts  of  gold 
and  1  of  mercury  are  formed  into  an 
amalgam  for  plating  by  rendering  the 
gold  into  thin  plates,  making  it  red  hot, 
and  then  putting  it  into  the  mercury  while 
the  latter  is  also  heated  to  ebullition. 
The  gold  immediately  disappears  in 
combination  with  the  mercury,  after 
which  the  mixture  may  be  turned  into 
water  to  cool.  It  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Zinc  Amalgam  for  Electric  Batteries. 
• — Dissolve  2  parts  of  mercury  in  1  part 
of  aqua  regia.  This  accomplished,  add 
5  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid.  This  solu- 
tion is  made  warm.  It  suffices  to  dip 
the  zinc  to  be  amalgamated  into  this 
liquid  only  for  a  few  seconds. 


90 


AMALGAMS— AMBER 


Amalgam  for  Cementing  Glass,  Por- 
celain, Etc. — Take  tin  2  parts,  and  cad- 
mium 1  part.  Fuse  in  an  iron  spoon 
or  some  vessel  of  the  same  material. 
When  the  two  materials  are  in  fusion  add 
a  little  mercury,  previously  heated.  Place 
all  in  an  iron  crucible  and  boil,  agitating 
the  mass  with  a  pestle.  This  amalgam 
is  soft  and  can  be  kneaded  between  the 
fingers.  It  may  be  employed  for  luting 
glass  or  porcelain  vessels,  as  well  as  for 
filling  teeth.  It  hardens  in  a  short  while. 

Amalgam  for  Silvering  Glass  Balls. — 
Lead,  25  parts;  tin,  25  parts;  bismuth, 
25  parts;  mercury,  25  parts;  or,  lead,  20 
parts;  tin,  20  parts;  bismuth,  20  parts; 
mercury,  40  parts.  Melt  the  lead  and 
the  tin,  then  add  the  bismuth;  skim  sev- 
eral times  and  add  the  mercury,  stirring 
the  composition  vigorously. 

(See  also  Mirror-Silvering). 

Copper  Amalgam. — Copper  amalgam, 
or  so-called  Viennese  metal  cement,  crys- 
tallizes with  the  greatest  readiness  and 
acquires  such  hardness  on  solidifying 
that  it  can  be  polished  like  gold.  The 
amalgam  may  also  be  worked  under  the 
hammer  or  between  rollers;  it  can  also 
be  stamped,  and  retains  its  metallic  luster 
for  a  long  time  in  the  air.  In  air  con- 
taining hydrogen  sulphide,  however,  it 
quickly  tarnishes  and  turns  black.  A 
very  special  property  of  copper  amalgam 
consists  in  that  it  becomes  very  soft  when 
laid  in  water,  and  attains  such  pliancy 
that  it  can  be  employed  for  modeling  the 
most  delicate  objects.  After  a  few 
hours  the  amalgam  congeals  again  into 
a  very  fine-grained,  rather  malleable 
mass.  An  important  application  of 
copper  amalgam  is  that  for  cementing 
metals.  ^  All  that  is  necessary  for  this 
purpose  is  to  heat  the  metals,  which  must 
be  bright,  to  80-90°  C.  (176-194°  F.),  to 
apply  the  amalgam  and  to  press  the  metal 
pieces  together.  They  will  cohere  as 
firmly  as  though  soldered  together. 

Copper  amalgam  may  be  prepared  in 
the  following  manner: 

Place  strips  of  zinc  in  a  solution  of  blue 
vitriol  and  agitate  the  solution  thor- 
oughly. The  copper  thus  obtained  in 
the  form  of  a  very  fine  powder  is  washed 
and,  while  still  moist,  treated  in  a  mor- 
tar with  a  solution  of  mercury  nitrate. 
The  copper  powder  thereby  amalga- 
mates more  readily  with  the  quicksilver. 
Next,  hot  water  is  poured  over  the  cop- 
per, the  mortar  is  kept  hot,  and  the  mer- 
cury added.  Knead  with  the  pestle  of 
the  mortar  until  the  copper,  pulverulent 
in  the  beginning,  has  united  with  the 
mercury  into  a  very  plastic  mass.  The 


longer  the  kneading  is  continued  the 
more  uniform  will  be  the  mass.  As  soon 
as  the  amalgam  has  acquired  the  suitable 
character — for  its  production  3  parts  of 
copper  and  7  parts  of  mercury  are  used 
— the  water  is  poured  off  and  the  amal- 
gam still  soft  is  given  the  shape  in  which 
it  is  to  be  kept. 

For  cementing  purposes,  the  amalgam 
is  rolled  out  into  small  cylinders,  whose 
diameter  is  about  0.16  to  0.2  inches,  with 
a  length  of  a  few  inches.  In  order  to 
produce  with  this  amalgam  impressions 
of  castings,  which  are  made  after  wood- 
cuts, the  amalgam  is  rolled  out  hot 
into  a  thin  plate  and  pressed  firmly 
onto  the  likewise  heated  plaster  cast. 
After  the  amalgam  has  hardened  the 
thin  plate  of  it  may  be  reinforced  by 
pouring  on  molten  type  metal. 

Silver  Amalgam. — Silver  amalgam  can 
easily  be  made  with  the  help  of  finely 
powdered  silver.  The  mercury  need 
only  be  heated  to  250°  to  300°  C.  (482° 
to  572°  F.);  silver  powder  is  then  sprin- 
kled on  it,  and  mixed  with  it  by  stirring. 
The  vessel  is  heated  for  several  minutes 
and  then  allowed  to  cool,  the  excess  of 
mercury  being  removed  from  the  granu- 
lated crystalline  amalgam  by  pressing  in 
a  leather  bag.  Silver  amalgam  can  also 
easily  be  made  by  dissolving  silver  in 
nitric  acid,  evaporating  the  solution  till 
the  excess  of  free  acid  is  eliminated,  di- 
luting with  distilled  water,  and  adding 
mercury  to  the  fluid  in  the  proportion  of 
4  parts,  by  weight,  of  mercury  to  1  of  the 
silver  originally  used.  The  mercury 
precipitates  the  silver  in  a  metallic  state, 
and  immediately  forms  an  amalgam  with 
it;  the  fluid  standing  above  after  a  time 
contains  no  more  silver,  but  consists  of 
a  solution  of  mercury  nitrate  mixed  with 
whatever  copper  was  contained  in  the 
dissolved  silver  in  the  form  of  copper 
nitrate.  The  absence  of  a  white  pre- 
cipitate, if  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid  are  added  to  a  sample  of  the  fluid 
in  a  test  tube,  shows  that  all  the  silver 
has  been  eliminated  from  the  solution 
and  is  present  in  the  form  of  amalgam. 

Amalgam  for  the  Rubber  of  Electric 
Machines. — Mercury,  100  parts;  zinc,  50 
parts;  tin,  50  parts.  Tnis  amalgam 
reduced  to  powder  and  incorporated 
with  grease  can  be  applied  to  the  rubber 
of  electric  machines. 
AMALGAM  GOLD  PLATING: 

See  Gilding  under  Plating. 
AMBER : 

Imitation  Amber. — Melt  carefully  to- 
gether pine  rosin,  1;  lacca  in  tabulis,  2; 
white  colophony,  15  parts. 


AMBER   CEMENT— ANILINE    STAINS 


91 


AMBER   CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives  under  Cements. 

AMBER  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

AMBROSIA  POWDER: 

See  Salts  (Effervescent). 

AMIDOL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

AMETHYST     (IMITATION) : 
See  Gems,  Artificial. 

AMMON-CARBONITE : 

See  Explosives. 


Ammonia 

Household  Ammonia. — (See  also  House- 
hold Formulas.) — Household  ammonia  is 
simply  diluted  ammonia  water  to  which 
borax  and  soap  have  been  added.  To 
make  it  cloudy  add  potassium  nitrate 
or  methylated  spirit.  The  following  are 
good  formulas: 

I. — Ammonia  water  ....     16  parts 

Yellow  soap 64  parts 

Potassium  nitrate...        1  part 
Soft  water,  sufficient 

to  make 200  parts 

Shave  up  the  soap  and  dissolve  it  in 
the  water  by  heating,  add  the  potassium 
nitrate  and  dissolve.  Cool,  strain,  skim 
off  any  suds  or  bubbles,  add  the  am- 
monia, mix,  and  bottle  at  once. 

II. — Yellow  soap 10  grains 

Borax 1  drachm 

Lavender  water. ...    20  minims 
Stronger  ammonia 

water 6  ounces 

Water,     enough     to 

make 20  ounces 

Dissolve    the    soap    and    borax    in    5 
ounces  of  boiling  water;  when  cold  add 
the  lavender  water  and  ammonia,  and 
make  up  to  a  pint  with  water. 
III. — Methylated  spirit.  ..        1  gallon 

Soft  water 1  gallon 

Stronger     ammonia 

water 1  gallon 

IV. — Ammonia  water.  —        5  pints 

Distilled  water 5  pints 

Soap 100  grains 

Olive  oil 5  drachms 

Cut  the  soap  in  shavings,  boil  with  the 
oil  and  water,  cool,  add  the  ammonia 
water,  and  bottle.  For  use  in  laundries, 
baths,  and  for  general  household  pur- 
poses add  one  tablespoonful  to  one 
gallon  of  water. 


V.— The  best  quality: 

Alcohol,  94  per  cent . .   4  ounces 

Soft  water 4  gallons 

Oil  of  rosemary 4  drachms 

Oil  of  citronella 3  drachms 

Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol  and 
add  to  the  water.  To  the  mixture  add 
4  ounces  of  talc  (or  fuller's  earth  will 
answer),  mix  thoroughly,  strain  through 
canvas,  and  to  the  colate  add  1,  2,  or  3 
gallons  of  ammonia  water,  according  to 
the  strength  desired,  in  which  has  been 
dissolved  1,  2,  or  3  ounces  of  white 'curd, 
or  soft  soap. 

Liquor  Ainmonii  Anisatus. — 

Oil  of  anise,  by  weight 1  part 

Alcohol,  by  weight 24  parts 

Water  of  ammonia,  by  weight. .      5  parts 

Dissolve  the  oil  in  the  alcohol  and  add 
the  water  of  ammonia. 

It  should  be  a  clear,  yellowish  liquid. 

Violet  Color  for  Ammonia. — A  purple- 
blue  color  may  be  given  to  ammonia 
water  by  adding  an  aqueous  solution 
of  litmus.  The  shade,  when  pale 
enough,  will  probably  meet  all  views  as 
to  a  violet  color. 

Perfumed  Ammonia  Water. — The 
following  are  typical  formulas: 

I. — Stronger  water  of  am- 
monia       6  ounces 

Lavender  water 1  ounce 

Soft  soap 10  grains 

Water,      enough      to 

make 16  ounces 

II. — Soft  soap 1     ounce 

Borax 2     drachms 

Cologne  water |  ounce 

Stronger  water  of  am- 
monia       5£  ounces 

Water,      enough      to 

make 12     ounces 

Rub  up  the  soap  and  borax  with  water 
until  dissolved,  strain  and  add  the  other 
ingredients.  The  perfumes  may  be 
varied  to  suit  the  price. 

AMMONIA  FOR   FIXING   PRINTS: 

See  Photography. 

ANGOSTURA  BITTERS: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

ANILINE : 
See  Dyes. 

ANILINE  IN  PIGMENTS,  TESTS  FOR : 
See  Pigments. 

ANILINE   STAINS,   TO   REMOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


ANTIDOTES   FOR   POISONS 


ANISE    CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

ANKARA: 

See  Butter. 

ANNEALING  OF  STEEL,  TOOLS,  WIRE, 
AND  SPRINGS: 

See  Steel. 

ANODYNES: 

See  Pain  Killers. 

ANT    DESTROYERS: 

See  Insecticides. 


Antidotes  for  Poisons 

POISON,      SYMPTOMS     AND      ANTI- 
DOTES. 

When  a  person  has  taken  poison  the 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  compel  the  patient 
to  vomit,  and  for  that  purpose  give  any 
emetic  that  can  be  most  readily  and 
quickly  obtained,  and  which  is  prompt 
and  energetic,  but  safe  in  its  action. 
For  this  purpose  there  is,  perhaps, 
nothing  better  than  a  large  teaspoonful 
of  ground  mustard  in  a  tumblerful  of 
warm  water,  and  it  has  the  advantage  of 
being  almost  always  at  hand.  If  the  dry 
mustard  is  not  to  be  had  use  mixed 
mustard  from  the  mustard  pot.  Its 
operation  may  generally  be  facilitated 
by  the  addition  of  a  like  quantity  of 
common  table  salt.  If  the  mustard  is 
not  at  hand,  give  two  or  three  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  powdered  alum  in  syrup  or 
molasses,  and  give  freely  of  warm  water 
to  drink;  or  give  10  to  20  grains  of  sul- 
phate of  zinc  (white  vitriol),  or  20  to  30 
grains  of  ipecac,  with  1  or  2  grains  of 
tartar  emetic,  in  a  large  cup  of  warm 
water,  and  repeat  every  ten  minutes  until 
three  or  four  doses  are  given,  unless 
free  vomiting  is  sooner  produced.  After 
vomiting  has  taken  place  large  draughts 
of  warm  water  should  be  given,  so 
that  the  vomiting  will  continue  until  the 
poisonous  substances  have  been  thor- 
oughly evacuated,  and  then  suitable  anti- 
dotes should  be  given.  If  vomiting  can- 
not be  produced  the  stomach  pump 
should  be  used.  When  it  is  known  what 
particular  kind  of  poison  has  been  swal- 
lowed, then  the  proper  antidote  for  that 
poison  should  be  given;  but  when  this 
cannot  be  ascertained,  as  is  often  the 
case,  give  freely  of  equal  parts  of  cal- 
cined magnesia,  pulverized  charcoal, 
and  sesquioxide  of  iron,  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water.  This  is  a  very  harm- 
less mixture  and  is  likely  to  be  of  great 
benefit,  as  the  ingredients,  though  very 


simple,  are  antidotes  for  the  most  com- 
mon and  active  poisons.  In  case  this 
mixture  cannot  be  obtained,  the  stomach 
should  be  soothed  and  protected  by  the 
free  administration  of  demulcent,  muci- 
laginous, or  oleaginous  drinks,  such  as  the 
whites  of  eggs,  milk,  mucilage  of  gum 
arabic,  or  slippery-elm  bark,  flaxseed 
tea,  starch,  wheat  flour,  or  arrowroot 
mixed  in  water,  linseed  or  olive  oil,  or 
melted  butter  or  lard.  Subsequently 
the  bowels  should  be  moved  by  some 
gentle  laxative,  as  a  tablespoonful  or 
two  of  castor  oil,  or  a  teaspoonful  of  cal- 
cined magnesia;  and  pain  or  other  evi- 
dence of  inflammation  must  be  relieved 
by  the  administration  of  a  few  drops  of 
laudanum,  and  the  repeated  application 
of  hot  poultices,  fomentations,  and  mus- 
tard plasters. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the 
substances  that  may  give  rise  to  poison- 
ing, most  commonly  used,  and  their  anti- 
dotes: 

Mineral  Acids — Sulphuric  Acid  (Oil 
of  Vitriol),  Nitric  Acid  (Aqua  Fortis), 
Muriatic  Acid  (Spirits  of  Salts). — Symp- 
toms: Acid,  burning  taste  in  the  moutn, 
acute  pain  in  the  throat,  stomach,  and 
bowels;  frequent  vomiting,  generally 
bloody;  mouth  and  lips  excoriated, 
shriveled,  white  or  yellow;  hiccough, 
copious  stools,  more  or  less  bloody,  with 
great  tenderness  in  the  abdomen;  diffi- 
cult breathing,  irregular  pulse,  excessive 
thirst,  while  drink  increases  the  pain 
and  rarely  remains  in  the  stomach;  fre- 
quent but  vain  efforts  to  urinate;  cold 
sweats,  altered  countenance;  convul- 
sions, generally  preceding  death.  Nitric 
acid  causes  yellow  stains;  sulphuric 
acid,  black  ones.  Treatment:  Mix 
calcined  magnesia  in  milk  or  water  to  the 
consistence  of  cream,  and  give  freely  to 
drink  a  glassful  every  couple  of  minutes, 
if  it  can  be  swallowed.  Common  soap 
(hard  or  soft),  chalk,  whiting,  or  even 
mortar  from  the  wall  mixed  in  water 
may  be  given,  until  magnesia  can  be  ob- 
tained. Promote  vomiting  by  tickling 
the  throat,  if  necessary,  and  when  the 
poison  is  got  rid  of,  flaxseed  or  slippery- 
elm  tea,  gruel,  or  other  mild  drinks. 
The  inflammation  which  always  follows 
needs  good  treatment  to  save  the  pa- 
tient's life. 

Vegetable  Acids— Acetic,  Citric,  Ox- 
alic, Tartaric. — Symptoms:  Intense 
burning  pain  of  mouth,  throat,  and 
stomach;  vomiting  blood  which  is  highly 
acid,  violent  purging,  collapse,  stupor, 
death. 

Oxalic    acid    is    frequently    taken    in 


ANTIDOTES   FOR   POISONS 


mistake  for  Epsom  salts,  to  which  in 
shops  it  often  bears  a  strong  resemblance. 
Treatment:  Give  chalk  or  magnesia  in  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  or  large  draughts 
of  limewater.  If  these  are  not  at  hand, 
scrape  the  wall  or  ceiling,  and  give  the 
scrapings  mixed  with  water. 

Prussic  or  Hydrocyanic  Acid — Laurel 
Water,  Cyanide  of  Potassium,  Bitter 
Almond  Oil,  Etc. — Symptoms:  In  large 
doses  almost  invariably  instantaneously 
fatal;  when  not  immediately  fatal,  sud- 
den loss  of  sense  and  control  of  the  vol- 
untary muscles.  The  odor  of  the  poison 
generally  noticeable  on  the  breath. 
Treatment:  Chlorine,  in  the  form  of 
chlorine  water,  in  doses  of  from  1  to  4 
fluidrachms,  diluted.  Weak  solution 
of  chloride  lime  of  soda;  water  of  am- 
monia (spirits  of  hartshorn),  largely 
diluted,  may  be  given,  and  the  vapor  of  it 
cautiously  inhaled.  Cold  affusion,  and 
chloroform  in  half  to  teaspoonful  doses 
in  glycerine  or  mucilage,  repeated  every 
few  minutes,  until  the  symptoms  are 
ameliorated.  Artificial  respiration. 

Aconite — Monkshood,  Wolfsbane. — 
Symptoms:  Numbness  and  tingling  in 
the  mouth  and  throat,  and  afterwards  in 
other  portions  of  the  body,  with  sore 
throat,  pain  over  the  stomach,  and  vom- 
iting; dimness  of  vision,  dizziness,  great 
prostration,  loss  of  sensibility,  and  de- 
lirium. Treatment:  An  emetic  and 
then  brandy  in  tablespoonful  doses,  in 
ice  water,  every  half  hour ;  spirits  of 
ammonia  in  half -teaspoonful  doses  in 
like  manner;  the  cold  douche  over  the 
head  and  chest,  warmth  to  the  extrem- 
ities, etc. 

Alkalis  and  Their  Salts— Concen- 
trated Lye,  Wood-ash  Lye,  Caustic  Pot- 
ash, Ammonia,  Hartshorn. — Symptoms: 
Caustic,  acrid  taste,  excessive  heat  in 
the  throat,  stomach,  and  intestines; 
vomiting  of  bloody  matter,  cold  sweats, 
hiccough,  purging  of  bloody  stools. 
Treatment:  The  common  vegetable 
acids.  Common  vinegar,  being  always 
at  hand,  is  most  frequently  used.  The 
fixed  oils,  as  castor,  flaxseed,  almond, 
and  olive  oils  form  soaps  with  the  alka- 
lis and  thus  also  destroy  their  caustic 
effect.  They  should  be  given  in  large 
quantity. 

Antimony  and  Its  Preparations — Tar- 
tar Emetic,  Antimonial  Wine,  Kerme's 
Mineral.  —  Symptoms  :  Faintness  and 
nausea,  soon  followed  by  painful  and 
continued  vomiting,  severe  diarrhea, 
constriction  and  burning  sensation  in 
the  throat,  cramps,  or  spasmodic  twitch- 


ings,  with  symptoms  of  nervous  derange- 
ment, and  great  prostration  of  strength, 
often  terminating  in  death.  Treatment: 
If  vomiting  has  not  been  produced,  it 
should  be  effected  by  tickling  the  fauces, 
and  administering  copious  draughts  of 
warm  water.  Astringent  infusions,  such 
as  of  gall,  oak  bark,  Peruvian  bark,  act 
as  antidotes,  and  should  be  given  prompt- 
ly. Powdered  yellow  bark  may  be  used 
until  the  infusion  is  prepared,  or  very 
strong  green  tea  should  be  given.  To 
stop  the  vomiting,  should  it  continue, 
blister  over  the  stomach  by  applying  a 
cloth  wet  with  strong  spirits  of  hartshorn, 
and  then  sprinkle  on  one-eighth  to  one- 
fourth  of  a  grain  of  morphia. 

Arsenic  and  Its  Preparations— Rats- 
bane, Fowler's  Solution,  Etc. —  Symp- 
toms: Generally  within  an  hour  pain 
and  heat  are  felt  in  the  stomach,  soon 
followed  by  vomiting,  with  a  burning 
dryness  of  the  throat  and  great  thirst; 
the  matters  vomited  are  generally  colored 
either  green  yellow,  or  brown,  and  are 
sometimes  bloody.  Diarrhea  or  dys- 
entery ensues,  while  the  pulse  becomes 
small  and  rapid,  yet  irregular.  Breath- 
ing much  oppressed;  difficulty  in  vom- 
iting may  occur,  while  cramps,  convul- 
sions, or  even  paralysis  often  precede 
death,  which  sometimes  takes  place  with- 
in five  or  six  hours  after  arsenic  has  been 
taken.  Treatment  :  Give  a  prompt 
emetic,  and  then  hydrate  of  peroxide  of 
iron  (recently  prepared)  in  tablespoon- 
ful doses  every  10  or  15  minutes  until  the 
urgent  symptoms  are  relieved.  In  the 
absence  of  this,  or  while  it  is  being  pre- 
pared, give  large  draughts  of  new  milk 
and  raw  eggs,  limewater  and  oil,  melted 
butter,  magnesia  in  a  large  quantity  of 
water,  or  even  if  nothing  else  is  at  hand, 
flour  and  water,  always5>  however,  giv- 
ing an  emetic  the  first  thing,  or  causing 
vomiting  by  tickling  the  throat  with  a 
feather,  etc.  The  inflammation  of  the 
stomach  which  follows  must  be  treated 
by  blisters,  hot  fomentations,  muci- 
laginous drinks,  and  the  like. 

Belladonna,  or  Deadly  Nightshade.— 
Symptoms:  Dryness  of  the  mouth  and 
throat,  great  thirst,  difficulty  of  swal- 
lowing, nausea,  dimness,  confusion  or 
loss  of  vision,  great  enlargement  of  the 
pupils,  dizziness,  delirium,  and  coma. 
Treatment:  There  is  no  known  anti- 
dote. Give  a  prompt  emetic  and  then 
reliance  must  be  placed  on  continual 
stimulation  with  brandy,  whisky,  etc., 
and  to  necessary  artificial  respiration. 
Opium  and  its  preparations,  as  morphia, 
laudanum,  etc.,  are  thought  by  some  to 


ANTIDOTES   FOR   POISONS 


counteract  the  effect  of  belladonna,  and 
may  be  given  in  small  and  repeated  doses, 
as  also  strong  black  coffee  and  green  tea. 

Blue  Vitriol,  or  Blue  Stone.— See  Cop- 
per. 

Cantharides  (Spanish  or  Blistering 
Fly)  and  Modern  Potato  Bug. — Symp- 
toms: Sickening  odor  of  the  breath, 
sour  taste,  with  burning  heat  in  the 
throat,  stomach,  and  bowels;  frequent 
vomiting,  often  bloody;  copious  bloody 
stools,  great  pain  in  the  stomach,  with 
burning  sensation  in  the  bladder  and 
difficulty  to  urinate  followed  with  ter- 
rible convulsions,  delirium,  and  death. 
Treatment:  Excite  vomiting  by  drinking 
plentifully  of  sweet  oil  or  other  whole- 
some oils,  sugar  and  water,  milk,  or 
slippery-elm  tea;  give  injections  of  castor 
oil  and  starch,  or  warm  milk.  The  in- 
flammatory symptoms  which  generally 
follow  must  be  treated  by  a  physician. 
Camphorated  oil  or  camphorated  spirits 
should  be  rubbed  over  the  bowels,  stom- 
ach, and  thighs. 

Caustic  Potash. — See  Alkalis  under  this 
title. 

Cobalt,  or  Fly  Powder. — Symptoms: 
Heat  and  pain  in  the  throat  and  stomach, 
violent  retching  and  vomiting,  cold  and 
clammy  skin,  small  and  feeble  pulse, 
hurried  and  difficult  breathing,  diar- 
rhea, etc.  Treatment:  An  emetic,  fol- 
lowed by  the  free  administration  of  milk, 
eggs,  wheat  flour  and  water,  and  muci- 
laginous drinks. 

Copper — Blue  Vitriol,  Verdigris  or 
Pickles  or  Food  Cooked  in  Copper  Ves- 
sels.— Symptoms:  General  inflamma- 
tion of  the  alimentary  canal,  suppres- 
sion of  urine;  hiccough,  a  disagreeable 
metallic  taste,  vomiting,  violent  colic, 
excessive  thirst,  sense  of  tightness  of  the 
throat,  anxiety;  faintness,  giddiness, 
and  cramps  and  convulsions  generally 
precede  death.  Treatment :  Large 
doses  of  simple  syrup  as  warm  as  can  be 
swallowed,  until  the  stomach  rejects  the 
amount  it  contains.  The  whites  of  eggs 
and  large  quantities  of  milk.  Hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron. 

Creosote  — Carbolic  Acid.  — Symptoms  : 
Burning  pain,  acrid,  pungent  taste, 
thirst,  vomiting,  purging,  etc.  Treat- 
ment: An  emetic  and  the  free  adminis- 
tration of  albumen,  as  the  whites  of  eggs, 
or,  in  the  absence  of  these,  milk,  or  flour 
and  water. 

Corrosive  Sublimate. — See  Mercury 
under  this  title. 


Deadly  Nightshade.— See  Belladonna 
under  this  title. 

Foxglove,  or  Digitalis.— Symptoms: 
Loss  of  strength,  feeble,  fluttering  pulse, 
faintness,  nausea  and  vomiting  and  stu- 
por ;  cold  perspiration,  dilated  pupils, 
sighing,  irregular  breathing,  and  some- 
times convulsions.  Treatment:  After 
vomiting,  give  brandy  and  ammonia  in 
frequently  repeated  doses,  apply  warmth 
to  the  extremities,  and  if  necessary  resort 
to  artificial  respiration. 

Gases — Carbonic  Acid,  Chlorine,  Cy- 
anogen, Hydrosulphuric  Acid,  Etc. — 
Symptoms:  Great  drowsiness,  difficult 
respiration,  features  swollen,  face  blue 
as  in  strangulation.  Treatment:  Arti- 
ficial respiration,  cold  douche,  friction 
with  stimulating  substances  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  body.  Inhalation  of  steam 
containing  preparations  of  ammonia. 
Cupping  from  nape  of  neck.  Internal 
use  of  chloroform. 

Hellebore,  or  Indian  Poke. — Symp- 
toms: Violent  vomiting  and  purging, 
bloody  stools,  great  anxiety,  tremors, 
vertigo,  fainting,  sinking  of  the  pulse, 
cold  sweats,  and  convulsions.  Treat- 
ment: Excite  speedy  vomiting  by  large 
draughts  of  warm  water,  molasses  and 
water,  tickling  the  throat  with  the  finger 
or  a  feather,  and  emetics;  give  oily  and 
mucilaginous  drinks,  oily  purgatives, 
and  clysters,  acids,  strong  coffee,  cam- 
phor, and  opium. 

Hemlock  (Conium). — Symptoms:  Dry- 
ness  of  the  throat,  tremors,  dizziness, 
difficulty  of  swallowing,  prostration,  and 
faintness,  limbs  powerless  or  paralyzed, 
pupils  dilated,  pulse  rapid  and  feeble; 
insensibility  and  convulsions  sometimes 
precede  death.  Treatment:  Empty  the 
stomach  and  give  brandy  in  tablespoon- 
ful  doses,  with  half  teaspoonful  of  spirits 
of  ammonia,  frequently  repeated,  and 
if  much  pain  and  vomiting,  give  bro- 
mide of  ammonium  in  5-grain  doses 
every  half  hour.  Artificial  respiration 
may  be  required. 

Henbane,  or  Hyoscyamus. — Symp- 
toms: Muscular  twitching,  inability  to 
articulate  plainly,  dimness  of  vision  and 
stupor;  later,  vomiting  and  purging, 
small  intermittent  pulse,  convulsive 
movement  of  the  extremities,  and  coma. 
Treatment:  Similar  to  opium  poison- 
ing, which  see. 

Iodine. — Symptoms:  Burning  pain  in 
throat,  lacerating  pain  in  the  stomach, 
fruitless  effort  to  vomit,  excessive  ten- 
derness of  the  epigastrium.  Treatment: 


ANTIDOTES   FOR   POISONS 


95 


Free  emesis,  prompt  administration  of 
starch,  wheat  flour,  or  arrowroot,  beaten 
up  in  water. 

Lead — Acetate  of  Lead,  Sugar  of  Lead, 
Dry  White  Lead,  Red  Lead,  Litharge,  or 
Pickles,  Wine,  or  Vinegar  Sweetened  by 
Lead. — Symptoms:  When  taken  in  large 
doses,  a  sweet  but  astringent  metallic 
taste  exists,  with  constriction  in  the 
throat,  pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach, 
painful,  obstinate,  and  frequently  bloody 
vomitings,  hiccough,  convulsions  or 
spasms,  and  death.  When  taken  in 
small  but  long-continued  doses  it  pro- 
duces colic,  called  painters'  colic;  great 
pain,  obstinate  constipation,  and  in  ex- 
treme cases  paralytic  symptoms,  es- 
pecially wrist-drop,  with  a  blue  line  along 
the  edge  of  the  gums.  Treatment:  To 
counteract  the  poison  give  alum  in  water 
li  ounce  to  a  quart;  or,  better  still,  Ep- 
som salts  or  Glauber's  salts,  an  ounce  of 
either  in  a  quart  of  water;  or  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  a  teaspoonful  to  a  quart  of 
water.  If  a  large  quantity  of  sugar  of 
lead  has  been  recently  taken,  empty  the 
stomach  by  an  emetic  of  sulphate  of  zinc 
(1  drachm  in  a  qur,rt  oi  water),  giving 
one-fourth  to  commence,  and  repeating 
smaller  doses  until  free  vomiting  is  pro- 
duced; castor  oil  should  be  given  to  clear 
the  bowels  and  injections  of  oil  and 
starch  freely  administered.  If  the  body 
is  cold  use  the  warm  bath. 

Meadow  Saffron. — See  Belladonna. 
Laudanum. — See  Opium. 

Lobelia  —  Indian  Poke.  —  Symptoms : 
Excessive  vomiting  and  purging,  pains 
in  the  bowels,  contraction  of  the  pupils, 
delirium,  coma,  and  convulsions.  Treat- 
ment: Mustard  over  the  stomach,  and 
brandy  and  ammonia. 

Mercury— Corrosive  Sublimate  (bug 
poisons  frequently  contain  this  poison), 
Red  Precipitate,  Chinese  or  English 
Vermilion. — Symptoms:  Acrid,  metallic 
taste  in  the  mouth,  immediate  constric- 
tion and  burning  in  the  throat,  with  anx- 
iety and  tearing  pains  in  both  stomach 
and  bowels,  sickness,  and  vomiting  of 
various-colored  fluids,  and  sometimes 
bloody  and  profuse  diarrhea,  with  dif- 
ficulty and  pain  in  urinating;  pulse 
quick,  small,  and  hard;  faint  sensations, 
great  debility,  difficult  breathing,  cramps, 
cold  sweats,  syncope,  and  convulsions. 
Treatment:  If  vomiting  does  not  al- 
ready exist,  emetics  must  be  given  im- 
mediately— white  of  eggs  in  continuous 
large  doses,  and  infusion  of  catechu  after- 
wards, sweet  milk,  mixtures  of  flour  and 


water  in  successive  cupfuls,  and  to  check 
excessive  salivation  put  a  half  ounce  of 
chlorate  of  potash  in  a  tumbler  of  water, 
and  use  freely  as  a  gargle,  and  swallow  a 
tablespoonful  every  hour  or  two. 

Morphine. — See  Opium. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  (Lunar  Caustic).— 
Symptoms:  Intense  pain  and  vomiting, 
and  purging  of  blood,  mucus,  and  shreds 
of  mucous  membranes;  and  if  these  stand 
they  become  dark.  Treatment:  Give 
freely  of  a  solution  of  common  salt  in 
water,  which  decomposes  the  poison, 
and  afterwards  flaxseed  or  slippery-elm- 
bark  tea,  and  after  a  while  a  dose  of 
castor  oil. 

Opium  and  All  Its  Compounds — 
Morphine,  Laudanum,  Paregoric,  Etc. — 
Symptoms:  Giddiness,  drowsiness,  in- 
creasing to  stupor.,  and  insensibility; 
pulse  usually,  at  first,  quick  and  ir- 
regular, and  breathing  hurried,  and 
afterwards  pulse  slow  and  feeble,  and 
respiration  slow  and  noisy;  the  pupils  are 
contracted  and  the  eyes  and  face  con- 
gested, and  later,  as  death  approaches, 
the  extremities  become  cold,  the  surface 
is  covered  with  cold,  clammy  perspira- 
tion, and  the  sphincters  relax.  The  ef- 
fects of  opium  and  its  preparations,  in 
poisonous  doses,  appear  in  from  a  half 
to  two  hours  from  its  administration. 
Treatment:  Empty  the  stomach  imme- 
diately with  an  emetic  or  with  the  stom- 
ach pump.  Then  give  very  strong 
coffee  without  milk;  put  mustard  plasters 
on  the  wrists  and  ankles;  douche  the  head 
and  chest  with  cold  water,  and  if  the 
patient  is  cold  and  sinking,  give  brandy, 
or  whisky  and  ammonia.  Belladonna  is 
thought  by  many  to  counteract  the  poi- 
sonous effects  of  opium,  and  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  half  to  a  teaspoonful  of 
the  tincture,  or  2  grains  of  the  extract, 
every  20  minutes,  until  some  effect  is 
observed  in  causing  the  pupils  to  ex- 
pand. Use  warmth  and  friction,  and 
if  possible  prevent  sleep  for  some  hours, 
for  which  purpose  the  patient  should 
be  walked  about  between  two  persons. 
Finally,  as  a  last  resort,  use  artificial 
respiration,  persistence  in  which  will  some- 
times be  rewarded  with  success  in  ap- 
parently hopeless  cases.  Electricity  should 
also  be  tried. 

Cooley  advises  as  follows:  Vomiting 
must  be  .induced  as  soon  as  possible,  by 
means  of  a  strong  emetic  and  tickling  the 
fauces.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  the 
stomach  pump  should  be  applied.  The 
emetic  may  consist  of  a  half  drachm  of 
sulphate  of  zinc  dissolved  in  a  half  pint 
of  warm  water,  of  which  one-third  should 


96 


ANTIDOTES   FOR   POISONS 


be  taken  at  once,  and  the  remainder  at 
the  rate  of  a  wineglassful  every  5  or  10 
minutes,  until  vomiting  commences. 
When  there  is  much  drowsiness  or  stupor 
1  or  2  fluidrachms  of  tincture  of  capsi- 
cum will  be  found  a  useful  addition;  or 
one  of  the  formulas  for  emetic  draughts 
may  be  taken  instead.  Infusion  of  galls, 
cinchona,  or  oak  bark  should  be  freely 
administered  before  the  emetic,  and 
water  soured  with  vinegar  and  lemon 
juice,  after  the  stomach  has  been  well 
cleared  out.  To  rouse  the  system 
spirit  and  water  or  strong  coffee  may  be 
given.  To  keep  the  sufferer  awake, 
rough  friction  should  be  applied  to  the 
skin,  an  upright  posture  preserved,  and 
walking  exercise  enforced,  if  necessary. 
When  this  is  ineffectual  cold  water  may 
be  dashed  over  the  chest,  head,  and 
spine,  or  mild  shocks  of  electricity  may 
be  had  recourse  to.  To  allow  the  suffer- 
er to  sleep  is  to  abandon  him  to  destruc- 
tion. Bleeding  may  be  subsequently 
necessary  in  plethoric  habits,  or  in 
threatened  congestion.  The  costiveness 
that  accompanies  convalescence  may  be 
best  met  by  aromatic  aperients;  and  the 
general  tone  of  the  habit  restored  by  stim- 
ulating tonics  and  the  shower  bath. 
The  smallest  fatal  dose  of  opium  in  the 
case  of  an  adult  within  our  recollection 
was  4  £  grains.  Children  are  much  more 
susceptible  to  the  action  of  opium 'than 
of  other  medicines,  and  hence  the  dose  of 
it  for  them  must  be  diminished  consid- 
erably below  that  indicated  by  the  com- 
mon method  of  calculation  depending  on 
the  age. 

Oxalic  Acid.— See  Acids. 

Phosphorus — Found  in  Lucifer 
Matches  and  Some  Rat  Poisons. — Symp- 
toms: Symptoms  of  irritant  poisoning; 
pain  in  tha  stomach  and  bowels;  vomit- 
ing, diarrhea;  tenderness  and  tension 
of  the  abdomen.  Treatment:  An  emetic 
is  to  be  promptly  given;  copious  draughts 
containing  magnesia  in  suspension;  mu- 
cilaginous drinks.  General  treatment 
for  inflammatory  symptoms. 

Poisonous  Mushrooms. — Symptoms: 
Nausea,  heat  and  pains  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels;  vomiting  and  purging, 
thirst,  convulsions,  and  faintings;  pulse 
small  and  frequent,  dilated  pupil  and 
stupor,  cold  sweats  and  death.  Treat- 
ment: The  stomach  and  bowels  are  to  be 
cleared  by  an  emetic  of  ground  mustard 
or  sulphate  of  zinc,  followed  by  frequent 
doses  of  Glauber's  or  of  Epsom  salts,  and 
large  stimulating  clysters.  After  the 
poison  is  evacuated,  either  may  be  given 
with  small  quantities  of  brandy  and 


water.  But  if  inflammatory  symptoms 
manifest  themselves  such  stimuli  should 
be  avoided,  and  these  symptoms  appro- 
priately treated.  A  hypodermic  injection 
of  gV  grain  of  atropine  is  the  latest  discovered 
antidote. 

Potash.— See  Alkali. 

Prussic  or  Hydrocyanic  Acid. —  See 
Acids. 

Poison  Ivy. — Symptoms:  Contact 
with,  and  with  many  persons  the  near 
approach  to,  the  vine  gives  rise  to  vio- 
lent erysipelatous  inflammation,  espe- 
cially of  the  face  and  hands,  attended 
with  itching,  redness,  burning,  and  swell- 
ing, with  watery  blisters.  Treatment: 
Give  saline  laxatives,  and  apply  weak 
sugar  of  lead  and  laudanum,  or  limewater 
and  sweet  oil,  or  bathe  the  parts  freely  with 
spirits  of  niter.  Anointing  with  oil  will 
prevent  poisoning  from  it. 

Saltpeter  (Nitrate  of  Potash).— Symp- 
toms: Only  poisonous  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  then  causes  nausea,  painful 
vomiting,  purging,  convulsions,  faint- 
ness,  feeble  pulse,  cold  feet  and  hands, 
with  tearing  pains  in  stomach  and  bowels. 
Treatment:  Treat  as  is  directed  for 
arsenic,  for  there  is  no  antidote  known, 
and  emptying  the  stomach  and  bowels 
with  mild  drinks  must  be  relied  on. 

Savine. — Symptoms:  Sharp  pains  in 
the  bowels,  hot  skin,  rapid  pulse,  violent 
vomiting  and  sometimes  purging,  with 
great  prostration.  Treatment:  Mus- 
tard and  hot  fomentations  over  the 
stomach  and  bowels  and  ice  allowed 
in  the  stomach  only  until  the  inflam- 
mation ceases.  If  prostration  comes  on, 
food  and  stimulants  must  be  given  by 
injection. 

Stramonium,  Thorn  Apple,  or  James- 
town Weed. — Symptoms:  Vertigo,  head- 
ache, perversion  of  vision,  slight  delir- 
ium, sense  of  suffocation,  disposition  to 
sleep,  bowels  relaxed,  and  all  secretions 
augmented.  Treatment:  Same  as  for 
belladonna. 

Snake  Bites,  Cure  for. — The  Inspector 
of  Police  in  the  Bengal  Government  re- 
ports that  of  939  cases  in  which  ammonia 
was  freely  administered,  207  victims  have 
recovered,  and  in  the  cured  instances  the 
remedy  was  not  administered  till  about 
3i  hours  after  the  attack;  on  the  average 
of  the  fatal  cases  the  corresponding 
duration  of  time  was  44  hours. 

Strychnine  or  Nux  Vomica. — The  char- 
acteristic symptom  is  the  special  influ- 
ence exerted  upon  the  nervous  system, 


ANTIDOTES   FOR   POISONS 


97 


which  is  manifested  by  a  general  con- 
traction of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body, 
with  rigidity  of  the  spinal  column.  A 
profound  calm  soon  succeeds,  which  is 
followed  by  a  new  tetanic  seizure,  longer 
than  the  first,  during  which  the  respira- 
tion is  suspended.  These  symptoms 
then  cease,  the  breathing  becomes  easy, 
and  there  is  stupor,  followed  by  another 
general  contraction.  In  fatal  cases 
these  attacks  are  renewed,  at  intervals, 
with  increasing  violence,  until  death  en- 
sues. One  phenomenon  which  is  found 
only  in  poisonings  by  substances  con- 
taining strychnine  is  that  touching  any 
part  of  the  body,  or  even  threatening 
to  do  so,  instantly  produces  the  tetanic 
spasm.  Antidote:  The  stomach  should 
be  immediately  cleared  by  means  of  an 
emetic,  tickling  the  fauces,  etc.  To 
counteract  the  asphyxia  from  tetanus, 
etc.,  artificial  respiration  should  be 
practiced  with  diligence  and  care.  "If 
the  poison  has  been  applied  externally, 
we  ought  immediately  to  cauterize  the 
part,  and  apply  a  ligature  tightly  above 
the  wound.  If  the  poison  has  been 
swallowed  for  some  time  we  shouH  give 
a  purgative  clyster,  and  administer 
draughts  containing  sulphuric  ether  or 
oil  of  turpentine,  which  in  most  cases 
produce  a  salutary  effect.  Lastly,  in- 
jections of  chlorine  and  decoction  of 
tannin  are  of  value." 

According  to  Ch.  Gunther  the  great- 
est reliance  may  be  placed  on  full  doses 
of  opium,  assisted  by  venesection,  in 
cases  of  poisoning  by  strychnia  or  nux 
vomica.  His  plan  is  to  administer  this 
drug  in  the  form  of  solution  or  mix- 
ture, in  combination  with  a  saline  ape- 
rient. 

Another  treatment  is  to  give,  if  obtain- 
able, 1  ounce  or  more  of  bone  charcoal 
mixed  with  water,  and  follow  with  an 
active  emetic;  then  to  give  chloroform  in 
teaspoonful  doses,  in  flour  and  water  or 
glycerine,  every  few  minutes  while  the 
spasms  last,  and  afterwards  brandy  and 
stimulants,  and  warmth  of  the  extremi- 
ties if  necessary.  Recoveries  have  fol- 
lowed the  free  and  prompt  administra- 
tion of  oils  or  melted  butter  or  lard.  ^  In 
all  cases  empty  the  stomach  if  possible. 

Sulphate  of  Zinc— White  Vitriol.— See 
Zinc. 

Tin— Chloride  of  Tin,  Solution  of  Tin 
(used  by  dyers),  Oxide  of  Tin,  or  Putty 
Powder. — Symptoms:  Vomiting,  pains 
in  the  stomach,  anxiety,  restlessness,  fre- 
quent pulse,  delirium,  etc.  Treatment: 
Empty  the  stomach,  and  give  whites  of 
eggs  in  water,  milk  in  large  quantities, 


or  flour  beaten  up  in  water,  with  mag- 
nesia or  chalk. 

Tartar  Emetic. — See  Antimony. 

Tobacco. — Symptoms:  Vertigo,  stu- 
por, fainting,  nausea,  vomiting,  sudden 
nervous  debility,  cold  sweat,  tremors, 
and  at  times  fatal  prostration.  Treat- 
ment: After  the  stomach  is  empty  apply 
mustard  to  the  abdomen  and  to  the  ex- 
tremities, and  give  strong  coffee,  with 
brandy  and  other  stimulants,  with 
warmth  to  the  extremities. 

Zinc— Oxide  of  Zinc,  Sulphate  of 
Zinc,  White  Vitriol,  Acetate  of  Zinc.— 
Symptoms:  Violent  vomiting,  astrin- 
gent taste,  burning  pain  in  the  stomach, 
pale  countenance,  cold  extremities,  dull 
eyes,  fluttering  pulse.  Death  seldom 
ensues,  in  consequence  of  the  emetic 
effect.  Treatment:  The  vomiting  may 
be  relieved  by  copious  draughts  of  warm 
water.  Carbonate  of  soda,  administered 
in  solution,  will  decompose  the  sulphate 
of  zinc.  Milk  and  albumen  will  also  act 
as  antidotes.  General  principles  to  be 
observed  in  the  subsequent  treatment. 

Woorara. — Symptoms:  When  taken 
into  the  stomach  it  is  inert;  when  ab- 
sorbed through  a  wound  it  causes  sudden 
stupor  and  insensibility,  frothing  at  the 
mouth,  and  speedy  death.  Treatment: 
Suck  the  wound  immediately,  or  cut  it 
out  and  tie  a  cord  around  the  limb  be- 
tween the  wound  and  the  heart.  Apply 
iodine,  or  iodide  of  potassium,  and  give  it 
internally,  and  try  artificial  respiration. 

ANTIFERMENTS. 

The  following  are  tried  and  useful 
formulas: 

I. — Sulphite  (not  sulphate)  of  lime, 
in  fine  powder,  1  part;  marble  dust, 
ground  oyster  shells,  or  chalk,  7  parts; 
mix,  and  pack  tight,  so  as  to  exclude  the 
air. 

II. — Sulphite  (not  sulphate)  of  potassa, 
1  part;  new  black-mustard  seed  (ground 
in  a  pepper  mill),  7  parts;  mix,  and  pack 
so  as  to  exclude  air  and  moisture  per- 
fectly. Dose  (of  either),  |  ounce  to  1^ 
ounces  per  hogshead. 

III. — Mustard  seed,  14  pounds;  cloves 
and  capsicum,  of  each,  1|  pounds;  mix, 
and  grind  them  to  powder  in  a  pep- 
per mill.  Dose,  f  to  ^  pound  per  hogs- 
head. 

A  portion  of  any  one  of  these  compounds 
added  to  cider,  or  the  like,  soon  allays 
fermentation,  when  excessive,  or  when 
it  has  been  renewed.  The  first  formula 
is  preferred  when  there  is  a  tendency  to 
acidity.  The  second  and  third  may  be 
advantageously  used  for  wine  and  beer,  as 


98 


ANTISEPTICS 


well  as  for  cider.  The  third  compound 
greatly  improves  the  flavor  and  the  ap- 
parent strength  of  the  liquor,  and  also 
improves  its  keeping  qualities. 


Anchovy  Preparations 

Extemporaneous  Anchovy  Sauce. — 
Anchovies,      chopped 

small 3  or  4 

Butter 3  ounces 

Water 2  ounces 

Vinegar 1  ounce 

Flour 1  ounce 

Mix,  place  over  the  fire,  and  stir  until 
the  mixture  thickens.  Then  rub  through 
a  coarse  sieve. 

Essence  of  Anchovies. — Remove  the 
bones  from  1  pound  of  anchovies,  reduce 
the  remaining  portions  of  the  fish  to  a 
pulp  in  a  Wedgewood  mortar,  and  pass 
through  a  clean  hair  or  brass  sieve.  Boil 
the  bones  and  other  portions  which  will 
not  pass  through  the  sieve  in  1  pint  of 
water  for  15  minutes,  and  strain.  To 
the  strained  liquor  add  2£  ounces  of  salt 
and  2*  ounces  of  flour,  and  the  pulped 
anchovies.  Let  the  whole  simmer  over 
the  fire  for  three  or  four  minutes;  re- 
move from  the  fire,  and  when  the  mix- 
ture has  cooled  a  little  add  4  ounces  of 
strong  vinegar.  The  product  (nearly 
3  pounds)  may  be  then  bottled,  and  the 
corks  tied  over  with  bladder,  and  either 
waxed  or  capsuled. 

Anchovy  Paste. — 

Anchovies 7  pounds 

Water 9  pints 

Salt 1  pound 

Flour 1  pound 

Capsicum J  ounce 

Grated  lemon  peel.  .  .  1 

Mushroom  catsup.  .  .  4  ounces 

Anchovy  Butter. — 
Anchovies,  boned  and 

beaten  to  a  paste  .  .    1  part 

Butter 2  parts 

Spice enough 

ANTIFOULING   COMPOSITIONS  : 
See  Paints. 

ANTIFREEZING  SOLUTION : 
See  Freezing  Preventives. 

ANTIFRICTION  METAL : 

See  Alloys,  under  Phosphor  Bronze 
and  Antifriction  Metals. 


ANTIQUES,  TO  PRESERVE. 

The  best  process  for  the  preservation 
of  antique  metallic  articles  consists  in  a 
retransformation  of  the  metallic  oxides 
into  metal  by  the  electrolytic  method. 
For  this  purpose  a  zinc  strip  is  wound 
around  the  article  and  the  latter  is  laid 
in  a  soda-lye  solution  of  5  per  cent,  or 
suspended  as  the  negative  pole  of  a  small 
battery  in  a  potassium  cyanide  solution 
of  2  per  cent.  Where  this  method  does 
not  seem  practicable  it  is  advisable  to 
edulcorate  the  objects  in  running  water, 
in  which  operation  fragile  or  easily  de- 
stroyed articles  may  be  protected  by 
winding  with  gauze;  next,  they  should 
be  carefully  dried,  first  in  the  air,  then 
with  moderate  heat,  and  finally  protected 
from  further  destruction  by  immersion 
in  melted  paraffiiie.  A  dry  place  is  re- 
quired for  storing  the  articles,  since  par- 
affine  is  not  perfectly  impermeable  to 
water  in  the  shape  of  steam. 

ANTIRUST  COMPOSITIONS: 

See  Rust  Preventives. 


Antiseptics 

Antiseptic  Powders. — 

I. — Borax 3     ounces 

Dried  alum 3    ounces 

Thymol 22    grains 

Eucalyptol 20     drops 

Menthol 1£  grains 

Phenol 15     grains 

Oil  of  gaultheria ...      4     drops 
Carmine  to  give  a  pink  tint. 

II. — Alum,  powdered -  .    5(H  ^ 

Borax,  powdered 50     3 

Carbolic  acid,  crystals  ...      5  |  £, 

Oil  of  eucalyptus 5  V<< 

Oil  of  wintergreen 5     | 

Menthol .  .  5    '«' 


Thymol 


J 


III. — Boracic  acid 10  ounces 

Sodium  biborate.  .        4  ounces 

Alum 1  ounce 

Zinc  sulphocarbolate    1  ounce 

Thymic  acid 1  drachm. 

Mix  thoroughly.  For  an  antiseptic 
wash  dissolve  1  or  2  drachms  in  a  quart 
of  warm  wa.ter. 

IV. — Ektogan  is  a  new  dusting  powder 
which  is  a  mixture  of  zinc  hydroxide  and 
dioxide.  It  is  equivalent  to  about  8  per 
cent  of  active  oxygen.  It  is  a  yellowish- 
white  odorless  and  tasteless  powder,  in- 
soluble in  water.  It  is  used  externally  in 
wounds  and  in  skin  diseases  as  a  moist 
dressing  mixed  with  citric,  tartaric,  or 


ANTISEPTICS 


99 


. 


tannic  acid,  which  causes  the  liberation 
of  oxygen.  With  iodides  it  liberates 
iodine.  It  is  stated  to  be  strongly  anti- 
septic; it  is  used  in  the  form  of  a  powder, 
a  gauze,  and  a  plaster. 

Antiseptic  Pencils. — 

I. — Tannin q.  s. 

Alcohol,  q.  s 1  part 

Ether,  q.  s 3  parts 

Make  into  a  mass,  using  as  an  excip- 
ient  the  alcohol  and  ether  previously 
mixed.  Roll  into  pencils  of  the  desired 
length  and  thickness.  Then  coat  with 
collodion,  roll  in  pure  silver  leaf,  and 
finally  coat  with  the  following  solution  of 
gelatine  and  set  aside  to  dry: 

Gelatine 1  drachm 

Water 1  pint 

Dissolve  by  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat. 
When  wanted  for  use,  shave  away  a 
portion   of  the  covering,  dip  the  pencil 
into  tepid  water  and  apply. 

II. — Pencils  for  stopping  bleeding  are 
prepared  by  mixing: 

Purified  alum 480   1 

Borax 24 

Oxide  zinc 2i 

Thymol 8 

Formalin 4 

Melting  carefully  in  a  water  bath,  add- 
ing some  perfume,  and  forming  mixture 
into  pencils  or  cones. 

A  very  convenient  way  to  form  into 
pencils  where  no  mold  need  be  made  is 
to  take  a  small  glass  tube,  roll  a  piece  of 
oil  paper  around  the  tube,  remove  the 
glass  tube,  crimp  the  paper  tube  thus 
formed  on  one  end  and  stand  it  on  end 
or  in  a  bottle,  and  pour  the  melted  so- 
lution in  it  and  leave  until  cool,  then  re- 
move the  paper. 

Antiseptic  Paste  (Poison)  for  Organic 
Specimens. — 

(a)   Wheat  flour 16  ounces 

Beat  to  a  batter  with 

cold  water 16  fluidounces 

Then  pour  into  boil- 
ing water 32  fluidounces 

(6)   Pulverized  gum  ar- 

abic 2  ounces 

Dissolve     in     boil- 
ing water.  ......      4  fluidounces 

<£)   Pulverized  alum.  ..      2  ounces 
Dissolve     in     boil- 
ing water 4  fluidounces 

(d)  Acetate  of  lead  ....      2  ounces 
Dissolve     in     boil- 
ing water 4  fluidounces 

(e)  Corrosive  sublimate  10  grains 

Mix  (a)  and  (6)  while  hot  and  continue 
to  simmer;  meanwhile  stir  in  (r)  -and 


mix  thoroughly;  then  add  (d).  Stir 
briskly,  and  pour  in  the  dry  corrosive 
sublimate.  This  paste  is  very  poison- 
ous. It  is  used  for  anatomical  work  and 
for  pasting  organic  tissue,  labels  on  skel- 
etons, etc. 

Mouth  Antiseptics.—  I.—  Thymic  acid, 
25  centigrams  (3£  grains):  benzoic  acid, 
3  grams  (45  grains);  essence  of  pep- 
permint, 75  centigrams  (10  minims); 
tincture  of  eucalyptus,  15  grams  (4  A 
drachms) ;  alcohol,  100  grams  (3  ounces). 
Put  sufficient  in  a  glass  of  water  to  render 
latter  milky. 

II. — Tannin,  12  grams  (3  drachms); 
menthol,  8  grams  (2  drachms);  thymol, 
1  gram  (15  grains);  tincture  benzoin,  6 
grams  (90  minims);  alcohol,  100  grams 
(3  ounces).  Ten  drops  in  a  half-glassful 
of  tepid  water. 

See  also  Dentifrices  for  Mouth 
Washes. 

Antiseptic  Paste.— Difficulty  is  often 
experienced  in  applying  an  antiseptic 
dressing  to  moist  surfaces,  such  as  the 
lips  after  operation  for  harelip.  A  paste 
for  this  purpose  is  described  by  its  origi- 
nator, Socin.  The  composition  is:  Zinc 
oxide,  50  parts;  zinc  chloride,  5  parts; 
distilled  water,  50  parts.  The  paste  is 
applied  to  the  wound,  previously  dried 
by  means  of  a  brush  or  spatula,  allowed 
to  dry  on,  and  to  remain  in  place  five  or 
six  days.  It  may  then  be  removed  and 
a  fresh  application  made. 
Potassium  bicar- 
bonate    32.0  grams 

Sodium  benzoate  .  .      32.0  grams 

Sodium  borate 8.0  grams 

Thymol 0.2  gram 

Eucalyptol 2.0  c.  cent. 

Oil  of  peppermint..  0.2  c.  cent. 
Oil  of  wintergreen. .  0.4  c.  cent. 
Tincture  of  cudbear  15.0  c.  cent. 

Alcohol 60.0  c.  cent. 

Glycerine 250.0  c.  cent. 

Water,    enough    to 

make 1,000.0  c.  centimeters 

Dissolve  the  salts  in  650  cubic  centi- 
meters of  water,  and  t>he  thymol,  eucalyp- 
tol,  and  oils  in  the  alcohol.  Mix  the 
alcoholic  solution  with  the  glycerine  and 
add  the  aqueous  liquid,  then  the  tincture 
of  cudbear,  and  lastly  enough  water  to 
make  1,000  cubic  centimeters.  Allow 
to  stand  a  few  days,  then  filter,  adding  a 
little  magnesium  carbonate  to  the  filter, 
if  necessary,  to  get  a  brilliant  filtrate. 

This  is  from  the  Formulary  of  the 
Bournemouth  Pharmaceutical  Associa- 
tion, as  reported  in  the  Canadian  Phar- 
maceutical Association: 


100 


ANTISEPTICS 


Alkaline  Glycerine  of  Thymol. — 

Sodium  bicarbonate. .  100  grains 

Sodium  biborate 200  grains 

Sodium  benzoate 80  grains 

Sodium  salicylate  ....  40  grains 

Menthol 2  grains 

Pumilio  pine  oil 4  minims 

Wintergreen  oil 2  minims 

Thymol 4  grains 

Eucalyptol 12  minims 

Compound  Solution  of  Thymol. — 
A 

Benzoic  acid 64  grains 

Borax 64  grains 

Boric  acid 128  grains 

Distilled  water 6  ounces 

Dissolve. 

B 

Thymol 20  grains 

Menthol 6  grains 

Eucalyptol 4  minims 

Oil  of  wintergreen. ...        4  minims 
Oil  of  peppermint. ...        2  minims 

Oil  of  thyme 1  minim 

Alcohol  (90  per  cent)  .        3  ounces 
Dissolve. 

Mix  solutions  A  and  B,  make  up  to 
20  fluidounces  with  distilled  water,  and 
filter. 

Oil  of  Cinnamon  as  an  Antiseptic. — 
Oil  of  cinnamon  in  a  9-per-cent  emulsion, 
when  used  upon  the  hands,  completely 
sterilizes  them.  A  7-to  8-per-cent  emul- 
sion is  equal  to  a  1-per-cent  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  and  is  certainly  far 
more  agreeable  to  use.  Oil  of  thyme  in 
an  11-per-cent  solution  is  equal  to  a  7-per- 
cent solution  of  cinnamon  oil. 

Green  Coloring  for  Antiseptic  Solu- 
tions.— The  safest  coloring  substance  for 
use  in  a  preparation  intended  either  for 
internal  administration  or  for  applica- 
tion to  the  skin  is  the  coloring  matter  of 
leaves,  chlorophyll.  A  tincture  of  spin- 
ach or  of  grass  made  by  macerating  2 
ounces  of  the  freshly  cut  leaves  in  a  pint 
of  alcohol  for  five  days  will  be  found  to 
give  good  results.  If  the  pure  coloring 
substance  is  wanted  the  solvent  should 
be  evaporated  off. 

Antiseptic  Bromine  Solution. — 

Bromine 1  ounce 

Sodium  chloride 8  ounces 

Water 8  pints 

Dissolve  the  sodium  chloride  in  the 
water  and  add  the  bromine.  This  solu- 
tion is  to  be  diluted,  when  applied  to 
broken  skin  surfaces,  1  part  with  15 
parts  of  water. 

Substitute  for  Rubber  Gloves.— Mur- 


phy has  found  that  a  4-,  6-,  or  8-per-cent 
solution  of  gutta-percha  in  benzine,  when 
applied  to  the  hands  of  the  surgeon  or 
the  skin  of  the  patient,  will  seal  these 
surfaces  with  an  insoluble,  impervious, 
and  practically  imperceptible  coating — 
a  coating  that  will  not  allow  the  secre- 
tions of  the  skin  to  escape,  and  will  not 
admit  secretions,  blood,  or  pus  into  the 
crevices  of  the  skin.  At  the  same  time 
it  does  not  impair  the  sense  of  touch  nor 
the  pliability  of  the  skin.  A  similar  solu- 
tion in  acetone  also  meets  most  of  the 
requirements. 

Murphy's  routine  method  of  hand  prep- 
aration is  as  follows:  First,  five  to  seven 
minutes'  scrubbing  with  spirits  of  green 
soap  and  running  hot  water;  second, 
three  minutes'  washing  with  alcohol; 
third,  when  the  hands  are  thoroughly 
dried,  the  gutta-percha  solution  is  poured 
over  the  hands  and  forearms,  care  being 
taken  to  fill  in  around  and  beneath  the 
nails.  The  hands  must  be  kept  exposed 
to  the  air  with  the  fingers  separated  until 
thoroughly  dry.  The  coating  is  very 
thin  and  can  be  recognized  only  by  its 
glazed  appearance.  It  will  resist  soap 
and  water,  but  is  easily  removed  by  wash- 
ing in  benzine.  The  hands  can  be 
washed  in  bichloride  or  any  of  the  anti- 
septic solutions  without  interfering  with 
the  coating  or  affecting  the  skin.  If 
the  operations  be  many,  or  prolonged, 
the  coating  wears  away  from  the  tips 
of  the  fingers,  but  is  easily  renewed.  For 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  hands  one 
application  is  sufficient  for  a  whole  morn- 
ing's work. 

The  4-per-cent  solution  of  rubber  wears 
better  on  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  in  han- 
dling instruments,  sponges,  and  tissues 
than  the  acetone  solution. 

For  the  abdomen  the  acetone  solution 
has  the  advantage,  and  it  dries  in  three 
to  four  seconds  after  its  application, 
while  the  benzine  solution  takes  from 
three  to  four  and  a  half  minutes  to  make 
a  dry,  firm  coating. 

The  preparation  of  the  patient's  skin 
consists  in  five  minutes'  scrubbing  with 
spirits  of  green  soap,  washing  with  ether, 
followed  by  alcohol.  The  surface  is  then 
swabbed  over  thoroughly  with  the  ben- 
zine or  acetone  solution. 

The  gutta-percha  solution  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  the  pure  gutta-percha  chips 
in  sterile  benzine  or  acetone.  These 
solutions  do  not  stand  boiling,  as  this 
impairs  the  adhesiveness  and  elasticity  of 
the  coating. 

ANTISEPTICS  FOR  CAGED  BIRDS: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 


ANTISEPTICS 


101 


APOLLINARIS : 

See  Waters. 

APPLE  SYRUP: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

AQUA    FORTIS    FOR    BRIGHT    LUS- 
TER: 

See  Castings. 

AQUA    FORTIS    FOR    THE    TOUCH- 
STONE : 

See  Gold. 

AQUARIUM  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

AQUARIUM  PUTTY: 

See  Putty. 

ARGENTAN : 

See  Alloys. 

ARMENIAN  CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives  under  Jewelers'  Ce- 
ments. 

ARMS,  OIL  FOR : 

See  Lubricants. 

ARNICA  SALVE : 

See  Ointments. 

ARSENIC  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

ASBESTOS  CEMENT: 
See  Adhesives. 

ASBESTOS  FABRIC : 

See  Fireproofing. 

ASPHALT    AS    AN    INGREDIENT    OF 
INDIA  RUBBER: 
See  Rubber. 

ASPHALT  IN  PAINTING: 
See  Paint. 

ASPHALT  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

ASSAYING: 

See  Gold. 

ASTHMA  CUKES.— Asthma  Papers.— 
I. — Impregnate  bibulous  paper  with  the 
following:  Extract  of  stramonium,  10; 
potassium  nitrate,  17;  sugar,  20;  warm 
water,  200  parts.  Dry. 

II. — Blotting  or  gray  filter  paper,  120; 
potassium  nitrate,  60;  powdered  bella- 
donna leaves,  5;  powdered  stramonium 
leaves,  5;  powdered  digitalis  leaves,  5; 
powdered  lobelia,  5;  myrrh,  10;  oli- 
banum,  10;  phellandrium  fruits,  5  parts. 

Stramonium  Candle. — Powdered  stra- 
monium leaves,  120;  potassium  nitrate, 
72;  Peruvian  balsam,  3;  powdered  sugar, 
1;  powdered  tragacanth,  4  parts.  (Water, 
q.  s.  to  mass;  roll  into  suitable  shapes 
and  dry.) 


deary's  Asthma  Fumigating  Fowder. 
— Powdered  stramonium,  15;  powdered 
belladonna  leaves,  15;  powdered  opium, 
2;  potassium  nitrate,  5. 

Asthma  Fumigating  Powders. — I. — 
Powdered  stramonium  leaves,  4;  pow- 
dered aniseed,  2;  potassium  nitrate,  2 
parts. 

II. — Powdered  stramonium,  30;  potas- 
sium nitrate,  5;  powdered  tea,  15;  pow- 
dered eucalyptus  leaves,  15;  powdered 
Indian  hemp,  15;  powdered  lobelia,  15; 
powdered  aniseed,  2;  distilled  water,  45 
parts.  (All  the  herbal  ingredients  in 
coarse  powder;  moisten  with  the  water  in 
which  the  potassium  nitrate  has  been 
previously  dissolved,  and  dry.) 

Schiffmann's  Asthma  Powder. — Potas- 
sium nitrate,  25;  stramonium,  70;  bella- 
donna leaves,  5  parts. 

Neumeyer's  Asthma  Powder. — Potas- 
sium nitrate,  6  parts;  sugar,  4;  stramo- 
nium, 6;  powdered  lobelia,  1. 

Fischer's  Asthma  Powder. — Stramo- 
nium, 5  parts ;  potassium  nitrate,  1 ;  pow- 
dered Achillea  millefolium  leaves,  1. 

Vorlaender's  Asthma  Powder. —  Stra- 
monium, 150;  lobelia,  80;  arnica  flowers, 
80;  potassium  nitrate,  30;  potassium 
iodide,  3;  naphthol,  1,100  parts. 

Asthma  Cigarettes.  — I.  —  Belladonna 
leaves,  5  parts;  stramonium  leaves,  5 
parts;  digitalis  leaves,  5  parts;  sage 
leaves,  5  parts;  potassium  nitrate,  75 
parts;  tincture  of  benzoin,  40  parts;  boil- 
ing water,  1,000  parts.  Extract  the 
leaves  with  the  boiling  writer,  filter,  and 
in  the  filtrate  dissolve  the  salts.  Im- 
merse in  the  fluid  sheets  of  bibulous 
paper  (Swedish  filter  paper  will  an- 
swer) and  let  remain  for  24  hours.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  remove,  dry,  cut  into 
pieces  about  2f  by  4  inches,  and  roll  into 
cigarettes. 

II. — Sodium  arseniate,  3  grains;  ex- 
tract of  belladonna,  8  grains;  extract  of 
stramonium,  8  grains.  Dissolve  the  ar- 
seniate of  sodium  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  and  rub  it  with  the  two  extracts. 
Then  soak  up  the  whole  mixture  with 
fine  blotting  paper,  which  is  dried  and 
cut  into  24  equal  parts.  Each  part  is 
rolled  up  in  a  piece  of  cigarette  paper. 
Four  or  five  inhalations  are  generally 
sufficient  as  a  dose. 

ASTHMA   IN   CANARIES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

ASTRINGENT  FOR  HORSES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHTS: 

See  Weights  and  Measures. 


102 


BAKING   POWDERS 


ATRjOPINE,, 

The  usual  physiological  antidotes  to 
the  mydriatic  alkaloids  from  belladonna, 
stramonium,  and  hyoscyamus  are  mor- 
phine or  eserine.  Strong  tea,  coffee,  or 
brandy  are  usually  administered  as  stim- 
ulants. Chief  reliance  has  usually  been 
placed  upon  a  stomach  siphon  and 
plenty  of  water  to  wash  out  the  contents 
of  the  stomach.  The  best  antidote  ever 
reported  was  that  of  muscarine  extracted 
by  alcohol  from  the  mushroom,  Amanita 
muscaria,  but  the  difficulty  of  securing 
the  same  has  caused  it  to  be  overlooked 
and  almost  forgotten.  Experiments 
with  this  antidote  showed  it  to  be  an  al- 
most perfect  opposite  of  atropine  in  its 
effects  upon  the  animal  body  and  that 
it  neutralized  poisonous  doses. 

AQUA  AROMATIC  A.— 

Cort.  cinnam.  chinens.  3  parts 

Flor.  lavandulae 5  parts 

Fol.  Menth.  pip 5  parts 

Fol.  rosmarini 5  parts 

Fol.  salvise 10  parts 

Fruct.  fceniculi 3  parts 

Spiritus 70  parts 

Aqua 300  parts 

Macerate  the  drugs  in  the  mixed  al- 
cohol and  water  for  24  hours  and  distill 
200  parts. 

AQUA  REGIA. — Aqua  regia  consists 
in  principle  of  2  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid 
and  1  part  of  nitric  acid.  But  this  quan- 
tity varies  according  to  the  shop  where  it 
is  used  for  gilding  or  jewelry,  and  some- 
times the  proportion  is  brought  to  4  parts 
of  hydrochloric  acid  to  1  of  nitric  acid. 

AUTOMOBILES,  ANTIFREEZING  SO- 
LUTION FOR: 

See  Freezing  Preventives. 

AXLE  GREASE: 
See  Lubricants. 

BABBITT  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 


Baking  Powders 

I. — Tartaric  acid,  3  parts;  sodium 
bicarbonate,  1  part;  starch,  0.75  part. 
Of  this  baking  powder  the  required 
amount  for  500  parts  of  flour  is  about 
20  parts  for  rich  cake,  and  15  parts  for 
lean  cake. 

The  substances  employed  must  be 
dry,  each  having  been  previously  sifted 


by  itself,  so  that  no  coarse  pieces  are 
present;  the  starch  is  mixed  with  the 
sodium  bicarbonate  before  the  acid  is 
added.  When  large  quantities  are  pre- 
pared the  mixing  is  done  by  machine; 
smaller  quantities  are  best  mixed  to- 
gether in  a  spacious  mortar,  and  then 
passed  repeatedly  through  a  sieve.  In- 
stead of  starch,  flour  may  be  used,  but 
starch  is  preferable,  because  it  inter- 
feres with  the  action  of  the  acid  on  the 
alkali. 

II. — A  formula  proposed  by  Cramp- 
ton,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  as  the  result  of  an  investi- 
gation of  the  leading  baking  powders  of 
the  market,  is: 

Potassium  bitartrate. .  .    2  parts 
Sodium  bicarbonate. ..    1  part 
Cornstarch 1  part 

The  addition  of  the  starch  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  a  "  filler"  to  increase 
the  weight  of  the  powder  and  as  a  pre- 
servative. A  mixture  of  the  chemicals 
alone  does  not  keep  well. 

The  stability  of  the  preparation  is  in- 
creased by  drying  each  ingredient  sepa- 
rately by  exposure  to  a  gentle  heat,  mixing 
at  once,  and  immediately  placing  in  bot- 
tles or  cans  and  excluding  access  of  air 
and  consequently  of  moisture. 

This  is  not  a  cheap  powder;  but  it  is 
the  best  that  can  be  made,  as  to  health- 
fulness. 

III. — Sodium    acid    phos- 
phate       20  parts 

Calcium  acid  phos- 
phate        20  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate     25  parts 
Starch 35  parts 

Caution  as  to  drying  the  ingredients 
and  keeping  them  dry  muse  be  observed. 
Even  the  mixing  should  be  done  in  a 
room  free  from  excessive  humidity. 

IV.— Alum  Baking  Powder.— 
Ammonium     alum, 

anhydrous 15  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate      18  parts 
Cornstarch,  q.  s.  to  make  100  parts. 
Mix.     The  available   carbon   dioxide 
yielded  is  7J  per  cent  or  8  per  cent. 

BALANCE   SPRING: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

BALDNESS : 

See  Hair  Preparations. 

BALL  BLUE: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

BALSAMS : 

See  also  Ointments. 


•  BALSAMS 


103 


Wild-Cherry  Balsam.— 

Wild-cherry  bark.  .    1  ounce 

Licorice  root 1  ounce 

Ipecac 1  ounce 

Bloodroot 1  drachm 

Sassafras 1  drachm 

Compound  tincture 

of  opium 1  fluidounce 

Fluid    extract    of 

cubeb 4  fluidrachms 

Moisten  the  ground  drugs  with  the 
fluid  extract  and  tincture  and  enough 
menstruum  consisting  of  25  per  cent 
alcohol,  and  after  six  or  eight  hours  pack 
in  a  percolator,  and  pour  on  menstruum 
until  percolation  begins.  Then  cork  the 
orifice,  cover  the  percolator,  and  allow  to 
macerate  for  24  hours.  Then  percolate 
to  10  fluidounces,  pouring  back  the  first 
portion  of  percolate  until  it  comes  through 
clear.  In  the  percolate  dissolve  £  ounce 
of  ammonium  chloride  and  A  pound  of 
sugar  by  cold  percolation,  adding  simple 
syrup  to  make  16  fluidounces.  Finally 
add  1  fluidrachm  of  chloroform. 

Balsam  Spray  Solution. — 

Oil  of  Scotch  pine. .  .    30  minims 

Oil  of  eucalyptus 1  drachm 

Oil  of  cinnamon  ....    30  minims 
Menthol  crystals.  ...    q.  s. 
Fluid  extract  of  balm- 

of-Gilead  buds  ...      1  drachm 
Tincture  of  benzoin, 

enough  to  make  .  .  4  ounces 
This  formula  can,  of  course,  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  your  requirements.  The  oils 
of  eucalyptus  and  cinnamon  can  be  omit- 
ted and  such  quantities  of  tincture  of 
tolu  and  tincture  of  myrrh  incorporated 
as  may  be  desired. 

Birch  Balsam. — 

Parts  by 
weight 

Alcohol 30,000 

Birch  juice 3,000 

Glycerine 1,000 

Bergamot  oil 90 

Vanillin.... 10 

Geranium  oil 50 

Water 14,000 

BALSAM  STAINS,  TO  REMOVE : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

BANANA  BRONZING  SOLUTION: 

See  Plating. 

BANANA  SYRUP: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

BANANA    TRICK,   THE    BURNING: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 


BANJO   SOUR: 

See  Beverages  under  Lemonade. 

BAR  POLISHES : 

See  Polishes. 

BARBERS'-ITCH  CURE: 

See  Ointments. 

BARBERS'  POWDER: 

See  Cosmetics. 

BAROMETERS   (PAPER): 

See  Hygrometers  and  Hygroscopes. 

BATH,  AIR: 
See  Air  Bath. 

BATH  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

BATH  POWDER: 

See  Cosmetics. 

BATH  TABLETS,  EFFERVESCENT. 

Tartaric  acid 10  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate.  .      9  parts 

Rice  flour 6  parts 

A  few  spoonfuls  of  this,  when  stirred 
into  a  bathtubful  of  water,  causes  a  co- 
pious liberation  of  carbon  dioxide,  which 
is  refreshing.  This  mixture  can  be  made 
into  tablets  by  compression,  moistening, 
if  necessary,  with  alcohol.  Water,  of 
course,  cannot  be  used  in  making  them, 
as  its  presence  causes  the  decomposition 
referred  to.  Perfume  may  be  added  to 
this  powder,  essential  oils  being  a  good 
form.  Oil  of  lavender  would  be  a  suit- 
able addition,  in  the  proportion  of  a 
fluidrachm  or  more  to  the  pound  of 
powder.  A  better  but  more  expensive 
perfume  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  1 
part  of  oil  of  rose  geranium  with  6  parts 
of  oil  of  lavender.  A  perfume  still  more 
desirable  may  be  had  by  adding  a  mix- 
ture of  the  oils  from  which  Cologne  water 
is  made.  For  an  ordinary  quality  the 
following  will  suffice: 

Oil  of  lavender  . .  4  fluidrachms 
Oil  of  rosemary. .  4  fluidrachms 
Oil  of  bergamot. .  1  fluidounce 

Oil  of  lemon 2  fluidounces 

Oil  of  clove 30  minims 

For  the  first  quality  the  following  may 
be  taken: 

Oil  of  neroli 6  fluidrachms 

Oil  of  rosemary. .  3  fluidrachms 
Oil  of  bergamot..  3  fluidrachms 

Oilofcedrat 7  fluidrachms 

Oil  of  orange  peel      7  fluidrachms 
A  fluidrachm  or  more  of  either  of  these 
mixtures  may  be  used  to  the  pound,  as  in 
the  case  of  lavender. 

These  mixtures  may  also  be  used  in  the 
preparation  of  a  bath  powder  (non-effer- 


104 


BATTERY   FILLERS 


vescent)  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of 
powdered  soap  and  powdered  borax. 

BATH-TUB  ENAMEL : 

See  Varnishes. 

BATH-TUB  PAINTS: 

See  Paint. 

BATTERY  FILLERS  AND  SOLUTIONS. 

I. — In  the  so-called  dry  batteries  the 
exciting  substance  is  a  paste  instead  of 
a  fluid;  moisture  is  necessary  to  cause 
the  reaction.  These  pastes  are  gener- 
ally secret  preparations.  One  of  the 
earlier  "dry"  batteries  is  that  of  Gassner. 
The  apparatus  consists  of  a  containing 
vessel  of  zinc,  which  forms  the  positive 
element;  the  negative  one  is  a  cylinder 
of  carbon,  and  the  space  between  is 
filled  with  a  paste,  the  recipe  for  which  is: 

Oxide  of  zinc 1  part 

Sal  ammoniac 1  part 

Plaster 3  parts 

Chloride  of  zinc 1  part 

Water 2  parts 

The  usual  form  of  chloride-of-silyer 
battery  consists  of  a  sealed  cell  contain- 
ing a  zinc  electrode,  the  two  being  gen- 
erally separated  by  some  form  of  porous 
septum.  Around  the  platinum  or  silver 
electrode  is  cast  a  quantity  of  silver 
chloride.  This  is  melted  and  general- 
ly poured  into  molds  surrounding  the 
metallic  electrode.  The  exciting  fluid 
is  either  a  solution  of  ammonium  chlo- 
ride, caustic  potassa,  or  soda,  or  zinc 
sulphate.  As  ordinarily  constructed, 
these  cells  contain  a  paste  of  the  electro- 
lyte, and  are  sealed  up  hermetically  in 
glass  or  hard-rubber  receptacles. 

II. — The  following  formula  is  said  to 
yield  a  serviceable  filling  for  dry  batteries: 

Charcoal 3  ounces 

Graphite 1  ounce 

Manganese  dioxide. ..   3  ounces 

Calcium  hydrate 1  ounce 

Arsenic  acid 1  ounce 

Glucose    mixed    with 

dextrine  or  starch . .    1  ounce 
Intimately  mix,  and  then  work  into  a 
paste  of  proper  consistency  with  a  sat- 
urated solution  of  sodium  and  ammo- 
nium chlorides  containing  one-tenth  of 
its  volume  of  a  mercury-bichloride  solu- 
tion and  an  equal  volume  of  hydrochloric 
acid.     Add  the  fluid  gradually,  and  well 
work  up  the  mass. 
III. — Calcium       chloride, 

crystallized 30  parts 

Calcium      chloride, 

granulated 30  parts 

Ammonium  sulphate  15  parts 
Zinc  sulphate 25  parts 


Solutions  for  Batteries. — The  almost 
exclusively  employed  solution  of  sal  am- 
moniac (ammonium  chloride)  presents 
the  drawback  that  the  zinc  rods,  glasses, 
etc.,  after  a  short  use,  become  covered 
with  a  fine,  yellow,  very  difficultly  sol- 
uble, basic  zinc  salt,  whereby  the  gen- 
eration of  the  electric  current  is  impaired, 
and  finally  arrested  altogether.  This 
evil  may  be  remedied  by  an  admixture  of 
cane  sugar.  For  a  battery  of  ordinary 
size  about  20  to  25  grams  of  sugar,  dis- 
solved in  warm  water,  is  sufficient  per 
50  to  60  grams  of  sal  ammoniac/  After 
prolonged  use  only  large  crystals  (of  a 
zinc  saccharate)  form,  which,  however, 
become  attached  only  to  the  zinc  rod  in 
a  few  places,  having  very  little  disad- 
vantageous effect  upon  the  action  of  the 
batteries  and  being  easy  to  remove,  owing 
to  their  ready  solubility. 

BAUDOIN  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

BAY  RUM. 

I. — Oil  of  bay 1  drachm 

Alcohol 18  ounces 

Water 18  ounces 

Mix  and  filter  through  magnesia. 

II. — Bay-leaf  otto A  ounce 

Magnesium  carbonate.      ^  ounce 

Jamaica  rum 2    pints 

Alcohol 3    pints 

Water 3    pints 

Triturate  the  otto  with  the  magnesium 
carbonate,  gradually  adding  the  other 
ingredients,  previously  mixed,  and  filter. 
If  the  rum  employed  contains  sufficient 
sugar  or  mucilaginous  matter  to  cause 
any  stickiness  to  be  felt  on  the  skin,  rec- 
tification will  be  necessary. 


BEAR  FAT: 

See  Fats. 

BEARING  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricants. 

BEARING  METAL: 

See  Babbitt  Metal,  Bearing  Metal,  and 
Phosphor  Bronze,  under  Alloys. 

BEDBUG  DESTROYERS: 

See  Insecticides. 

BEEF,  IRON.  AND  WINE. 

Extract  of  beef  ....  512  grains 
Detannated  sherry 

wine 26  ounces 

Alcohol 4  ounces 

Citrate  of  iron  and 

ammonia 256  grains 

Simple  sirup 12  ounces 


BELT   PASTES 


105 


Tincture  of  orange .        2  ounces 
Tincture  of  carda- 
mom co 1  ounce 

Citric  acid 10  grains 

Water,  enough  to  make  4  pints 
Let  stand  24  hours,  agitate  frequently, 
and  filter.     See  that  the  orange  is  fresh. 

BEEF  PEPTONOIDS: 

See  Peptonoids. 

BEEF  PRESERVATIVES: 

See  Foods. 

BEEF  TEA: 

See  Beverages. 

BEERS,  ALCOHOL  IN : 

See  Alcohol. 

BEER,  GINGER,  HOP-BITTER, 
SCOTCH,  AND  SPRUCE : 
See  Beverages. 

BEER,  RESTORATION   OF  SPOILED. 

I. — Powdered  chalk  is  poured  into  the 
cask  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the  beer 
until  completely  precipitated. 

II. — The  liquor  of  boiled  raisins  may 
be  poured  into  the  beer,  with  the  result 
that  the  sour  taste  of  the  beer  is  disguised. 

III. — A  small  quantity  of  a  solution  of 
potash  will  remove  the  sour  taste  of 
beer.  Too  much  potash  must  not  be 
added;  otherwise  the  stomach  will  suffer. 
Beer  thus  restored  will  not  keep  long. 

IV. — If  the  beer  is  not  completely 
spoiled  it  may  be  restored  by  the  addi- 
tion of  coarsely  powdered  charcoal. 

V. — If  the  addition  of  any  of  the  above- 
mentioned  substances  should  affect  the 
taste  of  the  beer,  a  little  powdered  zingi- 
ber  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Syrup 
or  molasses  may  also  be  employed. 

BEES,  FOUL  BROOD  IN. 

"Foul  brood"  is  a  contagious  disease 
to  which  bees  are  subject.  It  is  caused 
by  bacteria  and  its  presence  may  be 
known  by  the  bees  becoming  languid. 
Dark,  stringy,  and  elastic  masses  are 
found  in  the  bottom  of  the  cells,  while 
the  caps  are  sunken  or  irregularly  punc- 
tured. Frequently  the  disease  is  said  to 
be  accompanied  by  a  peculiar  offensive 
odor.  Prompt  removal  of  diseased  col- 
onies, their  transfer  to  clean  and  thor- 
oughly disinfected  hives,  and  feeding  on 
antiseptically  treated  honey  or  syrup  are 
the  means  taken  for  the  prevention  and 
cure  of  the  disease.  The  antiseptics 
used  are  salicylic  acid,  carbolic  acid,  or 
formic  acid.  Spraying  the  brood  with 
any  one  of  these  remedies  in  a  solution 
and  feeding  with  a  honey  or  syrup  medi- 
cated with  them  will  usually  be  all  that 
is  required  by  way  of  treatment.  It  is 


also  said  that  access  to  salt  water  is  im- 
portant for  the  health  of  bees. 

BEETLE  POWDER: 

See  Insecticides. 

BELL  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

BELLADONNA,  ANTIDOTES  TO: 

See  Antidotes  and  Atropine. 

BELT    PASTES    FOR    INCREASING 
ADHESION. 

I.— Tallow. 50  parts 

Castor  oil,  crude. ...    20  parts 

Fish  oil 20  parts 

Colophony 10  parts 

Melt  on  a  moderate  fire  and  stir  until 
the  mass  cools. 

II.— Melt  250  parts  of  gum  elastic 
with  250  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  in  an 
iron,  well-closed  crucible  at  122°  F. 
(caution!)  and  mix  well  with  200  parts  of 
colophony.  After  further  melting  add 
200  parts  of  yellow  wax  and  stir  carefully. 
Melt  in  750  parts  of  heated  train  oil, 
250  parts  of  tallow,  and  to  this  add,  with 
constant  stirring,  the  first  mixture  when 
the  latter  is  still  warm,  and  let  cool  slowly 
with  stirring.  This  grease  is  intended 
for  cotton  belts. 

III. — Gutta-percha 40  parts 

Rosin 10  parts 

Asphalt 15  parts 

Petroleum 60  parts 

Heat  in  a  glass  vessel  on  the  water 
bath  for  a  few  hours,  until  a  uniform  so- 
lution is  obtained.  Let  cool  and  add  15 
parts  of  carbon  disulphide  and  allow  the 
mixture  to  stand,  shaking  it  frequently. 
Directions  for  Use. — The  leather  belts 
to  be  cemented  should  first  be  roughened 
at  the  joints,  and  after  the  cement  has 
been  applied  they  should  be  subjected 
to  a  strong  pressure  between  warm 
rollers,  whereupon  they  will  adhere  to- 
gether with  much  tenacity. 

Preservation  of  Belts. — In  a  well-cov- 
ered iron  vessel  heat  at  a  temperature  of 
50°  C.  (152°  F.)  1  part  by  weight  of 
caoutchouc,  cut  in  small  pieces,  with  1 
part  by  weight  of  rectified  turpentine. 
When  the  caoutchouc  is  dissolved  add 
0.8  part  of  colophony,  stir  until  this  is 
dissolved,  and  add  to  the  mixture  0.1 
part  of  yellow  wax.  Into  another  vessel 
of  suitable  size  pour  3  parts  of  fish  oil, 
add  1  part  of  tallow,  and  heat  the  mixture 
until  the  tallow  is  melted;  then  pour  on 
the  contents  of  the  first  vessel,  con- 
stantly stirring — an  operation  to  be  con- 
tinued until  the  matter  is  cooled  and 
congealed.  This  grease  is  to  be  rubbed 


106 


BENZINE 


on  the  inside  of  the  belts  from  time  to 
time,  while  they  are  in  use.  The  belts 
run  easily  and  do  not  slip.  The  grease 
may  also  serve  for  improving  old  belts. 
For  this  purpose  the  grease  should  be 
rubbed  on  both  sides  in  a  warm  place. 
A  first  layer  is  allowed  to  soak  in,  and 
another  applied. 

To  Make  a  Belt  Pull.— Hold  a  piece  of 
tar  soap  on  the  inside  of  the  belt  while  it 
is  running. 

BELT  CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives. 

BELT  GLUE: 

See  Adhesives. 

BELT  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricants. 

BENEDICTINE: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


Benzine 

Benzine,  to  Color  Green. — Probably 
the  simplest  and  cheapest  as  well  as  the 
best  method  of  coloring  benzine  green  is 
to  dissolve  in  it  sufficient  oil  soluble  aniline 
green  of  the  desired  tint  to  give  the  re- 
quired shade. 

Purification  of  Benzine. — Ill-smelling 
benzine,  mixed  with  about  1  to  2  per  cent 
of  its  weight  of  free  fatty  acid,  will  dis- 
solve therein.  One-fourth  per  cent  of 
tannin  is  added  and  all  is  mixed  well. 
Enough  potash  or  soda  lye,  or  even  lime 
milk,  is  added  until  the  fatty  acids  are 
saponified,  and  the  tannic  acid  is  neu- 
tralized, shaking  repeatedly.  After  a 
while  the  milky  liquid  separates  into  two 
layers,  viz.,  a  salty,  soapy,  mud-sediment 
and  clear,  colorless,  and  almost  odorless 
benzine  above.  This  benzine,  filtered, 
may  be  employed  for  many  technical 
purposes,  but  gives  an  excellent,  pure 
product  upon  a  second  distillation. 

Fatty  acid  from  tallow,  olive  oil,  or 
other  fats  may  be  used,  but  care  should 
be  taken  that  they  have  as  slight  an  odor 
of  rancid  fat  as  possible.  The  so-called 
elaine  or  olein  —  more  correctly  oleic  acid 
— of  the  candle  factories  may  likewise 
be  employed,  but  it  should  first  be  agi- 
tated with  a  rVper-cent  soda  solution  to 
get  rid  of  the  bad-smelling  fatty  acids, 
especially  the  butyric  acid. 

The  Prevention  of  the  Inflammability 
of  Benzine. — A  mixture  of  9  volumes 
tetrachloride  and  1  volume  of  benzine  is 
practicably  inflammable.  The  flame  is 
soon  extinguished  by  itself. 


Substitute  for  Benzine  as  a  Cleansing 
Agent.— 

I. — Chloroform 75  parts 

Ether 75  parts 

Alcohol 600  parts 

Decoction  of  quillaya 

bark 22,500  parts 

Mix. 

II. — Acetic     ether,     tech- 
nically pure 10  parts 

Amyl  acetate 10  parts 

Ammonia  water 10  parts 

Alcohol  dilute 70  parts 

Mix. 

III. — Acetone 1  part 

Ammonia  water 1  part 

Alcohol  dilute 1  part 

Mix. 

Deodorizing  Benzine. — 

I. — Benzine 20  ounces 

Oil  of  lavender. . .      1  fluidrachm 
Potassium  dichro- 

mate 1  ounce 

Sulphuric  acid.  .  .      1  fluidounce 
Water 20  fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  dichromate  in  the  water, 
add  the  acid  and,  when  the  solution  is 
cold,  the  benzine.  Shake  every  hour 
during  the  day,  allow  to  stand  all  night, 
decant  the  benzine,  wash  with  a  pint  of 
water  and  again  decant,  then  add  the  oil 
of  lavender. 

II. — First  add  to  the  benzine  1  to  2  per 
cent  of  oleic  acid,  which  dissolves.  Then 
about  a  quarter  of  1  per  cent  of  tannin  is 
incorporated  by  shaking.  A  sufficient 
quantity  of  caustic  potassa  solution,  or 
milk  of  lime,  to  combine  with  the  acids 
is  then  well  shaken  into  the  mixture, 
and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand.  The 
benzine  rises  to  the  top  of  the  watery 
fluid,  sufficiently  deodorized  and  decol- 
orized for  practical  purposes. 

III.— To  1,750  parts  of  water  add  250 
parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  when  it  has 
cooled  down  add  30  parts  of  potassium 
permanganate  and  let  dissolve.  Add 
this  solution  to  4,500  parts  of  benzine, 
stir  well  together,  and  set  aside  for  24 
hours.  Now  decant  the  benzine  and  to 
it  add  a  solution  of  7*  parts  of  potassium 
permanganate  and  15  parts  of  sodium 
hydrate  in  1,000  parts  of  water,  and  agi- 
tate the  substances  well  together.  Let 
stand  until  the  benzine  separates,  then 
draw  oft'. 

IV. — Dissolve  3  parts  of  litharge  and 
18  parts  of  sodium  hydrate  in  40  parts  of 
water.  Add  this  to  200-250  parts  of 
benzine  and  agitate  well  together  for  two 
minutes,  then  let  settle  and  draw  off  the 
benzine.  Rinse  the  latter  by  agitating 


BEVERAGES 


107 


it  with  plenty  of  clear  water,  let  settle, 
draw  off  the  benzine,  and,  if  necessary, 
repeat  the  operation. 

BENZINE,  CLEANING  WITH: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

BENZOIC  ACID  IN  FOOD: 

See  Food. 

BENZOIN  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

BENZOPARAL: 

A  neutral,  bland,  oily  preparation  of 
benzoin,  useful  for  applying  various 
antiseptics  by  the  aid  of  an  atomizer, 
nebulizer,  or  vaporizer.  Can  be  used 
plain  or  in  combination  with  other  easily 
dissolved  medicinals. 

Paraffine,  liquid 16  ounces 

Gum  benzoin 1  ounce 

Digest  on  a  sand  bath  for  a  half  hour 
and  filter. 


Beverages 

GINGER  ALE  AND  GINGER  BEER: 
Old-Fashioned  Ginger  Beer. — 
Lemons,     large     and 

sound 6     only 

Ginger,  bruised 3    ounces 

Sugar 6    cups 

Yeast,  compressed  ...      J  cake 

Boiling  water 4     gallons 

Water enough 

Slice  the  lemons  into  a  large  earthen- 
ware vessel,  removing  the  seed.  Add  the 
ginger,  sugar,  and  water.  When  the 
mixture  has  cooled  to  lukewarmness,  add 
the  yeast,  first  diffused  in  a  little  water. 
Cover  the  vessel  with  a  piece  of  cheese 
cloth,  and  let  the  beer  stand  24  hours. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  strain  and  bottle 
it.  Cork  securely,  but  not  so  tightly  that 
the  bottles  would  break  before  the  corks 
would  fly  out,  and  keep  in  a  cool  place. 

Ginger  Beer. — Honey  gives  the  bever- 
age a  peculiar  softness  and,  from  not 
having  fermented  with  yeast,  is  the  less 
violent  in  its  action  when  opened.  In- 
gredients: White  sugar,  I  pound;  honey, 
|  pound;  bruised  ginger,  5  ounces;  juice 
of  sufficient  lemons  to  suit  the  taste;  water, 
4 A  gallons.  Boil  the  ginger  in  3  quarts 
of  the  water  for  half  an  hour,  then  add 
the  ginger,  lemon  juice,  and  honey,  with 
the  remainder  of  the  water;  then  strain 
through  a  cloth;  when  cold,  add  the 
quarter  of  the  white  of  an  egg  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  essence  of  lemon.  Let  the 
whole  stand  for  four  days  before  bot- 


tling.     This  quantity  will  make  a  hun- 
dred bottles. 

Ginger  Beer  without  Yeast.— 

Ginger,  bruised li  pounds 

Sugar 20 "   pounds 

Lemons 1     dozen 

Honey 1     pound 

Water enough 

Boil  the  ginger  in  3  gallons  of  water 
for  half  an  hour;  add  the  sugar,  the 
lemons  (bruised  and  sliced),  the  honey, 
and  17  gallons  of  water.  Strain  and, 
after  three  or  four  days,  bottle. 

Package  Pop. — 

Cream  of  tartar 3  ounces 

Ginger,  bruised 1  ounce 

Sugar 24  ounces 

Citric  acid 2  drachms 

Put  up  in  a  package,  and  direct  that  it 
be  shaken  in  1J  gallons  of  boiling  water, 
strained  when  cooled,  fermented  with  1 
ounce  of  yeast,  and  bottled. 

Ginger- Ale  Extract. — 
I. — Jamaica      ginger, 

coarse  powder. .      4  ounces 
Mace,  powder. ...      i  ounce 
Canada  snakeroot, 

coarse  powder..    60  grains 

Oil  of  lemon 1  fluidrachm 

Alcohol 12  fluidounces 

Water. 4  fluidounces 

Magnesium  car- 
bonate or  puri- 
fied talcum 1  av.  ounce 

Mix  the  first  four  ingredients,  and 
make  16  fluidounces  of  tincture  with 
the  alcohol  and  water,  by  percolation. 
Dissolve  the  oil  of  lemon  in  a  small  quan- 
tity of  alcohol,  rub  with  magnesia  or  tal- 
cum, add  gradually  with  constant  trit- 
uration  the  tincture,  and  filter.  The 
extract  may  be  fortified  by  adding  4 
avoirdupois  ounces  of  powdered  grains 
of  paradise  to  the  ginger,  etc.,  of  the 
above  before  extraction  with  alcohol  and 
water. 
II. — Capsicum,  coarse 

powder Bounces 

Water 6  pints 

Essence  of  ginger.  8  fluidounces 
Diluted  alcohol..  .  7  fluidounces 
Vanilla  extract.  .  .  2  fluidounces 

Oil  of  lemon 20  drops 

Caramel 1  fluidounce 

Boil  the  capsicum  with  water  for  three 
hours,  occasionally  replacing  the  water 
lost  by  evaporation;  filter,  concentrate 
the  filtrate  on  a  hot  water  bath  to  the  con- 
sistency of  a  thin  extract,  add  the  remain- 
ing ingredients,  and  filter. 


108 


BEVERAGES 


III. — Jamaica  ginger, 

ground 12  ounces 

Lemon  peel,  fresh, 

cut  fine 2  ounces 

Capsicum,  powder     1  ounce 

Calcined  magne- 
sia   '.  . .  1  ounce 

Water0*  [ofeach-      sufficient 

Extract  the  mixed  ginger  and  capsi- 
cum by  percolation  so  as  to  obtain  16 
fluidounces  of  water,  set  the  mixture  aside 
for  24  hours,  shaking  vigorously  from 
time  to  time,  then  filter,  and  pass  through 
the  filter  enough  of  a  mixture  of  2  vol- 
umes of  alcohol  and  1  of  water  to  make 
the  filtrate  measure  32  fluidounces.  In 
the  latter  macerate  the  lemon  peel  for 
7  days,  and  again  filter. 

Ginger  Beer. — 

Brown  sugar 2  pounds 

Boiling  water 2  gallons 

Cream  of  tartar 1  ounce 

Bruised  ginger  root. . .  2  ounces 

Infuse  the  ginger  in  the  boiling  water, 
add  the  sugar  and  cream  of  tartar;  when 
lukewarm  strain;  then  add  half  pint  good 
yeast.  Let  it  stand  all  night,  then  bot- 
tle; one  lemon  and  the  white  of  an  egg 
may  be  added  to  fine  it. 

Lemon  Beer. — 

Boiling  water 1  gallon 

Lemon,  sliced 1 

Ginger,  bruised 1  ounce 

Yeast 1  teacupful 

Sugar 1  pound 

Let  it  stand  12  to  20  hours,  and  it  is 
ready  to  be  bottled. 

Hop  Beer. — 

Water 5  quarts 

Hops 6  ounces 

Boil  3  hours,  strain  the  liquor,  add: 

Water 5  quarts 

Bruised  ginger 4  ounces 

and  boil  a  little  longer,  strain,  and  add 
4  pounds  of  sugar,  and  when  milk- 
warm,  1  pint  of  yeast.  Let  it  ferment; 
in  24  hours  It  is  ready  for  bottling. 

(Enanthic  Ether  as  a  Flavoring  for 
Ginger  Ale. — A  fruity,  vinous  bouquet 
and  delightful  flavor  are  produced  by  the 
presence  of  cenanthic  ether  or  brandy 


flavor  in  ginger  ale.  This  ether  throws 
off  a  rich,  pungent,  vinous  odor,  and 
gives  a  smoothness  very  agreeable  to  any 
liquor  or  beverage  of  which  it  forms 
a  part.  It  is  a  favorite  with  "brandy 
sophisticators."  Add  a  few  drops  of 
the  ether  (previously  dissolved  in  eight 
times  its  bulk  of  Cologne  spirit)  to  the 
ginger-ale  syrup  just  before  bottling. 

Soluble  Extract  of  Ginger  Ale.— Of 
the  following  three  formulas  the  first  is 
intended  for  soda-fountain  use,  the  sec- 
ond is  a  "cheap"  extract  for  the  bottlers 
who  want  a  one.-ounce-to-the-gallon  ex- 
tract, and  the  third  is  a  bottlers'  extract 
to  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  three 
ounces  to  a  gallon  of  syrup.  This  latter 
is  a  most  satisfactory  extract  and  has 
been  sold  with  most  creditable  results, 
both  as  to  clearness  of  the  finished  ginger 
ale  and  delicacy  of  flavor. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  these  formulas 
oleoresin  of  ginger  is  used  in  addition  to 
the  powdered  root.  Those  who  do  not 
mind  the  additional  expense  might  use 
one-fourth  of  the  same  quantity  of  vola- 
tile oil  of  ginger  instead.  This  should 
develop  an  excellent  flavor,  since  the  oil 
is  approximately  sixteen  times  as  strong 
as  the  oleoresin,  and  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  being  free  from  resinous 
extractive. 

The  following  are  the  formulas: 

I.  —  (To  be  used  in  the  proportion  of 
4  ounces  of  extract  to  1  gallon  of  syrup.) 

Jamaica  ginger,  in 

fine  powder 8  pounds 

Capsicum,  in  fine  pow- 
der   6  ounces 

Alcohol,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Mix  the  powders  intimately,  moisten 
them  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  alco- 
hol, and  set  aside  for  4  hours.  Pack 
in  a  cylindrical  percolator  and  percolate 
with  alcohol  until  10  pints  of  percolate 
have  resulted.  Place  the  percolate  in  a 
bottle  of  the  capacity  of  16  pints,  and 
add  to  it  2  fluidrachms  of  oleoresin  of 
ginger;  shake,  add  2^  pounds  of  finely 
powdered  pumice  stone,  and  agitate  thor- 
oughly at  intervals  of  one-half  hour  for  12 
hours.  Then  add  14  pints  of  water  in 
quantities  of  1  pint  at  each  addition, 
shaking  briskly  meanwhile.  This  part 
of  the  operation  is  most  important.  Set 
the  mixture  aside  for  24  hours,  agitating 
it  strongly  every  hour  or  so  during  that 
period.  Then  take 

Oil  of  lemon 1 J  fluidounces 

Oil   of  rose  (or  ge- 
ranium)      3     fluidrachms 

Oil  of  bergamot ....    2    fluidrachms 


BEVERAGES 


109 


Oil  of  cinnamon ....    3    fluidrachms 

Magnesium  carbon- 
ate      3     fluidounces 

Rub  the  oils  with  the  magnesia  in  a 
large  mortar  and  add  9  ounces  of  the 
clear  portion  of  the  ginger  mixture  to 
which  have  been  previously  added  2 
ounces  of  alcohol,  and  continue  tritu- 
ration,  rinsing  out  the  mortar  with  the 
ginger  mixture.  Pass  the  ginger  mixture 
through  a  double  filter  and  add  through 
the  filter  the  mixture  of  oils  and  magnesia; 
finally  pass  enough  water  through  the 
filter  to  make  the  resulting  product 
measure  24  pints,  or  3  gallons.  If  the 
operator  should  desire  an  extract  of  more 
or  less  pungency,  he  may  obtain  his  de- 
sired effect  by  increasing  or  decreasing 
the  quantity  of  powdered  capsicum  in 
the  formula. 

II. — (To  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  1 
ounce  to  1  gallon  of  syrup.) 
Ginger,  in  moderately 

fine  powder 6     pounds 

Capsicum,  in  fine  pow- 
der      2  \  pounds 

Alcohol,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Mix,  moisten  the  powder  with  3  pints 
of  alcohol,  and  set  aside  in  a  suitable 
vessel  for  4  hours.  Then  pack  the  pow- 
der firmly  in  a  cylindrical  percolator, 
and  percolate  until  6  pints  of  extract  are 
obtained.  Set  this  mixture  aside  and 
label  Percolate  No.  1,  and  continue  the 
percolation  with  \\  pints  of  alcohol 
mixed  with  1^  pints  of  water.  Set  the 
resultant  tincture  aside,  and  label  Per- 
colate No.  2. 

Take  oleoresin  ginger  5  fluid  ounces 
and  add  to  Percolate  No.  1.  Then  take: 

Oil  of  lemon 1^  fluidounces 

Oil  of  cinnamon.  .  .    1     fluidounce 

Oil  of  geranium \  fluidounce 

Magnesium  carbon- 
ate     8  ounces 

Triturate  the  oils  with  the  magnesia, 
add  gradually  Percolate  No.  2,  and  set 
aside.  Then  place  Percolate  No.  1  in  a 
large  bottle,  add  3J  pounds  of  finely  pow- 
dered pumice  stone,  and  shake  at  inter- 
vals of  half  an  hour  for  six  hours.  This 
being  completed,  add  the  mixture  of  oils, 
and  later  10  pints  of  water,  in  quantities 
of  \  a  pint  at  a  time,  shaking  vigorously 
after  each  solution.  Let  the  mixture 
stand  for  24  hours,  shaking  it  at  inter- 
vals, and  then  pass  it  through  a  double 
filter.  Finally  add  enough  water  through 
the  filter  to  make  the  product  measure 
24  pints,  or  3  gallons. 

III.  —  (To  be  used  in  proportion  of  3 
ounces  to  1  gallon  of  syrup.) 


Ginger,  in  moderately 

fine  powder 8  pounds 

Capsicum,  in  moder- 
ately fine  powder  . .  2  pounds 

Alcohol,  q.  s. 

Mix,  moisten  with  alcohol,  and  set 
aside  as  in  the  preceding  formula;  then 
percolate  with  alcohol  until  10  pints  of 
extract  are  obtained.  To  this  add  oleo- 
resin of  ginger  3  drachms,  and  place  in 
a  large  bottle.  Add  2$  pounds  of  pow- 
dereH  pumice  stone,  and  shake  as  di- 
rected for  formula  No.  1.  Then  add  14 
pints  of  water,  in  quantities  of  1  pint  at  a 
time,  shaking  vigorously  after  each  addi- 
tion. Set  the  mixture  aside  for  24  hours, 
shaking  at  intervals.  Then  take: 

Oil  of  lemon \\  fluidounces 

Oil  of  geranium  ...      \  fluidounce 
Oil  of  cinnamon  ...    3    fluidrachms 
Magnesia  carbonate  3    ounces 

Rub  these  in  a  mortar  with  the  mag- 
nesia, and  add  9  ounces  of  the  clear  por- 
tion of  the  ginger  mixture  mixed  with  2 
ounces  of  alcohol,  rubbing  the  mixture 
until  it  becomes  smooth.  Prepare  a 
double  filter,  and  filter  the  ginger  mix- 
ture, adding  through  the  filter  the  mix- 
ture of  oils  and  magnesia.  Finally  add 
enough  water  through  the  filter  to  make 
the  final  product  measure  24  pints,  or  3 
gallons. 

If  these  formulas  are  properly  manip- 
ulated the  extracts  should  keep  for  a 
reasonable  length  of  time  without  a  pre- 
cipitate. If,  however,  a  precipitate  oc- 
cur after  the  extract  has  stood  for  a 
week,  it  should  be  refiltered. 

LEMONADES: 

Lemonade  Preparations  for  the  Sick.— 
I. — Strawberry  Lemonade:  Citric  acid,  6 
parts;  water,  100  parts;  sugar,  450  parts; 
strawberry  syrup,  600  parts;  cherry  syr- 
up, 300  parts;  claret,  450  parts;  aromatic 
tincture,  ad  lib. 

II. — Lemonade  Powder:  Sodium  bi- 
carbonate, 65;  tartaric  acid,  60;  sugar, 
125;  lemon  oil,  12  drops. 

III. — Lemonade  juice:  Sugar  syrup, 
200;  tartaric  acid,  15;  distilled  water, 
100;  lemon  oil,  3;  tincture  of  vanilla,  6 
drops. 

IV. — Lemonade  Lozenges:  Tartaric 
acid,  10;  sugar,  30;  gum  arabic,  2;  pow- 
dered starch,  0.5;  lemon  oil,  6  drops; 
tincture  of  vanilla,  25  drops;  and  suffi- 
cient diluted  spirit  of  wine  so  that  30 
lozenges  can  be  made  with  it. 

Lemonade  for  Diabetics. — The  follow- 
ing is  said  to  be  useful  for  assuaging  the 
thirst  of  diabetics: 


110 


BEVERAGES 


Citric  acid 1  part 

Glycerine 50  parts 

Cognac 50  parts 

Distilled  water 500  parts 

Hot  Lemonade. — Take  2  large,  fresh 
lemons,  and  wash  them  clean  with  cold 
water.  Roll  them  until  soft;  then  divide 
each  into  halves,  and  use  a  lemon-squeez- 
er or  reamer  to  express  the  juice  into  a 
small  pitcher.  Remove  all  the  seeds 
from  tne  juice,  to  which  add  4  or  more 
tablespoonfuls  of  white  sugar,  according 
to  taste.  A  pint  of  boiling  water  is  now 
added,  and  the  mixture  stirred  until  the 
sugar  is  dissolved.  The  beverage  is  very 
effective  in  producing  perspiration,  and 
should  be  drunk  while  hot.  The  same 
formula  may  be  used  for  making  cold 
lemonade,  by  substituting  ice  water  for 
the  hot  water,  and  adding  a  piece  of 
lemon  peel.  If  desired,  a  weaker  lemon- 
ade may  be  made  by  using  more  water. 

Lemonades,  Lemon  and  .Sour  Drinks 
for  Soda-Water  Fountains.—  Plain  Lem- 
onade.— Juice  of  1  lemon;  pulverized 
sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls;  filtered  water,  suffi- 
cient; shaved  ice,  sufficient. 

Mix  and  shake  well.  Garnish  with 
fruit,  and  serve  with  both  spoon  and 
straws. 

Huyler's  Lemonade. — Juice  of  1  lem- 
on; simple  syrup,  2  ounces;  soda  water, 
sufficient.  Dress  with  sliced  pineapple, 
and  serve  with  straws.  In  mixing,  do 
not  shake,  but  stir  with  a  spoon. 

Pineapple  Lemonade. — Juice  of  1 
lemon;  pineapple  syrup,  2  ounces;  soda 
water,  sufficient.  Dress  with  fruit. 
Serve  with  straws. 

Seltzer  Lemonade. — Juice  of  1  lemon; 
pulverized  sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls.  Fill 
with  seltzer.  Dress  with  sliced  lemon. 

Apollinaris  Lemonade. — The  same  as 
seltzer,  substituting  apollinaris  water  for 
seltzer. 

Limeade. — Juice  of  1  lime;  pulverized 
sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls;  water,  sufficient. 
Where  fresh  limes  are  not  obtainable, 
use  bottled  lime  juice. 

Orangeade. — Juice  of  1  orange;  pul- 
verized sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls;  water, 
sufficient;  shaved  ice,  sufficient.  Dress 
with  sliced  orange  and  cherries.  Serve 
with  straws. 

Seltzer  and  Lemon. — Juice  of  1  lemon; 
seltzer,  sufficient.  Serve  in  a  small 
glass. 

Claret  Lemonade. — Juice  of  1  lemon; 
pulverized  sugar,  3  teaspoonfuls.  Make 
lemonade,  pour  into  a  glass  containing 


shaved  ice  until  the  glass  lacks  about  one 
inch  of  being  full.  Pour  in  sufficient 
claret  to  fill  the  glass.  Dress  with  cher- 
ries and  sliced  pineapple. 

Claret  Punch. — Juice  of  1  lemon;  pul- 
verized sugar,  3  teaspoonfuls;  claret 
wine,  2  ounces;  shaved  ice,  sufficient. 
Serve  in  small  glass.  Dress  with  sliced 
lemon,  and  fruit  in  season.  Bright  red 
cherries  and  plums  make  attractive  gar- 
nishings. 

Raspberry  Lemonade. — I. — Juice  of  1 
lemon;  3  teaspoonfuls  powdered  sugar; 
1  tablespoonful  raspberry  juice;  shaved 
ice;  plain  water;  shake. 

II. — Juice  of  1  lemon;  2  teaspoonfuls 
powdered  sugar;  $  ounce  raspberry 
syrup;  shaved  ice;  water;  shake. 

Banjo  Sour. — Pare  a  lemon,  cut  it  in 
two,  add  a  large  tablespoonful  of  sugar, 
then  thoroughly  muddle  it;  add  the 
white  of  an  egg;  an  ounce  of  sloe  gin;  3 
or  4  dashes  of  abricotine;  shake  well; 
strain  into  a  goblet  or  fizz  glass,  and  fill 
balance  with  soda;  decorate  with  a  slice 
of  pineapple  and  cherry. 

Orgeat  Punch. — Orgeat  syrup,  12 
drachms;  brandy,  1  ounce;  juice  of  1 
lemon. 

Granola. — Orange  syrup,  1  ounce; 
grape  syrup,  1  ounce;  juice  of  \  lemon; 
shaved  ice,  q.  s.  Serve  with  straws. 
Dress  with  sliced  lemon  or  pineapple. 

American  Lemonade. — One  ounce  or- 
ange syrup;  1  ounce  lemon  syrup;  1  tea- 
spoonful  powdered  sugar;  1  dash  acid- 
phosphate  solution;  \  glass  shaved  ice. 
Fill  with  coarse  stream.  Add  slice  of 
orange,  and  run  two  straws  through  it. 

Old -Fashioned  Lemonade. — Put  in  a 
freezer  and  freeze  almost  hard,  then  add 
the  fruits,  and  freeze  very  hard.  Serve 
in  a  silver  sherbet  cup. 

"Ping  Pong"  Frappe. — Grape  juice, 
unfermented,  1  quart;  port  wine  (Cali- 
fornia), \  pint;  lemon  syrup,  12  ounces; 
pineapple  syrup,  2  ounces;  orange  syrup, 
4  ounces;  Benedictine  cordial,  4  ounces; 
sugar,  1  pound. 

Dissolve  sugar  in  grape  juice  and  put 
in  wine;  add  the  syrup  and  cordial; 
serve  from  a  punch  bowl,  with  ladle,  into 
12-ounce  narrow  lemonade  glass  and 
fill  with  solid  stream;  garnish  with  slice 
of  orange  and  pineapple,  and  serve  with 
straw. 

Orange  Frapp!.— Glass  half  full  of 
fine  ice;  tablespoonful  powdered  sugar; 
\  ounce  orange  syrup;  2  dashes  lemon 
syrup;  dash  prepared  raspberry;  \  ounce 


BEVERAGES 


1H 


acid-phosphate  solution.  Fill  with  soda 
and  stir  well;  strain  into  a  mineral  glass 
and  serve. 

Hot  Lemonades. — 
I. — Lemon  essence. .      4  fluidrachms 
Solution  of  citric 

acid 1  fluidounce 

Syrup,  enough  to 

make 32  fluidounces 

In  serving,  draw  2t  fluidounces  of  the 
syrup  into  an  8-ounce  mug,  fill  with  hot 
water,  and  serve  with  a  spoon. 

II. — Lemon. 1 

Alcohol 1  fluidounce 

Solution  of  citric 

acid    2  fluidrachms 

Sugar 20  av.  ounces 

Water 20  fluidounces 

White  of 1  egg 

Grate  the  peel  of  the  lemon,  macerate 
with  the  alcohol  for  a  day;  express;  also 
express  the  lemon,  mix  the  two,  add  the 
sugar  and  water,  dissolve  by  agitation, 
and  add  the  solution  of  citric  acid  and 
the  white  of  egg,  the  latter  first  beaten  to 
a  froth.  Serve  like  the  preceding. 

Egg  Lemonade.— I. —Break  1  egg  into 
a  soda  glass,  add  1|  ounces  lemon  syrup, 
a  drachm  of  lemon  juice,  and  a  little 
shaved  ice;  then  draw  carbonated  water 
to  fill  the  glass,  stirring  well. 

II.— Shaved  ice J  tumblerful 

Powdered  sugar   4     tablespoonfuls 

Juice  of 1     lemon 

Yolk  of 1     egg 

Shake  well,  and  add  carbonated  water 
to  fill  the  glass. 

HOT  SODA-WATER  DRINKS: 

Chocolate. — I. — This  may  be  prepared 
in  two  ways,  from  the  powdered  cocoa  or 
from  a  syrup.  To  prepare  the  cocoa  for 
use,  dry  mix  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
pulverized  sugar  and  use  a  heaping 
teaspoonful  to  a  mug.  To  prepare  a 
syrup,  take  12  ounces  of  cocoa,  5  pints 
of  water,  and  4  pounds  of  sugar.  Re- 
duce the  cocoa  to  a  smooth  paste  with  a 
little  warm  water.  Put  on  the  fire. 
When  the  water  becomes  hot  add  the 
paste,  and  then  allow  to  boil  for  3  or  4 
minutes;  remove  from  fire  and  add  the 
sugar;  stir  carefully  while  heating,  to 
prevent  scorching;  when  cold  add  3 
drachms  of  vanilla;  £  to  I  ounce  will  suf- 
fice for  a  cup  of  chocolate;  top  off  with 
whipped  cream. 

II. — Baker's  fountain  choc- 
olate      1  pound 

Syrup 1  gallon 

Extract  vanilla enough 


Shave  the  chocolate  into  a  gallon  por- 
celained  evaporating  dish  and  melt  with 
a  gentle  heat,  stirring  with  a  thin-bladed 
spatula.  When  melted  remove  from  the 
fire  and  add  1  ounce  of  cold  water,  mix- 
ing well.  Add  gradually  1  gallon  of  hot 
syrup  and  strain;  flavor  to  suit.  Use 
1  ounce  to  a  mug. 

III.— Hot  Egg  Chocolate.— Break  a 
fresh  egg  into  a  soda  tymbler;  add  1£ 
ounces  chocolate  syrup  and  1  ounce 
cream;  shake  thoroughly,  add  hot  soda 
slowly  into  the  shaker,  stirring  mean- 
while; strain  carefully  into  mug;  top  off 
with  whipped  cream  and  serve. 

IV.-^Hot  Chocolate  and  Milk.— 
Chocolate  syrup  ....  1  ounce 
Hot  milk 4  ounces 

Stir  well,  fill  mug  with  hot  soda  and 
serve. 

V.— Hot  Egg  Chocolate.— One  egg,  1| 
ounces  chocolate  syrup,  1  teaspoonful 
sweet  cream;  shake,  strain,  add  1  cup 
hot  soda,  and  1  tablespoonful  whipped 
cream. 

Coffee. — I. — Make  an  extract  by  mac- 
erating 1  pound  of  the  best  Mocha  and 
Java  with  8  ounces  of  water  for  20  min- 
utes, then  add  hot  water  enough  to  per- 
colate 1  pint.  One  or  2  drachms  of  this 
extract  will  make  a  delicious  cup  of  cof- 
fee. Serve  either  with  or  without  cream, 
and  let  customer  sweeten  to  taste. 

II. — Pack  ^  pound  of  pulverized  cof- 
fee in  a  percolator.  Percolate  with  2 
quarts  of  boiling  water,  letting  it  run 
through  twice.  Add  to  this  2  quarts  of 
milk;  keep  hot  in  an  urn  and  draw  as  a 
finished  drink.  Add  a  lump  of  sugar 
and  top  off  with  whipped  cream. 

III. — Coffee  syrup  may  be  made  by 
adding  boiling  water  from  the  apparatus 
to  1  pound  of  coffee,  placed  in  a  suitable 
filter  or  coffeepot,  until  2  quarts  of  the 
infusion  are  obtained.  Add  to  this  3 
pounds  of  sugar.  In  dispensing,  first 
put  sufficient  cream  in  the  cup,  add  the 
coffee,  then  sweeten,  if  necessary,  and 
mix  with  the  stream  from  the  draught 
tube. 

IV. — Mocha  coffee  (ground 

fine) 4  ounces 

Java    coffee    (ground 

fine) 4  ounces 

Granulated  sugar 6  pounds 

Hot  water q.  s. 

Percolate  the  coffee  with  hot  water  un- 
til the  percolate  measures  72  ounces. 
Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  percolate  by 
agitation  without  heat  and  strain. 

Hot  Egg  Orangeade. — One  egg;  juice 


BEVERAGES 


of  \  orange;  2  teaspoonfuls  powdered 
sugar.  Shake,  strain,  add  1  cup  of  hot 
water.  Stir,  serve  with  nutmeg. 

Hot  Egg  Bouillon.  —  One-half  ounce 
liquid  extract  beef;  1  egg;  salt  and  pep- 
per; hot  water  to  fill  8-ounce  mug.  Stir 
extract,  egg,  and  seasoning  together;  add 
water,  still  stirring;  strain  and  serve. 

Hot  Celery  Punch.  —  One  -  quarter 
ounce  of  clam  juice;  \  ounce  beef  extract; 
1  ounce  of  cream;  4  dashes  of  celery  es- 
sence. Stir  while  adding  hot  water,  and 
serve  with  spices. 

Chicken  Bouillon. — Two  ounces  con- 
centrated chicken;  \  ounce  sweet  cream 
and  spice.  Stir  while  adding  hot  water. 

Ginger. — 

Fluid  extract  of  ginger  2£  ounces 

Sugar 40     ounces 

Water,  to 2£  pints 

Take  10  ounces  of  the  sugar  and  mix 
with  the  fluid  extract  of  ginger;  heat  on 
the  water  bath  until  the  alcohol  is  evap- 
orated. Then  mix  with  20  ounces  of 
water  and  shake  till  dissolved.  Filter 
and  add  the  balance  of  the  water  and  the 
sugar.  Dissolve  by  agitation. 

Cocoa  Syrup. — 

I. — Cocoa,  light,  soluble.    4  ounces 
Granulated  sugar. ...    2  pounds 

Boiling  hot  water 1  quart 

Extract  vanilla 1  ounce 

Dissolve  the  cocoa  in  the  hot  water,  by 
stirring,  then  add  the  sugar  and  dissolve. 
Strain,  and  when  cold  add  the  vanilla 
extract. 

II. — Cocoa  syrup 2  ounces 

Cream 1  ounce 

Turn  on  the  hot  water  stream  and  stir 
while  filling.  Top  off  with  whipped 
cream. 

Hot  Soda  Toddy. — 

Lemon  juice 2  fluidrachms 

Lemon  syrup 1  fluidounce 

Aromatic  bitters.  ...    1  fluidrachm 
Hot  water,  enough  to  fill  an  8-ounce 
mug. 

Sprinkle  with  nutmeg  or  cinnamon. 

Hot  Orange  Phosphate. — 

Orange  syrup 1  fluidounce 

Solution    of   acid 

phosphate 1  fluidrachm 

Hot  water,  enough  to  fill  an  8-ounce 

mug. 

It  is  prepared  more  acceptably  by  mix- 
ing the  juice  of  half  an  orange  with  acid 
phosphate,  sugar,  and  hot  water. 


Pepsin  Phosphate. — One  teaspoonful 
of  liquid  pepsin;  2  dashes  of  acid  phos- 
phate; 1  ounce  of  lemon  syrup;  1  cup  hot 
water. 

Cream  Beef  Tea. — Use  1  teaspoonful 
of  liquid  beef  extract  in  a  mug  of  hot 
water,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  then 
stir  in  a  tablespoonful  of  rich  cream. 
Put  a  teaspoonful  of  whipped  cream  on 
top  and  serve  with  flakes. 

Cherry  Phosphate.  — Cherry-phosphate 
syrup,  \\  ounces;  hot  water  to  make  8 
ounces. 

Cherry-phosphate  syrup  is  made  as 
follows:  Cherry  juice,  3  pints;  sugar,  6 
pounds;  water,  1  pint;  acid  phosphate, 
4  ounces.  Bring  to  a  boil,  and  when 
cool  add  the  acid  phosphate. 

Celery  Clam  Punch. — Clam  juice,  2 
drachms;  beef  extract,  1  drachm;  cream, 

1  ounce;  essence  of  celery,  5  drops;  hot 
water  to  make  8  ounces. 

Claret  Punch. — Claret  wine,  2  ounces; 
sugar,  3  teaspoonfuls;  juice  of  \  lemon; 
hot  water  to  make  8  ounces. 

Ginger. — Extract  of  ginger,  2  drachms; 
sugar,  2  drachms;  lemon  juice,  2  dashes; 
hot  water  to  make  8  ounces. 

Lemon  Juice,  Plain. — Fresh  lemon 
juice,  2iy  drachms;  lemon  syrup,  1  ounce; 
hot  water,  q.  s.  to  make  8  ounces. 

Lime  Juice. — Lime  juice,  f  drachm; 
lemon  syrup,  1  ounce;  hot  water  to  make 
8  ounces.  Mix.  Eberle  remarks  that 
lemon  juice  or  lime  juice  enters  into 
many  combinations.  In  plain  soda  it 
may  be  combined  with  ginger  and  other 
flavors,  as,  for  instance,  chocolate  and 
coffee. 

Lemonade. — Juice  of  1  lemon;  pow- 
dered sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls;  hot  water  to 
make  8  ounces.  A  small  piece  of  fresh 
lemon  peel  twisted  over  the  cup  lends  an 
added  flavor. 

Hot  Malt. — Extract  of  malt,  1  ounce; 
cherry  syrup,  1  ounce;  hot  water,  suffi- 
cient to  make  8  ounces.  Mix. 

Malted  Milk.— Horlick's  malted  milk, 

2  tablespoonfuls;    hot    water,    quantity 
sufficient  to  make  8  ounces;  flavoring  to 
suit.      Mix.      Essence   of   coffee,    choco- 
late, etc.,  and  many  of  the  fruit  syrups 
go  well  with  malted  milk. 

Hot  Malted  Milk  Coffee  (or  Chocolate). 
— Malted  milk,  2  teaspoonfuls;  coffee 
(or  chocolate)  syrup,  1  ounce;  hot  water, 
quantity  sufficient  to  make  8  ounces. 

Hot  Beef  Tea.  —I.  —Best  beef  extract,  1 
tablespoonfui;  sweet  cream,  1  ounce;  hot 


BEVERAGES 


113 


water,  7  ounces;  pepper,  salt,  etc.,  quan- 
tity sufficient.     Mix. 

II. — Extract  beef  bouillon,  1  teaspoon- 
ful;  extract  aromatic  soup  herbs  (see 
Condiments),  10  drops;  hot  soda,  1  cup- 
ful. Mix. 

III.— Extract  of  beef 1  teaspoonful 

Hot  water q.  s. 

Pepper,  salt,  and  celery  salt. 

Mix. 

Hot  Bouillon.— 

Beef  extract 1  ounce 

Hot    water,    q.   s.    to 

make 8  ounces 

Pepper,  salt,  etc q.  s. 

Mix. 

Clam  Bouillon. — 

I. — Clam  juice 12  drachms 

Cream 2  ounces 

Hot  water,  q.  s.  to  make  8  ounces 
Mix. 
II. — Extract  clam  bouillon     2  ounces 

Prepared  milk 2  drachms 

Extract     of     aromatic 

soup  herbs 5  drops 

Extract  white  pepper. .      5  drops 

Hot  soda 1  cupful 

Mix. 

III. — Clam  juice  may  be  served  with 
hot  water,  salt  and  pepper  added.  Add- 
ing butter  makes  this  bouillon  a  broth. 

It  may  also  be  served  with  milk  or 
cream,  lemon  juice,  tomato  catsup,  etc. 
Hot  oyster  juice  may  be  served  in  the 
same  way. 

Hot  Tea.— 

I. — Tea  syrup sufficient 

Hot  water,    q.    s.    to 

make 1  cupful 

II. — Loaf  sugar 4  cubes 

Extract  of  Oolong 

tea,  about 1  dessertsp'f  ul 

Prepared  milk,  about   1  dessertsp'f  ul 

Hot  soda 1  cupful 

Whipped  cream.  . .    1  tablespoonful 
Mix  the  tea  extract,  sugar,  and  pre- 
pared milk,  pour  on  water,  and  dissolve. 
Top  off  with  whipped  cream. 

Hot  Egg  Drinks.— I.— One-half  to  1 
ounce  liquid  extract  of  beef,  1  egg,  salt 
and  pepper  to  season,  hot  water  to  fill  an 
8-ounce  mug.  Stir  the  extract,  egg,  and 
seasoning  together  with  a  spoon,  to  get 
well  mixed,  add  the  water,  stirring  brisk- 
ly meanwhile;  then  strain,  and  serve. 
Or  shake  the  egg  and  extract  in  a  shaker, 
add  the  water,  and  mix  by  pouring  back 
and  forth  several  times,  from  shaker  to 
mug. 


II.— Hot  Egg  Chocolate.— Cne  to  1£ 
ounces  chocolate  syrup,  1  egg,  £  ounce 
cream,  hot  water  sufficient  to  fill  an 
8-ounce  mug. 

Mix  the  syrup,  egg,  and  cream  to- 
gether in  an  egg-shaker;  shake  as  in 
making  cold  drinks;  add  the  hot  water, 
and  mix  all  by  pouring  back  and 
forth  several  times,  from  shaker  to  mug. 
Or,  prepare  by  beating  the  egg  with  a 
spoon,  add  the  syrup  and  cream,  mix  all 
quickly  with  the  spoon,  and  add  hot 
water,  stirring  constantly,  and  strain. 

III.— Hot  Egg  Coffee.— One  egg,  1 
dessertspoonful  extract  of  coffee,  1  tea- 
spoonful  sweet  cream,  1  ounce  syrup. 
Shake  well,  strain,  and  add  1  cupful  hot 
water  and  top  with  whipped  cream. 

IV. — Hot  Egg  Lemonade. — One  egg, 
juice  of  1  lemon,  3  teaspoonf uls  powdered 
sugar.  Beat  the  egg  with  lemon  juice 
and  sugar  thoroughly.  Mix  while  add- 
ing the  water.  Serve  grated  nutmeg  and 
cinnamon.  The  amount  of  lemon  juice 
and  sugar  may  be  varied  to  suit  different 
tastes. 

V.— Hot  Egg  Milk.— Two  teaspoon- 
fuls  sugar,  1  ounce  cream,  1  egg,  hot 
milk  to  fill  an  8-ounce  mug.  Prepare  as 
in  hot  egg  chocolate,  top  with  whipped 
cream,  and  sprinkle  with  nutmeg.  If 
there  are  no  facilities  for  keeping  hot 
milk,  use  about  2  ounces  of  cream,  and 
fill  mug  with  hot  water. 

VI. — Hot  Egg  Nogg. — Plain  syrup, 
|  ounce;  brandy,  £  ounce;  Angostura 
bitters,  3  drops;  1  egg.  Put  in  shaker 
and  beat  well.  Strain  in  10-ounce  mug, 
and  fill  with  hot  milk;  finish  with 
whipped  cream  and  nutmeg. 

VII.— Hot  Egg  Phosphate.  — Two 
ounces  lemon  syrup,  1  egg,  ^  ounce  solu- 
tion of  acid  phosphate.  Mix  in  a  glass, 
and  shake  together  thoroughly;  pour  in- 
to another  glass,  heated  previously,  and 
slowly  draw  full  of  hot  water;  season  with 
nutmeg. 

VIII.— Hot  Egg  Phosphate.— Break 
fresh  egg  into  shaker  and  add  i  ounce 
pineapple  syrup,  £  ounce  orange  syrup, 
1  dash  phosphate.  Shake,  without  ice, 
and  pour  into  bouillon  cup.  Draw  cup- 
ful of  hot  water,  sprinkle  a  touch  of  cin- 
namon, and  serve  with  wafers. 

FANCY  SODA  DRINKS: 

Coffee  Cream  Soda. — Serve  in  a  12- 
ounce  glass.  Draw  1£  ounces  of  syrup 
and  1  ounce  of  cream.  Into  the  shaker 
draw  8  ounces  of  carbonated  water,  pour 
into  the  glass  sufficient  to  fill  it  to  within 


114 


BEVERAGES 


1  inch  of  the  top;  pour  from  glass  to 
shaker  and  back,  once  or  twice,  to  mix 
thoroughly;  give  the  drink  a  rich,  creamy 
appearance,  and  make  it  cream  suffi- 
ciently to  fill  the  glass. 

Iced  Coffee. — Serve  in  a  10-ounce 
glass.  Draw  1  ounce  into  glass,  fill 
nearly  full  with  ice-cold  milk,  and  mix  by 
stirring. 

Egg  Malted  Milk  Coffee. — Prepare 
same  as, malted  milk  coffee,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  adding  the  egg  before  shaking, 
and  top  off  with  a  little  nutmeg,  if  de- 
sired. This  drink  is  sometimes  called 
coffee  light  lunch. 

Coffee  Frappe. — Serve  in  a  12-ounce 
glass.  Coffee  syrup,  1|  ounces;  white 
of  1  egg;  1  to  1£  ounces  of  pure,  rich, 
sweet  cream;  a  small  portion  of  fine 
shaved  ice;  shake  thoroughly  to  beat  the 
white  of  the  egg  light,  and  then  remove 
the  glass,  leaving  the  contents  in  the 
shaker.  Now  fill  the  shaker  two-thirds 
full,  using  the  fine  stream  only.  Draw 
as  quickly  as  possible  that  the  drink  may 
be  nice  and  light.  Now  pour  into  glass 
and  back,  and  then  strain  into  a  clean 
glass.  Serve  at  once,  and  without 
straws.  This  should  be  drunk  at  once, 
else  it  will  settle,  and  lose  its  lightness 
and  richness. 

Coffee  Nogg. — 

Coffee  syrup 2  ounces 

Brandy 4  drachms 

Cream 2  ounces 

One  egg. 

Coffee  Cocktail. — 

Coffee  syrup 1  ounce 

One  egg. 

Port  wine 1  ounce 

Brandy 2  drachms 

Shake,  strain  into  a  small  glass,  and 
add  soda.  Mace  on  top. 

Chocolate  and  Milk. — 

Chocolate  syrup 2  ounces 

Sweet  milk,  sufficient. 

Fill  a  glass  half  full  of  shaved  ice,  put 
in  the  syrup,  and  add  milk  until  the  glass 
is  almost  full.  Shake  well,  and  serve 
without  straining.  Put  whipped  cream 
on  top  and  serve  with  straws. 

Chocolate  Frappe. — 

Frozen  whipped  cream,  sufficient. 
Shaved  ice,  sufficient. 

Fill  a  glass  half  full  of  frozen  whipped 
cream,  fill  with  shaved  ice  nearly  to  the 


top,  and  pour  in  chocolate  syrup.    Other 
syrups  may  be  used,  it  desired. 

Royal  Frappe. — This  drink  consists  of 
3  parts  black  coffee  and  1  part  of  brandy, 
frozen  in  a  cooler,  and  served  while  in  a 
semifrozen  state. 

Mint  Julep. — One-half  tumbler  shaved 
ice,  teaspoonful  powdered  sugar,  dash 
lemon  juice,  2  or  3  sprigs  of  fresh  mint. 
Crush  the  mint  against  side  of  the  glass 
to  get  the  flavor.  Then  add  claret  syrup, 
\  ounce;  raspberry  syrup,  1^  ounces;  and 
draw  carbonated  water  nearly  to  fill 
glass.  Insert  bunch  of  mint  and  fill 
glass,  leaving  full  of  shaved  ice.  Serve 
with  straws,  and  decorate  with  fruits  of 
the  season. 

Grape  Glace". — Beat  thoroughly  the 
whites  of  4  eggs  and  stir  in  1  pound  of 
powdered  sugar,  then  add  1  pint  grape 
juice,  1  pint  water,  and  1  pound  more  of 
powdered  sugar.  Stir  well  until  sugar 
is  dissolved,  and  serve  from  a  pitcher  or 
glass  dish,  with  ladle. 

"Golf  Goblet."— Serve  in  a  12-ounce 
glass;  fill  two-thirds  full  of  cracked  ice, 
add  \  ounce  pineapple  juice,  1  teaspoon- 
ful lemon  juice,  1  teaspoonful  raspberry 
vinegar.  Put  spoon  in  glass,  and  fill  to 
within  one-half  inch  of  top  with  carbon- 
ated water;  add  shaved  ice,  heaping  full. 
Put  strawberry  or  cherry  on  top,  and 
stick  slice  of  orange  down  side  of  glass. 
Serve  with  spoon  and  straws. 

Goldenade. — Shaved  ice,  £  tumbler- 
ful; powdered  sugar;  juice  of  1  lemon; 
yolk  of  1  egg.  Shake  well,  add  soda 
water  from  large  stream,  turn  from  tum- 
bler to  shaker,  and  vice  versa,  several 
times,  and  strain  through  julep  strainer 
into  a  12-ounce  tumbler. 

Lunar  Blend. — Take  two  mixing 
glasses,  break  an  egg,  putting  the  yolk 
in  one  glass,  the  white  into  the  other; 
into  the  glass  with  the  yolk  add  1  ounce 
cherry  syrup  and  some  cracked  ice; 
shake,  add  small  quantity  soda,  and 
strain  into  a  12-ounce  glass.  Into  the 
other  mixing  glass  add  1  ounce  plain 
sweet  cream,  and  beat  with  bar  spoons 
until  well  whipped;  add  \  ounce  lemon 
syrup,  then  transfer  it  into  the  shaker, 
and  add  soda  from  fine  stream  only, 
and  float  on  top  of  the  one  containing 
the  yolk  and  sherry.  Serve  with  two 
straws. 

Egg  Chocolate.— 

Chocolate  syrup 2  ounces 

Cream 4  ounces 

White  of  one  egg. 


BEVERAGES 


115 


Egg  CrSme  de  Menthe.— 

Mint  syrup 12  drachms 

Cream 3  ounces 

White  of  one  egg. 

Whisky 4  drachms 

Egg  Sherbet. — 

Sherry  syrup 4  drachms 

Pineapple  syrup 4  drachms 

Raspberry  syrup 4  drachms 

One  egg. 
Cream. 

Egg  Claret.— 

Claret  syrup 2  ounces 

Cream 3  ounces 

One  egg. 

Royal  Mist. — 

Orange  syrup 1  ounce 

Catawba  syrup 1  ounce 

Cream 2  ounces 

One  egg. 

Banana  Cream. — 

Banana  syrup 12  drachms 

Cream 4  ounces 

One  egg. 

Egg  Coffee. — 

Coffee  syrup 2  ounces 

Cream  .". 3  ounces 

One  egg. 
Shaved  ice. 

Cocoa  Mint. — 

Chocolate  syrup.  . 
Peppermint  syrup. ...    1 
White  of  one  egg. 

Cream 2  ounces 

The  peppermint  syrup  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: 

Oil  of  peppermint. . .   30  minims 

Syrup  simplex 1  gallon 

Soda  foam 1  ounce 

Egg  Lemonade. — 

Juice  of  one  lemon. 

Pulverized  sugar 3  teasp'f uls 

One  egg. 

Water,  q.  s. 

Shake  well,  using  plenty  of  ice,  and 
serve  in  a  small  glass. 

Nadjy.— 

Raspberry  juice 1  ounce 

Pineapple  syrup 1  ounce 

One  egg. 

Cream 2  ounces 

Siberian  Flip.— 

Orange  syrup 1  ounce 

Pineapple  syrup 1  ounce 

One  egg. 

Cream 2  ounces 


1  ounce 
ounce 


Egg  Orgeat.— 

Orgeat  syrup 12  drachms 

Cream 3  ounces 

One  egg. 

Normona. — 

Peach  syrup 1  ounce 

Grape  syrup 1  ounce 

Cream 3  ounces 

Brandy 2  drachms 

One  egg. 

Silver  Fizz.— 

Catawba  syrup 2  ounces 

Holland  gin 2  drachms 

Lemon  juice 8  dashes 

White  of  one  egg. 

Golden  Fizz. — 

Claret  syrup 2    ounces 

Holland  gin |  ounce 

Lemon  juice 8  dashes 

Yolk  of  one  egg. 

Rose  Cream.— 

Rose  syrup 12  drachms 

Cream 4  ounces 

White  of  one  egg. 

Violet  Cream. — 

Violet  syrup 12  drachms 

Cream 4  ounces 

White  of  one  egg. 

Rose  Mint. — 

Rose  syrup 6  drachms 

Mint  syrup 6  drachms 

Cream 3  ounces 

White  of  one  egg. 

Currant  Cream.— 

Red-currant  syrup ...    2  ounces 

Cream 3  ounces 

One  egg. 

Quince  Flip. — 

Quince  syrup 2  ounces 

Cream 3  ounces 

One  egg. 
Shaved  ice. 

Coffee  Nogg.— 

Coffee  syrup 2  ounces 

Brandy 4  drachms 

Cream 2  ounces 

One  egg. 

Egg  Sour. — 

Juice  of  one  lemon. 

Simple  syrup 12  drachms 

One  egg. 

Shake,  strain,  and  fill  with  soda.  Mace 
on  top. 


116 


BEVERAGES 


Lemon  Sour. — 

Lemon  syrup 12  drachms 

Juice  of  one  lemon. 
One  egg. 

Raspberry  Sour. — 

Raspberry  syrup. ...    12  drachms 
One  egg.  \ 

Juice  of  one  lemon. 

Yama. — 
One  egg. 

Cream 

Sugar 

Jamaica  rum. 


. .    2     ounces 
. .    2     teaspoonfuls 
$  ounce 

Shake  well,  put  into  cup,  and  add  hot 
water.  Serve  with  whipped  cream,  and 
sprinkle  mace  on  top. 

Prairie  Oyster. — 

Cider  vinegar 2  ounces 

One  egg. 

Put  vinegar  into  glass,  and  break  into 
it  the  egg.     Season  with  salt  and  pepper. 
Serve  without  mixing. 

Fruit  Frappe. — 

Granulated  gelatin ...    1  ounce 
Juice  of  six  lemons. 
Beaten  whites  of  two  eggs. 

Water 5  quarts 

Syrup 1  quart 

Maraschino  cherries. .   8  ounces 

Sliced  peach 4  ounces 

Sliced  pineapple 4  ounces 

Whole  strawberries. . .    4  ounces 

Sliced  orange 4  ounces 

Dissolve  the  gelatin  in  1  quart  boiling 
hot  water;  add  tne  syrup  and  the  balance 
of  the  water;  add  the  whites  of  the  eggs 
and  lemon  juice. 

KOUMISS. 

The  original  koumiss  is  the  Russian, 
made  from  mare's  milk,  while  that  pro- 
duced in  this  country  and  other  parts  of 
Europe  is  usually,  probably  always,  made 
from  cow's  milk.  For  this  reason  there 
is  a  difference  in  the  preparation  which 
•may  or  may  not  be  of  consequence.  It 
has  been  asserted  that  the  ferment  used 
in  Russia  differs  from  ordinary  yeast,  but 
this  has  not  been  established. 

In  an  article  on  this  subject,  contrib- 
uted by  D.  H.  Davies  to  the  Pharma- 
ceutical Journal  and  Transactions,  it  is 
pointed  out  that  mare's  milk  contains  less 
casein  and  fatty  matter  than  cow's 
milk,  and  he  states  that  it  is  "therefore 
far  more  easy  of  digestion."  He  thinks 
that  cow's  milk  yields  a  better  prepara- 
tion when  diluted  with  water  to  reduce 
the  percentage  of  casein,  etc.  He  pro- 
poses the  following  formula: 


Fresh  milk . .    12  ounces 

Water 4  ounces 

Brown  sugar 150  grains 

Compressed  yeast. . .   24  grains 

Milk  sugar 3  drachms 

Dissolve  the  milk  sugar  in  the  water, 
add  to  the  milk,  rub  the  yeast  and  brown 
sugar  down  in  a  mortar  with  a  little  of 
the  mixture,  then  strain  into  the  other 
portion. 

Strong  bottles  are  very  essential,  cham- 
pagne bottles  being  frequently  used,  and 
the  corks  should  fit  tightly;  in  fact,  it  is 
almost  necessary  to  use  a  bottling  ma- 
chine for  the  purpose,  and  once  the  cork 
is  properly  fixed  it  should  be  wired  down. 
Many  failures  have  resulted  because  the 
corks  did  not  fit  properly,  the  result  being 
that  the  carbon  dioxide  escaped  as 
formed  and  left  a  worthless  preparation. 
It  is  further  necessary  to  keep  the  prepa- 
ration at  a  moderate  temperature,  and  to 
be  sure  that  the  article  is  properly  fin- 
ished the  operator  should  gently  shake 
the  bottles  each  day  for  about  10  min- 
utes to  prevent  the  clotting  of  the  casein. 
It  is  well  to  take  the  precaution  of  rolling 
a  cloth  around  the  bottle  during  the 
shaking  process,  as  the  amount  of  gas 
generated  is  great,  and  should  the  bottle 
be  weak  it  might  explode. 

Kogelman  says  that  if  1  volume  of 
buttermilk  be  mixed  with  1  or  2  vol- 
umes of  sweet  milk,  in  a  short  time 
lively  fermentation  sets  in,  and  in  about 
3  days  the  work  is  completed.  This,  ac- 
cording to  the  author,  produces  a  wine- 
scented  fluid,  rich  in  alcohol,  carbon 
dioxide,  lactic  acid,  and  casein,  which, 
according  to  all  investigations  yet  made, 
is  identical  with  koumiss.  The  follow- 
ing practical  hints  are  given  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  good  article:  The  sweet  milk 
used  should  not  be  entirely  freed  from 
cream;  the  bottles  should  be  of  strong 
glass;  the  fermenting  milk  must  be  in- 
dustriously shaken  by  the  operator  at 
least  3  times  a  day,  and  then  the  cork 
put  in  firmly,  so  that  the  fluid  will  become 
well  charged  with  carbon-dioxide  gas ; 
the  bottles  must  be  daily  opened  and  at 
least  twice  each  day  brought  nearly  to  a 
horizontal  position,  in  order  to  allow  the 
carbon  dioxide  to  escape  and  air  to  enter; 
otherwise  fermentation  rapidly  ceases, 
If  a  drink  is  desired  strong  in  carbonic 
acid,  the  bottles,  toward  the  end  of  fer- 
mentation, should  be  placed  with  the 
necks  down.  In  order  to  ferment  a 
fresh  quantity  of  milk,  simply  add  $ 
of  its  volume  of  either  actively  fer- 
menting or  freshly  fermented  milk.  The 
temperature  should  be  from  50°  to  60° 
F.,  about  60°  being  the  most  favorable. 


BEVERAGES 


117 


Here  are  some  miscellaneous  formulas: 
I. — Fill  a  quart  champagne  bottle  up 
to  the  neck  with  pure  milk;  add  2  ta- 
blespoonfuls  of  white  sugar,  after  dis- 
solving the  same  in  a  little  water  over  a 
hot  fire;  add  also  a  quarter  of  a  2-cent 
cake  of  compressed  yeast.  Then  tie  the 
cork  in  the  bottle  securely,  and  shake 
the  mixture  well;  place  it  in  a  room  of 
the  temperature  of  50°  to  95°  F.  for  6 
hours,  and  finally  in  the  ice  box  over 
night.  Handle  wrapped  in  a  towel  as 
protection  if  the  bottle  should  burst. 
Be  sure  that  the  milk  is  pure,  that  the 
bottle  is  sound,  that  the  yeast  is  fresh,  to 
open  the  mixture  in  the  morning  with 
great  care,  on  account  of  its  effervescent 
properties;  and  be  sure  not  to  drink  it  at 
all  if  there  is  any  curdle  or  thickening 
part  resembling  cheese,  as  this  indicates 
that  the  fermentation  has  been  prolonged 
beyond  the  proper  time. 

II. — Dilute  the  milk  with  £  part  of 
hot  water,  and  while  still  tepid  add  £ 
of  very  sour  (but  otherwise  good)  but- 
termilk. Put  it  into  a  wide  jug,  cover 
with  a  clean  cloth,  and  let  stand  in  a 
warmish  place  (about  75°  F.)  for  24 
hours;  stir  up  well,  and  leave  for  an- 
other 24  hours.  Then  beat  thoroughly 
together,  and  pour  from  jug  to  jug  till 
perfectly  smooth  and  creamy.  It  is 
now  "still"  koumiss,  and  may  be  drunk 
at  once.  To  make  it  sparkling,  which 
is  generally  preferred,  put  it  into  cham- 
pagne or  soda-water  bottles;  do  not 
quite  fill  them,  secure  the  corks  well, 
and  lay  them  in  a  cool  cellar.  It  will 
then  keep  for  6  or  8  weeks,  though 
it  becomes  increasingly  acid.  To  ma- 
ture some  for  drinking  quickly,  it  is  as 
well  to  keep  a  bottle  or  two  to  start  with 
in  some  warmer  place,  and  from  time  to 
time  shake  vigorously.  With  this  treat- 
ment it  should,  in  about  3  days,  be- 
come sufficiently  effervescent  to  spurt 
freely  through  a  champagne  tap,  which 
must  be  used  for  drawing  it  off  as  re- 
quired. Later  on,  when  very  frothy  and 
acid  it  is  more  pleasant'  to  drink  if  a 
little  sweetened  water  (or  milk  and  wa- 
ter) is  first  put  into  the  glass.  Shake 
the  bottle,  and  hold  it  inverted  well  into 
the  tumbler  before  turning  the  tap. 
Having  made  one  lot  of  koumiss  as  above 
you  can  use  some  of  that  instead  of 
buttermilk  as  a  ferment  for  a  second 
lot,  and  so  on  5  or  6  times  in  succession; 
after  which  it  will  be  found  advisable  to 
begin  again  as  at  first.  Mare's  milk  is 
the  best  for  koumiss;  then  ass's  milk. 
Cow's  milk  may  be  made  more  like  them 
by  adding  a  little  sugar  of  milk  (or  even 
loaf  sugar)  with  the  hot  water  before  fer- 


menting. But  perhaps  the  chief  draw- 
back to  cow's  milk  is  that  the  cream 
separates  permanently,  whereas  that  of 
mare's  milk  will  remix.  Hence  use  par- 
tially skimmed  milk;  for  if  there  is  much 
cream  it  only  forms  little  lumps  of  butter, 
which  are  apt  to  clog  the  tap,  or  are  left 
behind  in  the  bottle. 

Kwass.  —  Kwass  is  a  popular  drink 
among  the  Russian  population  of  Kun- 
zews,  prepared  as  follows:  In  a  big  kettle 
put  from  13  to  15  quarts  of  water,  and 
bring  to  a  boil,  and  when  in  active  ebul- 
lition pour  in  500  grams  of  malt.  Let 
boil  for  20  minutes,  remove  from  the 
fire,  let  cool  down,  and  strain  off.  The 
liquid  is  now  put  into  a  clean  keg  or 
barrel,  30  grams  (about  an  ounce)  of  best 
compressed  yeast  added  along  with  about 
600  grams  (20  ounces)  of  sugar,  and  the 
cask  is  put  in  a  warm  place  to  ferment. 
As  soon  as  bubbles  of  carbonic  gas  are  de- 
tected on  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  it  is  a 
signal  that  the  latter  is  ready  for  bottling. 
In  each  of  the  bottles,  which  should  be 
strong  and  clean,  put  one  big  raisin,  fill, 
cork,  and  wire  down.  The  bottles 
should  be  placed  on  the  side,  and  in  the 
coolest  place  available  —  best,  on  ice. 
The  liquor  is  ready  for  drinking  in  from 
2  to  3  days,  and  is  said  to  be  most  pal- 
atable. 

"  Braga."  —  Braga  is  a  liquid  of  milky 
turbidity,  resembling  cafe  au  lait  in 
color,  and  forming  a  considerable  pre- 
cipitate if  left  alone.  When  shaken  it 
sparkles  and  a  little  gas  escapes.  Its 
taste  is  more  or  less  acid,  possessing  a 
pleasant  flavor. 

About  35  parts  of  crushed  millet,  to 
which  a  little  wheat  flour  is  added,  are 
placed  in  a  large  kettle.  On  this  about 
400  parts  of  water  are  poured.  The 
mixture  is  stirred  well  and  boiled  for  3 
hours.  After  settling  for  1  hour  the  lost 
water  is  renewed  and  the  boiling  con- 
tinued for  another  10  hours.  A  viscous 
mass  remains  in  the  kettle,  which  sub- 
stance is  spread  upon  large  tables  to 
cool.  After  it  is  perfectly  cool,  it  is 
stirred  with  water  in  a  wooden  trough 
and  left  to  ferment  for  8  hours.  This 
pulp  is  sifted,  mixed  with  a  little  water, 
and  after  an  hour  the  braga  is  ready  for 
sale.  The  taste  is  a  little  sweetish  at  first, 
but  becomes  more  and  more  sourish  in 
time.  Fermentation  begins  only  in  the 
trough. 


WINTER  BEVERAGES  : 


Campchello.  —  Thoroughly  beat  the 
yolks  of  12  fresh  eggs  with  2£  pounds 
finely  powdered,  refined  sugar,  the  juice 


118 


BEVERAGES 


of  3  lemons  and  2  oranges,  and  3  bottles 
of  Graves  or  other  white  wine,  over  the 
fire,  until  rising.  Remove,  and  slowly 
beat  1  bottle  of  Jamaica  rum  with  it. 

Egg  Wine. — Vigorously  beat  4  whole 
eggs  and  the  yolks  of  4  with  £  pound  of 
fine  sugar;  next  add  2  quarts  of  white 
wine  and  beat  over  a  moderate  fire  until 
rising. 

Bavaroise  au  Cognac. — Beat  up  the 
yolks  of  8  eggs  in  1  quart  of  good  milk 
over  the  fire,  until  boiling,  then  quickly 
add  5  ounces  of  sugar  and  £  quart  of 
fine  cognac. 

Bavaroise  au  Caf6. — Heat  1  pint  of 
strong  coffee  and  1  pint  of  milk,  5  ounces 
of  sugar,  and  the  yolks  of  8  eggs,  until 
boiling,  then  add  -fa  quart  of  Jamaica 
rum. 

Carbonated  Pineapple  Champagne. — 

Plain  syrup,  42° 10    gallons 

Essence  of  pineapple     8    drachms 
Tincture  of  lemon. .  .      5    ounces 
Carbonate  of  magne- 
sia       1    ounce 

Liquid  saffron 2£  ounces 

Citric-acid  solution..   30    ounces 

Caramel 2J  ounces 

Filter  before  adding  the  citric-acid  so- 
lution and  limejuice.  Use  2  ounces  to 
each  bottle. 

A  German  Drink. — To  100  parts  of 
water  add  from  10  to  15  parts  of  sugar, 
dissolve  and  add  to  the  syrup  thus  formed 
an  aqueous  extract  of  0.8  parts  of  green 
or  black  tea.  Add  fresh  beer  or  brew- 
ers' yeast,  put  in  a  warm  place  and  let 
ferment.  When  fermentation  has  pro- 
gressed to  a  certain  point  the  liquid  is 
cleared,  and  then  bottled,  corked,  and 
the  corks  tied  down.  The  drink  is  said 
to  be  very  pleasant.  1 

Limejuice  Cordial.  —  Limejuice  cor- 
dial that  will  keep  good  for  any  length  of 
time  may  be  made  as  follows:  Sugar, 
6  pounds;  water,  4  pints;  citric  acid,  4 
ounces;  boric  acid,  £  ounce.  Dissolve 
by  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat,  and  when  cold 
add  refined  limejuice,  60  ounces;  tinc- 
ture of  lemon  peel,  4  ounces;  water  to 
make  up  to  2  gallons,  and  color  with  car- 
amel. 

Summer  Drink.  — 

Chopped  ice 2    tablespoonfuls 

Chocolate  syrup  .  .    2    tablespoonfuls 
Whipped  cream  ...   3    tablespoonfuls 

Milk $  cup 

Carbonated  water.     J  cup 

Shake  or  stir  well  before  drinking.  A 
tablespoonful  of  vanilla  ice  cream  is  a 


desirable  addition.  A  plainer  drink  is 
made  by  combining  the  syrup,  f  cup  of 
milk,  and  the  ice,  and  shaking  well. 

American  Champagne.  —  Good  cider 
(crab-apple  cider  is  the  best),  7  gal- 
lons; best  fourth-proof  brandy,  1  quart; 
genuine  champagne  wine,  5  pints;  milk, 
1  gallon;  bitartrate  of  potassa,  2  ounces. 
Mix,  let  stand  a  short  time;  bottle  while 
fermenting.  An  excellent  imitation. 

British  Champagne.  —  Loaf  sugar, 
56  pounds;  brown  sugar  (pale),  48 
pounds;  water  (warm),  45  gallons;  white 
tartar,  4  ounces;  mix,  and  at  a  proper 
temperature  add  yeast,  1  quart;  and 
afterwards  sweet  cider,  5  gallons;  bruised 
wild  cherries,  14  or  15  ounces;  pale 
spirits,  1  gallon;  orris  powder,  J  ounce. 
Bottle  while  fermenting. 

Champagne  Cider. — Good  pale  cider, 
1  hogshead;  spirits,  3  gallons;  sugar, 
20  pounds;  mix,  and  let  it  stand  one 
fortnight;  then  fine  with  skimmed  milk, 
|  gallon;  this  will  be  very  pale,  and 
a  similar  article,  when  properly  bottled 
and  labeled,  opens  so  briskly  that  even 
good  judges  have  mistaken  it  for  genuine 
champagne. 

BEER: 

Scotch  Beer.— Add  1  peck  malt  to  4 

gallons  of  boiling  water  and  let  it  mash 

for  8  hours,  and  then  strain,  and  in  the 

strained  liquor  boil: 

Hops 4  ounces 

Coriander  seeds ......    1  ounce 

Honey 1  pound 

Orange  peel 2  ounces 

Bruised  ginger 1  ounce 

Boil  for  half  an  hour,  then  strain  and 

ferment  in  the  usual  way. 

Hop  Bitter  Beer.— 

Coriander  seeds 2  ounces 

Orange  peel 4  ounces 

Ginger 1  ounce 

Gentian  root \  ounce 

Boil  in  5  gallons  of  water  for  half  an 
hour,  then  strain  and  put  into  the  liquor 
4  ounces  hops  and  3  pounds  of  sugar, 
and  simmer  for  15  minutes,  then  add 
sufficient  yeast,  and  bottle  when  ready. 

Sarsaparilla  Beer. — I. — Compound  ex- 
tract of  sarsaparilla,  1  \  ounces ;  hot  water, 
1  pint;  dissolve,  and  when  cold,  add  of 
good  pale  or  East  India  ale,  7  pints. 

II. — Sarsaparilla  (sliced),  1  pound; 
guaiacum  bark  (bruised  small),  \  pound; 
guaiacum  wood  (rasped)  and  licorice  root 
(sliced),  of  each,  2  ounces;  aniseed 
(bruised),  \\  ounces;  mezereon  root- 


BEVERAGES 


119 


bark,  1  ounce ;  cloves  (cut  small),  J 
ounce;  moist  sugar,  3£  pounds;  hot 
water  (not  boiling),  9  quarts;  mix  in  a 
clean  stone  jar,  and  keep  it  in  a  moder- 
ately warm  room  (shaking  it  twice  or 
thrice  daily)  until  active  fermentation 
sets  in,  then  let  it  repose  for  about  a  week, 
when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  This  is 
said  to  be  superior  to  the  other  prepara- 
tions of  sarsaparilla  as  an  alterative 
or  purifier  of  the  blood,  particularly  in 
old  affections.  That  usually  made  has 
generally  only  J  of  the  above  quan- 
tity of 'sugar,  for  which  molasses  is  often 
substituted;  but  in  either  case  it  will  not 
keep  well;  whereas,  with  proper  caution, 
the  products  of  the  above  formulas  may 
be  kept  for  1  or  even  2  years.  No 
yeast  must  be  used.  Dose:  A  small 
tumblerful  3  or  4  times  a  day,  or  oftener. 

Spruce  Beer. — I. — Sugar,  1  pound; 
essence  of  spruce,  £  ounce;  boiling  water, 
1  gallon;  mix  well,  and  when  nearly  cold 
add  of  yeast  £  wineglassf  ul ;  and  the 
next  day  bottle  like  ginger  beer. 

II. — Essence  of  spruce,  £  pint;  pi- 
mento and  ginger  (bruised),  or  each,  5 
ounces;  hops,  £  pound;  water,  3  gallons; 
boil  the  whole  for  10  minutes,  then  add 
of  moist  sugar,  12  pounds  (or  good  mo- 
lasses, 14  pounds);  warm  water,  11  gal- 
lons; mix  well,  and,  when  only  luke- 
warm, further  add  of  yeast,  1  pint;  after 
the  liquid  has  fermented  for  about  24 
hours,  bottle  it. 

This  is  diuretic  and  antiscorbutic.  It  is 
regarded  as  an  agreeable  summer  drink, 
and  often  found  useful  during  long  sea 
voyages.  When  made  with  lump  sugar 
it  is  called  White  Spruce  Beer;  when  with 
moist  sugar  or  treacle,  Brown  Spruce 
Beer.  An  inferior  sort  is  made  by  using 
less  sugar  or  more  water. 

Treacle'Beer.  — I.  — From  treacle  or  mo- 
lasses, £  to  2  pounds  per  gallon  (accord- 
ing to  the  desired  strength) ;  hops,  J  to  f 
ounce;  yeast,  a  tablespoonful;  water, 
q.  s.;  treated  as  below. 

II. — Hops,  1£  pounds;  corianders,  1 
ounce;  capsicum  pods  (cut  small),  % 
ounce;  water,  8  gallons;  boil  for  10  or 
15  minutes,  and  strain  the  liquor 
through  a  coarse  sieve  into  a  barrel  con- 
taining treacle,  28  pounds;  then  throw 
back  the  hops,  etc.,  into  the  copper  and 
reboil  them,  for  10  minutes,  with  a 
second  8  gallons  of  water,  which  must  be 
strained  into  the  barrel,  as  before;  next 
"rummage"  the  whole  well  with  a  stout 
stick,  add  of  cold  water  21  gallons  (suf- 
ficient to  make  the  whole  measure  37 
r  lions),  and,  again  after  mixing,  stir  in 
pint  of  good  fresh  yeast;  lastly,  let  it 


remain  for  24  hours  in  a  moderately 
warm  place,  after  which  it  may  be  put 
into  the  cellar,  and  in  2  or  3  days  bottled 
or  tapped  on  draught.  In  a  week  it  will 
be  fit  to  drink.  For  a  stronger  beer,  36 
pounds,  or  even  half  a  hundredweight  of 
molasses  may  be  used.  It  will  then 
keep  good  for  a  twelvemonth.  This  is  a 
wholesome  drink,  but  apt  to  prove  laxa- 
tive when  taken  in  large  quantities. 

Weiss  Beer.— This  Differs  from  the 
ordinary  lager  beer  in  that  it  contains 
wheat  malt.  The  proportions  are  § 
wheat  to  $  barley  malt,  1  pound  hops 
being  used  with  a  peck  of  the  combined 
malt  to  each  20  gallons  of  water.  A 
good  deal  depends  on  the  yeast,  which 
must  be  of  a  special  kind,  the  best  grades 
being  imported  from  Germany. 

Yellow  Coloring  for  Beverages. — The 
coloring  agents  employed  are  fustic,  saf- 
fron, turmeric,  quercitron,  and  the  va- 
rious aniline  dyes.  Here  are  some  for- 
mulas: 

I.  —Saffron. 1  ounce 

Deodorized    alco- 
hol     4  fluidounces 

Distilled  water .  ..   4  fluidounces 
Mix  alcohol  and  water,  and  then  add 
the  saffron.     Allow  the  mixture  to  stand 
in  a  warm  place  for  several  days,  shaking 
occasionally;  then  filter.     The  tincture 
thus  prepared  has  a  deep  orange  color, 
and  when  diluted  or  used  in  small  quan- 
tities   gives    a    beautiful    yellow    tint   to 
syrups,  etc. 
II. — Ground       fustic 

wood 1|  ounces 

Deodorized    alco- 
hol     4     fluidounces 

Distilled  water ...    4    fluidounces 
This  color  may  be  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  liquid  saffron,  and  is  a  fine 
coloring  for  many  purposes. 
III. — Turmeric  powder. ...    2  ounces 

Alcohol,  dilute 16  ounces 

Macerate  for  several  days,  agitating 
frequently,  and  filter.  For  some  bev- 
erages the  addition  of  this  tincture  is  not 
to  be  recommended,  as  it  possesses  a 
very  spicy  taste. 

The  nonpoisonous  aniline  dyes  rec- 
ommended for  coloring  confectionery, 
beverages,  liquors,  essences,  etc.,  yellow 
are  those  known  as  acid  yellow  R  and 
tropseolin  000  (orange  I). 

BICYCLE-TIRE  CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Rubber  Cements. 

BICYCLE  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 


120 


BLEACHING 


BIDERY  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

BILLIARD  BALLS: 

See  Ivory  and  Casein. 

BIRCH  BALSAM: 
See  Balsam. 

BIRCH  WATER: 

See  Hair  Preparations. 

BIRD  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REM- 
EDIES: 
See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

BIRD  FOODS: 

See  also  Veterinary  Formulas. 

Mixed  Birdseed.— 

Canary  seed 6  parts 

Rape  seed 2  parts 

Maw  seed 1  part 

Millet  seed 2  parts 

Mocking-Bird  Food.— 

Cayenne  pepper  ....      2  ounces 

Rape  seed 8  ounces 

Hemp  seed 16  ounces 

Corn  meal 2  ounces 

Rice 2  ounces 

Cracker 8  ounces 

Lard  oil 2  ounces 

Mix  the  solids,  grinding  to  a  coarse 
powder,  and  incorporate  the  oil. 

Food  for  Redbirds.— 

Sunflower  seed 8  ounces 

Hemp  seed 16  ounces 

Canary  seed 10  ounces 

Wheat — 8  ounces 

Rice 6  ounces 

Mix  and  grind  to  coarse  powder. 

BIRD  LIME: 
See  Lime. 

BIRD  PASTE: 

See  Canary-Bird  Paste. 

BISCHOFF : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

BISCUIT,  DOG: 
See  Dog  Biscuit. 

BISMUTH  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

BISMUTH,  PURIFICATION  OF: 

See  Gold. 

BITTERS : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

BITTER  WATER: 
See  Waters. 

BLACKING  FOR  HARNESS: 
See  Leather. 


BLACKING  FOR  SHOES: 

See  Shoedressings. 

BLACKING,  STOVE: 

See  Stove  Blackings  and  Polishes. 

BLACKBERRY  CORDIAL  AND  BLACK- 
BERRY MIXTURE  AS  A  CHOL- 
ERA REMEDY: 

See  Cholera  Remedy. 

BLACKBOARD  PAINT  AND  VARNISH  : 

See  Paint  and  Varnish. 

BLACKHEAD  REMEDIES: 

See  Cosmetics. 

BLANKET  WASHING: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

BLASTING  POWDER: 

See  Explosives. 


Bleaching 

Linen. — Mix  common  bleaching  pow- 
der in  the  proportion  of  1  pound  to  a 
gallon  of  water;  stir  it  occasionally  for 

3  days,  let  it  settle,  and  pour  it  off  clear. 
Then  make  a  lye  of  1  pound  of  soda  to 
1  gallon  of  boiling  water,  in  which  soak 
the  linen  for  12  hours,  and  boil  it  half  an 
hour;    next    soak    it    in    the    bleaching 
liquor,  made  as  above;  and  lastly,  wash 
it    in    the    usual    manner.      Discolored 
linen  or  muslin  may  be  restored  by  put- 
ting a  portion  of  bleaching  liquor  into 
the  tub  wherein  the  articles  are  soaking. 

Straw. — I. — Dip  the  straw  in  a  solution 
of  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  saturated 
with  potash.  (Cxyerenated  muriate  of 
lime  is  much  cheaper.)  The  straw  is 
thus  rendered  very  white,  and  its  flexi- 
bility is  increased. 

II. — Straw  is  bleached  by  simply  ex- 
posing it  in  a  closed  chamber  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  An  old  flour 
barrel  is  the  apparatus  most  used  for  the 
purpose  by  milliners,  a  flat  stone  being 
laid  on  the  ground,  the  sulphur  ignited 
thereon,  and  the  barrel  containing  the 
goods  to  be  bleached  turned  over  it. 
The  goods  should  be  previously  washed 
in  pure  water. 

Wool,  Silk,   or  Straw.— Mix  together 

4  pounds  of  oxalic    acid,    4    pounds   of 
table  salt,  water  50  gallons.      The  goods 
are    laid    in    this    mixture    for    1    hour; 
they  are  then  generally   well   bleached, 
and  only  require  to  be  thoroughly  rinsed 
and  worked.      For  bleaching  straw  it  is 
best  to  soak  the  goods  in  caustic  soda, 
and  afterwards  to  make  use  of  chloride 
of  lime  or  Javelle  water.      The  excess  of 


BOILER   COMPOUNDS 


chlorine  is  afterwards  removed  by  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda. 

Feathers. — Place  the  feathers  from 
3  to  4  hours  in  a  tepid  dilute  solution 
of  bichromate  of  potassa,  to  which, 
cautiously,  some  nitric  acid  has  been 
added  (a  small  quantity  only).  To 
remove  a  greenish  hue  induced  by  this 
solution,  place  them  in  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid,  in  water,  whereby 
the  feathers  become  perfectly  white  and 
bleached. 

Bleaching  Solution. — Aluminum  hypo- 
chloride,  or  Wilson's  bleaching  liquid,  is 
produced  by  adding  to  a  clear  solution  of 
lime  chloride  a  solution  of  aluminum 
sulphate  (alumina,  alum)  as  long  as  a 
precipitate  keeps  forming.  By  mutual 
decomposition  aluminum  chloride  re- 
sults, which  remains  in  solution,  and 
lime  sulphate  (gypsum),  which  separates 
out  in  the  form  of  an  insoluble  salt. 

BLIGHT  REMEDIES. 

I. — Soft  soap 40  parts 

Amyl  alcohol 50  parts 

Methylated  spirit.        20  parts 
Water 1,000  parts 

II.— Soft  soap 30  parts 

Sulphureted     pot- 
ash            2  parts 

Amyl  alcohol 32  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

III. — Soft  soap 15  parts 

Sulphureted     pot- 
ash         29  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

BLEACHING    SOLUTIONS    FOR   THE 
LAUNDRY: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

BLEACHING  SOLUTION  FOR  PHOTO- 
GRAPHS: 

See  Photography. 

BLEEDING,  LOCAL: 

See  Styptics. 

BLISTER  CURE: 

See  Turpentine. 

BLISTERS,  FOR  HORSES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

BLOCK,  HOLLOW  CONCRETE 
BUILDING : 

See  Stone,  Artificial. 

BLOCK  FOR  SOLDERING: 

See  Soldering. 

BLOTTING  PAPER: 

See  Paper. 


BLUE  FROM  GREEN  AT  NIGHT,  TO 

DISTINGUISH : 

To  distinguish  blue  from  green  at 
night,  use  either  the  light  of  a  magnesium 
wire  for  this  purpose  or  take  a  number 
of  Swedish  (parlor)  matches,  light  them, 
and  as  soon  as  they  flash  up,  observe  the 
2  colors,  when  the  difference  can  be  easily 
told. 

BLUE  (BALL) : 
See  Dyes. 

BLUING: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

BLUING  OF  STEEL: 

See  Steel. 

BLUE  PRINTS,  TO  MAKE  CHANGES 
AND  CORRECTIONS  ON : 

Use  a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate 
and  water,  with  a  little  red  ink  mixed  in. 
This  gives  a  very  pleasing  pink  color  to 
the  changes  which,  at  the  same  time,  is 
very  noticeable.  The  amount  of  sodium 
carbonate  used  depends  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  blue-print  paper,  as  some 
coarse-grained  papers  will  look  better  if 
less  soda  is  used  and  vice  versa.  How- 
ever, the  amount  of  powdered  soda  held 
on  a  small  coin  dissolved  in  a  bottle  of 
water  gives  good  results. 

BLUE-PRINT  PAPER  MAKING: 

See  Photography. 

BLUE   PRINTS,  TO   TURN  BROWN: 

See  Photography,  under  Toning. 

BOIL  REMEDY. 

Take  a  piece  of  soft  linen  or  borated 
gauze,  rub  some  vaseline  upon  one  side 
of  it,  quickly  pour  upon  it  some  chloro- 
form, apply  it  to  the  unopened  boil  or 
carbuncle,  and  place  a  bandage  over  all. 
It  smarts  a  little  at  first,  but  this  is  soon 
succeeded  by  a  pleasing,  cool  sensation. 
The  patient  is  given  a  bottle  of  the  rem- 
edy, and  directed  to  change  the  cloth 
often.  In  from  2  hours  to  1  day  the 
boil  (no  matter  how  indurated)  softens 
and  opens. 


Boiler  Compounds 

There  are  three  chemicals  which  are 
known  to  attack  boiler  scale.  These  are 
caustic  soda,  soda  ash,  and  tannic-acid 
compounds,  the  last  being  derived  from 
sumac,  catechu,  and  the  exhausted  bark 
liquor  from  tanneries. 

Caustic  soda  in  large  excess  is  inju- 
rious to  boiler  fittings,  gaskets,  valves, 


BOILER   COMPOUNDS 


etc.  That  it  is  injurious,  in  reasonable 
excess,  to  the  boiler  tubes  themselves  is 
yet  to  be  proved.  Foaming  and  priming 
may  be  caused  through  excess  of  caustic 
soda  or  soda  ash,  as  is  well  known  by 
every  practical  engineer.  Tannic  acid 
is  to  be  condemned  and  the  use  of  its 
salts  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  may 
unite  with  the  organic  matter,  present  in 
the  form  of  albuminoids,  and  with  cal- 
cium and  magnesium  carbonates.  That 
it  removes  scale  is  an  assured  fact;  that 
it  removes  iron  with  the  scale  is  also 
assured,  as  tannic  acid  corrodes  an  iron 
surface  rapidly. 

Compounds  of  vegetable  origin  are 
widely  advertised,  but  they  often  contain 
dextrine  and  gum,  both  of  which  are 
dangerous,  as  they  coat  the  tubes  with  a 
compact  scale,  not  permitting  the  water 
to  reach  the  iron.  Molasses  is  acid  and 
should  not  be  used  in  the  boiler.  Starch 
substances  generally  should  be  avoided. 
Kerosene  must  be  dangerous,  as  it  is 
very  volatile  and  must  soon  leave  the 
boiler  and  pass  over  and  through  the 
engine. 

There  are  two  materials  the  use  of 
which  in  boilers  is  not  prohibited  through 
action  upon  the  metal  itself  or  on  ac- 
count of  price.  These  are  soda  ash  and 
caustic  soda.  Sodium  triphosphate  and 
sodium  fluoride  have  both  been  used  with 
success,  but  their  cost  is  several  hundred 
per  cent  greater  than  soda  ash.  If  pre- 
scribed as  per  analysis,  in  slight  excess, 
there  should  be  no  injurious  results 
through  the  use  of  caustic  soda  and  soda 
ash.  It  would  be  practicable  to  manu- 
facture an  intimate  mixture  of  caustic 
soda  and  carbonate  of  soda,  containing 
enough  of  each  to  soften  the  average 
water  of  a  given  district. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  fraud  in  con- 
nection with  boiler  compounds  gener- 
ally. The  better  class  of  venders  ad- 
vertise to  prepare  a  special  compound  for 
special  water.  This  is  expensive,  save  on 
a  large  scale,  in  reference  to  a  partic- 
ular water,  for  it  would  mean  a  score  or 
more  of  tanks  with  men  to  make  up  the 
mixtures.  The  less  honest  of  the  boiler- 
compound  guild  consign  each  sample  of 
water  to  the  sewer  and  send  the  regular 
goods.  Others  have  a  stock  analysis 
which  is  sent  to  customers  of  a  given 
locality,  whether  it  contains  iron,  lime, 
or  magnesium  sulphates  or  carbonates. 

Any  expense  for  softening  water  in 
excess  of  3  cents  per  1,000  gallons  is  for 
the  privilege  of  using  a  ready-made  soft- 
ener. Every  superintendent  in  charge 
of  a  plant  should  insist  that  the  com- 
pound used  be  pronounced  by  competent 


authority  free  from  injurious  materials, 
and  that  it  be  adapted  to  the  water  in 
use. 

Boiler  compounds  should  contain  only 
such  ingredients  as  will  neutralize  the 
scale-forming  salts  present.  They  should 
be  used  only  by  prescription,  so  many 
gallons  per  1,000  gallons  of  feed  water. 
A  properly  proportioned  mixture  of  soda 
ought  to  answer  the  demands  of  all  plants 
depending  upon  that  method  of  softening 
water  in  limestone  and  shale  regions. 

The  honest  boiler  compounds  are, 
however,  useful  for  small  isolated  plants, 
because  of  the  simplicity  of  their  action. 
For  plants  of  from  75  to  150  horse  power 
two  24-hour  settling  tanks  will  answer 
the  purpose  of  a  softening  system.  Each 
of  these,  capable  of  holding  a  day's  sup- 
ply, provided  with  a  soda  tank  in  com- 
mon, a,nd  with  sludge  valves,  has  pad- 
dles for  stirring  the  contents.  Large 
plants  are  operated  on  this  principle, 
serving  boilers  of  many  thousand  horse 
power.  Such  a  system  has  an  advan- 
tage over  a  continuous  system,  in  that 
the  exact  amount  of  chemical  solutions 
required  for  softening  the  particular 
water  can  be  applied.  For  some  varia- 
tions of  such  a  system,  several  companies 
have  secured  patents.  The  fundamen- 
tal principles,  nowever,  have  been  used 
for  many  years  and  are  not  patentable. 

Prevention  of  Boiler  Scale. — The  lime 
contained  in  the  feed  water,  either  as  bi- 
carbonate or  as  sulphate,  is  precipitated 
in  the  shape  of  a  light  mud,  but  the  walls 
of  the  boiler  remain  perfectly  bright 
without  being  attacked  in  any  manner. 
While  under  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure calcium  chromate  in  solution  is  pre- 
cipitated by  soda  or  Glauber's  salt  as 
calcium  carbonate  or  as  calcium  sul- 

Ehate;  the  latter  is  separated  under 
igher  pressure  by  chromates  as  calcium 
chromate.  An  excess  of  chromates  or 
chromic  acid  does  not  exercise  any  dele- 
terious action  upon  the  metal,  nor  upon 
the  materials  used  for  packing.  By  the 
slight  admixture  of  chromates,  two 
pounds  are  sufficient  for  a  small  boiler 
for  weeks;  no  injurious  ingredients  are 
carried  in  by  the  wet  steam,  the  injection 
water,  on  the  contrary,  having  been 
found  to  be  chemically  pure. 

Protecting  Boiler  Plates  from  Scale. — 
I. — For  a  5-horsc-power  boiler,  fed 
with  water  which  contains  calcic  sul- 
phate, take  catechu,  2  pounds;  dex- 
trine, 1  pound;  crystallized  soda,  2 
pounds;  potash,  £  pound;  cane  sugar,  £ 
pound;  alum,  J  pound;  gum  arabic,  £ 
pound. 


BOILER   COMPOUNDS 


II. — For  a  boiler  of  the  same  size,  fed 
with  water  which  contains  lime:  Tur- 
meric, 2  pounds;  dextrine,  1  pound;  so- 
dium bicarbonate,  2  pounds;  potash,  £ 
pound;  alum,  £  pound;  molasses,  | 
pound. 

III. — For  a  boiler  of  the  same  size,  fed 
with  water  which  contains  iron:  Gam- 
boge, 2  pounds;  soda,  2  pounds;  dex- 
trine, 1  pound;  potash,  V pound;  sugar, 
£  pound;  alum,  A  pound;  gum  arabic,  £ 
pound. 

IV. — For  a  boiler  of  the  same  size,  fed 
with  sea  water:  Catechu,  2  pounds; 
Glauber's  salt,  2  pounds;  dextrine,  2 
pounds;  alum,  £  pound;  gum  arabic,  £ 
pound. 

When  these  preparations  are  used  add 
1  quart  of  water,  and  in  ordinary  cases 
charge  the  boiler  every  month;  but  if  the 
incrustation  is  very  bad,  charge  every 
two  weeks. 

V. — Place  within  the  boiler  of  100 
horse  power  1  bucketful  of  washing  soda; 
put  in  2  gallons  of  kerosene  oil  (after 
closing  the  blow-off  cock),  and  fill  the 
boiler  with  water.  Feed  in  at  least  1 
quart  of  kerosene  oil  every  day  through  a 
sight-feed  oil  cup  attached  to  the  feed 

Eipe  near  the  boiler— i.  e.,  between  the 
eater  and  the  boiler — so  that  the  oil  is 
not  entrapped  within  the  heater.  If  it 
is  inconvenient  to  open  the  boiler,  then 
dissolve  the  washing  soda  in  hot  water 
and  feed  it  in  with  the  pump  or  through  a 
tallow  cock  (attached  between  the  eject- 
or and  the  valve  in  the  suction  pipe) 
when  the  ejector  is  working. 

VI. — A  paint  for  protecting  boiler  plates 
from  scale,  and  patented  in  Germany,  is 
composed  of  10  pounds  each  of  train  oil, 
horse  fat,  paraffine,  and  of  finely  ground 
zinc  white.  To  this  mixture  is  added  40 
pounds  of  graphite  and  10  pounds  of 
soot  made  together  into  a  paste  with 
1£  gallons  of  water,  and  about  a  pound 
of  carbolic  acid.  The  horse  fat  and  the 
zinc  oxide  make  a  soap  difficult  to  fuse, 
which  adheres  strongly  to  the  plates,  and 
binds  the  graphite  and  the  soot.  The 
paraffine  prevents  the  water  from  pene- 
trating the  coats.  The  scale  which  forms 
on  this  application  can  be  detached,  it  is 
said,  with  a  wooden  mallet,  without  in- 
juring the  paint. 

VII. — M.  E.  Asselin,  of  Paris,  recom- 
mends the  use  of  glycerine  as  a  preventive. 
It  increases  the  solubility  of  combinations 
of  lime,  and  especially  of  the  sulphate. 
It  forms  with  these  combinations  soluble 
compounds.  When  the  quantity  of  lime 
becomes  so  great  that  it  can  no  longer 
be  dissolved,  nor  form  soluble  combina- 
tions, it  is  deposited  in  a  gelatinous  sub- 


stance, which  never  adheres  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  iron  plates.  The  gelatinous 
substances  thus  formed  are  not  carried 
with  the  steam  into  the  cylinder  of  the 
engine.  M.  Asselin  advises  the  employ- 
ment of  1  pound  of  glycerine  for  every 
300  pounds  or  400  pounds  of  coal  burnt. 

Prevention  of  Electrolysis. — In  order 
to  prevent  the  eating  away  of  the  sheets 
and  tubes  by  electrolytic  action,  it  has 
long  been  the  practice  of  marine  engi- 
neers to  suspend  slabs  of  zinc  in  their 
boilers.  The  zinc,  being  more  suscepti- 
ble to  the  electrolytic  action  than  the 
iron,  is  eaten  away,  while  the  iron  re- 
mains unimpaired.  The  use  of  zinc  in 
this  way  has  been  found  also  to  reduce 
the  trouble  from  boiler  scale.  Whether 
it  be  due  to  the  formation  of  hydrogen 
bubbles  between  the  heating  surfaces 
and  incipient  scale,  to  the  presence  in  the 
water  of  the  zinc  salts  resulting  from  the 
dissolution  of  the  zinc,  or  to  whatever 
cause,  it  appears  to  be  a  general  conclu- 
sion among  those  who  have  used  it  that 
the  zinc  helps  the  scale,  as  well  as  the 
corrosion.  Nobody  has  ever  claimed 
for  it  that  it  prevented  the  attachment  of 
scale  altogether,  but  the  consensus  of 
opinion  is  that  it  "helps  some." 

BOILER  PRESSURE. 

It  hardly  pays  to  reduce  pressure  on 
boilers,  except  in  very  extreme  cases,  but 
if  it  can  be  done  by  throttling  before  the 
steam  reaches  the  cylinder  of  the  engine 
it  would  be  an  advantage,  because  this 
retains  the  heat  units  due  to  the  higher 
pressure  in  the  steam,  and  the  throttling 
has  a  slight  superheating  effect.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  tests  go  to  show  that  for 
light  loads  and  high  pressure  a  throt- 
tling engine  may  do  better  than  an  auto- 
matic cut-off.  The  ideal  arrangement 
is  to  throttle  the  steam  for  light  loads;  for 
heavier  loads,  allow  the  variable  cut-off 
to  come  into  play.  This  practice  has 
been  carried  into  effect  by  tne  design  of 
Mr.  E.  J.  Armstrong,  in  which  he  ar- 
ranges the  shaft  governor  so  that  there  is 
negative  lead  up  to  nearly  one-quarter 
cut-off,  after  which  the  lead  becomes 
positive,  and  this  has  the  effect  of  throt- 
tling the  steam  for  the  earlier  loads  and 
undoubtedly  gives  better  economy,  in 
addition  to  making  the  engine  run  more 
quietly. 

BONE  BLACK : 

Bone  or  Ivory  Black. — All  bones  (and 
ivory  is  bone  in  a  sense)  consist  of  a 
framework  of  crystallized  matter  or 
bone  earth,  in  the  interstices  of  which 
organic  matter  is  embedded.  Hence  if 


BONE   BLACK 


bones  are  heated  red-hot  in  a  closed 
vessel,  the  organic  matter  is  destroyed, 
leaving  carbon,  in  a  finely  divided  state, 
lodged  in  the  bony  framework.  If  the 
heat  is  applied  gradually  the  bone  re- 
tains its  shape,  but  is  quite  black  and  of 
much  less  weight  than  at  first.  This 
bone  black  or  animal  charcoal  is  a  sub- 
stance which  has  great  power  of  absorb- 
ing coloring  matter  from  liquids,  so  that 
it  is  largely  used  for  bleaching  such  liquids. 
For  example,  in  the  vast  industry  of  beet- 
sugar  manufacture  the  solutions  first 
made  are  very  dark  in  color,  but  after  fil- 
tration through  animal  charcoal  will  give 
colorless  crystals  on  evaporation.  Chem- 
ical trades  require  such  large  quantities 
of  bone  charcoal  that  its  production  is 
a  large  industry  in  itself.  As  in  breaking 
up  the  charred  bones  a  considerable 
amount  of  waste  is  produced,  in  the  form 
of  dust  and  small  grains  which  cannot  be 
used  for  bleaching  purposes,  this  waste 
should  be  worked  up  into  a  pigment. 
This  is  done  by  dissolving  out  the  mineral 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  rinsing 
and  drying  the  carbon. 

The  mineral  basis  of  bones  consists 
mainly  of  the  phosphates  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  salts  soluble  in  not  too  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid.  A  vat  is  half  filled 
with  the  above-mentioned  waste,  which 
is  then  just  covered  with  a  mixture  of 
equal  volumes  of  commercial  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  water.  As  the  mineral 
matter  also  contains  carbonates,  a  lively 
effervescence  at  once  ensues,  and  small 
quantities  of  hydrofluoric  acid  are  also 
formed  from  the  decomposition  of  cal- 
cium fluoride  in  the  bones.  Now  hydro- 
fluoric acid  is  a  very  dangerous  sub- 
stance, as  air  containing  even  traces  of  it 
is  very  injurious  to  the  lungs.  Hence  the 
addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  should  be 
done  in  the  open  air,  and  the  vat  should 
be  left  by  itself  until  the  evolution  of 
fumes  ceases.  A  plug  is  then  pulled  out 
at  the  bottom  and  the  carbon  is  thor- 
oughly drained.  It  is  then  stirred  up 
with  water  and  again  drained,  when  it 
has  fully  settled  to  the  bottom.  This 
rinsing  with  clear  water  is  repeated  till  all 
the  hydrochloric  acid  is  washed  away 
and  only  pure  carbon  remains  in  the  vat. 
As  for  pigment-making  purposes  it  is 
essential  that  the  carbon  should  be  as 
finely  divided  as  possible,  it  is  as  well  to 
grind  the  washed  carbon  in  an  ordinary 
color  mill.  Very  little  power  is  required 
for  this  purpose,  as  when  once  the  bone 
earth  is  removed  the  carbon  particles 
have  little  cohesion.  The  properly 
ground  mass  forms  a  deep-black  mud, 
which  can  be  left  to  dry  or  be  dried  by 


artificial  heat.  When  dry,  the  purified 
bone  black  is  of  a  pure  black  and  makes 
a  most  excellent  pigment. 

Bone  black  is  put  upon  the  market 
under  all  sorts  of  names,  such  as  ivory 
black,  ebur  ustum,  Frankfort  black,  neu- 
tral black,  etc.  All  these  consist  of 
finely  ground  bone  black  purified  from 
mineral  matter.  If  leather  scraps  or 
dried  blood  are  to  be  worked  up,  iron 
tubes  are  employed,  closed  at  one  end, 
and  with  a  well-fitting  lid  with  a  small 
hole  in  it  at  the  other.  As  these  bodies 
give  off  large  volumes  of  combustible 
gas  during  the  charring,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  lead  the  vapors  from  the  hole  by  a 
bent  tube  so  that  they  can  be  burnt  and 
help  to  supply  the  heat  required  and  so 
save  fuel.  Leather  or  blood  gives  a  char- 
coal which  hardly  requires  treatment 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  for  the  amount 
of  mineral  salts  present  is  so  small  that 
its  removal  appears  superfluous. 

BONES,  A  TEST  FOR  BROKEN. 

Place  a  stethoscope  on  one  side  of  the 
supposed  fracture,  and  a  tuning  fork  on 
the  other.  When  the  latter  is  vibrated, 
and  there  is  no  breakage,  the  sound  will 
be  heard  distinctly  through  bone  and 
stethoscope.  Should  any  doubt  exist, 
comparison  should  be  made  with  the 
same  bone  on  the  other  side  of  the  body. 
This  test  shows  the  difference  in  the 
power  of  conducting  sound  possessed  by 
bone  and  soft  tissue. 

BONE  BLEACHES: 

See  Ivory. 

BONE  FAT: 

See  Fats. 

BONE     FAT,     PURIFICATION     AND 
BLEACHING  OF: 

See  Soap. 

BONE  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

BONE  FERTILIZERS: 

See  Fertilizers. 

BONES,  TREATMENT  OF,  IN  MANU- 
FACTURING GLUE: 

See  Adhesives. 

BONE,  UNITING  GLASS  WITH: 

See  Adhesives. 

BOOKS,     THEIR     HANDLING     AND 

PRESERVATION : 

The  Preservation  of  Books  in  Hot 
Climates. — Books  in  hot  climates  quickly 
deteriorate  unless  carefully  guarded. 
There  are  three  destructive  agencies: 
(1)  damp,  (2)  a  small  black  insect,  (3) 
cockroaches. 


BOOKS 


125 


(1)  Books  which  are  kept  in  a  damp 
atmosphere    deteriorate    on    account    of 
molds  and  fungi  that  grow  rapidly  when 
the    conditions    are    favorable.      Books 
are  best  kept  on  open,  airy,  well-lighted 
shelves.      When  there  has   been  a   pro- 
longed spell  of  moist  weather  their  covers 
should   be   wiped,   and   they  should   be 
placed  in  the  sun  or  before  a  fire  for  a 
few  hours.      Damp  also  causes  the  bind- 
ings and  leaves  of  some  books  to  sep- 
arate. 

(2)  A  small  black  insect,  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  long  and  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch 
broad,  somewhat  resembling  a  beetle,  is 
very    destructive,    and    books    will    be 
found,    if   left    untouched,    after   a    few 
months  to  have  numerous  holes  in  the 
covers  and  leaves.     If  this  insect  be  al- 
lowed plenty  of  time  for  its  ravages  it 
will  make  so  many  holej  that  bindings 
originally  strong  can  be  easily  torn  to 
pieces.     All  damage  may  be  prevented 
by  coating  the  covers  of  books  with  the 
varnish     described     under     (3).      When 
books  are  found  to  Contain  the  insects 
they  should  be  well  wrapped  and  placed 
in  the  sun  before  varnishing. 

(3)  The  appearance  of  a  fine  binding 
may  be  destroyed  in  a  single  night  by 
cockroaches.     The  lettering  of  the  bind- 
ing may,  in  two  or  three  days,  be  com- 
pletely obliterated. 

The  following  varnishes  have  been  found 
to  prevent  effectually  the  ravages  of 
cockroaches  and  of  all  insects  that  feed 
upon  books: 

I. — Dammar  resin 2    ounces 

Mastic 2    ounces 

Canada  balsam 1     ounce 

Creosote $  ounce 

Spirit  of  wine 20    fl.  ounces 

Macerate  with  occasional  shaking  for 
a  few  days  if  wanted  at  once,  but  for  a 
longer  time  when  possible,  as  a  better 
varnish  will  result  after  a  maceration  of 
several  months. 

II. — Corrosive  sublimate,  1  ounce;  car- 
bolic acid,  1  ounce;  methylated  or  rum 
spirit,  1  quart. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  books  or 
paper  of  any  description  in  boxes,  cup- 
boards, or  closed  bookcases,  some  naph- 
thalene balls  or  camphor  should  be  al- 
ways present  with  them.  If  camphor 
be  used  it  is  best  to  wrap  it  in  paper, 
otherwise  it  volatilizes  more  quickly  than 
is  necessary.  In  dry  weather  the  doors 
of  closed  bookcases  should  be  left  open 
occasionally,  as  a  damp,  still  atmosphere 
is  most  favorable  for  deterioration. 

How  to  Open  a  Book.— Never  force  the 
back  of  the  book.  Hold  the  book  with 


its  back  on  a  smooth  or  covered  table; 
let  the  front  board  down,  then  the  other, 
holding  the  leaves  in  one  hand  while  you 
open  a  few  leaves  at  the  back,  then  a  few 
at  the  front,  and  so  on,  alternately  open- 
ing back  and  front,  gently  pressing  open 
the  sections  till  you  reach  the  center  of 
the  volume.  Do  this  two  or  three  times 
and  you  will  obtain  the  best  results. 
Open  the  volume  violently  or  carelessly 
in  any  one  place  and  you  will  probably 
break  the  back  or  cause  a  start  in  the 
leaves. 

BOOK  DISINFECTANT: 

See  Disinfectants. 

BOOKS,  TO  REMOVE  FINGER-MARKS 
FROM: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

BOOKBINDERS'  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

BOOKWORMS : 

See  Insecticides. 

BOOT  DRESSINGS: 

See  Shoe  Dressings. 

BOOT  LUBRICANT: 
See  Lubricant. 

BOOTS,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

BORAX  FOR  SPRINKLING. 

I.  —  Sprinkling  borax  is  not  only 
cheaper,  but  also  dissolves  less  in  solder- 
ing than  pure  borax. 

The  borax  is  heated  in  a  metal  vessel 
until  it  has  lost  its  water  of  crystallization 
and  mixed  with  calcined  cooking  salt 
and  potash — borax,  8  parts;  cooking 
salt,  3  parts;  potash,  3  parts.  Next  i; 
is  pounded  in  a  mortar  into  a  fine  pow- 
der, constituting  the  sprinkling  borax. 

II. — Another  kind  of  sprinkling  borax 
is  prepared  by  substituting  glass-gall  for 
the  potash.  Glass-gall  is  the  froth  float- 
ing on  the  melted  glass,  which  can  be 
skimmed  off. 

The  borax  is  either  dusted  on  in  pow- 
der form  from  a  sprinkling  box  or 
stirred  with  water  before  use  into  a  thin 
paste. 

BORAX  AND  BORIC  ACID  IN  FOOD : 

See  Food. 

BORDEAUX  MIXTURE: 

See  Insecticides. 

BOROTONIC : 

See  Dentifrices. 


126 


BOTTLES 


BOTTLE-CAP  LACQUER: 

See  Lacquer. 

BOTTLE  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

BOTTLE  STOPPERS: 

See  Stoppers. 

BOTTLE  VARNISH: 
See  Varnishes. 

BOTTLE  WAX: 

See  Photography. 

BOUILLON : 

See  Beverages. 

BOURBON  METALS: 

See  Alloys. 

BOWLS  OF  FIRE  TRICK: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

BOX  GLUE: 

See  Adhesives. 

BRAGA: 

See  Beverages. 

BRAN,  SAWDUST  IN. 

For  the  detection  of  sawdust  in  bran 
use  a  solution  of  1  part  of  phloroglucin 
in  15  parts  of  alcohol,  15  parts  of  water, 
and  10  parts  of  syrupy  phosphoric  acid. 
Place  2  parts  of  the  solution  in  a  small 
porcelain  dish,  add  a  knifepointful  of 
the  bran  and  heat  moderately.  Saw- 
dust is  dyed  red  while  bran  parts  only 
seldom  acquire  a  faint  red  color.  By  a 
microscopic  examination  of  the  reddish 
parts,  sawdust  will  be  readily  recognized. 


Bottles 

Magic  Bottles. — 

The  mystery  of  the  "wonderful  bot- 
tle," from  which  can  be  poured  in  suc- 
cession port  wine,  sherry,  claret,  water, 
champagne,  or  ink,  at  the  will  of  the  op- 
erator, is  easily  explained.  The  mate- 
rials consist  of  an  ordinary  dark-colored 
pint  wine  bottle,  seven  wine  glasses 
of  different  patterns,  and  the  chemicals 
described  below: 

Solution  A:  A  mixture  of  tincture  of 
ferric  chloride,  drachms  vi;  hydro- 
chloric acid,  drachms  ii. 

Solution  B:  Saturated  solution  of  am- 
monium sulphocyanide,  drachm  i. 

Solution  C:  Strong  solution  of  ferric 
chloride,  drachm  i. 

Solution  D:  A  weak  solution  of  am- 
monium sulphocyanide. 

Solution  E:  Concentrated  solution  of 
lead  acetate. 


Solution  F:  Solution  of  ammonium 
sulphide,  drachm  i;  or  pyrogallic  acid, 
drachm  i. 

Package  G:  Pulverized  potassium  bi- 
carbonate, drachm  iss. 

Having  poured  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
solution  A  into  the  wine  bottle,  treat  the 
wine  glasses  with  the  different  solutions, 
noting  and  remembering  into  which 

? lasses  the  several  solutions  are  placed, 
nto  No.  1  wine  glass  pour  one  or  two 
drops  of  solution  B;  into  No.  2  glass 
pour  one  or  two  drops  of  solution  C;  into 
No.  3  one  or  two  drops  of  Solution  D; 
leave  No.  4  glass  empty;  into  No.  5  glass 
pour  a  few  drops  of  Solution  E;  into  No. 
6  glass  place  a  few  grains  of  Package  G; 
into  No.  7  glass  pour  a  little  of  solution  F. 
Request  some  one  to  bring  you  some 
cold  drinking  water,  and  to  guarantee 
that  it  is  pure  show  that  your  wine  bot- 
tle is  (practically)  empty.  Fill  it  up 
from  the  carafe,  and  having  asked  the 
audience  whether  you  shall  produce  wine 
or  water,  milk  or  ink,  etc.,  you  may  ob- 
tain any  of  these  by  pouring  a  little  of 
the  water  from  the  bottle  into  the  pre- 
pared glass.  Thus  No.  1  glass  gives  a 
port-wine  color;  No.  2  gives  a  sherry 
color;  No.  3  gives  a  claret  color;  No.  4  is 
left  empty  to  prove  that  the  solution  in 
the  bottle  is  colorless;  No.  5  produces 
milk;  No.  6,  effervescing  champagne: 
No.  7,  ink. 

Bottle-Capping  Mixtures. — 
I. — Soak  7  pounds  of  good  gelatin  in 
10  ounces  of  glycerine  and  60  ounces  of 
water,  and  heat  over  a  water  bath  until 
dissolved,  and  add  any  desired  color. 
Pigments  may  be  used,  and  various  tints 
can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  aniline 
colors.  The  resulting  compound  should 
be  stored  in  jars.  To  apply  liquefy  the 
mass  and  dip  the  cork  and  portion  of 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  into  the  liquid;  it 
sets  very  quickly. 

II. — Gelatin... 1  ounce 

Gum  arabic 1  ounce 

Boric  acid 20  grains 

Starch 1  ounce 

Water 16  fluidounces 

Mix  the  gelatin,  gum  arabic,  and 
boric  acid  with  14  fluidounces  of  cold 
water,  stir  occasionally  until  the  gum  is 
dissolved,  heat  the  mixture  to  boiling, 
remove  the  scum,  and  strain.  Also  mix 
the  starch  intimately  with  the  remainder 
of  the  water,  and  stir  this  mixture  into 
the  hot  gelatin  mixture  until  a  uniform 
product  results.  As  noted  above,  the 
composition  may  be  tinted  with  any  suit- 
able dye.  Before  using,  it  must  be  soft- 
ened by  the  application  of  heat. 


BRASS 


'127 


III.— Shellac .. .      3    ounces 

Venice  turpentine     14  ounces 

Boric  acid 72    grains 

Powdered  talcum.     3    ounces 

Ether 6    fluidrams 

Alcohol 12^  fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  shellac,  turpentine,  and 
boric  acid  in  the  mixed  alcohol  and  ether, 
color  with  a  spirit-soluble  dye,  and  add 
the  talcum.  During  use  the  mixture 
must  be  agitated  frequently. 

Show  Bottles.— 

I. — Place  in  a  cylindrical  bottle  the 
following  liquids  in  the  order  named: 

First,  sulphuric  acid,  tinted  blue  with 
indigo;  second,  chloroform;  third,  glyc- 
erine, slightly  tinted  with  caramel; 
fourth,  castor  oil,  colored  with  alkanet 
root;  fifth,  40-per-cent  alcohol,  slightly 
tinted  with  aniline  green;  sixth,  cod- 
liver  oil,  containing  1  per  cent  of  oil  of 
turpentine.  The  liquids  are  held  in 
place  by  force  of  gravity,  and  alternate 
with  fluids  which  are  not  miscible,  so 
that  the  strata  of  layers  are  clearly  de- 
fined and  do  not  mingle  by  diffusion. 

II. — Chromic  acid 1  drachm 

Commercial    "muri- 
atic" acid 2  ounces 

Nitric  acid 2  ounces 

Water,     enough     to 

make 3  gallons 

The  color  is  magenta. 
The  following  makes  a  fine  pink  for 
show  carboys: 

III.— Cobalt  oxide 2  parts 

Nitric  acid,  c.  p 1  part 

Hydrochloric  acid.. ..    1  part 
Mix  and  dissolve,  and  to  the  solution 
add: 

Strongest     water     of 

ammonia. . 6  parts 

Sulphuric  acid 1  part 

Water,  distilled,  q.  s. 

to  make 400  parts 

This  should  be  left  standing  in  a  dark, 
cool  place  for  at  least  a  month  before  put- 
ting in  the  window. 

IV. — Green. — Copper  sulphate,  300 
parts,  by  weight;  hydrochloric  acid,  450 
parts,  by  weight;  distilled  water,  to  4,500 
parts,  by  weight. 

V.— Blue.— Copper  sulphate,  480  parts, 
by  weight;  sulphuric  acid,  60  parts,  by 
weight;  distilled  water,  to  450  parts,  by 
weight. 

VI.  —  Yellowish  Brown.  —  Potassium 
dichromate,  120  parts,  by  weight;  nitric 
acid,  150  parts,  by  weight;  distilled  wa- 
ter, to  4,500  parts,  by  weight. 

VII. — Yellow. — Potassium  dichromate, 
30  parts,  by  weight;  sodium  bicarbon- 


ate, 225  parts,  by  weight;  distilled  water, 
to  4,500  parts,  by  weight. 

VIII. — Red. — Liquid  ferric  chloride, 
officinal,  60  parts,  by  weight:  co:  cen- 
trated  ammonium-acetate  solution,  120 
parts,  by  weight;  acetic  acid,  30  per 
cent,  30  parts,  by  weight;  distilled  water, 
to  9,000  parts,  by  weight. 

IX. — Crimson. — Potassium  iodide,  7.5 
parts,  by  weight;  iodine,  7.5  parts,  by 
weight;  hydrochloric  acid,  60  parts,  by 
weight;  distilled  water,  to  4,500  parts, 
by  weight. 

All  the  solutions  IV  to  IX  should  be 
filtered.  If  distilled  water  be  used  these 
solutions  should  keep  for  five  to  ten  years. 
In  order  to  prevent  them  from  freezing, 
either  add  10  per  cent  of  alcohol,  or  re- 
duce the  quantity  of  water  by  10  per  cent. 

A  Cheap  and  Excellent  Warming 
Bottle. — Mix  sodium  acetate  and  sodium 
hyposulphate  in  the  proportion  of  1  part 
of  the  former  to  9  parts  of  the  latter,  and 
with  the  mixture  fill  an  earthenware  bottle 
about  three-quarters  full.  Close  the  ves- 
sel well  with  a  cork  and  place  it  either 
in  hot  water  or  in  the  oven,  and  let  re- 
main until  the  salts  within  melt.  For 
at  least  a  half  day  the  jug  will  radiate  its 
heat,  and  need  only  be  well  shaken  from 
time  to  time  to  renew  its  heat-giving 
energy. 

Bottle  Deodorizer.  —  Powdered  '  black 
mustard  seed  is  successfully  employed. 
Pour  a  little  of  it  with  some  lukewarm 
water  into  the  receptacle,  rinsing  it  after- 
wards with  water.  If  necessary,  repeat 
the  process. 

BRANDY  AND  BRANDY  BITTERS 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


Brass 

Formulas  for  the  making  of  Brass  will  be 
found  under  Alloys. 

Colors  for  Polished  Brass. — The  brass 
objects  are  put  into  boiling  solutions 
composed  of  different  salts,  and  the  in- 
tensity of  the  shade  obtained  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  duration  of  the  immersion. 
WTith  a  solution  composed  of 

Sulphate  of  copper.  . .    120  grains 

Hydrochlorate  of  am- 
monia        30  grains 

Water 1  quart 

greenish  shades  are  obtained.  With  the 
following  solution  all  the  shades  of  brown 
from  orange  brown  to  cinnamon  are  ob- 
tained: 


128 


BRASS 


Chlorate  of  potash .  .  .    150  grains 
Sulphate  of  copper.  .  .    150  grains 

Water 1  quart 

The  following  solution  gives  the  brass 
first  a  rosy  tint  and  then  colors  it  violet 
and  blue: 

Sulphate  of  copper.  .  .    435  grains 
Hyposulphite  of  soda  300  grains 

Cream  of  tartar 150  grains 

Water 1  pint 

Upon  adding  to  the  last  solution 
Ammoniacal  sulphate 

of  iron 300  grains 

Hyposulphite  of  soda  300  grains 
there  are  obtained,  according  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  immersion,  yellowish,  orange, 
rosy,  then  bluish  shades.  Upon  polar- 
izing the  ebullition  the  blue  tint  gives 
way  to  yellow,  and  finally  to  a  pretty 
gray.  Silver,  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, becomes  very  beautifully  col- 
ored. After  a  long  ebullition  in  the 
following  solution  we  obtain  a  yellow- 
brown  shade,  and  then  a  remarkable  fire 
red: 

Chlorate  of  potash ...    75  grains 
Carbonate  of  nickel .  .    30  grains 

Salt  of  nickel 75  grains 

Water 16  ounces 

The  following  solution  gives  a  beau- 
tiful, dark-brown  color: 

Chlorate  of  potash  .  .      75  grains 

Salt  of  nickel 150  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

The  following  gives,  in  the  first  place; 
a  red,  which  passes  to  blue,  then  to  pale 
lilac,  and  finally  to  white: 

Orpiment. 75  grains 

Crystallized  sal  sodae  150  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

The  following  gives  a  yellow  brown: 

Salt  of  nickel 75  grains 

Sulphate  of  copper.  .      75  grains 
Chlorate  of  potash  .  .      75  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

On  mixing  the  following  solutions, 
sulphur  separates  and  the  brass  becomes 
covered  with  iridescent  crystallizations: 

I. — Cream  of  tartar 75  grains 

Sulphate  of  copper.  .      75  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

II. — Hyposulphite  of  soda  225  grains 

Water 5  ounces 

Upon   leaving   the   brass   objects   im- 
mersed   in   the   following   mixture   con- 
tained in  corked   vessels  they  at  length 
acquire  a  very  beautiful  blue  color: 
Hepar  of  sulphur  ....    15  grains 

Ammonia 75  grains 

Water 4  ounces 


Miscellaneous  Coloring  of  Brass. — 
Yellow  to  bright  red:  Dissolve  2  parts 
native  copper  carbonate  with  1  part 
caustic  soda  in  10  parts  water.  Dip  for 
a  few  minutes  into  the  liquor,  the  va- 
rious shades  desired  being  obtained 
according  to  the  length  of  time  of  the 
immersion.  Green:  Dissolve  1  part  cop- 
per acetate  (verdigris),  1  part  blue 
vitriol,  and  1  part  alum  in  10  parts  of 
water  and  boil  the  articles  therein. 
Black:  For  optical  articles,  photographic 
apparatus,  plates,  rings,  screws,  etc., 
dissolve  45  parts  of  malachite  (native 
copper  carbonate)  in  1,000  parts  of  sal 
ammoniac.  For  use  clean  and  remove 
the  grease  from  the  article  by  pickling 
and  dip  it  into  the  bath  until  the  coating 
is  strong  enough.  The  bath  operates 
better  and  quicker  if  heated.  Should 
the  oxidation  be  a  failure  it  should  be 
removed  by  dipping  into  the  brass 
pickle. 

A  verdigris  color  on  brass  is  produced 
by  treating  the  articles  with  dilute  acids, 
acetic  acid,  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  drying. 

Brown  in  all  varieties  of  shades  is  ob- 
tained by  immersing  the  metal  in  solu- 
tions of  nitrates  or  ferric  chloride  after 
it  has  been  corroded  with  dilute  nitric 
acid,  cleaned  with  sand  and  water,  and 
dried.  The  strength  of  the  solutions 
governs  the  deepness  of  the  resulting 
color. 

Violet  is  caused  by  immersing  the  thor- 
oughly cleaned  objects  in  a  solution  of 
ammonium  chloride. 

Chocolate  color  results  if  red  ferric 
oxide  is  strewn  on  and  burned  off,  fol- 
lowed by  polishing  with  a  small  quantity 
of  galena. 

Olive  green  is  produced  by  blacken- 
ing the  surface  with  a  solution  of  iron  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  polishing  with  galena, 
and  coating  hot  with  a  lacquer  composed 
of  1  part  varnish,  4  parts  cincuma,  and  1 
part  gamboge. 

A  steel-blue  coloring  is  obtained  by 
means  of  a  dilute  boiling  solution  of 
chloride  of  arsenic,  and  a  blue  one  by  a 
treatment  with  strong  hyposulphite  of 
soda.  Another  formula  for  bluing 
brass  is:  Dissolve  10  parts  of  antimony 
chloride  in  200  parts  of  water,  and  add  30 
parts  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid.  Dip  the 
article  until  it  is  well  blued,  then  wash 
and  dry  in  sawdust. 

Black  is  much  used  for  optical  brass 
articles  and  is  produced  by  coating  with 
a  solution  of  platinum  or  auric  chloride 
mixed  with  nitrate  of  tin. 

Coloring  Unpolished  Brass. — A  yellow 
color  of  handsome  effect  is  obtained  on 


BRASS 


129 


unpolished  brass  by  means  of  antimony- 
chloride  solution.  This  is  produced  by 
finely  powdering  gray  antimony  and  boil- 
ing it  with  hydrochloric  acid.  With 
formation  of  hydrogen  sulphide  a  solu- 
tion of  antimony  results,  which  must  not 
be  diluted  with  water,  since  a  white  pre- 
cipitate of  antimony  oxychloride  is  im- 
mediately formed  upon  admixture  of 
water.  For  dilution,  completely  satu- 
rated cooking-salt  solution  is  employed, 
using  for  1  part  of  antimony  chloride  2 
parts  of  salt  solution. 

Coloring  Fluid  for  Brass. — Caustic 
soda,  33  parts;  water,  24  parts;  hydraled 
carbonate  of  copper,  5.5  parts. 

Dissolve  the  salt  in  water  and  dip  the 
metal  in  the  solution  obtained.  The  in- 
tensity of  the  color  will  be  proportional 
to  the  time  of  immersion.  After  remov- 
ing the  object  from  the  liquid,  rinse  with 
water  and  dry  in  sawdust. 

Black  Color  on  Brass. — A  black  or  ox- 
idized surface  on  brass  is  produced  by  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  copper  in  am- 
monia. The  work  is  immersed  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  until  the  required  tint 
is  observed.  The  carbonate  of  copper  is 
best  used  in  a  plastic  condition,  as  it  is 
then  much  more  easily  dissolved.  Plas- 
tic carbonate  of  copper  may  be  .mixed  as 
follows:  Make  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol 
(sulphate  of  copper)  in  hot  water,  and 
add  a  strong  solution  of  common  washing 
soda  to  it  as  long  as  any  precipitate 
forms.  The  precipitate  is  allowed  to 
settle,  and  the  clear  liquid  is  poured  off. 
Hot  water  is  added,  and  the  mass  stirred 
and  again  allowed  to  settle.  This  oper- 
ation is  repeated  six  or  eight  times  to  re- 
move the  impurities.  After  the  water 
has  been  removed  during  the  last  pour- 
ing, and  nothing  is  left  but  an  emulsion 
of  the  thick  plastic  carbonate  in  a  small 
quantity  of  water,  liquid  ammonia  is 
added  until  everything  is  dissolved  and  a 
clear,  deep-blue  liquid  is  produced.  If 
too  strong,  water  may  be  added,  but  a 
strong  solution  is  better  than  a  weak  one. 
If  it  is  desired  to  make  the  solution  from 
commercial  plastic  carbonate  of  copper 
the  following  directions  may  be  followed: 
Dissolve  1  pound  of  the  plastic  carbonate 
of  copper  in  2  gallons  of  strong  ammonia. 
This  gives  the  required  strength  of  so- 
lution. 

The  brass  which  it  is  desired  to  black- 
en is  first  boiled  in  a  strong  potash  solu- 
tion to  remove  grease  and  oil,  then  well 
rinsed  and  dipped  in  the  copper  solution, 
which  has  previously  been  heated  to 
from  150°  to  175°  F.  This  solution,  if 
heated  too  hot,  gives  off  all  the  ammonia. 


The  brass  is  left  in  the  solution  until  the 
required  tint  is  produced.  The  color 
produced  is  uniform,  black,  and  tena- 
cious. The  brass  is  rinsed  and  dried  in 
sawdust.  A  great  variety  of  effects  may 
be  produced  by  first  finishing  the  brass 
before  blackening,  as  the  oxidizing  proc- 
ess does  not  injure  the  texture  of  the 
metal.  A  satisfactory  finish  is  produced 
by  first  rendering  the  surface  of  the 
brass  matt,  either  by  scratch-brush  or 
similar  methods,  as  the  black  finish  thus 
produced  by  the  copper  solution  is  dead 
— one  of  the  most  pleasing  effects  of  an 
oxidized  surface.  Various  effects  may  also 
be  produced  by  coloring  the  entire  article 
and  then  buffing  the  exposed  portions. 

The  best  results  in  the  use  of  this  so- 
lution are  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  so- 
called  red  metals — i.  e.,  those  in  which 
the  copper  predominates.  The  reason 
for  this  is  obvious.  Ordinary  sheet  brass 
consists  of  about  2  parts  of  copper  and  1 
part  of  zinc,  so  that  the  large  quantity  of 
the  latter  somewhat  hinders  the  produc- 
tion of  a  deep-black  surface.  Yellow 
brass  is  colored  black  by  the  solution, 
but  it  is  well  to  use  some  metal  having  a 
reddish  tint,  indicating  the  presence  of  a 
large  amount  of  copper.  The  varieties 
of  sheet  brass  known  as  gilding  or  bronze 
work  well.  Copper  also  gives  excellent 
results.  Where  the  best  results  are  de- 
sired on  yellow  brass  a  very  light  electro- 
plate of  copper  before  the  oxidizing 
works  well  and  gives  an  excellent  black. 
With  the  usual  articles  made  of  yellow 
brass  this  is  rarely  done,  but  the  oxida- 
tion carried  out  directly. 

Black  Finish  for  Brass. — I. — A  hand- 
some black  finish  may  be  put  on  brass 
by  the  following  process:  Dissolve  in 
1,000  parts  of  ammonia  water  45  parts  of 
natural  malachite,  and  in  the  solution  put 
the  object  to  be  blackened,  after  first 
having  carefully  and  thoroughly  cleaned 
the  same.  After  letting  it  stand  a  short 
time  gradually  warm  the  mixture,  ex- 
amining the  article  from  time  to  time 
to  ascertain  if  the  color  is  deep  enough. 
Rinse  and  let  dry. 

II. — The  blacking  of  brass  may  be 
accomplished  by  immersing  it  in  the  fol- 
lowing solution  and  then  heating  over 
a  Bunsen  burner  or  a  spirit  flame: 
Add  a  saturated  solution  of  ammo- 
nium carbonate  to  a  saturated  copper- 
sulphate  solution,  until  the  precipitate 
resulting  in  the  beginning  has  almost  en- 
tirely dissolved.  The  immersion  and 
heating  are  repeated  until  the  brass 
turns  dark;  then  it  is  brushed  and  dipped 
in  negative  varnish  or  dull  varnish. 


130 


BRASS 


To  Give  a  Brown  Color  to  Brass. — I. — 
In  1.000  parts  oi  rain  or  distilled  water 
dissolve  5  parts  each  of  verdigris  (copper 
acetate)  and  ammonium  chloride.  Let 
the  solution  stand  4  hours,  then  add  1,500 
parts  of  water.  Remove  the  brass  to  be 
Drowned  from  its  attachment  to  the  fix- 
tures and  make  the  surface  perfectly 
bright  and  smooth  and  free  from  grease. 
Place  it  over  a  charcoal  fire  and  heat  un- 
til it  "sizzes"  when  touched  with  the 
dampened  finger.  The  solution  is  then 
painted  over  the  surface  with  a  brush  or 
,  swabbed  on  with  a  rag.  If  one  swab- 
bing does  not  produce  a  sufficient  depth 
of  color,  repeat  the  heating  and  the  ap- 
plication of  the  liquid  until  a  fine  durable 
brown  is  produced.  For  door  plates, 
knobs,  and  ornamental  fixtures  gener- 
ally, this  is  one  of  the  handsomest  as  well 
as  the  most  durable  surfaces,  and  is 
easily  applied. 

II. — A  very  handsome  brown  may  be 
produced  on  brass  castings  by  immersing 
the  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried  articles 
in  a  warm  solution  of  15  parts  of  sodium 
hydrate  and  5  parts  of  cupric  carbonate 
in  100  parts  of  water.  The  metal  turns 
dark  yellow,  light  brown,  and  finally 
dark  brown,  with  a  greenish  shimmer, 
and,  when  the  desired  shade  is  reached, 
is  taken  out  of  the  bath,  rinsed,  and  dried. 

III. — Paint  the  cleaned  and  dried  sur- 
face uniformly  with  a  dilute  solution  of 
ammonium  sulphide.  When  this  coat- 
ing is  dry,  it  is  rubbed  over,  and  then 
painted  with  a  dilute  ammoniacal  so- 
lution of  arsenic  sulphide,  until  the 
required  depth  of  color  is  attained. 
If  the  results  are  not  satisfactory  the 
painting  can  be  repeated  after  washing 
over  with  ammonia.  Prolonged  im- 
mersion in  the  second  solution  produces 
a  grayish-green  film,  which  looks  well, 
and  acquires  luster  when  polished  with 
a  cloth. 

Refinishing  Gas  Fixtures. — Gas  fix- 
tures which  have  become  dirty  or  tar- 
nished from  use  may  be  improved  in  ap- 
pearance by  painting  with  bronze  paint 
and  then,  if  a  still  better  finish  is  re- 
quired, varnishing  after  the  paint  is 
thoroughly  dry  with  some  light-colored 
varnish  that  will  give  a  hard  and  brilliant 
coating. 

If  the  bronze  paint  is  made  up  with 
ordinary  varnish  it  is  liable  to  become 
discolored  from  acid  which  may  be  pres- 
ent in  the  varnish.  One  method  pro- 
posed tor  obviating  this  is  to  mix  the 
varnish  with  about  five  times  its  volume 
of  spirit  of  turpentine,  add  to  the  mixture 
dried  sJaked  lime  in  the  proportion  of 


about  40  grains  to  the  pint,  agitate  well, 
repeating  the  agitation  several  times,  and 
finally  allowing  the  suspended  matter  to 
settle  and  decanting  the  clear  liquid. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  neutralize  any 
acid  which  may  be  present.  To  deter- 
mine how  effectively  this  has  been  done 
the  varnish  may  be  chemically  tested. 

Steel  Blue  and  Old  Silver  on  Brass.— 
For  the  former  dissolve  100  parts  of  car- 
bonic carbonate  in  750  parts  of  ammonia 
and  dilute  this  solution  with  distilled 
water,  whereupon  the  cleaned  articles 
are  dipped  into  the  liquid  by  means  of  a 
brass  wire.  After  two  to  three  minutes 
take  them  out,  rinse  in  clean  water,  and 
dry  in  sawdust.  Old  silver  on  brass  is 
produced  as  follows:  The  articles  are 
first  silvered  and  next  painted  with  a  thin 
paste  consisting  of  graphite,  6  parts; 
pulverized  hematite,  1  part;  and  tur- 
pentine. Use  a  soft  brush  and  dry  well; 
then  brush  off  the  powder.  Oxidized 
silver  is  obtained  by  dipping  the  silvered 
goods  into  a  heated  solution  of  liver  of 
sulphur,  5  parts;  ammonia  carbonate,  10 
parts;  and  water,  10, 000  parts.  Only  sub- 
stantially silvered  objects  are  suited  for 
oxidation,  as  a  weak  silvering  is  taken 
cff  by  this  solution.  Unsatisfactory  col- 
oring is  removed  with  potassium-cya- 
nide solution.  It  is  advisable  to  lay  the 
articles  in  hydrogen  sulphide-ammonia 
solution  diluted  with  water,wherein  they 
acquire  a  blue  to  a  deep-black  shade. 

Tombac  Color  on  Brass. — This  is  pro- 
duced by  immersion  in  a  mixture  of  cop- 
per carbonate,  10  parts;  caustic  soda,  30 
parts;  water,  200  parts.  This  layer  will 
only  endure  wiping  with  a  cloth,  not  vig- 
orous scouring  with  sand. 

Graining  of  Brass. — Brass  parts  of 
timepieces  are  frequently  provided  with 
a  dead  grained  surface.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  are  fastened  with  flat-headed 
pins  on  cork  disks  and  brushed  with  a 
paste  of  water  and  finest  powdered 
pumice  stone.  Next  they  are  thor- 
oughly washed  and  placed  in  a  solution 
of  10  quarts  of  water,  30  grains  of  mer- 
curic nitrate,  and  60  grains  of  sulphuric 
acid.  In  this  amalgamating  solution 
the  objects  become  at  once  covered  with 
a  layer  of  mercury,  which  forms  an  amal- 
gam with  the  copper,  while  the  zinc 
passes  into  solution.  After  the  articles 
have  again  been  washed  they  are  treated 
with  graining  powder,  which  consists  of 
silver  powder,  tartar,  and  cooking  salt. 
These  substances  must  be  pure,  dry,  and 
very  finely  pulverized.  The  mixing  is 
done  with  moderate  heat.  According 


BRASS 


131 


co  whether  a  coarser  or  finer  grain  is  de- 
sired, more  cooking  salt  or  more  tartar 
must  be  contained  in  the  powder.     The 
ordinary  proportions  are: 
Silver  powder..      28  28     28  parts 

Tartar. 283   110-140     85  parts 

Cooking  salt.  ..    900  370  900  parts 

This  powder  is  moistened  with  water 
and  applied  to  the  object.  Place  the  article 
with  the  cork  support  in  a  flat  dish  and 
rub  on  the  paste  with  a  stiff  brush  while 
turning  the  !ish  incessantly.  Gradu- 
ally fresh  portions  of  graining  powder 
are  put  on  until  the  desired  grain  is  ob- 
tained. These  turn  out  the  rounder  the 
more  the  dish  and  brush  are  turned. 
When  the  right  grain  is  attained,  rinse 
off  with  water,  and  treat  the  object  with 
a  scratch  brush,  with  employment  of  a 
decoction  of  saponaria.  The  brushes 
must  be  moved  around  in  a  circle  in 
brushing  with  the  pumice  stone,  as  well 
as  in  rubbing  on  the  graining  powder 
and  in  using  the  scratch  brush.  The 
required  silver  powder  is  produced  by 
precipitating  a  diluted  solution  of  silver 
nitrate  with  some  strips  of  sheet  copper. 
The  precipitated  silver  powder  is  washed 
out  on  a  paper  filter  and  dried  at  moder- 
ate heat. 

The  Dead,  or  Matt,  Dip  for  Brass.— 

The  dead  dip  is  used  to  impart  a  satiny 
or  crystalline  finish  to  the  surface.  The 
bright  dip  gives  a  smooth,  shiny,  and  per- 
fectly even  surface,  but  the  dead  dip  is 
the  most  pleasing  of  any  dip  finish,  and 
can  be  used  as  a  base  for  many  secondary 
finishes. 

The  dead  dip  is  a  mixture  of  oil  of 
vitriol  (sulphuric  acid)  and  aqua  fortis 
(nitric  acid)  in  which  there  is  enough 
sulphate  of  zinc  (white  vitriol)  to  saturate 
the  solution.  It  is  in  the  presence  of  the 
sulphate  of  zinc  tnat  the  essential  differ- 
ence between  the  bright  and  the  dead  dip 
exists.  Without  it  the  dead  or  matt  sur- 
face cannot  be  obtained. 

The  method  generally  practiced  is  to 
add  the  sulphate  of  zinc  to  the  mixed 
acids  (sulphuric  and  nitric),  so  that  some 
remains  undissolved  in  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  It  is  found  that  the  sulphate  of 
zinc  occurs  in  small  crystals  having  the 
appearance  of  very  coarse  granulated 
sugar.  These  crystals  readily  settle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  and  do  not  do  the 
work  of  matting  properly.  If  they  are 
finely  pulverized  the  dip  is  slightly  im- 
proved, but  it  is  impossible  to  pulverize 
such  material  to  a  fineness  that  will  do 
the  desired  work.  The  use  of  sulphate 
of  zinc,  then,  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

The  most  modern  method  of  making 


up  the  dead  dip  is  to  produce  the  sul- 
phate of  zinc  directly  in  the  solution 
and  in  the  precipitated  form.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  most  finely  divided  ma- 
terials are  those  which  are  produced  by 
precipitation,  and  ?n  the  dead  dip  it  is 
very  important  ha*  h?  sulphate  of  zinc 
shall  be  finely  d;v  did  so  that  it  will  not 
immediately  settle  to  he  bottc  m.  There- 
fore it  chould  be  precipitated  so  that 
when  it  is  mixed  with  the  acids  it  will  not 
settle  immediately.  The  method  of  mak- 
ing the  sulphate  of  zinc  directly  in  the 
solution  is  as  follows: 

Take  1  gallon  of  yellow  aqua  fortis 
(38°  F.)  and  place  in  a  stone  crock 
which  is  surrounded  with  cold  water. 
The  cold  water  is  to  keep  the  heat, 
formed  by  the  reaction,  from  evaporating 
the  acid.  Add  metallic  zinc  in  small 
pieces  until  the  acid  will  dissolve  no 
more.  The  zinc  may  be  in  any  conven- 
ient form — sheet  clippings,  lumps,  gran- 
ulated, etc.,  that  may  be  added  little  by 
little.  If  all  is  added  at  once  it  will  boil 
over.  ^When  the  acid  will  dissolve  no 
more  zinc  it  will  be  found  that  some  of 
the  acid  has  evaporated  by  the  heat,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  add  enough  fresh 
acid  to  make  up  to  the  original  gallon. 
When  this  is  done  add  1  gallon  of  strong 
oil  of  vitriol.  The  mixture  should  be 
stirred  with  a  wooden  paddle  while  the 
oil  of  vitriol  is  being  added. 

As  the  sulphuric  acid  is  being  added 
the  solution  begins  to  grow  milky,  and 
finally  the  whole  has  the  consistency  of 
thick  cream.  This  is  caused  by  the  sul- 
phuric acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  precipitating 
out  the  sulphate  of  zinc.  Thus  the  very 
finely^  divided  precipitate  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  is  formed.  If  one  desires  to  use 
known  quantities  of  acid  and  zinc  the 
following  amounts  may  be  taken:  Oil  of 
vitriol,  1  gallon;  aqua  fortis  (38°  F.),  1 
gallon;  metallic  zinc,  6  ounces. 

In  dissolving  the  zinc  in  the  aqua  for- 
tis it  is  necessary  to  be  sure  that  none  re- 
mains undissolved  in  the  bottom. 

The  dead  or  matt  dip  is  used  hot,  and. 
therefore,  is  kept  in  a  stone  crock  sur- 
rounded with  hot  water.  The  articles  to 
be  matted  are  polished  and  cleaned,  and 
the  dip  thoroughly  stirred  with  a  wooden 
paddle,  so  as  to  bring  up  the  sulphate  of 
zinc  which  has  settled.  Dip  the  work  in 
the  solution  and  allow  it  to  remain  until 
the  matt  is  obtained.  This  is  a  point 
which  can  be  learned  only  by  experience. 
When  the  brass  article  is  first  introduced 
there  is  a  rapid  action  on  the  surface,  but 
in  a  few  seconds  this  slows  down.  Re- 
move the  article  and  rinse  and  immedi- 
ately dip  into  the  usual  bright  dip.  This 


132 


BRASS 


is  necessary  for  the  reason  that  the  dead 
dip  produces  a  dark  coating  upon  the 
surface,  which,  were  it  left  on,  would  not 
show  the  real  effect  or  the  color  of  the 
metal.  The  bright  dip,  however,  re- 
moves this  and  exposes  the  true  dead 
surface. 

The  usual  rule  for  making  up  the  dead 
dip  is  to  use  equal  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol 
and  aqua  fortis;  but  these  may  be  altered 
to  suit  the  case.  More  oil  of  vitriol  gives 
a  finer  matt,  while  a  larger  quantity  of 
aqua  fortis  will  give  a  coarser  matt. 
When  the  dip  becomes  old  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  add  more  zinc,  as  a  little  goes  into 
the  solution  each  time  anything  is  dipped. 
After  a  while,  however,  the  solution  be- 
comes loaded  with  copper  salts,  and 
should  be  thrown  away. 

A  new  dip  does  not  work  well,  and 
will  not  give  good  results  when  used  at 
once.  It  is  usual  to  allow  it  to  remain 
over  night,  when  it  will  be  found  to  be  in 
a  better  working  condition  in  the  morn- 
ing. A  new  dip  will  frequently  refuse  to 
work,  and  the  addition  of  a  little  water 
will  often  start  it.  The  water  must  be 
used  sparingly,  however,  and  only  when 
necessary.  Water,  as  a  usual  thing, 
spoils  a  dead  dip,  and  must  be  avoided. 
After  a  while  it  may  be  necessary  to  add 
a  little  more  aqua  fortis,  and  this  may  be 
introduced  as  desired.  Much  care  is 
needed  in  working  the  dead  dip,  and  it 
requires  constant  watching  and  experi- 
ence. The  chief  difficulty  in  working 
the  dead  dip  is  to  match  a  given  article. 
The  only  way  that  it  can  be  done  is  to 
"cut  and  try,"  and  add  aqua  fortis  or  oil 
of  vitriol  as  the  case  requires. 

The  dead  or  matt  dip  can  be  obtained 
only  upon  brass  or  German  silver;  in 
other  words,  only  on  alloys  which  con- 
tain zinc.  The  best  results  are  obtained 
upon  yellow  brass  high  in  zinc. 

To  Improve  Deadened  Brass  Parts. — 
Clock  parts  matted  with  oilstone  and 
oil,  such  as  the  hour  wheels,  minute 
wheels,  etc.,  obtain,  by  mere  grinding,  a 
somewhat  dull  appearance,  with  a  sensi- 
tive surface  which  readily  takes  spots. 
This  may  be  improved  by  preparing  the 
following  powder,  rubbing  a  little  of  it 
on  a  buff  stick,  and  treating  the  deadened 
parts,  which  have  been  cleansed  with 
benzine,  by  rubbing  with  slight  pressure 
on  cork.  This  imparts  to  the  articles  a 
handsome,  permanent,  metallic  matt 
luster.  The  smoothing  powder  consists 
of  2  parts  of  jewelers'  red  and  8  parts  of 
lime  carbonate,  levigated  in  water,  and 
well  dried.  Jewelers'  red  alone  may  be 
employed,  but  this  requires  some  prac- 


tice and  care,  especially  in  the  treatment 
of  wheels,  because  rays  are  liable  to 
form  from  the  teeth  toward  the  center. 

Pickle  for  Brass. — Stir  10  parts  (by 
weight)  of  shining  soot  or  snuff,  10  parts 
of  cooking  salt,  and  10  parts  of  red  tar- 
tar with  250  parts  of  nitric  acid,  and 
afterwards  add  250  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid;  or  else  mix  7  parts  of  aqua  fortis 
(nitric  acid)  with  10  parts  of  English 
sulphuric  acid.  For  the  mixing  ratio  of 
the  acid,  the  kind  and  alloy  of  the  metal 
should  be  the  guidance,  and  it  is  best 
found  out  by  practical  trials.  The  bet- 
ter the  alloy  and  the  less  the  percentage 
of  zinc  or  lead,  the  handsomer  will  be 
the  color.  Genuine  bronze,  for  instance, 
acquires  a  golden  shade.  In  order  to 
give  brass  the  appearance  of  handsome 
gilding  it  is  often  coated  with  gold  var- 
nish by  applying  same  thinly  with  a  brush 
or  sponge  and  immediately  heating  the 
metal  over  a  coal  fire. 

Pickling  Brass  to  Look  Like  Gold.— 
To  pickle  brass  so  as  to  make  it  resem- 
ble gold  allow  a  mixture  of  6  parts  of 
chemically  pure  nitric  acid  and  1  part  of 
English  sulphuric  acid  to  act  for  some 
hours  upon  the  surface  of  the  brass;  then 
wash  with  a  warm  solution,  20  parts  of 
tartar  in  50  parts  of  water,  and  rub  off 
neatly  with  dry  sawdust.  Then  coat 
the  article  with  the  proper  varnish. 

Pickle  for  Dipping  Brass. — To  im- 
prove the  appearance  of  brass,  tombac, 
and  copper  goods,  they  are  usually 
dipped.  For  this  purpose  they  are  first 
immersed  in  diluted  oil  of  vitriol  (brown 
sulphuric  acid),  proportion,  1  to  10;  next 
in  a  mixture  of  10  parts  of  red  tartar;  10 
parts  of  cooking  salt;  250  parts  of  Eng- 
lish sulphuric  acid,  as  well  as  250  parts  of 
aqua  fortis  (only  for  a  moment),  rinsing 
off  well  in  water  and  drying  in  sawdust. 
For  obtaining  a  handsome  matt  gold 
color  ^j  part  of  zinc  vitriol  (zinc  sul- 
phate) is  still  added  to  the  pickle. 

Restoration  of  Brass  Articles.— The 
brass  articles  are  first  freed  from  adher- 
ing dirt  by  the  use  of  hot  soda  lye;  if 
bronzed  they  are  dipped  in  a  highly  dilute 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and  rinsed  in 
clean  water.  Next  they  are  yellowed  in 
a  mixture  of  nitric  acid,  75  parts;  sul- 
phuric acid,  100  parts;  shining  lamp- 
black, 2  parts;  cooking  salt,  1  part;  then 
rinsed  and  polished  and,  to  prevent 
oxidation,  coated  with  a  colorless  spirit 
varnish,  a  celluloid  varnish  being  best 
for  this  purpose. 

Tempering  Brass. — If  hammered  too 
brittle  brass  can  be  tempered  and  made 


BRICK 


183 


of  a  more  even  hardness  throughout  by 
warming  it,  as  in  tempering  steel;  but 
the  heat  must  not  be  nearly  so  great. 
Brass,  heated  to  the  blue  heat  of  steel,  is 
almost  soft  again.  To  soften  brass,  heat 
it  nearly  to  a  dull  red  and  allow  it  to  cool, 
or,  if  time  is  an  object,  it  may  be  cooled 
by  plunging  into  water. 

Drawing  Temper  from  Brass. — Brass 
is  rendered  hard  by  hammering  or  roll- 
ing, therefore  when  a  brass  object  re- 
quires to  be  tempered  the  material  must 
be  prepared  before  the  article  is  shaped. 
Temper  may  be  drawn  from  brass  by 
heating  it  to  a  cherry  red  and  then  sim- 
ply plunging  it  into  water,  the  same  as 
though  steel  were  to  be  tempered. 

BRASS,  FASTENING  PORCELAIN  TO : 

See  Adhesives. 

BRASS  PpLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

BRASS  SOLDERS: 

See  Solders. 

BRASS  BRONZING: 

See  Plating. 

BRASS  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

BRASS  PLATINIZING: 

See  Plating. 

BRASS,    SAND    HOLES    IN: 

See  Castings. 

BRASSING : 

See  Plating. 

BREAD,  DOG: 

See  Dog  Biscuit. 

BREATH  PERFUMES: 

See  also  Dentifrices. 

Remedies  for  Fetid  Breath.— Fetid 
breath  may  be  due  to  the  expelled  air 
(i.  e.,  to  disease  of  the  respirational  tract), 
to  gases  thrown  off  from  the  digestive 
tract,  or  to  a  diseased  mouth.  In  the 
first  two  cases  medication  must  be  di- 
rected to  the  causative  diseases,  with  the 
last,  antisepsis  principally  arid  the  neu- 
tralization of  the  saliva,  also  the  removal 
of  all  residual  food  of  dental  caries. 

I. — Potassium  perman- 
ganate       1  part 

Distilled  water..  .  .    10  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve.  Add  from  5  to  8 
drops  of  this  solution  to  a  glass  of  water 
and  with  it  gargle  the  mouth. 


II. — Infusion  of  sal  via  250  parts 

Glycerine 30  parts 

Tincture  of  myrrh     12  parts 
Tincture  of  laven- 
der       12  parts 

Labarraque's  so- 
lution        30  parts 

Mix.     Rinse    the    mouth    frequently 
with  this  mixture. 
III. — Decoction  of  cham- 

omile 30  parts 

Glycerine 80  parts 

Chlorinated  water.   15  parts 
Mix.      Use   as    a   gargle   and    mouth 
wash. 

IV. — Peppermint  water  500  parts 
Cherry-laurel  wa- 
ter       60  parts 

Borax 25  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve.  Use  as  gargle  and 
mouth  wash. 

V.— Thymol 3  parts 

Spirit  of  cochlea- 

ria 300  parts 

Tincture  of  rhat- 

any 100  parts 

Oil  of  peppermint     15  parts 

Oil  of  cloves 10  parts 

Mix.  Gargle  and  wash  mouth  well 
with  10  drops  in  a  glass  of  water. 

VI.— Salol 5  parts 

1    Alcohol 1,000  parts 

Tincture  of  white 

canella 30  parts 

Oil    of    pepper- 
mint            1  part 

Mix.     Use  as  a  dentifrice. 
VII. — Hydrogen  perox- 
ide       25  parts 

Distilled  water. .  .    100  parts 
Mix.     Gargle  the  mouth  twice  daily 
with  2  tablespoonfuls  of  the  mixture  in  a 
glass  of  water. 
VIII. — Sodium    bicarbon- 
ate        2  parts 

Distilled  water. ...    70  parts 
Spirit  of  cochlearia  30  parts 
Mix    a    half-teaspoonful    in    a    wine- 
glassful  of  water.      Wash  mouth  two  or 
three  times  daily. 

BRICK   STAIN. 

To  stain  brick  flat  the  color  of  brown- 
stone,  add  black  to  Venetian  red  until 
the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  If  color 
ground  in  oil  is  used,  thin  with  turpen- 
tine, using  a  little  japan  as  a  drier.  If 
necessary  to  get  the  desired  shade  add 
yellow  ocher  to  the  mixture  of  red  and 
black.  If  the  work  is  part  old  and  part 
new,  rub  the  wall  down,  using  a  brick 


134 


BRONZING 


for  a  rubber,  until  the  surface  is  uniform, 
and  keep  it  well  wet  while  rubbing  with 
cement  water,  made  by  stirring  Portland 
cement  into  water  until  the  water  looks 
the  color  of  the  cement.  This  opera- 
tion fills  the  pores  of  the  brick  and  makes 
a  smooth,  uniform  surface  to  paint  on. 
Tinge  the  wash  with  a  little  dry  Vene- 
tian red  and  lampblack.  This  will  help 
bring  the  brick  to  a  uniform  color,  so  that 
an  even  color  can  be  obtained  with  one 
coat  of  stain. 

BRICKS : 

See  Ceramics. 

BRICKS  OF  SAND-LIME: 

See  Stone,  Artificial. 

BRICK  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

BRICK  WALLS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods and  Household  Formulas. 

BRICK  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

BRICKMAKERS'   NOTES: 

See  Ceramics. 

BRIDGE  PAINT: 

See  Paint. 

BRILLIANTINE : 

See  Hair  Preparations. 

BRIMSTONE  (BURNING): 

See  Pyrotechnics. 


THEIR     PRE3ER- 


BRIONY  ROOTS: 
VATION : 

See  Roots. 


BRITANNIA  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

BRITANNIA  METAL,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

BRITANNIA,  SILVERPLATING : 

See  Plating. 

BROMINE,  ANTISEPTIC: 

See  Antiseptics. 

BROMOFORM. 

Bromoform  is   insoluble  in  dilute  al- 
cohol, but  may  be  dissolved  by  the  aid  of 
glycerine.      The  following  formula    has 
een  devised: 

Bromoform 1     part 

Alcohol 2    parts 

Compound  tincture  of 

cardamon 2     parts 

Glycerine U  parts 


Some  other  formulas  are: 

Syrup  of  Bromofcrm. — Bromoform, 
5  parts;  alcohol  (95  per  cent),  45  parts; 
glycerine,  150  parts;  syrup,  800  parts. 
Mix  in  the  order  given  and  place  the  con- 
tainer in  warm  water  until  the  syrup  be- 
comes perfectly  clear. 

Emulsion  of  Bromoform. — Add  3  parts 
of  bromoform  to  20  parts  of  expressed  oil 
of  almond;  emulsify  this  mixture  in  the 
usual  manner  with  2  parts  of  powdered 
tragacanth,  4  parts  of  powdered  acacia, 
and  sufficient  water,  using  for  the  com- 
pleted emulsion  a  total  of  120  parts  of 
water,  and  add,  finally,  4  parts  of  cherry- 
laurel  water. 

Bromoform  Rum. — Bromoform,  1.2 
parts;  chloroform,  0.8  parts;  rum,  suffi- 
cient to  make  120  parts.  Claimed  to 
be  an  effective  remedy  in  the  treatment  of 
whooping  cough. 


BRONZES: 

See  Alloys. 

BRONZE  CASTING: 

See  Casting. 

BRONZE,  IMITATION: 

See  Plaster. 

BRONZE  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

BRONZE,  RENOVATION  OF: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

Bronze  Powders,  Liquid 

Bronzes,  Bronze  Substitutes, 

and  Bronzing 

BRONZE  POWDERS. 

Gold  bronze  is  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  oxide  of  tin  and  sulphur,  which 
are  heated  for  some  time  in  an  earthen 
retort.  Silver  bronze  is  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  bismuth,  tin,  and  mercury, 
which  are  fused  in  a  crucible,  adding  the 
mercury  only  when  the  tin  and  the  bis- 
muth are  in  fusion.  Next  reduce  to  a 
very  fine  powder.  To  apply  these 
bronzes,  white  of  egg,  gum  arabic,  or 
varnish  is  used.  It  is  preferable  to  ap- 
ply them  dry  upon  one  of  the  above- 
named  mediums  serving  as  size,  than  to 
mix  them  with  the  liquids  themselves,  for 
in  the  latter  case  their  luster  is  impaired. 

Simple  Coloring  of  Bronze  Powder. — 
In  order  to  impart  different  colors  to 


BRONZING 


135 


bronze  powders,  such  as  pale  yellow, 
dark  yellow  to  copper  red.  the  powder  is 
heated  with  constant  stirring  in  flat  iron 
pans  until  through  the  oxidation  of  the 
copper — the  bronzes  consist  of  the  brass 
powder  of  an  alloy  from  which  the  so- 
called  Dutch  gold  is  produced — the  de- 
sired shade  of  color  is  reached.  As  a 
rule  a  very  small  quantity  of  fat,  wax,  or 
even  paraffine  is  added  in  this  operation. 
The  bronze  powders  are  employed  to 
produce  coatings  or  certain  finishes  on 
metals  themselves  or  to  give  articles  of 
wood,  stone,  pasteboard,  etc.,  a  metallic 
appearance. 

General  Directions  for  Bronzing. — The 
choice  of  bronze  powders  is  determined 
by  the  degree  of  brilliancy  to  be  ob- 
tained. The  powder  is  mixed  with 
strong  gum  water  or  isinglass,  and  laid 
on  with  a  brush  or  pencil,  almost  but  not 
absolutely  dry.  A  piece  of  soft  leather, 
wrapped  around  the  finger,  is  dipped  into 
the  powder  and  rubbed  over  the  work; 
when  all  this  has  been  covered  with  the 
bronze  it  must  be  left  to  dry,  and  the 
loose  powder  is  then  cleared  away  with 
a  hair  pencil. 

LIQUID  BRONZES. 

Liquid  Bronzes. — I. — For  the  produc- 
tion of  liquid  bronze,  acid-free  varnish 
should  be  used,  as  bronze  ground  with 
ordinary  varnish  will  form  verdigris. 
For  the  deacidification  of  dammar  rosin 
pour  1,000  parts  of  petroleum  benzine 
over  350  parts  of  finely  ground  dammar 
rosin,  and  dissolve  by  repeated  shaking. 
Next  add  to  the  solution  250  parts  of  a 
10-per-cent  aqueous  solution  of  caustic 
soda  and  shake  up  well  for  10  minutes. 
After  standing  for  a  short  time  two 
strata  will  have  formed,  the  upper  one 
consisting  of  benzine-rosin  solution  and 
the  lower,  aqueous  one  containing  the 
resinic  acid  dissolved  as  soda  salts.  Pour 
off  the  benzine  layers  and  agitate  again 
assiduously  with  250  parts  of  the  10-per- 
cent caustic-soda  solution.  Now  set 
aside  for  a  complete  classification  and 
separation  of  the  two  liquids.  The 
dammar  solution  siphoned  off  will  be  per- 
fectly free  from  acid.  To  obtain  gold- 
bronze  varnish  add  to  the  deacidified 
dammar  solution  about  250  parts  of 
bronze  or  brocade  per  liter. 

II. — Or  else  carefully  mix  100  parts  of 
finely  ground  dammar  rosin  with  30  parts 
of  calcined  soda  and  heat  to  fusion,  in 
which  state  it  is  maintained  2  or  3  hours 
with  frequent  stirring.  Let  cool,  grind 
the  turbid  mass  obtained,  and  pour  a  little 
coal  benzine  or  petroleum  benzine  over 


it  in  a  flask.  By  repeated  shaking  of  the 
flask  the  soluble  portion  of  the  molten 
mass  is  dissolved;  filter  after  allowing  to 
settle;  into  the  filtrate  put  300  to  400 
parts  of  bronze  powder  of  any  desired 
shade,  the  brocades  being  especially  well 
adapted  for  this  purpose.  If  the  metallic 
powder  remains  distributed  over  the 
mass  for  a  long  time  it  is  of  the  right 
consistency;  if  it  deposits  quickly  it  is 
too  thin  and  a  part  of  the  solvent  must 
be  evaporated  before  stirring  in  the 
bronze  powder. 

III. — A  liquid  bronze,  which,  while 
it  contains  no  metallic  constituent,  yet 
possesses  a  metallic  luster  and  a  bronze 
appearance,  and  answers  excellently  for 
many  purposes,  is  made  as  follows: 
Dissolve  by  the  aid  of  gentle  heat  10 
parts  of  aniline  red  and  5  parts  of  aniline 
purple  in  100  parts  of  alcohol.  When 
solution  is  complete,  add  5  parts  of  ben- 
zoic  acid,  raise  the  heat,  and  let  boil 
from  5  to  10  minutes,  or  until  the  green- 
ish color  of  the  mixture  passes  over  to  a 
clear  bronze  brown.  For  "marbling" 
or  bronzing  paper  articles,  this  answers 
particularly  well. 

Incombustible  Bronze  Tincture. — 
Finely  pulverize  5  parts,  by  weight,  of 
prime  Dammar  rosin  and  1.5  parts  of 
ammonia  soda.  Heat  gently,  and  stir  fre- 
quently, until  no  more  carbonic  acid  bub- 
bles up.  Cool  and  pulverize  again.  Put 
the  powder  into  a  glass  carboy,  and  pour 
over  it  50  parts  of  carbon  tetrachloride; 
let  'this  stand  for  2  days,  stirring  fre- 
quently. Then  filter.  Ten  parts  of  the 
fluid  are  mixed  with  5  parts  of  metallic 
bronze  of  any  desired  shade,  and  put 
into  bottles.  Shake  well  before  using. 

General  Formulas  for  Bronzing  Prepa- 
rations.— I. — Take  240  parts  subacetate 
of  copper,  120  parts  oxide  of  zinc  in  pow- 
der form,  60  parts  borax,  60  parts  salt- 
peter, and  3.5  parts  corrosive  sublimate. 
Prepare  a  paste  from  it  with  oil,  stir  to- 
gether, and  continue  working  with  boiled 
linseed  oil  and  turpentine. 

II. — Dissolve  120  parts  sulphate  of 
copper  and  add  120  parts  chipping  of 
tin;  stir  well  and  gather  the  precipitating 
copper.  After  complete  drying,  grind 
very  finely  in  boiled  linseed  oil  and  tur- 
pentine. 

III. — Melt  in  a  crucible  60  parts  sul- 
phur and  60  parts  stannic  acid;  stir  with 
a  clay  tube  until  the  mixture  takes  on  the 
appearance  of  Dutch  gold  and  pour  out. 
When  cold  mix  the  color  with  boiled  lin- 
seed oil  and  turpentine,  adding  a  small 
quantity  of  drier.  These  three  bronzes 
must  be  covered  with  a  pale,  resistant 


136 


BRONZING 


lacquer,  otherwise  they  will  soon  tarnish 
in  rooms  where  gas  is  burned, 

Florentine  Bronzes.  —I.— To  produce  a 
Florentine  bronzing,  apply  to  the  articles, 
which  must  have  previously  been  dipped, 
a  varnish  composed  of  cherry  gum  lac 
dissolved  in  alcohol.  This  varnish  is 
put  on  with  a  brush,  and  after  that  the 
bronzed  piece  is  passed  through  the 
stove. 

II. — If  the  article  is  of  brass  it  must 
be  given  a  coat  of  copper  by  means  of 
the  battery.  Next  dip  a  brush  in  olive 
oil  and  brush  the  piece  uniformly;  let 
dry  for  5  or  6  hours  and  place  in  saw- 
dust. Then  heat  the  article  on  a  mod- 
erate charcoal  dust  fire. 

Preparation  of  French  Bronze. — 
French  bronze  may  be  prepared  by  re- 
ducing to  a  powder  hematite,  5  parts, 
and  plumbago,  8  parts,  and  mixing  into  a 
paste  with  spirit  of  wine.  Apply  the 
composition  with  a  soft  brush  to  the 
article  to  be  bronzed  and  set  it  aside  for 
some  hours.  By  polishing  with  a  toler- 
ably hard  brush  the  article  will  assume 
the  beautiful  appearance  of  real  bronze. 
The  desired  tint  may  be  regulated  by  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients. 

How  to  Bronze  Metals. — Prepare  a 
solution  of  1*  ounces  of  sodium  hyposul- 
phite in  1  pint  of  water  and  add  to  the 
same  a  solution  of  1A  ounces  of  lead 
acetate  dissolved  in  1  pint  of  water. 

If,  instead  of  lead  acetate,  an  equal 
weight  of  sulphuric  acid  (1*  ounces)  is 
added  to  the  sodium  hyposulphite  and 
the  process  carried  on  as  before,  the 
brass  becomes  coated  with  a  very  beau- 
tiful red,  which  changes  to  green,  and 
finally  a  splendid  brown  with  a  green 
and  red  iridescence.  This  last  is  a  very 
durable  coating  and  may  be  especially 
recommended.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain  exact  shades  by  this  process  with- 
out some  experience.  The  thorough 
cleansing  of  all  articles  from  grease  by 
boiling  in  potash  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  success.  By  substituting  other  metal 
salts  for  the  lead  acetate  many  changes 
in  tints  and  quality  of  the  coatings  can 
also  be  effected. 

When  this  mixture  is  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature a  little  below  the  boiling  point 
it  precipitates  sulphide  of  lead  in  a  state 
of  fine  division.  If  some  metal  is  pres- 
ent some  of  the  lead  is  precipitated  on 
the  surface  and,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  layer,  different  colors  are  pro- 
duced. To  produce  an  even  color  the 
articles  must  be  evenly  heated.  By  im- 
mersion of  brass  articles  for  5  minutes 


the  same  may  be  coated  with  colors 
varying  from  gold  to  copper  red,  then  to 
carmine,  dark  red,  and  from  light  blue 
to  blue  white,  and  at  last  a  reddish  white, 
depending  on  the  time  the  metal  remains 
in  the  solution  and  the  temperature  used. 
Iron  objects  treated  in  this  solution  take 
a  steel-blue  color,  zinc  a  brown  color.  In 
the  case  of  copper  objects  a  golden  yellow 
cannot  be  obtained. 

New  Bronzing  Liquid. — Dissolve  10 
parts  of  fuchsine  and  5  parts  of  aniline 
purple  in  100  parts  of  alcohol  (95  percent) 
and  add  to  the  solution  5  parts  of  ben- 
zoic  acid.  Boil  the  whole  for  10  min- 
utes until  the  color  turns  bronze  brown. 
This  liquid  can  be  applied  to  all  metals 
and  dries  quickly. 

A  Bronze  for  Brass. — Immerse  the 
articles,  freed  from  dirt  and  ^grease,  in  a 
cold  solution  of  10  parts  01  potassium 
permanganate,  50  parts  of  iron  sulphate, 
5  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid  in  1,000 
parts  of  water.  Let  remain  30  seconds, 
then  withdraw,  rinse,  and  let  dry  in  fine, 
soft  sawdust.  If  the  articles  have  be- 
come too  dark,  or  if  a  reddish-brown 
color  be  desired,  immerse  for  about  1 
minute  in  a  warm  (140°  F.)  solution  of 
chromic  acid,  10  parts;  hydrochloric 
acid,  10  parts;  potassium  permanganate, 
10  parts;  iron  sulphate,  50  parts;  water, 
1,000  parts.  Treat  as  before.  If  the 
latter  solution  alone  be  used  the  product 
will  be  a  brighter  dark-yellow  or  red- 
dish-brown color.  By  heating  in  a  dry- 
ing oven  the  tone  of  the  colors  is  im- 
proved. * 

To  Bronze  Copper. — This  process  is 
analogous  to  the  one  practiced  at  the 
Mint  of  Paris  for  bronzing  medals. 

Spread  on  the  copper  object  a  solution 
composed  of: 

Acetate     or     chlorhy- 

drate  of  ammonia.  .      30  parts 

Sea  salt 10  parts 

Cream  of  tartar 10  parts 

Acetate  of  copper  ....      10  parts 
Diluted  acetic  acid.  .  .    100  parts 
Let  dry  for  24  to  48  hours  at  an  ordi- 
nary temperature.      The  surface  of  the 
metal  will  become  covered  with  a  series 
of  varying  tints.      Brush    with  a  waxed 
brush.      The  green  portions  soaked  with 
chlorhydrate  of  ammonia  will  assume  a 
blue   coloring,    and    those    treated    with 
carbonate  will  be  thick  and  darkened. 

Bronzing  and  Patinizing  of  Small  Zinc 
Articles. — Coatings  of  bronze  tones  and 
patina  shades  may  be  produced  on  zinc 
oy  means  of  various  liquids,  but  the 


BRONZING 


137 


articles,  before  being  worked  upon, 
should  be  rubbed  down  with  very  fine 
glass  or  emery  paper,  to  make  them  not 
only  perfectly  metallic,  but  also  some- 
what rough,  as  a  consequence  of  which 
the  bronze  or  patina  coatings  will  adhere 
much  better.  The  best  bronze  or  pa- 
tina effects  on  bronze  are  obtained  by 
electroplating  the  article  with  a  fairly 
thick  deposit  of  brass  rich  in  copper  and 
then  treating  it  like  genuine  bronze.  The 
solutions  used,  however,  must  always  be 
highly  diluted,  otherwise  they  may  eat 
entirely  through  the  thin  metallic  coat- 
ing. 

Bronzing  of  Zinc. — Mix  thoroughly  30 
parts  of  sal  ammoniac,  10  parts  of 
oxalate  of  potash,  and  1,000  parts  of 
vinegar.  Apply  with  a  brush  or  a  rag 
several  times,  until  the  desired  tint  is 
produced. 

Bronze  Gilding  on  Smooth  Moldings. — 
A  perfect  substitute  for  dead  gilding  can- 
not be  obtained  by  bronzing,  because  of 
the  radically  different  reflection  of  the 
light,  for  the  matt  gilding  presents  to  the 
light  a  perfectly  smooth  surface,  while 
in  bronzing  every  little  scale  of  bronze 
reflects  the  light  in  a  different  direction. 
In  consequence  of  this  diffusion  of  light, 
all  bronzing,  even  the  best  executed,  is 
somewhat  darker  and  dimmer  than  leaf 
gilding.  This  dimness,  it  is  true,  ex- 
tends over  the  whole  surface,  and  there- 
fore is  not  perceptible  to  the  layman,  and 
cannot  be  called  an  evil,  as  the  genuine 
leaf  gold  is  so  spotted  that  a  bronzed 
surface  is  cleaner  than  a  gilt  one.  The 
following  process  is  the  best  known  at 
present:  Choose  only  the  best  bronze, 
which  is  first  prepared  thick  with  pure 
spirit.  Next  add  a  quantity  of  water 
and  stir  again.  After  the  precipitation, 
which  occurs  promptly,  the  water  is 
poured  off  and  renewed  repeatedly  by 
fresh  water.  When  the  spirit  has  been 
washed  out  again  in  this  manner,  the  re- 
maining deposit,  i.  e.,  the  bronze,  is 
thinned  with  clean,  good  gold  size.  The 
bronze  must  be  thin  enough  just  to 
cover.  The  moldings  are  coated  twice, 
the  second  time  commencing  at  the  op- 
posite end.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  the  dry,  dead  gilding  give  off 
color  when  grasping  it  firmly.  If  it  does 
that,  either  the  size  is  inferior  or  the  so- 
lution too  weak  or  the  mixture  too  thick. 

Incombustible  Bronze  Tincture. — Five 
parts  of  prime  dammar  rosin  and  1.5 
parts  of  ammonia  soda,  very  finely  pul- 
verized. Heat  gently,  with  frequent 
stirring,  until  the  evolution  of  carbonic 
acid  ceases.  Then  take  from  the  fire, 


and  when  cool  pulverize  again.  Put 
the  powder  into  a  glass  carboy,  and  pour 
over  it  50  parts  of  carbon  tetrachloride; 
let  this  stand  for  2  days,  stirring  fre- 
quently, then  filter.  Ten  parts  of  the 
nuid  are  to  be  mixed  with  each  5  parts 
of  metallic  bronze  of  any  desired  shade, 
and  put  into  bottles.  Shake  the  tincture 
well  before  using. 

Bronzing  Engraved  Ornaments.  — 
Take  bronze  and  stir. with  it  pale  copal 
varnish  diluted  one-half  with  turpentine. 
With  this  paint  the  ornaments  neatly. 
In  £  hour  the  bronze  will  have  dried. 
The  places  from  which  the  bronze  is  to 
be  removed,  i.  e.,  where  the  bronze  has 
overrun  the  polished  surface,  are  dabbed 
with  a  small  rag  soaked  with  kerosene, 
taking  care  that  it  is  not  too  wet,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  kerosene  from  running 
into  the  ornament.  After  a  short  while 
the  bronze  will  have  dissolved  and  can 
be  wiped  off  with  a  soft  rag.  If  this 
does  not  remove  it  entirely,  dab  and  wipe 
again.  Finally  finish  wiping  with  an 
especially  soft,  clean  rag.  Kerosene 
does  not  attack  polish  on  wood.  The 
bronze  must  become  dull  and  yet  adhere 
firmly,  under  which  condition  it  has  a 
hardened  color.  If  it  does  not  become 
dull  the  varnish  is  too  strong  and  should 
be  diluted  with  turpentine. 

Durable  Bronze  on  Banners. — To 
render  bronzes  durable  on  banners,  etc., 
the  ground  must  be  primed  with  gum 
arable  and  a  little  glycerine.  Then  ap- 
ply the  bronze  solution,  prepared  with 
dammar  and  one-tenth  varnish.  In- 
stead of  gum  arabic  with  glycerine,  gela- 
tine glue  may  also  be  employed  as  an 
underlay. 

BRONZE  SUBSTITUTES. 

The  following  recipe  is  used  in  making 
imitation  gold  bronzes: 

Sandarac 50  parts 

Mastic 10  parts 

Venice  turpentine. . .        5  parts 

Alcohol 135  parts 

In  the  above  dissolve: 
Metanil   yellow  and 

gold  orange 0.4  parts 

and  add 

Aluminum,        finely 

powdered 20  parts 

and  shake. 

If  a  deeper  shade  is  desired  it  is  well 
to  use  ethyl  orange  and  gold  orange  in 
the  same  proportion,  instead  of  the  dyes. 
For  the  production  of  imitation  copper 
bronze  take  the  above-mentioned  rosin 
mixture  and  dissolve  therein  only  gold 


138 


BRONZING 


orange  0.8  parts,  and  add  aluminum  20 
parts,  whereby  a  handsome  copper  color 
is  produced.  Metanil  yellow  0.4  parts 
without  gold  orange  gives  with  the  same 
amount  of  lacquer  a  greenish  tone  of 
bronze.  The  pigments  must  not  be 
made  use  of  in  larger  quantities,  because 
the  luster  of  the  bronze  is  materially 
affected.  Only  pigments  of  certain 
properties,  such  as  solubility  in  alcohol, 
relative  constancy .  to  reductive  agents, 
are  suitable;  unsuitable  are,  for  instance, 
naphthol  yellow,  phenylene-diamin,  etc. 
Likewise  only  a  lacquer  of  certain  com- 
position is  fit  for  use,  other  lacquers  of 
commerce,  such  as  zapon  (celluloid) 
lacquer  being  unsuitable.  The  bronzes 
prepared  in  this  manner  excel  in  luster 
and  color  effect;  the  cost  is  very  low. 
They  are  suitable  for  bronzing  low- 
priced  articles,  as  tinware,  toys,  etc. 
Under  the  action  of  sun  and  moisture  the 
articles  lose  some  of  their  luster,  but  ob- 
jects kept  indoors  such  as  figures  of  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  inkstands,  wooden  boxes, 
etc.,  retain  their  brilliancy  for  years. 

Some  use  powdered  aluminum  and  yel- 
low organic  dyestuffs,  such  as  gold  orange. 
These  are  employed  together  with  a  var- 
nish of  certain  composition,  which  im- 
parts the  necessary  gloss  to  the  mixture. 

BRONZE  COLORING: 

To  Color  Bronze. — Bronze  articles  ac- 
quire handsome  tempering  colors  by 
heating.  In  order  to  impart  an  old  ap- 
pearance to  new  objects  of  bronze,  they 
may  be  heated  over  a  flame  and  rubbed 
with  a  woolen  rag  dipped  in  finely  pow- 
dered graphite,  until  the  desired  shade 
is  attained.  Or  else  a  paste  is  applied 
on  the  article,  consisting  of  graphite  5 
parts  and  bloodstone  15  parts,  with  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  alcohol.  After  24 
hours  brush  off  the  dry  powder.  A  hot 
solution  composed  of  sal  ammoniac  4 
parts,  sorrel  salt  1  part,  vinegar  200 
parts,  may  also  be  brushed  on.  Another 
way  is  to  dip  the  pieces  into  a  boiling  so- 
lution of  cupric  acetate  20  parts,  and  sal 
ammoniac  10  parts,  dissolved  in  60  to 
100  parts  of  vinegar. 

Patent  bronzes  (products  colored  by 
means  of  aniline  dyes)  have  hitherto 
been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  toys  and 
de  luxe  or  fancy  paper,  but  makers  of 
wall  or  stained  paper  have  recently  given 
their  attention  to  these  products.  Wall 
—or  moire — paper  prepared  with  these 
dyes  furnishes  covers  or  prints  of  silken 
gloss  with  a  peculiar  double-color  effect 
in  which  the  metallic  brilliancy  charac- 
teristic of  bronze  combines  with  the 
shades  of  the  tar  pigments  used.  Very 


beautiful  reliefs,  giving  rise  to  the  most 
charming  play  of  colors  in  perpendicular 
or  laterally  reflected  light,  are  produced 
by  pressing  the  paper  lengths  or  web 
painted  with  aniline-bronze  dyes.  The 
brass  brocade  and  tin  bronzes  serve  as 
bases  for  the  aniline  dyes;  of  the  tar  pig- 
ments only  basic  aniline  dyes  soluble  in 
alcohol  are  used.  In  coloring  the  pul- 
verized bronze  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  latter  is  as  free  as  possible  from  or- 
ganic fats.  Tar  dyes  should  be  dis- 
solved in  as  concentrated  a  form  as  pos- 
sible in  alcohol  and  stirred  with  the 
bronze,  the  pigment  being  then  fixed  on 
the  vehicle  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
tannin.  The  patent  bronze  is  then 
dried  by  allowing  the  alcohol  to  evapo- 
rate. This  method  of  coloring  is  purely 
mechanical,  as  the  tar  dyes  do  not  com- 
bine with  the  metallic  bronze,  as  is  the 
case  with  pigments  in  which  hydrate  of 
alumina  is  used.  A  coating  of  aniline 
bronze  of  this  kind  is  therefore  very  sen- 
sitive to  moisture,  unless  spread  over 
the  paper  surface  with  a  suitable  protect- 
ive binding  medium,  or  protected  by  a 
transparent  coat  of  varnish,  which  of 
course  must  not  interfere  with  the  special 
color  effect. 

Pickle  for  Bronzes. — Sulphuric  acid, 
1,000  parts;  nitric  acid,  500  parts;  soot, 
10  parts;  sea  salt,  5  parts. 

Imitation  Japanese  Bronze. — When 
the  copper  or  coppered  article  is  per- 
fectly dry  and  the  copper  or  copper 
coating  made  brilliant,  which  is  produced 
by  rubbing  with  a  soft  brush,  put  graph- 
ite over  the  piece  to  be  bronzed  so 
that  the  copper  is  simply  dyed.  Wipe 
off  the  raised  portions  with  a  damp  cloth, 
so  that  the  copper  makes  its  appearance. 
Next  put  on  a  thin  coat  of  Japanese  var- 
nish; wipe  the  relief  again  and  let  dry. 
Apply  1  or  2  coats  after  the  first  is  per- 
fectly dry.  Handsome  smoked  hues 
may  be  obtained  by  holding  the  bronze 
either  over  the  dust  of  lighted  peat  or 
powdered  rosin  thrown  on  lighted  coal, 
so  as  to  obtain  a  smoke  which  will  change 
the  color  of  the  varnish  employed.  The 
varnish  must  be  liquid  enough  to  be 
worked  easily,  for  this  style  of  bronzing 
is  only  applicable  to  brass. 

Green  Bronze  on  Iron. — Abietate  of 
silver,  1  part;  essence  of  lavender,  19 
parts.  Dissolve  the  abietate  of  silver  in 
the  essence  of  lavender.  After  the  arti- 
cles have  been  well  pickled  apply  the 
abietate-of-silver  solution  with  a  brush; 
next  place  the  objects  in  a  stove  and  let 
the  temperature  attain  about  150°  C. 

Blue   Bronze. — Blue   bronze    is    pro- 


BRONZING 


139 


duced  by  the  wet  process  by  coloring 
white  bronze  (silver  composition)  with 
aniline  blue.  A  blue-bronze  color  can  be 
produced  in  the  ordinary  way  from  white- 
bronze  color,  the  product  of  pure  Eng- 
lish tin,  and  with  an  alum  solution  con- 
sisting of  20  parts  of  alum  in  4,500  parts 
of  water  boiled  for  5  hours  and  washed 
clean  and  dried.  The  bronze  prepared 
in  this  manner  is  placed  in  a  porcelain 
dish,  mixed  with  a  solution  of  15  parts  of 
aniline  blue  in  1,500  parts  of  alcohol, 
stirring  the  bronze  powder  and  liquid 
until  the  alcohol  has  evaporated  entire- 
ly and  the  bronze  color  becomes  dry. 
This  manipulation  must  be  repeated  6 
or  8  times,  until  the  desired  blue  shade 
is  reached.  When  the  bronze  is  dark 
enough  it  is  washed  out  in  warm  water, 
and  before  entirely  dry  1  tablespoonful 
of  petroleum  is  poured  on  2  pounds  of 
bronze,  which  is  intimately  mixed  and 
spread  out  into  a  thin  layer,  exposed  to 
the  air,  whereby  the  smell  is  caused  to 
disappear  in  a  few  days. 

Bronzing  with  Soluble  Glass.— To 
bronze  wood,  porcelain,  glass,  and  metal 
by  means  of  a  water-glass  solution,  coat 
the  article  with  potash  water-glass  of 
30°  Be.  and  sprinkle  on  the  respective 
bronze  powder. 

Brown  Oxidation  on  Bronze. — Genu- 
ine bronze  can  be  beautifully  oxidized  by 
painting  it  with  a  solution  of  4  parts  of 
sal  ammoniac  and  1  part  of  oxalium 
(oxalate  of  potash)  in  200  parts  of  vine- 
gar, allowing  it  to  dry,  and  repeating  the 
operation  several  times.  These  articles, 
protected  against  rain,  soon  lose  the  un- 
pleasant glaring  metallic  luster  and  as- 
sume instead  a  soft  brown  tint,  which 
bronze  articles  otherwise  acquire  only 
after  several  years'  exposure  to  the  at- 
mosphere. A  beautiful  bronze  color 
which  will  remain  unaffected  by  heat 
can  be  imparted  to  bronze  articles  by  the 
following  process:  The  object  is  first 
washed  in  a  solution  of  1  part  of  crystal- 
lized verdigris  and  2  parts  of  sal  ammo- 
niac in  260  parts  of  water,  and  then  dried 
before  an  open  fire  till  the  green  color 
begins  to  disappear.  The  operation  is 
repeated  10  to  20  times,  but  with  a  solu- 
tion of  1  part  of  verdigris  crystals  and  2 
parts  of  sal  ammoniac  in  600  parts  of 
water.  The  color  of  the  article,  olive 
green  at  first,  gradually  turns  to  brown, 
which  will  remain  unaltered  even  when 
exposed  to  strong  heat. 

BRONZE  POWDERS: 

See  also  Plating  for  general  methods 
of  bronzing,  and  Varnishes. 


Gold  and  Silver  Bronze  Powders. — 
Genuine  gold  bronze  is  produced  from 
the  waste  and  parings  obtained  in  gold 
beating.  The  parings,  etc.,  are  ground 
with  honey  or  a  gum  solution,  upon  a 
glass  plate  or  under  ha.rd  granite  stones, 
into  a  very  fine  powder,  which  is  re- 
peatedly washed  out  with  water  and 
dried.  There  are  various  shades  of  gold 
bronze,  viz.,  red,  reddish,  deep  yellow, 
pale  yellow,  as  well  as  greenish.  These 
tints  are  caused  by  the  various  percent- 
ages of  gold  or  the  various  mixtures  of 
the  gold  with  silver  and  copper. 

By  the  use  of  various  salt  solutions  or 
acidulated  substances  other  shades  can 
be  imparted  to  bronze.  In  water  con- 
taining sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  or 
hydrochloric  acid,  it  turns  a  bright  yel- 
low; by  treatment  with  a  solution  of  crys- 
tallized verdigris  or  blue  vitriol  in  water 
it  assumes  more  of  a  reddish  hue;  other 
tints  are  obtained  with  the  aid  of  cooking 
salt,  tartar,  green  vitriol,  or  saltpeter  in 
water. 

Gold  bronze  is  also  obtained  by  dis- 
solving gold  in  aqua  regia  and  mixing 
with  a  solution  of  green  vitriol  in  water, 
whereupon  the  gold  falls  down  as  a  me- 
tallic powder  which  may  be  treated  in 
different  ways.  The  green  vitriol,  how- 
ever, must  be  dissolved  in  boiling  water 
and  mixed  in  a  glass,  drop  by  drop,  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  stirred  until  the  basic 
iron  sulphate  separating  in  flakes  has  re- 
dissolved.  Another  way  of  producing 
gold  bronze  is  by  dissolving  gold  in  aqua 
regia  and  evaporating  the  solution  in  a 
porcelain  dish.  When  it  is  almost  dry 
add  a  little  pure  hydrochloric  acid  and 
repeat  this  to  drive  out  all  the  free  chlo- 
rine and  to  produce  a  pure  hydrochlorate 
of  gold.  The  gold  salt  is  dissolved  in 
distilled  water,  taking  \  liter  per  ducat 
(3J  grams  fine  gold);  into  this  solution 
drop,  while  stirring  by  means  of  a  glass 
rod,  an  8°  solution  (by  Beaume)  of  an- 
timony chloride,  as  long  as  a  precipitate 
forms.  This  deposit  is  gold  bronze, 
which,  dried  after  removal  of  all  liquids, 
is  chiefly  employed  in  painting,  for  bronz- 
ing, and  for  china  and  glass  decoration. 

Metallic  gold  powder  is,  furthermore, 
obtained  by  dissolving  pure  and  alloyed 
gold  in  aqua  regia  and  precipitating  it 
again  by  an  electro-positive  metal,  such 
as  iron  or  zinc,  which  is  placed  in  the  liq- 
uid in  the  form  of  rods.  The  gold  is 
completely  separated  thereby.  The  rods 
must  be  perfectly  clean  and  polished 
bright.  The  color  of  the  gold  bronze 
depends  upon  the  proportions  of  the  gold. 
In  order  to  further  increase  the  brilliancy 
the  dried  substance  may  still  be  ground. 


140 


BRUSHES 


Mosaic  Gold. — Mosaic  gold,  generally 
a  compound  of  tin,  64.63  parts,  and  sul- 
phur, 35.37  parts,  is  odorless  and  taste- 
less, and  dissolves  only  in  chlorine  solu- 
tion, aqua  regia,  and  boiling  potash  lye. 
It  is  employed  principally  for  bronz- 
ing plaster-of-Paris  figures,  copper,  and 
brass,  by  mixing  it  with  6  parts  of  bone 
ashes,  rubbing  it  on  wet,  or  applying  it 
with  varnish  or  white  of  egg  in  the  prep- 
aration of  gold  paper  or  for  gilding 
cardboard  and  wood.  Mosaic  gold  of 
golden-yellow  color  is  produced  by  heat- 
ing 6  parts  of  sulphur  and  16  parts  of 
tin  amalgam  with  equal  parts  of  mer- 
cury and  4  parts  of  sulphur;  8  parts  of 
precipitate  from  stannic  muriate  (stannic 
acid)  and  4  parts  of  sulphur  also  give  a 
handsome  mosaic  gold. 

The  handsomest,  purest,  and  most 
gold-like  mosaic  gold  is  obtained  by 
melting  12  parts  of  pure  tin,  free  from 
lead,  and  mixing  with  6  parts  of  mercury 
to  an  amalgam.  This  is  mixed  with  7 
parts  of  flowers  of  sulphur  and  6  parts  of 
sal  ammoniac,  whereupon  the  mass  is 
subjected  for  several  hours  to  a  heat 
which  at  first  does  not  attain  redness, 
but  eventually  when  no  more  fumes  are 
generated  is  increased  to  dark -red  heat. 
This  operation  is  conducted  either  in  a 
glass  retort  or  in  an  earthenware  cru- 
cible. The  sal  ammoniac  escapes  first 
on  heating,  next  vermilion  sublimates 
and  some  stannic  chloride,  while  the 
mosaic  gold  remains  on  the  bottom,  the 
upper  layer,  consisting  of  lustrous, 
golden,  delicately  translucent  leaflets, 
being  the  handsomest  mosaic  gold. 

Genuine  Silver  Bronze. — This  is  ob- 
tained by  the  finely  ground  waste  from 
beating  leaf  silver  or  by  dissolving  silver 
in  aqua  fortis.  This  solution  is  then 
diluted  with  water  and  brightly  scoured 
copper  plates  are  put  in,  whereby  the 
silver  precipitates  as  a  metallic  powder. 

Imitation  Silver  Bronze. — This  is  ob- 
tained through  the  waste  in  beating  imi- 
tation leaf  silver,  which,  finely  ground, 
is  then  washed  and  dried.  In  order  to 
increase  the  luster  it  is  ground  again  in  a 
dry  condition. 

Mosaic  Silver.  —  Mosaic  silver  is  an 
amalgam  of  equal  parts  of  mercury,  bis- 
muth, and  tin.  One  may  also  melt  50 
parts  of  good  tin  in  a  crucible,  and  as 
soon  as  it  becomes  liquid  add  50  parts 
of  bismuth,  stirring  all  with  an  iron  wire 
until  the  bismuth  is  fused  as  well.  As 
soon  as  this  occurs  the  crucible  must  be 
removed  from  the  fire;  then  stir  in,  as 
long  as  the  contents  are  still  liquid,  25 
parts  of  mercury  and  mix  the  whole  mass 


evenly  until  it  can  be  ground  on  a  stone 
slab. 

BRONZE  VARNISHES: 
See  Varnishes. 

BRONZING  SOLUTIONS  FOR  PAINTS  : 
See  Paints. 

BRONZING  OF  WOOD : 

See  Wood. 

BROOCHES,  PHOTOGRAPHS  ON: 

See  Photography. 

BROWN  OINTMENT : 

See  Ointments. 

BROWNING  OF  STEEL: 
See  Plating. 

BROWNSTONE,  IMITATION: 
See  Brick  Stain. 

BRUNETTE  POWDER: 

See  Cosmetics. 


Brushes 

HOW    TO    TAKE    CARE    OF    PAINT 

AND  VARNISH  BRUSHES. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  fill  the  varnish  brush 
before  putting  it  in  the  keeper. 

Whitewash  or  kalsomine  brushes 
should  not  be  put  into  newly  slaked 
lime  or  hot  kalsomine. 

Cement-set  brushes  should  never  be 
put  in  any  alcohol  mixture,  such  as  shel- 
lacs and  spirit  stains. 

Varnish  brushes  should  be  selected 
with  a  view  to  their  possessing  the  follow- 
ing qualities:  1st,  excellence  of  mate- 
rial; 2d,  excellence  of  make,  which 
includes  fullness  of  hair  or  bristles  and 
permanency  of  binding;  3d,  life  and 
spring,  or  elasticity  sufficient  to  enable 
the  varnisher  to  spread  the  varnish  with- 
out reducing  it  with  turpentine;  and 
4th,  springing,  when  in  use,  to  a  true 
chisel  edge. 

Temperature  for  Brushes. — The  bris- 
tles of  every  brush  are  held  in  place  by 
the  handle.  It  passes  through  the  shank 
of  the  brush  and  is  kiln-dried  to  fit 
perfectly.  If  it  shrinks,  however,  its 
outward  tension  is  lost  and  the  bristles 
loosened.  For  this  reason  the  first 
principle  in  brush  care  is  to  keep  the 
tool,  when  it  is  new  or  not  soaking,  in  a 
cool  place,  out  of  hot  rooms,  and  any 
temperature  that  would  tend  to  shrink 
the  wood  of  the  handle. 

Cleaning  Paint  Brushes. — No  new 
brush  should  be  dipped  in  the  paint 
and  put  to  work  without  first  being 


BRUSHES— BUNIONS 


141 


cleaned.  By  working  it  with  a  brisk 
movement  back  and  forth  through  the 
hand  most  of  the  dust  and  loose  hairs 
will  be  taken  out.  A  paint  brush,  when 
thus  thoroughly  dry  cleaned,  should  be 
placed  in  water  for  a  few  minutes,  not 
long  enough  to  soak  or  swell  it,  but  only 
until  wet  through,  and  then  swung  and 
shaken  dry.  It  is  then  ready  to  dip  in 
the  paint,  and  although  some  of  the  hairs 
may  still  be  loose,  most  of  them  will 
come  out  in  the  first  few  minutes'  work- 
ing and  can  be  easily  picked  from  the 
surface. 

Cleaning  Varnish  Brushes. — Varnish 
brushes,  and  brushes  used  in  varnish 
stain,  buggy  paint,  and  all  color  in  var- 
nish require  different  handling  than 
paint  brushes.  They  should  be  more 
thoroughly  dry  cleaned,  in  order  that 
all  loose  hairs  may  be  worked  out. 
After  working  them  through  the  hand  it 
is  a  good  thing  to  pass  the  brush  back 
and  forth  over  a  sheet  of  sandpaper. 
This  rough  surface  will  pull  out  the  loose 
bristles  and  smooth  down  the  rough 
ends  of  the  chisel  point.  The  brush 
should  then  be  washed  by  working  it  for 
a  few  minutes  in  clean  turpentine  and 
swinging  it  dry.  It  should  never  be  put 
in  water.  For  carriage  work  and  fine 
varnishing  the  brush  should  be  broken 
in  on  the  rubbing  coat  in  order  to  work 
out  all  the  dust  particles  before  it  is  used 
on  the  finishing  coats. 

Setting  the  Paint -Brush  Bristles.— 
For  the  first  2  or  3  days  new  brushes 
require  special  care  while  at  rest.  They 
should  be  dipped  in  raw  oil  or  the 
paint  itself  and  smoothed  out  carefully, 
then  laid  on  their  sides  over  night.  The 
chisel-pointed  brushes  should  be  set  at 
an  incline,  the  handle  supported  just 
enough  to  allow  the  brush  to  lie  along 
the  point.  This  is  done  to  prevent  twist- 
ing of  the  bristles,  and  to  keep  the  shape 
of  the  brush.  It  is  necessary  to  do 
this  only  2  or  3  times  before  the  shape 
becomes  set. 

Paint  Brushes  at  Rest. — An  impor- 
tant principle  in  brush  care  is  never  to 
leave  the  brush  on  end  while  at  rest. 
Even  for  temporary  rest  during  a  job 
the  brush  should  never  stand  on  end. 
At  night  it  should  always  be  placed  in  a 
"brush-keeper" — a  water-tight  box,  or  a 
paint  keg,  with  nails  driven  through  the 
sides  on  which  the  brushes  can  be  sus- 
pended in  water.  Holes  are  bored  in 
the  handles  so  the  brush  will  hang  free 
of  the  bottom,  but  with  the  bristles  en- 
tirely under  water.  Before  placing 


them  in  water  the  brushes  should  be 
wiped  so  as  not  to  be  too  full  of  paint, 
but  not  cleaned. 

Varnish  Brushes  at  Rest. — Varnish 
brushes  should  be  kept  at  rest  in  tur- 
pentine and  varnish,  or  better,  in  some 
of  the  varnish  that  the  brush  is  used  for. 
They  should  preferably  not  be  kept  in 
turpentine,  as  that  makes  the  brush 
**  lousy" — roughening  the  bristles. 

Washing  Brushes. — All  brushes  should 
be  washed  in  benzine  or  turpentine  and 
shaken  dry — not  whipped — when  it  is 
desired  to  change  from  one  color  to  an- 
other, or  from  one  varnish  to  another. 

To  Restore  Brushes. — A  good  remedy 
to  restore  lettering  brushes  which  have 
lost  their  elasticity  and  do  not  keep  a 
point,  is  as  follows: 

Put  the  pencil  in  oil  and  brush  it  sev- 
eral times  over  a  hot  iron  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  hairs  touch  the  iron  from 
each  side;  then  dip  the  pencil  quickly  in 
cold  water. 

A  Removable  Binding. — The  bristle 
bunch  of  brushes  is  bound  with  rope  so 
as  to  keep  them  together  for  use.  In- 
stead of  the  twine,  a  covering  of  rubber 
may  be  employed,  which  is  easily  slipped 
over  the  bristles  and  can  be  conveniently 
removed  again.  The  cleaning  of  the 
brush  is  much  facilitated  thereby,  and 
the  breadth  of  the  stripe  to  be  drawn 
with  the  brush  can  be  accurately  regu- 
lated, according  to  how  far  the  covering 
is  slipped  over  the  brush. 

See  also  Cleaning  Preparations  a--d 
Methods. 


BUBBLES     f  GELATIN: 
See  Gelatin. 

BUBBLE   (SOAP)  LIQUID: 

See  Soap  Bubble  Liquid. 

BUBBLES. 

Bubbles  of  air  often  adhere  to  molds 
immersed  in  depositing  solutions.  They 
may  be  prevented  by  previously  dipping 
the  object  into  spirits  of  wine,  or  be  re- 
moved by  the  aid  of  a  soft  brush,  or  by 
directing  a  powerful  current  of  the  liquid 
against  them  by  means  of  a  vulcanized 
india-rubber  bladder,  with  a  long  and 
curved  glass  tube  attached  to  it;  but  the 
liquid  should  be  free  from  sediment. 

BUG  KILLERS: 

See  Insecticides. 

BUNIONS : 

See  Corn  Cures. 


BURNS— BUTTER 


BURNS : 

See  also  Ointments  and  Turpentine. 

Mixture  for  Burns. — I. — A  mixture  of 
castor  oil  with  the  white  of  egg  is  recom- 
mended for  burns.  The  eggs  are  broken 
into  a  bowl  and  the  castor  oil  slowly 
poured  in  while  the  eggs  are  beaten. 
Enough  oil  is  added  to  make  a  thick, 
creamy  paste,  which  is  applied  to  the 
burn.  The  applications  are  repeated 
often  enough  to  prevent  their  becoming 
dry  or  sticky.  Leave  the  surface  un- 
covered. 

II. — Put  27  parts,  by  measure,  of 
menthol  into  44  parts,  by  measure,  of 
witch  ha/el  (distillate)  and  apply  freely. 
A  good  plan  is  to  bandage  the  parts  and 
wet  the  wrappings  with  this  mixture. 

III. — A  very  efficacious  remedy  for 
burns  is  a  solution  of  cooking  salt  in 
water.  It  is  best  to  immerse  fingers, 
hands,  and  arms  in  the  solution,  which 
must  be  tolerably  strong.  For  burns  in 
the  face  and  other  parts  of  the  body, 
salt  water  poultices  are  applied. 


Butter 

(See  also  Foods.) 

Butter  Color. — Orlean,  80  parts,  by 
weight;  curcuma  root  (turmeric),  80 
parts,  by  weight;  olive  oil,  240  parts,  by 
weight;  saffron,  1  part,  by  weight;  alco- 
hol, 5  parts,  by  weight.  The  orlean  and 
turmeric  are  macerated  with  olive  oil  and 
expressed.  The  weight  of  the  filtered 
liquid  is  made  up  again  to  240  parts,  by 
weight,  with  olive  oil,  next  the  filtered 
saffron-alcohol  extract  is  added,  and  the 
alcohol  is  expelled  again  by  heating  the 
mixture. 

Artificial  Butter.— I.— Carefully 
washed  beef  suet  furnishes  a  basis  for 
the  manufactures  of  an  edible  substitute 
for  natural  butter.  The  thoroughly 
washed  and  finely  chopped  suet  is  ren- 
dered in  a  steam-heated  tank;  1,000 
parts  of  fat,  300  parts  of  water,  1  part  of 
potassium  carbonate,  and  2  stomachs  of 
pigs  or  sheep,  are  taken.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  mixture  is  raised  to  113°  F. 
After  2  hours,  under  the  influence  of  the 
pepsin  in  the  stomachs,  the  membranes 
are  dissolved  and  the  fat  is  melted  and 
rises  to  the  top  of  the  mixture.  After 
the  addition  of  a  little  salt  the  melted  fat 
is  drawn  off,  stood  to  cool  so  as  to  allow 
the  stearine  and  palmitin  to  separate, 
and  then  pressed  in  bags  in  a  hydraulic 
press.  Forty  to  50  per  cent  of  solid 
stearine  remains,  while  50  to  60  per  cent 


of  fluid  oleopalmitin  (so-called  "oleo- 
margarine'') is  pressed  out.  The  "oleo 
oil"  is  then  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  its 
weight  of  milk  and  a  little  butter  color 
and  churned.  The  product  is  then 
worked,  salted,  and  constituted  the 
"oleomargarine,"  or  butter  substitute. 
Leaf  lard  can  be  worked  in  the  same  way 
as  beef  suet,  and  will  yield  an  oleopal- 
mitin suitable  for  churning  up  into  a 
butter  substitute. 

II. — Fat  from  freshly  slaughtered  cattle 
after  thorough  washing  is  placed  in  clean 
water  and  surrounded  with  ice,  where  it 
is  allowed  to  remain  until  all  animal  heat 
has  been  removed.  It  is  then  cut  into 
small  pieces  by  machinery  and  cooked  at 
a  temperature  of  about  150°  F.  (65.6°  C.) 
until  the  fat  in  liquid  form  has  separated 
from  the  tissue,  then  settled  until  it  is 
perfectly  clear.  Then  it  is  drawn  into 
the  graining  vats  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  day,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  presses. 
The  pressing  extracts  the  stearine,  leav- 
ing a  product  commercially  known  as 
oleo  oil  which,  when  churned  with  cream 
or  milk,  or  both,  and  with  usually  a  pro- 

Eortion   of  creamery  butter,   the   whole 
eing  properly  salted,  gives  the  new  food 
product,  oleomargarine. 

III. — In  making  butterine  use  neutral 
lard,  which  is  made  from  selected  leaf 
lard  in  a  very  similar  manner  to  oleo  oil, 
excepting  that  no  stearine  is  extracted. 
This  neutral  lard  is  cured  in  salt  brine 
for  from  48  to  70  hours  at  an  ice-water 
temperature.  It  is  then  taken  and,  with 
the  desired  proportion  of  oleo  oil  and  fine 
butter,  is  churned  with  cream  and  milk, 
producing  an  article  which  when  proper- 
ly salted  and  packed  is  ready  for  the 
market.  In  both  cases  coloring  matter 
is  used,  which  is  the  same  as  that  used  by 
dairymen  to  color  their  butter.  At  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year — viz.,  in  cold 
weather,  a  small  quantity  of  sesame  oil 
or  salad  oil  made  from  cottonseed  oil  is 
used  to  soften  the  texture  of  the  product. 
IV. — "Ankara"  is  a  substance  which 
in  general  appearance  resembles  a  good 
article  of  butter,  being  rather  firmer  at 
ordinary  temperatures  than  that  sub- 
stance, approaching  the  consistency  of 
cocoa  butter.  It  is  quite  odorless,  but  in 
taste  it  resembles  that  of  a  fair  article  of 
butter  and,  what  is  more,  its  behavior 
under  heat  is  very  similar  to  that  of  but- 
ter— it  browns  and  forms  a  sort  of  spume 
like  that  of  fat.  Ankara  consists  of  a 
base  of  cocoa  butter,  carrying  about  10 
per  cent  of  milk,  colored  with  yolk  of  egg. 
While  not  derived  from  milk,  on  the  one 
hand,  nor  does  it  come  from  a  single 
vegetable  or  animal  fat  on  the  other,  an- 


BUTTER— CAFlS   PARFAIT 


143 


kara  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  category  of  the  margarines.  An- 
kara is  obtained  in  the  market  in  the  form 
of  cakes  or  tablets  of  2  pounds  in  weight. 

V. — Fresh  butter,  150  parts,  by  weight; 
animal  fat,  80  parts,  by  weight;  sun- 
flower oil,  40  parts,  by  weight;  cocoanut 
oil,  30  parts,  by  weight. 

yi.— Fresh  butter,  100  parts,  by 
weight;  animal  fat,  100  parts,  by  weight; 
sunflower  oil,  80  parts,  by  weight;  cocoa- 
nut  oil,  20  parts,  by  weight. 

VII.—  Fresh  butter,  50  parts,  by 
weight;  animal  fat,  150  parts,  by  weight; 
sunflower  oil,  80  parts,  by  weight;  cocoa- 
nut  oil,  20  parts,  by  weight. 

It  is  seen  that  these  three  varieties 
contain  respectively  50,  33,  and  about  16 
per  cent  of  cow's  butter.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  mixture  is  nearly  perfect. 

Formulas  V  to  VII  are  for  a  Russian  arti- 
ficial butter  called  "  Perepusk." 

To  Impart  the  Aroma  and  Taste  of 
Natural  Butter  to  Margarine. — In  order 
to  give  margarine  the  aroma  and  flavor  of 
cow  butter,  add  to  it  a  fatty  acid  product, 
which  is  obtained  by  saponification  of 
butter,  decomposition  of  the  soap,  and 
distillation  in  the  vacuum  at  about  140° 
F.  The  addition  of  the  product  is  made 
upon  emulsification  of  the  fats  with  milk. 
The  margarine  will  keep  for  months. 

Harmless  Butter  Color. — Alum,  pul- 
verized finely,  30  parts;  extract  of  tur- 
meric, 1  part.  With  the  extract  damp- 
en the  powder  as  evenly  as  possible,  then 
spread  out  and  dry  over  some  hot  sur- 
face. When  dry,  again  pulverize  thor- 
oughly. Protect  the  product  from  the 
light.  As  much  of  the  powder  as  will 
lie  on  the  point  of  a  penknife  is  added 
to  a  churnful  of  milk,  or  cream,  before 
churning,  and  it  gives  a  beautiful  golden 
color,  entirely  harmless.  To  make  the 
extract  of  turmeric  add  1  part  of  pow- 
dered turmeric  to  5  parts  of  alcohol,  and 
let  macerate  together  for  fully  a  week. 

To  Sweeten  Rancid  Butter.— I.— Wash 
the  butter  first  with  fresh  milk  and  after- 
wards with  spring  water,  carefully  work- 
ing out  the  residual  water. 

II. — Add  25  to  30  drops  of  lime  chlor- 
ide to  every  2  pounds  of  butter,  work  the 
mass  up  thoroughly,  then  wash  in  plenty 
of  fresh,  cold  water,  and  work  out  the 
residual  water. 

III. — Melt  the  butter  in  a  water  bath, 
along  with  some  freshly  burned  animal 
charcoal,  coarsely  powdered  and  care- 
fully sifted  to  free  it  from  dust.  After 
this  has  remained  in  contact  for  a  few 
minutes,  the  butter  is  strained  through 
a  clean  flannel.  If  the  rancid  odor  is 


not   completely  removed,    complete   the 
process. 

An  English  Margarine. — A  mixture  of 
edible  fats  of  suitable  consistency,  e.  g., 
oleo  oil,  5  parts;  neutral  lard,  7  parts;  and 
butter,  1  part;  is  mixed  with  albuminous 
"batter,"  4  parts,  with  the  addition  of  1 
part  of  salt  as  a  preservative.  If  the 
albuminous  constituent  be  composed  of 
the  whites  and  yolks  of  eggs  beaten  to  a 
foam  the  product  will  have  the  consist- 
ency and  color  of  butter.  The  molten 
fats  are  added  to  the  egg  batter  and  the 
whole  is  stirred  at  a  temperature  suffi- 
cient to  produce  coagulation  of  the  albu- 
men (150-200°  F.).  The  mass  is  then 
cooled  gradually  with  continuous  stir- 
ring, and  the  salt  is  worked  in. 

Olive-Oil  Paste. — If  an  ounce  of  peeled 
garlic  be  rubbed  up  into  a  pulp,  in  a 
clean  Wedgwood  mortar,  and  to  this  be 
added  from  3  to  4  ounces  of  good  olive 
oil,  with  constant  rubbing  up  with  the 
pestle,  the  oil  becomes  converted  into  a 
pasty  mass,  like  butter.  It  is  possible 
that  the  mucilage  obtainable  from  other 
bulbs  of  the  Lilium  tribe  would  prove 
equally  efficient  in  conferring  semi- 
solidity  on  the  oil,  without  imparting  any 
strong  smell.  The  above  composition  is 
largely  used  by  the  Spanish  peasantry, 
instead  of  butter,  which  runs  liquid  in 
the  Spanish  summer.  It  is  known  as 
"aleoli."  The  more  easily  solidified 
portion  of  olive  oil  is  stearine,  and  this 
may  be  cheaply  prepared  from  mutton 
fat.  If  added,  in  certain  proportions,  to 
olive  oil,  it  would  certainly  raise  its  melt- 
ing point. 

BUTTERMILK,  ARTIFICIAL. 

Buttermilk  powder,  10  parts;  vinegar, 
1  part;  syrup  of  buckthorn,  1  part.  Dis- 
solve the  powder  in  the  water  and  add 
the  vinegar  and  syrup.  The  powder  is 
prepared  as  follows:  Sodium  chloride, 
50  parts;  milk  sugar,  100  parts;  potas- 
sium nitrate,  5  parts;  alum,  5  parts. 
Mix. 

BUTTER,  ARTIFICIAL:  TESTS  FOR: 

See  Foods. 

BUTTER  COLORANT: 

See  Foods. 

BUTTONS  OF  ARTIFICIAL  AGATE: 

See  Agate. 

CADMIUM  ALLOYS : 

See  Alloys. 


CALAMUS  dORDlAL-CAMPMOft 


CALCIUM   CARBIDE: 

Preservation  and  Use  of  Calcium 
Carbide. — Calcium  carbide  is  readily  at- 
tacked by  the  air  and  the  moisture  con- 
tained in  the  generators  and  consequent- 
ly decomposes  during  the  storing,  with 
formation  of  acetylene  gas.  Aside  from 
the  loss,  this  decomposition  is  also  at- 
tended with  dangers.  One  of  the  oldest 
methods  of  preservation  is  the  saturation 
of  the  carbide  with  petroleum.  In  using 
such  carbide  a  layer  of  petroleum  forms 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  gener- 
ator, which  prevents  the  water  from 
evaporating,  thus  limiting  the  subse- 
quent generation  of  acetylene  from  the 
remaining  carbide.  Instead  of  petro- 
leum many  other  substances  have  been 
proposed  which  answer  the  purpose 
equally  well,  e.  g.,  toluol,  oils,  solid  bodies, 
which  previously  have  to  be  liquefied, 
such  as  stearine,  paraffine,  rosin,  etc. 

Of  a  different  nature  is  a  medium  of- 
fered by  Letang  of  Paris.  He  em- 
ploys sugar  or  saccharine  bodies  to  which 
he  adds,  if  necessary,  a  little  petroleum, 
turpentine,  vaseline,  or  varnish  of  any 
kind,  as  well  as  chalk,  limestone,  talc, 
sulphur,  or  sand.  The  carbide  is  coated 
with  this  mixture.  The  saccharine  sub- 
stances dissolve  in  the  generating  water, 
and  also  have  a  dissolving  action  on  the 
slaked  lime,  which  is  formed  by  the  de- 
composition of  the  carbide  which  admits 
of  its  easy  removal. 

According  to  another  process  carbide 
is  put  on  the  market  in  such  a  shape 
that,  without  weighing,  merely  by  count- 
ing or  measuring  one  is  in  a  position  to 
use  equivalent  quantities  for  every  charge. 
Gearing  casts  molten  carbide  in  the 
shape  of  bars,  and  pours  a  layer  of  gela- 
tin, glue,  and  water  soluble  varnish 
over  the  carbide  bars.  Others  make 
shells  containing  a  certain  quantity  of 
reduced  carbide.  For  this  ordinary  and 
varnished  pasteboard,  wax  paper,  tin- 
foil, thin  sneet  zinc,  and  similar  sub- 
stances may  be  used  which  ward  off 
atmospheric  moisture,  thus  protecting 
the  carbide  from  premature  decompo- 
sition. Before  use,  the  cartridge-like 
shell  is  pierced  or  cut  open,  so  that  the 
water  can  get  at  the  contents.  The 
more  or  less  reduced  carbide  is  filled  in 
the  shell,  either  without  any  admixture 
or  united  into  a  compact  mass  by  a  bind- 
ing agent,  such  as  colophony,  pitch,  tar, 
sand,  etc. 

Deodorization  of  Calcium  Carbide. — 
Calcium  carbide  is  known  to  possess  a 


very  unpleasant  odor  because  It 
stantly  develops  small  quantities  of  im- 
pure acetylene  in  contact  with  the  mois- 
ture of  tne  air.  Le  Roy,  of  Rouen, 
proposes  for  portable — especially  bicy- 
cle— lamps,  in  which  the  evil  is  more 
noticeable  than  in  large  plants,  simply  to 
pour  some  petroleum  over  the  carbide 
and  to  pour  off  the  remainder  not  ab- 
sorbed. The  petroleum,  to  which  it  is 
well  to  add  some  nitro-benzol  (mir- 
bane  essence),  prevents  the  access  of  air 
to  the  carbide,  but  permits  a  very  satis- 
factory generation  of  gas  on  admission  of 
water. 

CALCIUM  SULPHIDE    (LUMINOUS): 
See  Paints. 

CALFSKIN: 

See  Leather. 

CAMERA  RENOVATION: 

See  Photography. 

CAMPHOR  PREPARATIONS: 

Fragrant  Naphthalene  Camphor. — 
Naphthalene  white, 

in  scales 3,000  parts 

Camphor 1,000  parts 

Melt  on  the  steam  bath  and  add  to  the 
hot  mass: 

Coumarin 2  parts 

Mirbane  oil 10  parts 

Cast  in  plates  or  compressed  tablets. 
The  preparation  is  employed  as  a  moth 
preventive. 

Powdered  Camphor  in.  Permanent 
Form. — I. — Powder  the  camphor  in  the 
usual  manner,  with  the  addition  of  a 
little  alcohol.  When  it  is  nearly  reduced 
to  the  proper  degree  of  fineness  add  a 
few  drops  of  fluid  petrolatum  and  imme- 
diately triturate  again.  In  this  manner 
a  powder  as  fine  as  flour  is  obtained, 
which  does  not  cake  together.  This 
powdered  camphor  may  be  used  for  all 
purposes  except  for  solution  in  alcohol, 
as  it  will  impart  to  the  latter  a  faint  opal- 
escence,  owing  to  the  insolubility  of  the 
petrolatum. 

II. — Take  equal  parts  of  strong  ether 
and  alcohol  to  reduce  the  camphor  to 
powder.  It  is  claimed  for  this  method 
that  it  only  takes  one-half  of  the  time 
required  when  alcohol  alone  is  used,  and 
that  the  camphor  dries  more  quickly. 
Before  sifting  add  1  per  cent  of  white 
vaseline  and  5  per  cent  of  sugar  of  milk. 
Triturate  fairly  dry,  spread  out  in  the  air, 
say  15  minutes,  ^  then  pass  through  a 
moderately  fine  wire  sieve,  using  a  stubby 
shaving  brush  to  assist  in  working  it 
through. 


CAMPHOR— CANDLES 


145 


Camphor  Pomade  — 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds.      1     drachm 

Oil  of  cloves 20     drops 

Camphor li  ounces 

White  wax 4     ounces 

Lard,  orepared 1     pound 

Melt  the  wax  and  lard  together,  then 
add  the  camphor  in  saturated  solution 
in  spirit;  put  in  the  oils  when  nearly 
cold. 

Camphor  Ice. — 

L— White  wax 16  parts 

Benzoated  suet 48  parts 

Camphor,  powdered.      8  parts 
Essential  oil,  to  perfume. 
Melt    the     wax    and    suet    together. 
When  nearly  cold,  add  the  camphor  and 
perfume,  mix  well,  and  pour  into  molds. 

II. — Oil  of  a Imond 16  parts 

White  wax 4  parts 

Spermaceti 4  parts 

Paraffine 8  parts 

Camphor,  powdered.      1  part 
Perfume,  quantity  sufficient. 
Dissolve  the  camphor  in  the  oil  by  the 
aid  of  a  gentle  heat.      Melt  the  solids  to- 
gether, remove,  and  let  cool,  but  before 
the  mixture  begins  to  set  add  the  cam- 
phorated oil  and  the  perfume,  mix,  and 
pour  into  molds. 
III. — Stearine  (stearic  acid)     8  pounds 

Lard 10  pounds 

White  wax 5  pounds 

Spermaceti 5  pounds 

Melt  on  a  water  bath  in  an  earthen  or 
porcelain  dish;  strain  into  a  similar  ves- 
sel; add  a  solution  of  2  ounces  powdered 
borax  in  1  pound  of  glycerine,  previously 
warmed,  to  the  melted  substance  when  at 
the  point  of  cooling;  stir  well;  add  cam- 
phor, 2  pounds,  powdered  by  means  of 
alcohol,  3  ounces;  stir  well  and  pour  into 
molds. 


CAMPHOR    SUBSTITUTES    IN    THE 
PREPARATION  OF  CELLULOID : 

See  Celluloid. 

CAMPHOR    AND    RHUBARB    AS    A 
REMEDY  FOR  CHOLERA: 

See  Cholera  Remedies. 

CAN  VARNISH : 

See  Varnishes. 

CANARY-BIRD  PASTE. 

The  following  is  a  formula  much  used 
by  German  canary-bird  raisers: 
Sweet  almonds, 

blanched 16  parts 

Pea  meal ,  ..   32  parts 


Butter,      fresh      (un- 

salted)  ...     3  parts 

Honey,  quantity  sufficient  to  make 

a  stiff  paste. 

The  ingredients  are  worked  into  a 
stiff  paste,  which  is  pressed  through  a 
colander  or  large  sieve  to  granulate  the 
mass.  Some  add  to  every  5  pounds, 
10  or  15  grains  of  saffron  and  the  yolks 
of  2  eggs. 

CANARY    BIRDS    AND    THEIR    DIS- 
EASES : 
See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

CANDLES : 

Coloring  Ceresine  Candles  for  the 
Christmas  Tree. — For  coloring  these 
candles  only  dye  stuffs  soluble  in  oil 
can  be  employed.  Blue:  23-24  lav- 
ender blue,  pale  or  dark,  100-120  parts 
per  5,000  parts  of  ceresine.  Violet:  26 
fast  viole.t  R,  150  parts  per  5,000  parts  of 
ceresine.  Silver  gray:  29  silver  gray, 
150  parts  per  5,000  parts  of  ceresine. 
Yellow  and  orange:  30  wax  yellow,  me- 
dium, 200  parts  per  5,000  parts  of  cere- 
sine;  61  old  gold,  200  parts  per  5,000 
parts  of  ceresine.  Pink  and  red: 
27  peach-pink,  or  29  chamois,  about  100 
parts  per  5,000  parts  of  ceresine.  Green: 
16-17  brilliant  green,  33  May  green,  41 
May  green,  200-250  parts  per  5,000 
parts  of  ceresine.  The  above-named 
colors  should  be  ground  in  oil  and  the 
ceresine  tinted  with  them  afterwards. 

Manufacture  of  Composite  Paraffine 
Candles. — Three  parts  of  hydroxy- 
stearic  acid  are  dissolved  in  1  part  of  a 
suitable  solvent  (e.  g.,  stearic  acid),  and 
the  solution  is  mixed  with  paraffine  wax 
to  form  a  stock  for  the  manufacture  of 
composite  candles. 

Transparent  Candles. — The  following 
are  two  recipes  given  in  a  German 
patent  specification.  The  figures  de- 
note parts  by  weight: 

I. — Paraffine  wax,  70;  stearine,  15; 
petroleum,  15. 

II. — Paraffine  wax,  90;  stearine,  5; 
petroleum,  5.  Recipe  I  of  course  gives 
candles  more  transparent  than  does 
recipe  II.  The  15  per  cent  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  extreme  limit  consistent 
with  proper  solidity  of  the  candles. 

To  Prevent  the  Trickling  of  Burning 
Candles. — Dip  the  candles  in  the  fol- 
lowing mixture: 

Magnesium  sulphate     15  parts 

Dextrin 15  parts 

Water 100  parts 

The  solution  dries  quickly  and  does 
not  affect  the  burning  of  the  candle, 


146 


CANDLE— CARAMELS 


Candle  Coloring. — Candles  are  colored 
either  throughout  or  they  sometimes 
consist  of  a  white  body  that  is  covered 
with  a  colored  layer  of  paraffine  wax. 
According  to  the  material  from  which 
candles  are  made  (stearine,  paraffine, 
or  ozokerite),  the  process  of  coloring 
varies. 

Stearine,  owing  to  its  acid  character, 
dissolves  the  coal-tar  colors  much  more 
readily  than  do  the  perfectly  neutral  par- 
affine and  ozokerite  waxes.  For  coloring 
stearine  the  necessary  quantity  of  the 
color  is  added  to  the  melted  mass  and 
well  stirred  in;  if  the  solution  effected 
happens  to  be  incomplete,  a  small  addi- 
tion of  alcohol  will  prove  an  effective 
remedy.  It  is  also  an  advantage  to  dis- 
solve the  colors  previously  in  alcohol  and 
add  the  concentrated  solution  to  the 
melted  stearine.  The  alcohol  soon  evap- 
orates, and  has  no  injurious  effect  on 
the  quality  of  the  stearine. 

For  a  number  of  years  there  have  been 
on  the  market  so-called  "  fat  colors," 
formed  by  making  concentrated  solu- 
tions of  the  color,  and  also  special  prep- 
arations of  the  colors  in  stearine.  They 
are  more  easily  applied,  and  are,  there- 
fore, preferred  to  the  powdered  aniline 
colors,  which  are  apt  to  cause  trouble  by 
being  accidentally  distributed  in  soluble 
particles,  where  they  are  not  wanted. 
Since  paraffine  and  ozokerite  dissolve 
comparatively  little,  they  will  not  be- 
come colored,  and  so  must  be  colored 
indirectly.  One  way  is  to  dissolve  the 
color  in  oleic  acid  or  in  stearine  acid  and 
add  the  »olution  to  the  wax  to  be  col- 
ored. Turpentine  may  be  employed  for 
the  same  purpose.  Concerning  the  colors 
suitable  for  candles,  there  are  the  cosine 
colors  previously  mentioned,  and  also 
chroline  yellow,  auramine,  taniline  blue, 
tartrazine,  brilliant  green,  etc.  The 
latter,  however,  bleaches  so  rapidly  that 
it  can  hardly  be  recommended.  An 
interesting  phenomenon  is  the  change 
some  colors  undergo  in  a  warm  tem- 
perature; for  instance,  some  blues  turn 
red  at  a  moderate  degree  of  heat  (120° 
F.)  and  return  to  blue  only  when  com- 
pletely cooled  off;  this  will  be  noticed 
while  the  candle  mixture  is  being  melted 
previous  to  molding  into  candles. 

CANDLES  (FUMIGATING) : 

See  Fumigants. 

CANDY  COLORS  AND  FLAVORS: 
See  Confectionery. 

CANDY: 

See  Confectionery. 


CANVAS  WATERPROOFING ; 

See  Waterproofing. 

CAOUTCHOUC : 
See  Rubber. 

CAOUTCHOUC  SOLUTION  FOR 
PAINTS : 

See  Paint. 

CAPPING  MIXTURES  FOR  BOTTLES : 
See  Bottle-Capping  Mixtures. 

CAPSULE  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

CARAMEL : 

Cloudless  Caramel  Coloring. — I. — 
When  it  is  perfectly  understood  that  in 
the  manufacture  of  caramel,  sugar  is  to 
be  deprived  of  the  one  molecule  of  its 
water  of  constitution,  it  will  be  apparent 
that  heat  must  not  be  carried  on  to  the 
point  of  carbonization.  Cloudy  cara- 
mel is  due  to  the  fact  that  part  of  the 
sugar  has  been  dissociated  and  reduced 
to  carbon,  which  is  insoluble  in  water. 
Hence  the  cloudiness.  Caramel  may  be 
made  on  a  small  scale  in  the  following 
manner:  Place  4  or  5.  ounces  of  granu- 
lated sugar  in  a  shallow  porcelain-lined 
evaporating  dish  and  apply  either  a 
direct  heat  or  that  of  an  oil  bath,  con- 
tinuing the  heat  until  caramelization 
takes  place  or  until  tumescence  ceases 
and  the  mass  has  assumed  a  dark-brown 
color.  Then  carefully  add  sufficient 
water  to  bring  the  viscid  mass  to  the 
consistence  of  a  heavy  syrup.  Extreme 
care  must  be  taken  and  the  face  and 
hands  protected  during  the  addition  of 
the  water,  owing  to  the  intensity  of  the 
heat  of  the  mass,  and  consequent  sput- 
tering. 

II. — The  ordinary  sugar  coloring 
material  is  made  from  sugar  or  glucose 
by  heating  it,  while  being  constantly 
stirred,  up  to  a  temperature  of  about 
405°  F.  A  metal  pan  capable  of  holding 
nearly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  sugar 
used,  is  necessary  so  as  to  retain  the 
mass  in  its  swollen  condition.  As  soon 
as  it  froths  up  so  as  nearly  to  fill  the  pan, 
an  action  which  occurs  suddenly,  the  fire 
must  instantly  be  extinguished  or  re- 
moved. The  finished  product  will  be 
insoluble  if  more  than  about  15  per  cent 
of  its  weight  is  driven  off  by  the  heat. 

CARAMEL  IN  FOOD : 

See  Food. 

CARAMELS : 

See  Confectionery. 


CARBOLIC   ACID— CARPET   SOAP 


147 


CARBOLIC  ACID. 

Perfumed  Carbolic  Acid. — 
I. — Carbolic  acid  (cryst.).     1  ounce 

Alcohol 1  ounce 

Oil  bergamot 10  minims 

Oil  eucalyptus 10  minims 

Oil  citronella 3  minims 

Tincture  cudbear. ...    10  minims 

Water,  to  make 10  ounces 

Set  aside  for  several  days,  and  then 
filter  through  fuller's  earth. 
II. — Carbolic  acid  (cryst.)     4  drachms 

Cologne  water 4  drachms 

Dilute  acetic  acid. ...      9  ounces 
Keep  in  a  cool  place  for  a  few  days, 
and  filter. 

Treatment  of  Carbolic-Acid  Burns. — 
Thoroughly  wash  the  hands  with  alco- 
hol, and  the  burning  and  tingling  will 
almost  immediately  cease.  Unless  em- 
ployed immediately,  however,  the  alco- 
hol has  no  effect.  When  the  time 
elapsed  since  the  burning  is  too  great 
for  alcohol  to  be  of  value,  brush  the 
burns  with  a  saturated  solution  of  picric 
acid  in  water. 

Decolorization  of  Carbolic  Acid. — To 
decolorize  the  acid  the  following  simple 
method  is  recommended.  For  purify- 
ing carbolic  acid  which  has  already  be- 
come quite  brown-red  on  account  of 
having  been  kept  in  a  tin  vessel,  the  re- 
ceptacle is  exposed  for  a  short  time  to 
a  temperature  of  25°  C.  (77°  F.),  thus 
causing  only  a  part  of  the  contents  to 
melt.  In  this  state  the  acid  is  put  into 
glass  funnels  and  left  to  stand  for  10  to 
12  days  in  a  room  which  is  likewise 
kept  at  the  above  temperature.  Clear 
white  crystals  form  from  the  drippings, 
which  remained  unchanged,  protected 
from  air  and  light,  while  by  repeating 
the  same  process  more  clear  crystals  are 
obtained  from  the  solidified  dark  col- 
ored mother  lye.  In  this  manner  75  to 
80  per  cent  of  clear  product  is  obtained 
altogether. 

Disguising  Odor  of  Carbolic  Acid.-— 
Any  stronger  smelling  substance  will  dis- 
guise the  odor  of  carbolic  acid,  to  an  ex- 
tent at  least,  but  it  is  a  difficult  odor  to 
disguise  on  account  of  its  persistence. 
Camphor  and  some  of  the  volatile  oils, 
such  as  peppermint,  cajeput,  caraway, 
clove,  and  wintergreen  may  be  used. 

To  Restore  Reddened  Carbolic  Acid. 
— Demont's  method  consists  in  melting 
the  acid  on  the  water  bath,  adding  12  per 
cent  of  alcohol  of  95  per  cent,  letting  cool 
down  and,  after  the  greater  part  of  the 
substance  has  crystallized  out,  decanting 


the  liquid  residue.  The  crystals  ob- 
tained in  this  manner  are  snowy  white, 
and  on  being  melted  yield  a  nearly  color- 
less liquid.  The  alcohol  may  be  recov- 
ered by  redistillation  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture. This  is  a  rather  costly  procedure. 

CARBOLIC  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

CARBOLINEUM: 

See  also  Paints  and  Wood. 

Preparation  of  Carbolineum.  — I.  — Melt 
together  50  parts  of  American  rosin  (F) 
and  150  parts  of  pale  paraffine  oil  (yel- 
low oil),  and  add,  with  stirring,  20  parts 
of  rosin  oil  (rectified). 

II. — Sixty  parts,  by  weight,  of  black 
coal  tar  oil  of  a  specific  gravity  higher 
than  1.10;  25  parts,  by  weight,  of  creo- 
sote oil;  25  parts,  by  weight,  of  beech- 
wood  tar  oil  of  a  higher  specific  weight 
than  0.9.  Mix  together  and  heat  to 
about  347°  F.,  or  until  the  fumes  given 
off  begin  to  deposit  soot.  The  resulting 
carbolineum  is  brown,  and  of  somewhat 
thick  consistency;  when  cool  it  is  ready 
for  use  and  is  packed  in  casks.  This 
improved  carbolineum  is  applied  to  wood 
or  masonry  with  a  brush;  the  surfaces 
treated  dry  quickly,  very  soon  loose  the 
odor  of  the  carbolineum,  and  are  effec- 
tively protected  from  dampness  and  for- 
mation of  fungi. 

CARBON  PRINTING: 

See  Photography. 

CARBON  PROCESS  IN  PHOTOGRA- 
PHY: 

See  Photography. 

CARBONYLE : 

See  Wood. 

CARBUNCLE  REMEDIES: 
See  Boil  Remedy. 

CARDS  (PLAYING),  TO  CLEAN : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

CARDBOARD,  WATERPROOF  GLUE 
FOR: 

See  Adhesives  under  Cements  and 
Waterproof  Glues. 

CARDBOARD,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

CARMINATIVES : 

See  Pain  Killers. 

CARPET  PRESERVATION: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

CARPET  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 


148 


CASEIN 


CARRIAGE-TOP  DRESSING 

See  Leather. 

CARRON  OIL: 

See  Cosmetics. 

CASE  HARDENING: 

See  Steel. 


Casein 

Dried  Casein,  its  Manufacture  and 
Uses. — For  the  production  of  casein, 
skimmed  milk  or  buttermilk  is  used, 
articles  of  slight  value,  as  they  cannot  be 
employed  for  feeding  hogs  or  for  making 
cheese,  except  of  a  very  inferior  sort,  of 
little  or  no  alimentive  qualities.  This 
milk  is  heated  to  from  70°  to  90°  C. 
(175°-195°  F.),  and  sulphuric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  added  until  it  no  longer 
causes  precipitation.  The  precipitate 
is  washed  to  free  it  from  residual  lactose, 
redissolved  in  a  sodium  carbonate  solu- 
tion, and  again  precipitated,  this  time  by 
lactic  acid.  It  is  again  washed,  dried, 
and  pulverized.  It  takes  8  gallons  of 
skimmed  milk  to  make  1  pound  of  dry 
casein. 

In  the  manufacture  of  fancy  papers, 
or  papers  that  are  made  to  imitate  the 
appearance  of  various  cloths,  laces, 
ana  silks,  casein  is  very  widely  used. 
It  is  also  largely  used  in  waterproof- 
ing tissues,  for  preparation  of  water- 
proof products,  and  various  articles 
prepared  from  agglomeration  of  cork 
(packing  boards,  etc.).  With  lime  water 
casein  makes  a  glue  that  resists  heat, 
steam,  etc.  It  also  enters  into  the  manu- 
facture of  the  various  articles  made  from 
artificial  ivory  (billiard  balls,  combs, 
toilet  boxes,  etc.),  imitation  of  celluloid, 
meerschaum,  etc.,  and  is  finding  new 
uses  every  day. 

Casein,  as  known,  may  act  the  part 
of  an  acid  and  combine  with  bases  to 
form  caseinates  or  caseates;  among  these 
compounds,  caseinates  of  potash,  of 
soda,  and  of  ammonia  are  the  only  ones 
soluble  in  water;  all  the  others  are  insol- 
uble and  may  be  readily  prepared  by 
double  decomposition.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, to  obtain  caseinate  of  alumina  it 
is  sufficient  to  add  to  a  solution  of  casein 
in  caustic  soda,  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
alumina;  an  insoluble  precipitate  of  ca- 
sein, or  caseinate  of  alumina,  is  instantly 
formed. 

This  precipitate  ought  to  be  freed 
from  the  sulphate  of  soda  (formed  by 
double  decomposition),  by  means  of  pro- 
longed washing.  Pure,  ordinary  cellu- 


lose may  be  incorporated  with  it  by  this 
process,  producing  a  new  compound, 
cheaper  than  pure  cellulose,  although 
possessing  the  same  properties,  and  capa- 
ble of  replacing  it  in  all  its  applications. 

According  to  the  results  desired,  in 
transparency,  color,  hardness,  etc.,  the 
most  suitable  caseinate  should  be  select- 
ed. Thus,  if  a  translucent  compound  is 
to  be  obtained,  the  caseinate  of  alumina 
yields  the  best.  If  a  white  compound  is 
desired,  the  caseinate  of  zinc,  or  of  mag- 
nesia, should  be  chosen;  and  for  colored 
products  the  caseinates  of  iron,  copper, 
and  nickel  will  give  varied  tints. 

The  process  employed  for  the  new  prod- 
ucts, with  a  base  of  celluloid  and  casein- 
ate,  is  as  follows:  On  one  hand  casein  is 
dissolved  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (100 
parts  of  water  for  10  to  25  parts  of  soda), 
and  this  liquid  is  filtered  to  separate  the 
matters  not  dissolved  and  the  impurities. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  salt  of  the  base  of 
which  the  caseinate  is  desired  is  dis- 
solved, and  the  solution  filtered.  It  is 
well  not  to  operate  on  too  concentrated  a 
solution.  The  two  solutions  are  mixed 
in  a  receptacle  provided  with  a  mechan- 
ical stirrer,  in  order  to  obtain  the  in- 
soluble caseinate  precipitate  in  as  finely 
divided  a  state  as  possible.  This  precip- 
itate should  be  washed  thoroughly,  so 
as  to  free  it  from  the  soda  salt  formed  by 
double  decomposition,  but  on  account  of 
its  gummy  or  pasty  state,  this  washing 
presents  certain  difficulties,  and  should 
DC  done  carefully.  After  the  washing 
the  mass  is  freed  from  the  greater  part 
of  water  contained,  by  draining,  followed 
by  drying,  or  energetic  pressing;  then  it 
is  washed  in  alcohol,  dried  or  pressed 
again,  and  is  ready  to  be  incorporated  in 
the  plastic  mass  of  the  celluloid. 

For  the  latter  immersion  and  washing 
it  has  been  found  that  an  addition  of  1  to 
5  per  cent  of  borax  is  advantageous,  for  it 
renders  the  mass  more  plastic,  and  facil- 
itates the  operation  of  mixing.  This 
may  be  conducted  in  a  mixing  appara- 
tus; but,  in  practice,  it  is  found  prefer- 
able to  effect  it  with  a  rolling  mill,  oper- 
ating as  follows: 

The  nitro-cellulose  is  introduced  in 
the  plastic  state,  and  moistened  with  a 
solution  of  camphor  in  alcohol  (40  to  50 
parts  of  camphor  in  50  to  70  of  alcohol 
for  100  of  nitro-cellulose)  as  it  is  prac- 
ticed in  celluloid  factories. 

This  plastic  mass  of  nitro-cellulose  is 
placed  in  a  rolling  mill,  the  cylinders  of 
which  are  slightly  heated  at  the  same 
time  as  the  cdseinate,  prepared  as  above; 
then  the  whole  mass  is  worked  by  the 
cylinders  until  the  mixture  of  the  two 


CASTING 


149 


is  perfectly  homogeneous,  and  the  final 
mass  is  sufficiently  hard  to  be  drawn  out 
in  leaves  in  the  same  way  as  practiced 
for  pure  celluloid. 

These  leaves  are  placed  in  hydraulic 
presses,  where  they  are  compressed, 
first  hot,  then  cold,  and  the  block  thus 
formed  is  afterwards  cut  into  leaves  of  the 
thickness  desired.  These  leaves  are 
dried  in  an  apparatus  in  the  same  way 
as  ordinary  celluloid.  The  product 
resembles  celluloid,  and  has  all  its  prop- 
erties. At  90°  to  100°  C.  (194°  to  212° 
F.),  it  becomes  quite  plastic,  and  is 
easily  molded.  It  may  be  sawed,  filed, 
turned,  and  carved  without  difficulty, 
and  takes  on  a  superb  polish.  It  burns 
less  readily  than  celluloid,  and  its  com- 
bustibility diminishes  in  proportion  as 
the  percentage  of  casemate  increases; 
finally,  the  cost  price  is  less  than  that  of 
celluloid,  and  by  using  a  large  proportion 
of  caseinate,  products  may  be  manu- 
factured at  an  extremely  low  cost. 

Phosphate  of  Casein  and  its  Pro- 
duction.— The  process  is  designed  to 
produce  a  strongly  acid  compound  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  casein,  practically 
stable  and  not  hydroscopic,  which  may 
be  employed  as  an  acid  ingredient  in 
bakers'  yeast  and  for  other  purposes. 

The  phosphoric  acid  may  be  obtained 
by  any  convenient  method;  for  example, 
by  decomposing  dicalcic  or  monocalcic 
phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid.  The 
commercial  phosphoric  acid  may  also  be 
employed. 

The  casein  may  be  precipitated  from 
the  skimmed  milk  by  means  of  a  suitable 
acid,  and  should  be  washed  with  cold 
water  to  remove  impurities.  A  casein- 
ate  may  also  be  employed,  such  as  a 
compound  of  casein  and  an  alkali  or 
an  alkaline  earth. 

The  new  compound  is  produced  in  the 
following  way:  A  sufficient  quantity  of 
phosphoric  acid  is  incorporated  with  the 
casein  or  a  caseinate  in  such  a  way  as  to 
insure  sufficient  acidity  in  the  resulting 
compound.  The  employment  of  23  to 
25  parts  by  weight  of  phosphoric  acid 
with  75  to  77  parts  of  casein  constitutes 
a  good  proportion. 

An  aqueous  solution  of  phosphoric 
acid  is  made,  and  the  casein  introduced 
in  the  proportion  of  25  to  50  per  cent  of 
the  weight  of  the  phosphoric  acid  pres- 
ent. The  mixture  is  then  heated  till  the 
curdled  form  of  the  casein  disappears, 
and  it  assumes  a  uniform  fluid  form. 
Then  the  mixture  is  concentrated  to  a 
syrupy  consistency.  The  remainder  of 
the  casein  or  of  the  caseinate  is  added 


and  mixed  /with  the  solution  until  it  is 
intimately  incorporated  and  the  mass 
becomes  uniform.  The  compound  is 
dried  in  a  current  of  hot  air,  or  in  any 
other  way  that  will  not  discolor  it,  and  it 
is  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  The  inti- 
mate union  of  the  phosphoric  acid  and 
casein  during  the  gradual  concentra- 
tion of  the  mixture  and  during  the  grind- 
ing and  drying,  removes  the  hydroscopic 
property  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  and 
produces  a  dry  and  stable  product, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  hyperphos- 
phate  of  casein.  When  it  is  mixed  with 
water,  it  swells  and  dissolves  slowly. 
When  this  compound  is  mingled  with  its 
equivalent  of  sodium  bicarbonate  it 
yields  about  17  per  cent  of  gas. 

CASEIN  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

CASEIN  VARNISH : 
See  Varnishes. 

CASKS : 

To  Render  Shrunken  Wooden  Casks 
Watertight. — When  a  wooden  receptacle 
has  dried  up  it  naturally  cannot  hold  the 
water  poured  into  it  for  the  purpose  of 
swelling  it,  and  the  pouring  has  to  be 
repeated  many  times  before  the  desired 
end  is  reached.  A  much  quicker  way  is 
to  stuff  the  receptacle  full  of  straw  or  bad 
hay,  laying  a  stone  on  top  and  then  filling 
the  vessel  with  water.  Although  the 
water  runs  off  again,  the  moistened 
straw  remains  behind  and  greatly  assists 
the  swelling  up  of  the  wood. 

CASSIUS,  PURPLE  OF: 

See  Gold. 

CASKET  TRIMMINGS: 

See  Castings. 

CASTS    (PLASTER),    PRESERVATION 
OF: 

See  Plaster. 

CASTS,  REPAIRING  OF  BROKEN : 

See  Adhesives  and  Lutes. 

CASTS  FROM  WAX  MODELS: 

See  Modeling. 


Casting 

Castings  Out  of  Various  Metals. — Un- 
til recent  years  metal  castings  were  all 
made  in  sand  molds;  that  is,  the  patterns 
were  used  for  the  impressions  in  the 
sand,  the  same  as  iron  castings  are  pro- 
duced to-day.  Nearly  all  of  the  softer 
metals  are  now  cast  in  brass,  copper, 
zinc,  or  iron  molds,  and  only  the  silver 


150 


CASTING 


and  German  silver  articles,  like  wire 
real  bronze,  are  cast  the  old  way,  in  sand. 
Aluminum  can  be  readily  cast  in  iron 
molds,  especially  if  the  molds  have  been 
previously  heated  to  nearly  the  same 
temperature  as  the  molten  aluminum, 
and  after  the  molds  are  full  the  metal  is 
cooled  gradually  and  the  casting  taken 
out  as  soon  as  cooled  enough  to  prevent 
breaking  from  the  shrinkage.  Large 
bicycle  frames  have  been  successfully 
cast  in  this  manner. 

The  French  bronzes,  which  are  imi- 
tations, are  cast  in  copper  or  brass  molds. 
The  material  used  is  principally  zinc  and 
tin,  and  an  unlimited  number  of  castings 
can  be  made  in  the  mold,  but  if  a  real 
bronze  piece  is  to  be  produced  it  must  be 
out  of  copper  and  the  mold  made  in 
sand.  To  make  the  castings  hollow, 
with  sand,  a  core  is  required.  This  fills 
the  inside  of  the  figure  so  that  the  molten 
copper  runs  around  it,  and  as  the  core  is 
made  out  of  sand,  the  same  can  be  after- 
wards washed  out.  If  the  casting  is  to  be 
hollow  and  is  to  be  cast  in  a  metal  mold, 
then  the  process  is  very  simple.  The 
mold  is  filled  with  molten  metal,  and 
when  the  operator  thinks  the  desired 
thickness  has  cooled  next  to  the  walls,  he 
pours  out  the  balance.  An  experienced 
man  can  make  hollow  castings  in  this 
way,  and  make  the  walls  of  any  thick- 
ness. 

Casket  hardware  trimmings,  which 
are  so  extensively  used  on  coffins,  es- 
pecially the  handles,  are  nearly  all  cast 
out  of  tin  and  antimony,  and  in  brass 
molds.  The  metal  used  is  brittle,  and 
requires  strengthening  at  the  weak  por- 
tions, and  this  is  mostly  done  with  wood 
filling  or  with  iron  rods,  which  are 
secured  in  the  molds  before  the  metal  is 
poured  in. 

Aluminum  castings,  which  one  has 
procured  at  the  foundries,  are  usually 
alloyed  with  zinc.  This  has  a  close  affin- 
ity with  aluminum,  and  alloys  readily; 
but  this  mixture  is  a  detriment  and 
causes  much  trouble  afterwards.  While 
this  alloy  assists  the  molder  to  produce 
his  castings  easily,  on  the  other  hand  it 
will  not  polish  well  and  will  corrode  in 
a  short  time.  Those  difficulties  may  be 
avoided  if  pure  aluminum  is  used. 

Plaster  of  Paris  molds  are  the  easiest 
made  for  pieces  where  only  a  few  cast- 
ings are  wanted.  The  only  difficulty  is 
that  it  requires  a  few  days  to  dry  the 
plaster  thoroughly,  and  that  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  use  them  successfully. 
Not  only  can  the  softer  metals  be  run 
into  plaster  molds,  but  gold  and  silver 
can  be  run  into  them.  A  plaster  mold 


should  be  well  smoked  over  a  gaslight, 
or  until  well  covered  with  a  layer  of  soot, 
and  the  metal  should  be  poured  in  as 
cool  a  state  as  it  will  run. 

To  Prevent  the  Adhesion  of  Modeling 
Sand  to  Castings. — Use  a  mixture  of 
finely  ground  coke  and  graphite.  Al- 
though the  former  material  is  highly  por- 
ous, possessing  this  quality  even  as  a 
fine  powder,  and  the  fine  pulverization 
is  a  difficult  operation,  still  the  invention 
attains  its  purpose  of  producing  an  ab- 
solutely smooth  surface.  This  is  ac- 
complished by  mixing  both  substances 
intimately  and  adding  melted  rosin, 
whereupon  the  whole  mass  is  exposed  to 
heat,  so  that  the  rosin  decomposes,  its 
carbon  residue  filling  up  the  finest  pores 
of  the  coke.  The  rosin,  in  melting, 
carries  the  fine  graphite  particles  along 
into  the  pores.  After  cooling  the  mass 
is  first  ground  in  edge  mills,  then  again  in 
a  suitable  manner  and  sifted.  Sur- 
prising results  are  obtained  with  this 
material.  It  is  advisable  to  take  pro- 
portionately little  graphite,  as  the  dif- 
ferent co-efficients  of  expansion  of  the 
two  substances  may  easily  exercise  a  dis- 
turbing action.  One-fifth  of  graphite, 
in  respect  to  the  whole  mass,  gives  the 
best  results,  but  it  is  advisable  to  add 
plenty  of  rosin.  The  liquid  mixture 
must,  before  burning,  possess  the  con- 
sistency of  mortar. 

Sand  Holes  in  Cast-Brass  Work.— 
Cast-brass  work,  when  it  presents  nu- 
merous and  deep  sand  holes,  should  be 
well  dipped  into  the  dipping  acid  before 
being  polished,  in  order  thoroughly  to 
clean  these  objectionable  cavities;  and 
the  polishing  should  be  pushed  to  an  ex- 
tent sufficient  to  obliterate  the  smaller 
sand  holes,  if  possible,  as  this  class  of 
work  looks  very  unsightly,  when  plated 
and  finished,  if  pitted  all  over  with  mi- 
nute hollows.  The  larger  holes  cannot, 
without  considerable  labor,  be  obliter- 
ated; indeed,  it  not  infrequently  happens 
that  in  endeavoring  to  work  out  such 
cavities  they  become  enlarged,  as  they 
often  extend  deep  into  the  body  of  the 
metal.  An  experienced  hand  knows 
how  far  he  dare  go  in  polishing  work  of 
this  awkward  character. 

Black  Wash  for  Casting  Molds.— 
Gumlac,  1  part;  wood  spirit,  2  parts; 
lampblack,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  color. 

How  to  Make  a  Plaster  Cast  of  a  Coin 
or  Medal. — The  most  exact  observ- 
ance of  any  written  or  printed  directions 
is  no  guarantee  of  success.  Practice 
alone  can  give  expertness  in  this  work 


CASTING 


151 


The  composition  of  the  mold  is  of  the 
most  varied,  but  the  materials  most  gen- 
erally used  are  plaster  of  Paris  and  brick 
dust,  in  the  proportion  of  2  parts  of  the 
first  to  1  of  the  second,  stirred  in  water, 
with  the  addition  of  a  little  sal  ammo- 
niac. The  best  quality  of  plaster  for 
this  purpose  is  the  so-called  alabaster, 
and  the  brick  dust  should  be  as  finely 
powdered  as  possible.  The  addition  of 
clay,  dried  and  very  finely  powdered,  is 
recommended.  With  very  delicate  ob- 
jects the  proportion  of  plaster  may  be 
slightly  increased.  The  dry  material 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  before  the 
addition  of  water. 

As  the  geometrically  exact  contour  of 
the  coin  or  medal  is  often  the  cause 
of  breaking  of  the  edges,  the  operator 
sometimes  uses  wax  to  make  the  edges 
appear  half  round  and  it  also  allows  the 
casting  to  be  more  easily  removed  from 
the  second  half  of  the  mold.  Each  half 
of  the  mold  should  be  about  the  thickness 
of  the  finger.  The  keys,  so  called,  of 
every  plaster  casting  must  not  be  for- 
gotten. In  the  first  casting  some  little 
half-spherical  cavities  should  be  scooped 
out,  which  will  appear  in  the  second  half- 
round  knobs,  and  which,  by  engaging 
with  the  depressions,  will  ensure  exact- 
ness in  the  finished  mold. 

After  the  plaster  has  set,  cut  a  canal 
for  the  flow  of  the  molten  casting  mate- 
rial, then  dry  the  mold  thoroughly  in 
an  oven  strongly  heated.  The  halves 
are  now  ready  to  be  bound  together  with 
a  light  wire.  When  bound  heat  the 
mold  gradually  and  slowly  and  let  the 
mouth  of  the  canal  remain  underneath 
while  the  heating  is  in  progress,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  possible  entry  of  dirt  or 
foreign  matter.  The  heating  should  be 
continued  as  long  as  there  is  a  suspicion 
of  remaining  moisture.  When  finally 
assured  of  this  fact,  take  out  the  mold, 
open  it,  and  blow  it  out,  to  make  sure  of 
absolute  cleanness.  Close  and  bind 
again  and  place  on  a  hearth  of  fine,  hot 
sa,nd.  The  mold  should  still  be  glowing 
when  the  casting  is  made.  The  ladle 
should  contain  plenty  of  metal,  so  as  to 
hold  the  heat  while  the  casting  is  being 
made.  The  presence  of  a  little  zinc  in 
the  metal  ensures  a  sharp  casting. 
Finally,  to  ensure  success,  it  is  always 
better  to  provide  two  molds  in  case  of 
accident.  Even  the  most*  practiced 
metal  molders  take  this  precaution,  es- 
pecially when  casting  delicate  objects. 

How  to  Make  Castings  of  Insects. — 
The  object — a  dead  beetle,  for  example 
— is  first  arranged  in  a  natural  position, 


and  the  feet  are  connected  with  an  oval 
rim  of  wax.  It  is  then  fixed  in  the  cen- 
ter of  a  paper  or  wooden  box  by  means  of 
Eieces  of  fine  wire,  so  that  it  is  perfectly 
-ee,  and  thicker  wires  are  run  from  the 
sides  of  the  box  to  the  object,  which  sub- 
sequently serve  to  form  air  channels  in 
the  mold  by  their  removal.  A  wooden 
stick,  tapering  toward  the  bottom,  is 
placed  upon  the  back  of  the  insect  to 
produce  a  runner  for  casting.  The  box 
is  then  filled  up  with  a  paste  with  3 
parts  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  1  of  brick 
dust,  made  up  with  a  solution  of  alum 
and  sal  ammoniac.  It  is  also  well  first  to 
brush  the  object  with  this  paste  to  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  air  bubbles.  Af- 
ter the  mold  thus  formed  has  set,  the 
object  is  removed  from  the  interior  by 
first  reducing  it  to  ashes.  It  is,  there- 
fore, allowed  to  dry,  very  slowly  at  first, 
by  leaving  in  the  shade  at  a  normal  tem- 
perature (as  in  India  this  is  much  higher 
than  in  our  zone,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
place  the  mold  in  a  moderately  warm 
place),  and  afterwards  heating  gradually 
to  a  red  heat.  This  incinerates  the  ob- 
ject, and  melts  the  waxen  base  upon 
which  it  is  placed.  The  latter  escapes, 
and  is  burned  as  it  does  so,  and  the  ob- 
ject, reduced  to  fine  ashes,  is  removed 
through  the  wire  holes  as  suggested 
above.  The  casting  is  then  made  in  the 
ordinary  manner. 

Casting  of  Soft  Metal  Castings.— I.— It 
is  often  difficult  to  form  flat  back  or  half 
castings  out  of  the  softer  metals  so  that 
they  will  run  full,  owing  mostly  to  the 
thin  edges  and  frail  connections.  In- 
stead of  using  solid  metal  backs  for  the 
molds  it  is  better  to  use  cardboard,  or 
heavy,  smooth  paper,  fastened  to  a 
wooden  board  fitted  to  the  back  of  the 
other  half  of  the  mold.  By  this  means 
very  thin  castings  may  be  produced  that 
would  be  more  difficult  with  a  solid 
metal  back. 

II. — To  obtain  a  full  casting  in  brass 
molds  for  soft  metal  two  important 
points  should  be  observed.  One  is  to 
have  the  deep  recesses  vented  so  the  air 
will  escape,  and  the  other  is  to  have  the 
mold  properly  blued.  The  bluing  is 
best  done  by  dipping  the  mold  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  then  placing  it  on  a  gas 
stove  until  the  mold  is  a  dark  color. 
Unless  this  bluing  is  done  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  obtain  a  sharp  casting. 

Drosses.— All  the  softer  grades  of 
metal  throw  off  considerable  dross, 
which  is  usually  skimmed  off;  especially 
with  tin  and  its  composition.  Should  much 
of  this  gather  on  the  top  of  the  molten 


152 


CASTING 


metal,  the  drosses  should  all  be  saved, 
and  melted  down  when  there  is  enough 
for  a  kettle  full.  Dross  may  be  remelted 
five  or  six  times  before  all  the  good 
metal  is  out. 

Fuel. — Where  a  good  soft  coal  can  be 
had  at  a  low  price,  as  in  the  middle  West, 
this  is  perhaps  the  cheapest  and  easiest 
fuel  to  use;  and,  besides,  it  has  some  ad- 
vantages over  gas,  which  is  so  much  used 
in  the  East.  A  soft-coal  fire  can  be  regu- 
lated to  keep  the  metal  at  an  even  tem- 
perature, and  it  is  especially  handy  to 
keep  the  metal  in  a  molten  state  during 
the  noon  hour.  This  refers  particularly 
to  the  gas  furnaces  that  are  operated 
from  the  power  plant  in  the  shop;  when 
this  power  shuts  down  during  the  noon 
hour  the  metal  becomes  chilled,  and 
much  time  is  lost  by  the  remelting  after 
one  o'clock,  or  at  the  beginning  in  the 
morning. 

Molds. — I. —  Brass  molds  for  the  cast- 
ing of  soft  metal  ornaments  out  of  bri- 
tannia,  pewter,  spelter,  etc.,  should  be 
made  out  of  brass  that  contains  enough 
zinc  to  produce  a  light-colored  brass. 
While  this  hard  brass  is  more  difficult 
for  the  mold  maker  to  cut,  the  superior- 
ity over  the  dark  red  copper-colored  brass 
is  that  it  will  stand  more  heat  and 
rougher  usage  and  thereby  offset  the 
extra  labor  of  cutting  the  hard  brass. 
The  mold  should  be  heavy  enough  to  re- 
tain sufficient  heat  while  the  worker 
is  removing  a  finished  casting  from  the 
mold  so  that  the  next  pouring  will  come 
full.  If  the  mold  is  too  light  it  cools 
more  quickly,  and  consequently  the  cast- 
ings are  chilled  and  will  not  run  full. 
Where  the  molds  are  heavy  enough  they 
will  admit  the  use  of  a  swab  and  water 
after  each  pouring.  This  chills  the 
casting  so  that  it  can  be  removed  easily 
with  the  plyers. 

II. — Molds  for  the  use  of  soft  metal 
castings  may  be  made  out  of  soft  metal. 
This  is  done  with  articles  that  are  not 
numerous,  or  not  often  used;  and  may 
be  looked  upon  as  temporary.  The 
molds  are  made  in  part  the  same  as  when 
of  brass,  and  out  of  tin  that  contains  as 
much  hardening  as  possible.  The  hard- 
ening consists  of  antimony  and  copper. 
This  metal  mold  must  be  painted  over 
several  times  with  Spanish  red,  which 
tends  to  prevent  the  metal  from  melt- 
ing. The  metal  must  not  be  used  too 
hot,  otherwise  it  will  melt  the  mold.  By 
a  little  careful  manipulation  many  pieces 
can  be  cast  with  these  molds. 

III. — New  iron  or  brass  molds  must 
be  blued  before  they  can  be  used  for 


|  casting  purposes.  This  is  done  by 
placing  the  mold  face  downward  on  a 
charcoal  fire,  or  by  swabbing  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  then  placing  over  a  gas 
name  or  charcoal  fire  until  the  mold  is 
perfectly  oxidized. 

IV. — A  good  substantial  mold  for 
small  castings  of  soft  metal  is  made  of 
brass.  ^  The  expense  of  making  the  cast 
mold  is  considerable,  however,  and,  on 
that  account,  some  manufacturers  are 
making  their  molds  by  electro-deposition. 
This  produces  a  much  cheaper  mold, 
which  can  be  made  very  quickly.  The 
electro-deposited  mold,  however,  is  very 
frail  in  comparison  with  a  brass  casting, 
and  consequently  must  be  handled  very 
carefully  to  keep  its  shape.  The  elec- 
tro-deposited ones  are  made  out  of  cop- 
per, and  the  backs  filled  in  with  a  softer 
metal.  The  handles  are  secured  with 
screws. 

Plaster  Molds. — Castings  of  any  mefal 
can  be  done  in  a  plaster  mold,  provided 
the  mold  has  dried,  at  a  moderate  heat, 
for  several  days.  Smoke  the  mold  well 
with  a  brand  of  rosin  to  insure  a  full 
cast.  Where  there  are  only  one  or  two 
ornaments  or  figures  to  cast,  it  may  be 
done  in  a  mold  made  out  of  dental  plaster. 
After  the  mold  is  made  and  set  enough 
so  that  it  can  be  taken  apart,  it  should  be 
placed  in  a  warm  place  and  left  to  dry 
for  a  day  or  two.  When  ready  to  use 
the  inside  should  be  well  smoked  over 
a  gaslight;  the  mold  should  be  well 
warmed  and  the  metal  must  not  be  too 
hot.  Very  good  castings  may  be  ob- 
tained this  way;  the  only  objection  being 
the  length  of  time  needed  for  a  thorough 
drying  of  the  mold. 

Temperature  of  Metal.— Metals  for 
casting  purposes  should  not  be  over- 
heated. If  any  of  the  softer  metals  show 
blue  colors  after  cooling  it  is  an  indi- 
cation that  the  metal  is  too  hot.  The 
metal  should  be  heated  enough  so  that  it 
can  be  poured,  and  the  finished  casting 
have  a  bright,  clean  appearance.  The 
mold  may  be  very  warm,  then  the  metal 
need  not  be  so  hot  for  bright,  clean  cast- 
ings. Some  of  the  metals  will  not  stand 
reheating  too  often,  as  this  will  cause  them 
to  run  sluggish.  Britannia  metal  should 
not  be  skimmed  or  stirred  too  much, 
otherwise  there  will  be  too  much  loss  in 
the  dross. 

CASTING  IN  WAX: 

See  Modeling. 

CASTINGS,  TO  SOFTEN  IRON: 

See  Iron. 


CASTOR  OIL 


153 


CASTOR  OIL : 

Purifying  Rancid  Castor  Oil.— To 
clean  rancid  castor  oil  mix  100  parts  of 
the  oil  at  95°  F.  with  a  mixture  of  1  part 
of  alcohol  (96  per  cent)  and  1  part  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Allow  to  settle  for  24 
hours  and  then  carefully  decant  from 
the  precipitate.  Now  wash  with  warm 
water,  boiling  for  A  hour;  allow  to  settle 
for  24  hours  in  well  closed  vessels,  after 
which  time  the  purified  oil  may  be  taken 
off. 

How  to  Pour  Out  Castor  Oil. — Any  one 
who  has  tried  to  pour  castor  oil  from  a 
square,  5-gallon  can,  when  it  is  full, 
knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  avoid  a  mess. 
This,  however,  may  be  avoided  by  hav- 
ing a  hole  punched  in  the  cap  which 
screws  onto  the  can,  and  a  tube,  2  inches 
long  and  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  sol- 
dered on.  With  a  wire  nail  a  hole  is 
punched  in  the  top  of  the  can  between  the 
screw  cap  and  the  edge  of  the  can.  This 
will  admit  air  while  pouring.  Resting 
the  can  on  a  table,  with  the  screw-cap 
tube  to  the  rear,  the  can  is  carefully  tilted 
forward  with  one  hand  and  the  shop 
bottle  held  in  the  other.  In  this  way  the 
bottle  may  be  filled  without  spilling  any 
of  the  oil  and  that,  too,  without  a  funnel. 
It  is  preferable  to  rest  the  can  on  a  table 
when  pouring  from  a  1-  or  2-gallon 
square  varnish  can,  when  filling  shop 
bottles.  With  the  opening  to  the  rear, 
the  can  is  likewise  tilted  forward  slowly 
so  as  to  allow  the  surface  of  the  liquid  to 
become  "at  rest."  Even  mobile  liquids, 
such  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  may  be 
poured  into  shop  bottles  without  a  fun- 
nel. Of  course,  the  main  thing  is  that 
the  can  be  lowered  slowly,  otherwise  the 
first  portion  may  spurt  out  over  the  bot- 
tle. With  5-gallon  round  cans  it  is 
possible  to  fill  shop  bottles  in  the  same 
manner  by  resting  the  can  on  a  box  or 
counter.  When  a  funnel  is  used  for  non- 
greasy  liquids,  the  funnel  may  be  slightly 
raised  with  the  thumb  and  little  finger 
from  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  while  hold- 
ing the  bottle  by  the  neck  between  the 
middle  and  ring  fingers,  to  allow  egress 
of  air. 

Tasteless  Castor  Oil.— 

I.— Pure  castor  oil. .      1  pint 

Cologne  spirit .  .      3  fluidounces 
Oil     of     winter- 
green 40  minims 

Oil  of  sassafras.    20  minims 

Oil  of  anise 15  minims 

Saccharine 5  grains 

Hot  water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Place  the  castor  oil  in  a  gallon  bottle. 


Add  a  pint  of  hot  water  and  shake  vig- 
orously for  about  15  minutes.  Then 
pour  the  mixture  into  a  vessel  with  a 
stopcock  at  its  base,  and  allow  the  mix- 
ture to  stand  tor  12  hours.  Draw  off 
the  oil,  excepting  the  last  portion,  which 
must  be  rejected.  Dissolve  the  essential 
oils  and  saccharine  in  the  cologne  spirit 
and  add  to  the  washed  castor  oil. 

II. — First  prepare  an  aromatic  solution 
of  saccharine  as  follows: 

Refined  saccharine. .     25  parts 

Vanillin 5  parts 

Absolute  alcohol. . .  .    950  parts 
Oil  of  cinnamon  ....      20  parts 

Dissolve  the  saccharine  and  vanillin 
in  the  alcohol,  then  add  the  cinnamon  oil, 
agitate  well  and  filter.  Of  this  liquid  add 
20  parts  to  980  parts  of  castor  oil  and 
mix  by  agitation.  Castor  oil,  like  cod- 
liver  oil,  may  be  rendered  nearly  taste- 
less, it  is  claimed,  by  treating  it  as  fol- 
lows: Into  a  matrass  of  suitable  size  put 
50  parts  of  freshly  roasted  coffee,  ground 
as  fine  as  possible,  and  25  parts  of  puri- 
fied and  freshly  prepared  bone  or  ivory 
black.  Pour  over  the  mass  1,000  parts 
of  the  oil  to  be  deodorized  and  rendered 
tasteless,  and  mix.  Cork  the  container 
tightly,  put  on  a  water  bath,  and  raise 
the  temperature  to  about  140°  F.  Keep 
at  this  heat  from  15  to  20  minutes,  then 
let  cool  down,  slowly,  to  90°,  at  which 
temperature  let  stand  for  3  hours. 
Finally  filter,  and  put  up  in  small,  well- 
stoppered  bottles. 

III. — Vanillin 3  grains 

Garantose 4  grains 

Ol.  menth.  pip. ...      8  minims 

Alcoholis 3  drachms 

Ol.  ricinus 12  ounces 

Ol.      olivae       (im- 
ported),    quan- 
tity sufficient ...      1  pint 
M.  ft.  sol. 

Mix  vanillin,  garantose,  ol.  menth. 
pip.  with  alcohol  and  add  castor  oil  and 
olive  oil. 

Dose:    One  drachm  to  2  fluidounces. 

IV.— The  following  keeps  well: 

Castor  oil 24  parts 

Glycerine 24  parts 

Tincture  of  orange 

peel  .  . : 8  parts 

Tincture  of  senega     2  parts 
Cinnamon      water 

enough  to  make.  100  parts 
Mix  and  make  an  emulsion.      Dose  is 
1  tablespoonful. 

V. — One  part  of  common  cooking  mo- 
lasses to  2  of  castor  oil  is  the  best  dis- 


154 


CASTOR   OIL— CATATYPY 


guise  for  the  taste  of  the  oil  that  can  be 
used. 

VI. — Castor  oil 1£  ounces 

Powdered  acacia. .        2    drachms 

Sugar 2    drachms 

Peppermint  water.  4  ounces 
Triturate  the  sugar  and  acacia,  adding 
the  oil  gradually;  when  these  have  been 
thoroughly  incorporated  add  the  pep- 
permint water  .in  small  portions,  tritu- 
rating the  mixture  until  an  emulsion  is 
formed. 

VII. — This  formula  for  an  emulsion 
is  said  to  yield  a  fairly  satisfactory  prod- 
uct: 

Castor  oil 500  c.c. 

Mucilage  of  acacia  125  c.c. 
Spirit  of  gaultheria     10  grams 

Sugar 1  gram 

Sodium  bicarbonate.       1  gram 

VIII. — Castor  oil 1  ounce 

Compound  tinc- 
ture of  carda- 
mom    4  drachms 

Oil  of  wintergreen  3  drops 

Powdered  acacia..  3  drachms 

Sugar 2  drachms 

Cinnamon      water  enough     to 
make  4  ounces. 

IX. — Castor  oil 12  ounces 

Vanillin 3  grains 

Saccharine .......  4  grains 

Oil  of  peppermint.  8  minims 

Alcohol 3  drachms 

Olive  oil  enough  to  make  1  pint. 
In  any  case,  use  only  a  fresh  oil. 

How  toTake  Castor  Oil.— The  disgust 
for  castor  oil  is  due  to  the  odor,  not  to  the 
taste.  If  the  patient  grips  the  nostrils 
firmly  before  pouring  out  the  dose, 
drinks  the  oil  complacently,  and  then 
thoroughly  cleanses  the  mouth,  lips, 
larynx,  etc.,  with  water,  removing  the 
last  vestige  of  the  oil  before  removing 
the  fingers,  he  will  not  get  the  least  taste 
from  the  oil,  which  is  bland  and  taste- 
less. It  all  depends  upon  preventing  any 
oil  from  entering  the  nose  during  the 
time  while  there  is  any  oil  present. 

Castor-Oil  Chocolate  Lozenges. — 
Cacao,  free  from  oil .    250  parts 

Castor  oil 250  parts 

Sugar,  pulverized-  . .    500  parts 

Vanillin  sugar 5  parts 

Mix  the  chocolate  and  oil  and  heat  in 
the  water,  both  under  constant  stirring. 
Have  the  sugar  well  dried  and  add,  stir- 
ring constantly,  to  the  molten  mass. 
Continue  the  heat  for  30  minutes,  then 
pour  out  and  divide  into  lozenges  in  the 
usual  way. 


CAT  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REME- 
DIES: See  Insecticides  and  Veteri- 
nary Formulas. 

CATATYPY. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  reac- 
tions of  the  compounds  of  silver,  plat- 
inum, and  chromium  in  photographic 
processes  are  generally  voluntary  ones 
and  that  the  light  really  acts  only  as  an 
accelerator,  that  is  to  say  the  chemical 
properties  of  the  preparations  also  change 
in  the  dark,  though  a  longer  time  is  re- 
quired. When  these  preparations  are  ex- 
posed to  the  light  under  a  negative,  the 
modification  of  their  chemical  proper- 
ties is  accelerated  in  such  a  way  that, 
through  the  gradations  of  the  tone- 
values  in  the  negative,  the  positive  print 
is  formed.  Now  it  has  been  found  that 
we  also  have  such  accelerators  in  ma- 
terial substances  that  can  be  used  in  the 
light,  the  process  being  termed  catalysis. 
It  is  remarkable  that  these  substances, 
called  catalyzers,  apparently  do  not  take 
part  in  the  process,  but  bring  about 
merely  by  their  presence,  decomposition 
or  combination  of  other  bodies  during  or 
upon  contact.  Hence,  catalysis  may  be 
defined,  in  short,  as  the  act  of  changing 
or  accelerating  the  speed  of  a  chemical 
reaction  by  means  of  agents  which  ap- 
pear to  remain  stable. 

Professor  Ostwald  and  Dr.  O.  Gros, 
of  the  Leipsic  University,  have  given  the 
name  of  "catatypy"  to  the  new  copying 
process.  The  use  of  light  is  entirely 
done  away  with,  except  that  for  the  sake 
of  convenience  the  manipulations  are 
executed  in  the  light.  All  that  is  neces- 
sary is  to  bring  paper  and  negative  into 
contact,  no  matter  whether  in  the  light 
or  in  the  dark.  Hence  the  negative  (if 
necessary  a  positive  may  also  be  em- 
ployed) need  not  even  be  transparent, 
for  the  ascending  and  descending  action 
of  the  tone  values  in  the  positive  picture 
is  produced  only  by  the  quantity  in  the 
varying  density  of  the  silver  powder 
contained  in  the  negative.  Hence  no 
photographic  (light)  picture,  but  a  ca- 
tatypic  picture  (produced  by  contact)  is 
created,  but  the  final  result  is  the  same. 

Catatypy  is  carried  out  as  follows: 
Pour  dioxide  of  hydrogen  over  the  nega- 
tive, which  can  be  done  without  any 
damage  to  the  latter,  and  lay  a  piece  of 
paper  on  (sized  or  unsized,  rough  or 
smooth,  according  to  the  effect  desired); 
by  a  contact  lasting  a  few  seconds  the 
paper  receives  the  picture,  dioxide  of 
hydrogen  being  destroyed.  From  a 
single  application  several  prints  can  be 
made.  The  acquired  picture — still  in- 


CATATYPY— CELLULOID 


155 


visible — may  now  in  the  further  course 
of  the  process,  have  a  reducing  or  oxy- 
dizing  action.  As  picture-producing 
bodies,  the  large  group  of  iron  salts  are 
above  all  eminently  adapted,  but  other 
substances,  such  as  chromium,  manga- 
nese, etc.,  as  well  as  pigments  with  glue 
solutions  may  also  be  employed.  The 
development  takes  place  as  follows: 
When  the  paper  which  has  been  in  con- 
tact with  the  negative  is  drawn  through 
a  solution  of  ferrous  oxide,  the  protoxide 
is  transformed  into  oxide  by  the  per- 
oxide, hence  a  yellow  positive  picture, 
consisting  of  iron  oxide,  results,  which 
can  be  readily  changed  into  other  com- 
pounds, so  that  the  most  varying  tones  of 
color  can  be  obtained.  With  tne  use  of 
pigments,  in  conjunction  with  a  glue 
solution,  the  action  is  as  follows:  In  the 
places  where  the  picture  is,  the  layer  with 
the  pigments  becomes  insoluble  and  all 
other  dye  stuffs  can  be  washed  off  with 
water. 

The  chemical  inks  and  reductions,  as 
well  as  color  pigments,  of  which  the  pic- 
tures consist,  have  been  carefully  tested 
and  are  composed  of  such  as  are  known 
to  possess  unlimited  durability. 

After  a  short  contact,  simply  immerse 
the  picture  in  the  respective  solution, 
wash  out,  and  a  permanent  picture  is 
obtained. 

CATERPILLAR  DESTROYERS : 

See  Insecticides. 

CATGUT: 

Preparation  of  Catgut  Sutures. — The 
catgut  is  stretched  tightly  over  a  glass 
plate  tanned  in  5  per  cent  watery  extract 
of  quebracho,  washed  £  or  a  short  time  in 
water,  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  4  per 
cent  formalin  solution  for  24  to  48  hours, 
washed  in  running  water  for  24  hours, 
boiled  in  water  for  10  to  15  minutes, 
and  stored  in  a  mixture  of  absolute  al- 
cohol with  5  per  cent  glycerine  and  4  per 
cent  carbolic  acid.  In  experiments  on 
dogs,  this  suture  material  in  aseptic 
wounds  remained  intact  for  65  days,  and 
was  absorbed  after  83  days.  In  infected 
wounds  it  was  absorbed  after  32  days. 

CATSUP  (ADULTERATED): 

See  Foods. 

CATTLE  DIPS  AND  APPLICATIONS : 

See  Disinfectants  and  Insecticides. 

CEILING  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, and  also  Household  Formulas. 


CELERY  COMPOUND. 

Celery  (seed  ground) .  25  parts 
Coca  leaves  (ground).  25  parts 
Black  haw  (ground)..  25  parts 
Hyoscyamus  leaves 

(ground) 12£  parts 

Podophyllum      (pow- 
dered)        10     parts 

Orange  peel  (ground)  6  parts 
Sugar  (granulated).. .  100  parts 

Alcohol 150    parts 

Water,  q.  s.  ad 400     parts 

Mix  the  alcohol  with  150  parts  of 
water  and  macerate  drugs  for  24  hours; 
pack  in  percolator  and  pour  on  men- 
struum till  340  parts  is  obtained  ;  dis- 
solve sugar  in  it  and  strain. 


CELLS,    SOLUTIONS    AND    FILLERS 
FOR  BATTERY: 

See  Battery  Solutions  and  Fillers. 

CELLARS,  WATERPROOF: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

CELLOIDIN  PAPER: 
See  Paper. 


Celluloid 

New  Celluloid. — M.  Ortmann  has  as- 
certained that  turpentine  produced  by 
the  Pinus  larix,  generally  denominated 
Venice  turpentine,  in  combination  with 
acetone  (dimethyl  ketone),  yields  the  best 
results;  but  other  turpentines,  such  as 
the  American  from  the  Pinus  australis, 
the  Canada  turpentine  from  the  Pinus 
balsamea,  the  French  turpentine  from 
the  Pinus  maritima,  and  ketones,  such 
as  the  ketone  of  methyl-ethyl,  the  ketone 
of  dinaphthyl,  the  ketone  of  methyl- 
oxynaphthyl,  and  the  ketone  of  dioxy- 
naphthyl,  may  be  employed. 

To  put  this  process  in  practice,  1,000 
parts  of  pyroxyline  is  prepared  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  mixed  with  65  parts 
of  turpentine,  or  250  parts  of  ketone  and 
250  parts  of  ether;  500  parts  or  750  parts 
of  methyl  alcohol  is  added,  and  a  col- 
orant, such  as  desired.  Instead  of  tur- 
pentine, rosins  derived  from  it  may  be 
employed.  If  the  employment  of  cam- 
phor is  desired  to  a  certain  extent,  it  may 
be  added  to  the  mixture.  The  whole  is 
shaken  and  left  at  rest  for  about  12  hours. 
It  is  then  passed  between  hot  rollers,  and 
finally  pressed,  cut,  and  dried,  like  or- 
dinary celluloid. 


156 


CELLULOID 


The  product  thus  obtained  is  without 
odor,  when  camphor  is  not  employed; 
and  in  appearance  and  properties  it  can- 
not be  distinguished  from  ordinary  cel- 
luloid, while  the  expense  of  production  is 
considerably  reduced. 

Formol  Albumen  for  Preparation  of 
Celluloid. — Formol  has  the  property  of 
forming  combinations  with  most  albu- 
minoid substances.  These  are  not  iden- 
tical with  reference  to  plasticity,  and  the 
use  which  may  be  derived  from  them  for 
the  manufacture  of  plastic  substances. 
This  difference  explains  why  albumen 
should  not  be  confounded  with  gelatin 
or  casein.  With  this  in  view,  the  Societe 
Anonyme  1'Oyonnaxienne  has  originated 
the  following  processes: 

I. — The  albumen  may  be  that  of  the 
egg  or  that  of  the  blood,  which  are  readily 
found  in  trade.  The  formolizing  may 
be  effected  in  the  moist  state  or  in  the 
dry  state.  The  dry  or  moist  albumen 
is  brought  into  contact  with  the  solution 
of  commercial  formol  diluted  to  5  or  10 
per  cent  for  an  hour.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  pulverize  the  albumen,  if  it  is 
dry.  The  formol  penetrates  rapidly 
into  the  albuminoid  matter,  and  is  fil- 
tered or  decanted  and  washed  with 
water  until  all  the  formol  in  excess  has 
completely  disappeared;  this  it  is  easy  to 
ascertain  by  means  of  aniline  water, 
which  produces  a  turbid  white  as  long 
as  a  trace  of  formic  aldehyde  remains. 

The  formol  albumen  is  afterwards 
dried  at  low  temperature  by  submitting 
it  to  the  action  of  a  current  of  dry  air  at 
a  temperature  not  exceeding  107°  F. 
Thus  obtained,  the  product  appears  as 
a  transparent  corneous  substance.  On 
pulverizing,  it  becomes  opaque  and  loses 
its  transparency.  It  is  completely  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  swells  in  this 
liquid. 

II. — The  formol  albumen  is  reduced 
to  a  perfectly  homogeneous  powder,  and 
mixed  intimately  with  the  plastic  matter 
before  rolling.  This  cannot  be  con- 
sidered an  adequate  means  for  effecting 
the  mixture.  It  is  necessary  to  introduce 
the  formol  albumen,  in  the  course  of  the 
moistening,  either  by  making  an  emul- 
sion with  camphor  alcohol,  or  by  mixing 
it  thoroughly  with  nitro-cellulose,  or  by 
making  simultaneously  a  thorough  mix- 
ture of  the  three  substances.  When  the 
mixture  is  accomplished,  the  paste  is 
rolled  according  to  the  usual  operation. 
The  quantity  of  formol  albumen  to  add 
is  variable,  being  diminished  according 
to  the  quantity  of  camphor. 

Instead  of  adding  the  desiccated  for- 


mol albumen,  it  may  previously  be 
swollen  in  water  in  order  to  render  it 
more  malleable. 

Instead  of  simple  water,  alkalinized  or 
acidified  water  may  be  taken  for  this  pur- 
pose, or  even  alcoholized  water.  The 
albumen,  then,  should  be  pressed  be- 
tween paper  or  cloth,  in  order  to  remove 
the  excess  of  moisture. 

Plastic  Substances  of  Nitro -Cellulose 
Base. — To  manufacture  plastic  substances 
the  Compagnie  Franyaise  du  Celluloid 
commences  by  submitting  casein  to  a 
special  operation.  It  is  soaked  with  a 
solution  of  acetate  of  urea  in  alcohol; 
for  100  parts  of  casein  5  parts  of  acetate 
of  urea  and  50  parts  of  alcohol  are  em- 
ployed. The  mass  swells,  and  in  48 
hours  the  casein  is  thoroughly  penetrat- 
ed. It  is  then  ready  to  be  incorporated 
with  the  camphored  nitro-cellulose.  The 
nitro-cellulose,  having  received  the  addi- 
tion of  camphor,  is  soaked  in  the  alcohol, 
and  the  mass  is  well  mixed.  The  casein 
prepared  as  described  is  introduced  into 
the  mass.  The  whole  is  mixed  and  left 
at  rest  for  2  days. 

The  plastic  pulp  thus  obtained  is 
rolled,  cut,  and  dried  like  ordinary  cel- 
lulose, and  by  the  same  processes  and 
apparatus.  The  pulp  may  also  be  con- 
verted into  tubes  and  other  forms,  like 
ordinary  celluloid. 

It  is  advisable  to  subject  the  improved 
plastic  pulp  to  a  treatment  with  formal- 
dehyde for  the  purpose  of  rendering  in- 
soluble the  casein  incorporated  in  the 
celluloid.  The  plastic  product  of  nitro- 
cellulose base,  thus  obtained,  presents 
in  employment  the  same  general  proper- 
ties as  ordinary  celluloid.  It  may  be 
applied  to  the  various  manufacturing 
processes  in  use  for  the  preparation  of 
articles  of  all  kinds,  and  its  cost  price 
diminishes  more  or  less  according  to  the 
proportion  of  casein  associated  with  the 
ordinary  celluloid.  In  this  plastic  prod- 
uct various  colorants  may  be  incor- 
porated, and  the  appearance  of  shell, 
pearl,  wood,  marble,  or  ivory  may  also 
be  imparted. 

Improved  Celluloid. — This  product  is 
obtained  by  mingling  with  celluloid,  un- 
der suitable  conditions,  gelatin  or  strong 
glue  of  gelatin  base.  Iti  s  clear  that  the 
replacement  of  part  of  the  celluloid  by 
the  gelatin,  of  which  the  cost  is  much 
less,  lowers  materially  the  cost  of  the 
final  product.  The  result  is  obtained 
without  detriment  to  the  qualities  of  the 
objects.  These  are  said  to  be  of  superior 
properties,  haying  more  firmness  than 
those  of  celluloid.  And  the  new  material 


CELLULOID 


157 


is  worked  more  readily  than  the  celluloid 
employed  alone. 

The  new  product  may  be  prepared  in 
openvair  or  in  a  closed  vessel  under  pres- 
sure. When  operated  in  the  air,  the  gel- 
atin is  first  immersed  cold  (in  any  form, 
and  in  a  state  more  or  less  pure)  in  alco- 
hol marking  about  140°  F.,  with  the 
addition  of  a  certain  quantity  (for  exam- 
ple, 5  to  10  per  cent)  of  crystallizable 
acetic  acid.  In  a  few  hours  the  material 
has  swollen  considerably,  and  it  is  then 
introduced  in  alcohol  of  about  90  per  cent, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  celluloid  pulp 
(camphor  and  gun  cotton),  taking  care 
to  add  a  little  acetone.  The  proportion 
of  celluloid  in  the  mixture  may  be  50  to 
75  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  gelatin, 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  result 
desired.  After  heating  the  mixture 
slightly,  it  is  worked,  cold,  by  the  rollers 
ordinarily  employed  for  celluloid  and 
other  similar  pastes,  or  by  any  other  suit- 
able methods. 

The  preparation  in  a  closed  vessel  does 
not  differ  from  that  which  has  been  de- 
scribed, except  for  the  introduction  of 
the  mixture  of  gelatin,  celluloid,  alco- 
hol, and  acetone,  at  the  moment  when 
the  heating  is  to  be  accomplished  in  an 
autoclave  heated  with  steam,  capable  of 
supporting  a  pressure  of  2  to  5  pounds, 
and  furnished  with  a  mechanical  agita- 
tor. This  method  of  proceeding  abridges 
the  operation  considerably  ;  the  paste 
comes  from  the  autoclave  well  min- 
gled, and  is  then  submitted  to  the 
action  of  rollers.  There  is  but  little 
work  in  distilling  the  alcohol  and  acetic 
acid  in  the  autoclave.  These  may  be 
recovered,  and  on  account  of  their  evap- 
oration the  mass  presents  the  desired 
consistency  when  it  reaches  the  rollers. 
Whichever  of  the  two  methods  of  prep- 
aration may  be  employed,  the  sub- 
stance may  be  rolled  as  in  the  ordinary 
process,  if  a  boiler  with  agitator  is  made 
use  of;  the  mass  may  be  produced  in  any 
form. 

Preparation  of  Uninflammable  Cellu- 
loid.— The  operation  of  this  process  by 
Woodward  is  the  following:  In  a  receiver 
of  glass  or  porcelain,  liquefied  fish  glue 
and  gum  arabic  are  introduced  and 
allowed  to  swell  for  24  hours  in  a  very 
dry  position,  allowing  the  air  to  circulate 
freely.  The  receiver  is  not  covered. 
Afterwards  it  is  heated  on  a  water  bath, 
and  the  contents  stirred  (for  example, 
by  means  of  a  porcelain  spatula)  until 
the  gum  is  completely  liquefied.  The 
heating  of  the  mass  should  not  exceed 
77°  F.  Then  the  gelatin  is  added  in 


such  a  way  that  there  are  no  solid  pieces. 
The  receiver  is  removed  from  the  water 
bath  and  colza  oil  added,  while  agitating 
anew.  When  the  mixture  is  complete 
it  is  left  to  repose  for  24  hours. 

Before  cooling,  the  mixture  is  passed 
through  a  sieve  in  order  to  retain  the 
pieces  which  may  not  have  been  dis- 
solved. After  swelling,  and  the  dissolu- 
tion and  purification  by  means  of  the 
sieve,  it  is  allowed  to  rest  still  in  the 
same  position,  with  access  of  air.  The 
films  formed  while  cooling  may  be  re- 
moved. The  treatment  of  celluloid 
necessitates  employing  a  solution  com- 
pletely colorless  and  clear.  The  cellu- 
loid to  be  treated  while  it  is  still  in  the 
pasty  state  should  be  in  a  receiver  of 
glass,  porcelain,  or  similar  material. 

The  mass  containing  the  fish  glue  is 
poured  in,  drop  by  drop,  while  stirring 
carefully,  taking  care  to  pour  it  in  the 
middle  of  the  celluloid  and  to  increase 
the  surface  of  contact. 

When  the  mixture  is  complete,  the  cel- 
luloid is  ready  to  be  employed  and  does 
not  produce  flame  when  exposed. 

The  solution  of  fish  glue  may  be  pre- 
pared by  allowing  200  parts  of  it  to  swell 
for  48  hours  in  1,000  parts  of  cold  dis- 
tilled water.  It  is  then  passed  through 
the  sieve,  and  the  pieces  which  may  re- 
main are  broken  up,  in  order  to  mingle 
them  thoroughly  with  the  water.  Ten 
parts  of  kitchen  salt  are  then  added,  and 
the  whole  mass  passed  through  the 
sieve. 

This  product  may  be  utilized  for  the 
preparation  of  photographic  films  or  for 
those  used  for  cinematographs,  or  for 
replacing  hard  caoutchouc  for  the  insu- 
lation of  electric  conductors,  and  for  the 
preparation  of  plastic  objects. 

Substitute  for  Camphor  in  the  Prepa- 
ration of  Celluloid  and  Applicable  to  Other 
Purposes. — In  this  process  commercial 
oil  of  turpentine,  after  being  rectified  by 
distillation  over  caustic  soda,  is  subjected 
to  the  action  of  gaseous  chlorhydric  acid, 
in  order  to  produce  the  solid  mono- 
chlorhydrate  of  turpentine.  After  hav- 
ing, by  means  of  the  press,  extracted  the 
liquid  monochlorhydrate,  and  after 
several  washings  with  cold  water,  the 
solid  matter  is  desiccated  and  introduced 
into  an  autoclave  apparatus  capable  of 
resisting  a  pressure  of  6  atmospheres. 
Fifty  per  cent  of  caustic  soda,  calculated 
on  the  weight  of  the  monochlorhydrate, 
and  mingled  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
alcohol,  is  added  in  the  form  of  a  thick 
solution.  The  apparatus  is  closed  and 
heated  for  several  hours  at  the  temper- 


158 


CELLULOID 


ature  of  284°  to  302°  F.  The  material 
is  washed  several  times  for  freeing  it 
from  the  mingled  sodium  chloride  and 
sodium  hydrate,  and  the  camphor  re- 
sulting from  this  operation  is  treated  in 
the  following  manner: 

In  an  autoclave  constructed  for  the 
purpose,  camphene  and  water  strongly 
mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  are  introduced 
and  heated  so  as  to  attain  9  pounds  of 
pressure.  Then  an  electric  current  is 
applied,  capable  of  producing  the  de- 
composition of  water.  The  mass  is 
constantly  stirred,  either  mechanically 
or  more  simply  by  allowing  a  little  of  the 
steam  to  escape  by  a  tap.  In  an  hour, 
at  least,  the  material  is  drawn  from  the 
apparatus,  washed  and  dried,  sublimed 
according  to  need,  and  is  then  suitable 
for  replacing  camphor  in  its  industrial 
employments,  for  the  camphene  is  con- 
verted entirely  or  in  greater  part  into 
camphor,  either  right-hand  camphor,  or 
a  product  optically  inactive,  according 
to  the  origin  of  the  oil  of  turpentine  made 
use  of.  . 

In  the  electrolytic  oxidation  of  the 
camphene,  instead  of  using  acidulated 
water,  whatever  is  capable  of  furnishing, 
under  the  influence  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent, the  oxygen  necessary  for  the  reac- 
tion, such  as  oxygenized  water,  barium 
bioxide,  and  the  permanganates,  may  be 
employed. 

Plastic  and  Elastic  Composition. — 
Formaldehyde  has  the  property,  as  known, 
of  removing  from  gelatin  its  solu- 
bility and  its  fusibility,  but  it  has  also 
another  property,  prejudicial  in  certain 
applications,  of  rendering  the  composi- 
tion hard  and  friable.  In  order  to 
remedy  this  prejudicial  action  M.  De- 
borda  adds  to  the  gelatin  treated  by 
means  of  formaldehyde,  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, or  a  mixture  of  oil  of  turpentine  and 
German  turpentine  or  Venice  turpentine. 
The  addition  removes  from  the  composi- 
tion its  friability  and  hardness,  imparting 
to  it  great  softness  and  elasticity.  The 
effect  is  accomplished  by  a  slight  pro- 
portion, 5  to  10  per  cent. 

Production  of  Substances  Resembling 
Celluloid. — Most  of  the  substitutes  for 
camphor  in  the  preparation  of  celluloid 
are  attended  with  inconveniences  limiting 
their  employment  and  sometimes  caus- 
ing their  rejection.  Thus,  in  one  case 
the  celluloid  does  not  allow  of  the  prepa- 
ration of  transparent  bodies;  in  another 
it  occasions  too  much  softness  in  the 
products  manufactured;  and  in  still  an- 
other it  does  not  allow  of  pressing,  fold- 
ing, or  other  operations,  because  the  mass 


is  too  brittle;  in  still  others  combinations 
are  produced  which  in  time  are  affected 
unfavorably  by  the  coloring  substances 
employed. 

Callenberg  has  found  that  the  haloge- 
nous  derivatives  of  etherized  oils,  prin- 
cipally oil  of  turpentine,  and  especially 
the  solid  chloride  of  turpentine,  which  is 
of  a  snowy  and  brilliant  white,  and  of 
agreeable  odor,  are  suitable  for  yielding, 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  camphor  or 
one  of  its  substitutes,  and  combined  by 
ordinary  means  with  nitrated  cellulose, 
or  other  ethers  of  cellulose,  treated  with 
acetic  ether,  a  celluloidic  product,  which, 
it  is  said,  is  not  inferior  to  ordinary  cellu- 
loid and  has  the  advantage  of  reduced 
cost. 

Elastic  Substitute  for  Celluloid.— 
Acetic  cellulose,  like  nitro-cellulose,  can 
be  converted  into  an  elastic  corneous 
compound.  The  substances  particu- 
larly suitable  for  the  operation  are  or- 
ganic substances  containing  one  or  more 
hydroxy,  aldehydic,  amide,  or  ketonic 
groups,  as  well  as  the  acid  amides.  Prob- 
ably a  bond  is  formed  when  these  com- 
binations act  on  the  acetate  of  cellulose, 
but  the  bond  cannot  well  be  defined, 
considering  the  complex  nature  of  the 
molecule  of  cellulose.  According  to  the 
mode  of  preparation,  the  substances 
obtained  form  a  hard  mass,  more  or  less 
flexible.  In  the  soft  state,  copies  of  en- 
grayed  designs  can  be  reproduced  in 
their  finest  details.  When  hardened, 
they  can  be  cut  and  polished.  In  cer- 
tain respects  they  resemble  celluloid, 
without  its  inflammability,  and  they  can 
be  employed  in  the  same  manner.  They 
can  be  produced  by  the  following  meth- 
ods— the  Lederer  process: 

I. — Melt  together  1  part  of  acetate  of 
cellulose  and  H  parts  of  phenol  at  about 
the  temperature  of  104°  to  122°  F.  When 
a  clear  solution  is  obtained  place  the 
mass  of  reaction  on  plates  of  glass  or 
metal  slightly  heated  and  allow  it  to  cool 
gradually.  After  a  rest  of  several  days 
the  mass,  which  at  the  outset  is  similar 
to  caoutchouc,  is  hard  and  forms  flexible 
plates,  which  can  be  worked  like  cellu- 
loid. 

II. — Compress  an  intimate  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  acetic  cellulose  and  hy- 
drate of  chloride  or  of  aniline,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  122°  to  140°  F.,  and  proceed 
as  in  the  previous  case. 

In  the  same  way  a  ketone  may  be  em- 
ployed, as  acetophenone,  or  an  acid 
amide,  as  acetamide. 

III. — A  transparent,  celluloid-like  sub- 
stance which  is  useful  for  the  produc- 


CELLULOID 


159 


tion  of  plates,  tubes,  and  other  articles, 
but  especially  as  an  underlay  for  sensitive 
films  in  photography,  is  produced  by 
dissolving  1.8  parts,  by  weight,  of  nitro- 
cellulose in  16  parts  of  glacial  acetic  acid, 
with  heating  and  stirring  and  addition 
of  5  parts  of  gelatin.  After  this  has 
swelled  up,  add  7.5  parts,  by  weight,  of 
alcohol  (96  per  cent),  stirring  constantly. 
The  syrupy  product  may  be  pressed  into 
molds  or  poured,  after  further  dilution 
with  the  said  solvents  in  the  stated  pro- 
portion, upon  glass  plates  to  form  thin 
layers.  The  dried  articles  are  well 
washed  with  water,  which  may  contain  a 
trace  of  soda  lye,  and  dried  again.  Pho- 
tographic foundations  produced  in  this 
manner  do  not  change,  nor  attack  the 
layers  sensitive  to  light,  nor  do  they  be- 
come electric,  and  in  developing  they 
remain  flat. 

IV. — Viscose  is  the  name  of  a  new 
product  of  the  class  of  substances  like 
celluloid,  pegamoid,  etc.,  substances  hav- 
ing most  varied  and  valuable  appli- 
cations. It  is  obtained  directly  from 
cellulose  by  mascerating  this  substance 
in  a  1  per  cent  dilution  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  maceration  is  allowed  to  con- 
tinue for  several  hours,  and  at  its  close 
the  liquid  is  decanted  and  the  residue 
is  pressed  off  and  washed  thoroughly. 
The  mass  (of  which  we  will  suppose 
there  is  100  grams)  is  then  treated  with  a 
20  per  cent  aqueous  solution  of  sodium 
hydrate,  which  dissolves  it.  The  solu- 
tion is  allowed  to  stand  for  3  days  in  a 
tightly  closed  vessel;  100  grams  carbon 
disulphide  are  then  added,  the  vessel 
closed  and  allowed  to  stand  for  12  hours 
longer,  when  it  is  ready  for  purification. 
Viscose  thus  formed  is  soluble  in  water, 
cold  or  tepid,  and  yields  a  solution  of  a 
pale  brownish  color,  from  which  it  is 
precipitated  by  alcohol  and  sodium 
chloride,  which  purifies  it,  but  at  the 
expense  of  much  of  its  solubility.  A  so- 
lution of  the  precipitated  article  is  color- 
less, or  of  a  slightly  pale  yellow.  Under 
the  action  of  heat,  long  continued,  vis- 
cose is  decomposed,  yielding  cellulose, 
caustic  soda,  and  carbon  disulphide. 

See  also  Casein  for  Celluloid  Substi- 
tutes. 

Celluloid  of  Reduced  Inflammability. 
— I. — A  practicable  method  consists  in 
incorporating  silica,  which  does  not 
harm  the  essential  properties  of  the  cel- 
luloid. The  material  is  divided  by  the 
usual  methods,  and  dissolved  by  means 
of  the  usual  solvents,  to  which  silica  has 
been  added,  either  in  the  state  of  amylic, 
ethylic,  or  methylic  silicate,  or  in  the  state 


of  any  ether  derivative  of  silicic  acid. 
The  suitable  proportions  vary  according 
to  the  degree  of  inflammability  desired, 
and  according  to  the  proportion  of  silica 
in  the  ether  derivative  employed;  but 
sufficient  freedom  from  inflammability 
for  practical  purposes  is  attained  by  the 
following  proportions:  Fifty-five  to  65 
parts  in  volume  of  the  solvent  of  the 
celluloid,  and  35  to  45  parts  of  the  de- 
rivative of  silicic  acid. 

When  the  ether  derivative  is  in  the 
solid  form,  such,  for  instance,  as  ethyl 
disilicate,  it  is  brought  to  the  liquid  state 
by  means  of  any  of  the  solvents.  The 
union  of  the  solvent  and  of  the  derivative 
is  accomplished  by  mixing  the  two 
liquids  and  shaking  out  the  air  as 
much  as  possible.  The  incorporation 
of  this  mixture  with  the  celluloid,  pre- 
viously divided  or  reduced  to  the  state  of 
chips,  is  effected  by  pouring  the  mixture 
on  the  chips,  or  inversely,  shaking  or  stir- 
ring as  free  from  the  air  as  possible.  The 
usual  methods  are  employed  for  the  des- 
iccation of  the  mass.  A  good  result 
is  obtained  by  drying  very  slowly,  pref- 
erably at  a  temperature  not  above  10° 
C.  (50°  F.).  The  resulting  residue  is  a 
new  product  scarcely  distinguished  from 
ordinary  celluloid,  except  that  the  in- 
herent inflammability  .  is  considerably 
reduced.  It  is  not  important  to  employ 
any  individual  silicate  or  derivative.  A 
mixture  of  the  silicates  or  derivatives 
mentioned  will  accomplish  the  same 
results. 

II. — Any  ignited  body  is  extinguished 
in  a  gaseous  medium  which  is  unsuitable 
for  combustion;  the  attempt  has  there- 
fore been  made  to  find  products  capable 
of  producing  an  uninflammable  gas;  and 
products  have  been  selected  that  yield 
chlorine,  and  others  producing  bromine; 
it  is  also  necessary  that  these  bodies 
should  be  soluble  in  a  solvent  of  cellu- 
loid; therefore,  among  chlorated  prod- 
ucts, ferric  chloride  has  been  taken;  this 
is  soluble  in  the  ether-alcohol  mixture. 

This  is  the  process:  An  ether-alcohol 
solution  of  celluloid  is  made;  then  an 
ether-alcohol  solution  of  ferric  perchlor- 
ide.  The  two  solutions  are  mingled,  and 
a  clear,  syrupy  liquid  of  yellow  color, 
yielding  no  precipitate,  is  obtained.  The 
liquid  is  poured  into  a  cup  or  any  suit- 
able vessel;  it  is  left  for  spontaneous 
evaporation,  and  a  substance  of  shell- 
color  is  produced,  which,  after  washing 
and  drying,  effects  the  desired  result. 
The  celluloid  thus  treated  loses  none  of 
its  properties  in  pliability  and  trans- 
parency, and  is  not  only  uninflammable, 
but  also  incombustible. 


160 


CELLULOID 


Of  bromated  compounds,  calcium 
bromide  has  been  selected,  which  pro- 
duces nearly  the  same  result;  the  product 
obtained  fuses  in  the  flame;  outside,  it  is 
extinguished,  without  the  power  of  igni- 
tion. 

It  may  be  objected  that  ferric  perchlor- 
ide  and  calcium  bromide,  being  soluble 
in  water,  may  present  to  the  celluloid  a 
surface  capable  of  being  affected  by 
moist  air;  but  the  mass  of  celluloid,  not 
being  liable  to  penetration  by  water,  fixes 
the  chlorinated  or  brominated  product. 
Still,  as  the  celluloid  undergoes  a  slight 
decomposition,  on  exposure  to  the  light, 
allowing  small  quantities  of  camphor  to 
evaporate,  the  surface  of  the  perchlorin- 
ated  celluloid  may  be  fixed  by  immer- 
sion in  albuminous  water,  after  previous 
treatment  with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid, 
if  a  light  yellow  product  is  desired. 

For  preventing  the  calcium  bromide 
from  eventually  oozing  on  the  surface  of 
the  celluloid,  by  reason  of  its  d"eliques- 
cence,  it  may  be  fixed  by  immersing  the 
celluloid  in  water  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid.  For  industrial  products, 
such  as  toilet  articles,  celluloid  with  fer- 
ric perchloride  may  be  employed. 

Another  method  of  preparing  an  un- 
inflammable celluloid,  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple above  mentioned,  consists  in  mix- 
ing bromide  of  camphor  with  cotton 
powder,  adding  castor  oil  to  soften  the 
product,  in  order  that  it  may  be  less 
brittle.  The  latter  product  is  not  in- 
combustible, but  it  is  uninflammable, 
and  its  facility  of  preparation  reduces  at 
least  one-half  the  apparatus  ordinarily 
made  use  of  in  the  manufacture  of  cellu- 
loid. The  manufacture  of  this  product 
is  not  at  all  dangerous,  for  the  camphor 
bromide  is  strictly  uninflammable,  and 
may  be  melted  without  any  danger  of 
dissolving  the  gun  cotton. 

III.  — Dissolve    25    parts    of   ordinary 
celluloidin  in  250  parts  of  acetone  and 
add  a  solution  of  50  parts  of  magnesium 
chloride  in  150  parts  of  alcohol,  until  a 
paste  results,  which  occurs  with  a  pro- 
portion of  about  100  parts  of  the  former 
solution  to  20  parts  of  the  latter  solution. 
This  paste  is  carefully  mixed  and  worked 
through,  then  dried,  and  gives  an  abso- 
lutely incombustible  material. 

IV.  —  Glass-like  plates  which  are  im- 
pervious   to    acids,    salts,    and    alkalies, 
flexible,    odorless,   and   infrangible,   and 
still    possess   a   transparency   similar   to 
ordinary  glass,  are  said  to  be  obtained 
by  dissolving  4  to  8  per  cent  of  collodion 
wool  (soluble  pyroxylin)  in  1  per  cent  of 
ether  or  alcohol  and  mixing  the  solution 
with  2  to  4  per  cent  of  castor  oil,  or  a 


similar  non-resinifying  oil,  and  with  4  to 
6  per  cent  of  Canada  balsam.  The  in- 
flammability of  these  plates  is  claimed  to 
be  much  less  than  with  others  of  collo- 
dion, and  may  be  almost  entirely  obviat- 
ed by  admixture  of  magnesium  chloride. 
An  addition  of  zinc  white  produces  the 
appearance  of  ivory. 

Solvents  for  Celluloid.— Celluloid  dis- 
solves in  acetone,  sulphuric  ether,  alco- 
hol, oil  of  turpentine,  benzine,  amyl 
acetate,  etc.,  alone,  or  in  various  com- 
binations of  these  agents.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  proportions  for  solutions 
of  celluloid: 

I.— Celluloid 5  parts 

Amyl  acetate 10  parts 

Acetone 16  parts 

Sulphuric  ether  ....  16  parts 

II.— Celluloid 10  parts 

Sulphuric  ether  ....  30  parts 

Acetone 30  parts 

Amyl  acetate7. 30  parts 

Camphor 3  parts 

III.— Celluloid 5  parts 

Alcohol 50  parts 

Camphor 5  parts 

IV.— Celluloid 5  parts 

Amyl  acetate 50  parts 

V.— Celluloid 5  parts 

Amyl  acetate 25  parts 

Acetone 25  parts 

Softening  and  Cementing  Celluloid. — 
If  celluloid  is  to  be  warmed  only  suffi- 
ciently to  be  able  to  bend  it,  a  bath  in 
boiling  water  will  answer.  In  steam  at 
120°  C.  (248°  F.),  however,  it  becomes 
so  soft  that  it  may  be  easily  kneaded  like 
dough,  so  that  one  may  even  imbed  in  it 
metal,  wood,  or  any  similar  material.  If 
it  be  intended  to  soften  it  to  solubility, 
the  celluloid  must  then  be  scraped  fine 
and  macerated  in  90  per  cent  alcohol, 
whereupon  it  takes  on  the  character  of 
cement  and  may  be  used  to  join  broken 
pieces  of  celluloid  together.  Solutions 
of  celluloid  may  be  prepared:  1.  With 
5  parts,  by  weight,  of  celluloid  in  16 
parts,  by  weight,  each  of  amyl  acetate, 
acetone,  and  sulphuric  ether.  2.  With 
10  parts,  by  weight,  of  celluloid  in  30 
parts,  by  weight,  each  of  sulphuric  ether, 
acetone,  amyl  acetate,  and  4  parts,  by 
weight,  camphor.  3.  With  5  parts,  by 
weight,  celluloid  in  50  parts,  by  weight, 
alcohol  and  5  parts,  by  weight,  camphor. 
4.  With  5  parts,  by  weight,  celluloid  in 
50  parts,  by  weight,  amyl  acetate.  5. 
Witn  5  parts,  by  weight,  celluloid  in  25 
parts,  by  weight,  amyl  acetate  and  25 
parts,  by  weight,  acetone. 


CEMENTS 


161 


It  is  often  desirable  to  soften  celluloid 
so  that  it  will  not  break  when  hammered. 
Dipping  it  in  water  warmed  to  40°  C. 
(104°  F.)  will  suffice  for  this. 

Mending  Celluloid. — Celluloid  dishes 
which  show  cracks  are  easily  repaired 
by  brushing  the  surface  repeatedly  with 
alcohol,  3  parts,  and  ether,  4  parts,  until 
the  mass  turns  soft  and  can  be  readily 
squeezed  together.  The  pressure  must 
be  maintained  for  about  one  day.  By 
putting  only  1  part  of  ether  in  3  parts  of 
alcohol  and  adding  a  little  shellac,  a  ce- 
ment for  celluloid  is  obtained,  which, 
applied  warm,  produces  quicker  results. 
Another  very  useful  gluing  agent  for  cel- 
luloid receptacles  is  concentrated  acetic 
acid.  The  celluloid  fragments  dabbed 
with  it  stick  together  almost  instantane- 
ously. 

See  also  Adhesives  for  Methods  of 
Mending  Celluloid. 

Printing  on  Celluloid. — Printing  on 
celluloid  may  be  done  in  the  usual  way. 
Make  ready  the  form  so  as  to  be  perfectly 
level  on  the  impression — that  is,  uniform 
to  impressional  touch  on  the  face.  The 
tympan  should  be  hard.  Bring  up  the 
form  squarely,  allowing  for  about  a  3-  or 
4-sheet  cardboard  to  be  withdrawn  from 
the  tympan  when  about  to  proceed  with 
printing  on  the  celluloid;  this  is  to  allow 
for  the  thickness  of  the  sheet  of  celluloid. 
Use  live  but  dry  and  well-seasoned  roll- 
ers. Special  inks  of  different  colors  are 
made  for  this  kind  of  press  work;  in 
black  a  good  card-job  quality  will  be 
found  about  right,  if  a  few  drops  of 
copal  varnish-  are  mixed  with  the  ink 
before  beginning  to  print. 

Colored  Celluloid.— 

Black:  First  dip  into  pure  water,  then 
into  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver;  let  dry 
in  the  light. 

Yellow:  First  immerse  in  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  lead,  then  in  a  concentrated 
solution  of  chromate  of  potash. 

Brown:  Dip  into  a  solution  of  per- 
manganate of  potash  made  strongly 
alkaline  by  the  addition  of  soda. 

Blue:  Dip  into  a  solution  of  indigo 
neutralized  by  the  addition  of  soda. 

Red:  First  dip  into  a  diluted  bath  of 
nitric  acid;  then  into  an  ammoniacal 
solution  of  carmine. 

Green:  Dip  into  a  solution  of  verdi- 
gris. 

Aniline  colors  may  also  be  employed 
but  they  are  less  permanent. 

Bleaching  Celluloid. —If  the  celluloid 
has  become  discolored  throughout,  its 
whiteness  can  hardly  be  restored,  but  if 


merely  superficially  discolored,  wipe  with 
a  woolen  rag  wet  with  absolute  alcohol 
and  ether  mixed  in  equal  proportions. 
This  dissolves  and  removes  a  minute 
superficial  layer  and  lays  bare  a  new 
surface.  To  restore  the  polish  rub 
briskly  first  with  a  woolen  cloth  and  fin- 
ish with  silk  or  fine  chamois.  A  little 
jeweler's  rouge  or  putzpomade  greatly 
facilitates  matters.  Ink  marks  may  be 
removed  in  the  same  manner.  Printer's 
ink  may  be  removed  from  celluloid  by 
rubbing  first  with  oil  of  turpentine  and 
afterwards  with  alcohol  and  ether. 

Process  of  Impregnating  Fabrics  with 
Celluloid. — The  fabric  is  first  saturated 
with  a  dilute  celluloid  solution  of  the 
consistency  of  olive  oil,  which  solution 
penetrates  deeply  into  the  tissue;  dry 
quickly  in  a  heating  chamber  and  satu- 
rate with  a  more  concentrated  celluloid 
solution,  about  as  viscous  as  molasses. 
If  oil  be  added  to  the  celluloid  solution, 
the  quantity  should  be  small  in  the  first 
solution,  e.  g.,  1  to  2  per  cent,  in  the 
following  ones  5  to  8  per  cent,  while  the 
outer  layer  contains  very  little  or  no  oil. 
A  fabric  impregnated  in  this  manner 
possesses  a  very  flexible  surface,  because 
the  outer  layer  may  be  very  thin,  while 
the  interior  consists  of  many  flexible 
fibers  surrounded  by  celluloid. 

CELLULOID  CEMENTS  AND  GLUES : 

See  Adhesives. 

CELLULOID  LACQUER: 

See  Lacquer. 

CELLULOID  PUTTY: 

See  Cements. 


Cements 

(See  also  Putties.) 

For  Adhesive  Cements  intended  for 
repairing  broken  articles,  see  Adhe- 
sives. 

Putty  for  Celluloid.— To  fasten  cellu- 
loid to  wood,  tin,  etc.,  use  a  compound  of 
2  parts  shellac,  3  parts  spirit  of  cam- 
phor, and  4  parts  strong  alcohol. 

Plumbers'  Cement. — A  plumbers'  ce- 
ment consists  of  1  part  black  rosin, 
melted,  and  2  parts  of  brickdust,  thor- 
oughly powdered  and  dried. 

Cement  for  Steam  and  Water  Pipes.  — 
A  cement  for  pipe  joints  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: Ten  pounds  fine  yellow  ocher;  4 


162 


CEMENTS 


pounds  ground  litharge;  4  pounds  whit- 
ing, and  £  pound  of  hemp,  cut  up  fine. 
Mix  together  thoroughly  with  linseed  oil 
to  about  the  consistency  of  putty. 

Gutter  Cement. — Stir  sand  and  fine 
lime  into  boiled  paint  skins  while  hot  and 
thick.  Use  hot. 

Cement  for  Pipe  Joints. — A  good  ce- 
ment for  making  tight  joints  in  pumps, 
pipes,  etc.,  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  15 
parts  of  slaked  lime,  30  parts  of  graphite, 
and  40  parts  of  barium  sulphate.  The  in- 
gredients are  powdered,  well  mixed  to- 
gether, and  stirred  up  with  15  parts  of 
boiled  oil.  A  stiffer  preparation  can  be 
made  by  increasing  the  proportions  of 
graphite  and  barium  sulphate  to  30  and 
40  parts  respectively,  and  omitting  the 
lime.  Another  cement  for  the  same 
purpose  consists  of  15  parts  of  chalk 
and  50  of  graphite,  ground,  washed, 
mixed,  and  reground  to  fine  powder.  To 
this  mixture  is  added  20  parts  of  ground 
litharge,  and  the  whole  mixed  to  a  stiff 
paste  with  about  15  parts  of  boiled  oil. 
This  last  preparation  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  remaining  plastic  for  a  long 
time  when  stored  in  a  cool  place.  Finally, 
a  good  and  simple  mixture  for  tightening 
screw  connections  is  made  from  powdered 
shellac  dissolved  in  10  per  cent  ammonia. 
The  mucinous  mass  is  painted  over  the 
screw  threads,  after  the  latter  have  been 
thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the  fitting  is 
screwed  home.  The  ammonia  soon 
volatilizes,  leaving  behind  a  mass  which 
hardens  quickly,  makes  a  tight  joint, 
and  is  impervious  to  hot  and  cold  water. 

Protection  for  Cement  Work. — A 
coating  of  soluble  glass  will  impart  to 
cement  surfaces  exposed  to  ammonia 
not  only  a  protective  covering,  but  also 
increased  solidness. 

Cemented  surfaces  can  be  protected 
from  the  action  of  the  weather  by  re- 
peated coats  of  a  green  vitriol  solution 
consisting  of  1  part  of  green  vitriol  and 
3  parts  of  water.  Two  coatings  of  5 
per  cent  soap  water  are  said  to  render 
the  cement  waterproof;  after  drying  and 
rubbing  with  a  cloth  or  brush,  this  coat- 
ing will  become  glossy  like  oil  paint. 
This  application  is  especially  recom- 
mended for  sick  rooms,  since  the  walls 
can  be  readily  cleaned  by  washing  with 
soapy  water.  The  coating  is  rendered 
more  and  more  waterproof  thereby. 
The  green  vitriol  solution  is  likewise 
commendable  for  application  on  old  and 
new  plastering,  since  it  produces  thereon 
waterproof  coatings.  From  old  plas- 
tering the  loose  particles  have  first  to  be 
removed  by  washing. 


Puncture  Cement. — A  patented  prepa- 
ration for  automatically  repairing  punc- 
tures in  bicycle  tires  consists  of  glycerine 
holding  gelatinous  silica  or  aluminum 
hydrate  in  suspension.  Three  volumes 
of  glycerine  are  mixed  with  1  volume  of 
liquid  water  glass,  and  an  acid  is  stirred 
in.  The  resulting  jelly  is  diluted  with  3 
additional  volumes  of  glycerine,  and 
from  4  to  6  ounces  of  this  fluid  are  placed 
in  each  tire.  In  case  of  puncture,  the 
internal  pressure  of  the  air  forces  the  fluid 
into  the  hole,  which  it  closes. 

To  Fix  Iron  in  Stone. — Of  the  quickly 
hardening  cements,  lead  and  sulphur, 
the  latter  is  popularly  employed.  It  can 
be  rendered  still  more  suitable  for  pur- 
poses of  pouring  by  the  admixture  of 
Portland  cement,  which  is  stirred  into 
the  molten  sulphur  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  3 
parts  by  weight.  The  strength  of  the 
latter  is  increased  by  this  addition,  since 
the  formation  of  so  coarse  a  crystalline 
structure  as  that  of  solidifying  pure  sul- 
phur is  disturbed  by  the  powder  added. 

White  Portland  Cement.— Mix  togeth- 
er feldspar,  40-100  parts,  -by  weight; 
kaolin,  100  parts;  limestone,  700  parts; 
magnesite,  20-40  parts;  and  sodium 
chloride,  2.5-5  parts,  all  as  pure  as 
possible,  and  heat  to  1430°  to  1500°  C. 
(2606°  to  2732°  F.),  until  the  whole  has 
become  sintered  together,  and  forms  a 
nice,  white  cement-like  mass. 

Cement  for  Closing  Cracks  in  Stoves. 
— Make  a  putty  of  reduced  iron  (iron 
by  hydrogen)  and  a  solution  of  sodium 
or  potassium  silicate,  and  force  it  into 
the  crack.  If  the  crack  be  a  very  nar- 
row one,  make  the  iron  and  silicate  into 
paste  instead  of  putty.  This  material 
grows  firmer  and  harder  the  longer  the 
mended  article  is  used. 

Cement  for  Waterpipe. — I. — Mix  to- 
gether 11  parts,  by  weight,  Portland 
cement;  4  parts,  by  weight,  lead  white; 
1  part,  by  weight,  litharge;  and  make  to 
a  paste  with  boiled  oil  in  which  3  per 
cent  of  its  weight  of  colophony  has  been 
dissolved. 

II. — Mix  1  part,  by  weight,  torn-up 
wadding;  1  part,  by  weight,  of  quicklime, 
and  3  parts,  by  weight,  of  boiled  oil. 
This  cement  must  be  used  as  soon  as 
made. 

Cement  for  Pallet  Stones. — Place  small 
pieces  of  shellac  around  the  stone  when 
in  position  and  subject  it  to  heat.  Often 
the  lac  spreads  unevenly  or  swells  up; 
and  this,  in  addition  to  being  unsightly, 
is  apt  to  displace  the  stone.  This  can 
be  avoided  as  follows:  The  pallets  are 


CEMENTS 


163 


held  in  long  sliding  tongs.  Take  a  piece 
of  shellac,  heat  it  and  roll  it  into  a  cylin- 
der between  the  fingers;  again  heat  the 
extremity  and  draw  it  out  into  a  fine 
thread.  This  thread  will  break  off,  leav- 
ing a  point  at  the  end  of  the  lac.  Now 
heat  the  tongs  at  a  little  distance  from 
the  pallets,  testing  the  degree  of  heat  by 
touching  the  tongs  with  the  shellac. 
When  it  melts  easily,  lightly  touch  the 
two  sides  of  the  notch  with  it;  a  very 
thin  layer  can  thus  be  spread  over  them, 
and  the  pallet  stone  can  then  be  placed 
in  position  and  held  until  cold  enough. 
The  tongs  will  not  lose  the  heat  sud- 
denly, so  that  the  stone  can  easily  be 
raised  or  lowered  as  required.  The  pro- 
jecting particles  of  cement  can  be  re- 
moved by  a  brass  wire  filed  to  an  angle 
and  forming  a  scraper.  To  cement  a 
ruby  pin,  or  the  like,  one  may  also  use 
shellac  dissolved  in  spirit,  applied  in  the 
consistency  of  syrup,  and  liquefied  again 
by  means  of  a  hot  pincette,  by  seizing 
the  stone  with  it. 

DENTAL  CEMENTS: 

Fairthorne's  Cement. — Powdered  glass, 
5  parts;  powdered  borax,  4  parts;  silicic 
acid,  8  parts;  zinc  oxide,  200  parts. 
Powder  very  finely  and  mix;  then  tint 
with  a  small  quantity  of  golden  pcher  or 
manganese.  The  compound,  mixed  be- 
fore use  with  concentrated  syrupy  zinc- 
chloride  solution,  soon  becomes  as  hard 
as  marble  and  constitutes  a  very  durable 
tooth  cement. 

Huebner's  Cement. — Zinc  oxide,  500.0 
parts;  powdered  manganese,  1.5  parts; 
yellow  ocher,  powdered,  1.5-4.0  parts; 
powdered  borax,  10.0  parts;  powdered 
glass,  100.0  parts. 

As  a  binding  liquid  it  is  well  to  use 
acid-free  zinc  chloride,  which  can  be 
prepared  by  dissolving  pure  zinc,  free 
from  iron,  in  concentrated,  pure,  hydro- 
chloric acid,  in  such  a  manner  that  zinc 
is  always  in  excess.  When  no  more  hy- 
drogen is  evolved  the  zinc  in  excess  is 
still  left  in  the  solution  for  some  time. 
The  latter  is  filtered  and  boiled  down  to 
the  consistency  of  syrup. 

Commercial  zinc  oxide  cannot  be  em- 
ployed without  previous  treatment,  be- 
cause it  is  too  loose;  the  denser  it  is  the 
better  is  it  adapted  for  dental  cements, 
and  the  harder  the  latter  will  be.  For 
this  reason  it  is  well,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
dense  product,  to  stir  the  commercial 
pure  zinc  oxide  into  a  stiff  paste  with 
water  to  which  2  per  cent  of  nitric  acid 
has  been  added;  the  paste  is  dried  and 
heated  for  some  time  at  white  heat  in  a 
Hessian  crucible. 


After  cooling,  the  zinc  oxide,  thus  ob- 
tained, is  very  finely  powdered  and  kept 
in  hermetically  sealed  vessels,  so  that 
it  cannot  absorb  carbonic  acid.  The 
dental  cement  prepared  with  such  zinc 
oxide  turns  very  hard  and  solidifies  with 
the  concentrated  zinc-chloride  solution  in 
a  few  minutes. 

Phosphate  Cement. — Concentrate  pure 
phosphoric  acid  till  semi-solid,  and  mix 
aluminum  phosphate  with  it  by  heat- 
ing. For  use,  mix  with  zinc  oxide  to 
the  consistency  of  putty.  The  cement 
is  said  to  set  in  2  minutes. 

Zinc  Amalgam,  or  Dentists'  Zinc. — 
This  consists  of  pure  zinc  filings  com- 
bined with  twice  their  weight  of  mercury, 
a  gentle  heat  being  employed  to  render 
the  union  more  complete.  It  is  best  ap- 
plied as  soon  as  made.  Its  color  is  gray, 
and  it  is  said  to  be  effective  and  durable. 

Sorel's  Cement. — Mix  zinc  oxide  with 
half  its  bulk  of  fine  sand,  add  a  solu- 
tion of  zinc  chloride  of  1.260  specific 
gravity,  and  rub  the  whole  thoroughly 
together  in  a  mortar.  The  mixture 
must  be  applied  at  once,  as  it  hardens 
very  quickly. 

Metallic  Cement. — Pure  tin,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  cadmium  and  suf- 
ficient mercury,  forms  the  most  lasting 
and,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the  least 
objectionable  amalgam.  Melt  2  parts 
of  tin  with  1  of  cadmium,  run  it  into  in- 
gots, and  reduce  it  to  filings.  Form 
those  into  a  fluid  amalgam  with  mercury, 
and  squeeze  out  the  excess  of  the  latter 
through  leather.  Work  up  the  solid 
residue  in  the  hand,  and  press  it  into  the 
tooth.  Or  melt  some  beeswax  in  a  pip- 
kin, throw  in  5  parts  of  cadmium,  and 
when  melted  add  7  or  8  parts  of  tin  in 
small  pieces.  Pour  the  melted  metals 
into  an  iron  or  wooden  box,  and  shake 
them  until  cold,  so  as  to  obtain  the  alloy 
in  a  powder.  This  is  mixed  with  2£  to 
3  times  its  weight  of  mercury  in  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  and  used  as  above  described. 

CEMENT  COLORS: 
See  Stone. 

CEMENT,  MORDANT  FOR: 

See  Mordants. 

CEMENT,  PAINTS  FOR: 
See  Paint. 

CEMENT,  PROTECTION  OF,  AGAINST 
ACID: 

See  Acid-Proofing. 


164 


CERAMICS 


CHAIN  OF  FIRE: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

CHAINS  (WATCH),  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

CHALK  FOR  TAILORS. 

Knead  together  ordinary  pipe  clay, 
moistened  with  ultramarine  blue  for 
blue,  finely  ground  ocher  for  yellow,  etc., 
until  they  are  uniformly  mixed,  roll  out 
into  thin  sheets,  cut  and  press  into  wood- 
en or  metallic  molds,  well  oiled  to  pre- 
vent sticking,  and  allow  to  dry  slowly  at 
ordinary  temperature  or  at  a  very  gentle 
heat. 


CHAPPED  HANDS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

CHARTA  SINAPIS : 
See  Mustard  Paper. 

CHARTREUSE : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


Ceramics 

GROUND    CERAMICS— LAYING    OIL 
FOR: 

See  Oil. 

Notes  for  Potters,  Glass-,  and  Brick- 
makers. — It  is  of  the  highest  importance 
,in  selecting  oxides,  minerals,  etc.,  for 
manufacturing  different  articles,  for 
potters'  use,  to  secure  pure  goods,  es- 
pecially in  the  purchase  of  the  following: 
Lead,  manganese,  oxide  of  zinc,  borax, 
whiting,  oxide  of  iron,  and  oxide  of 
cobalt.  The  different  ingredients  com- 

E  rising  any  given  color  or  glaze  should 
e  thoroughly  mixed  before  being  cal- 
cined, otherwise  the  mass  will  be  of  a 
streaky  or  variegated  kind.  Calcination 
requires  care,  especially  in  the  manu- 
facture of  enamel  colors.  Over-firing, 
particularly  of  colors  or  enamels  com- 
posed in  part  of  lead,  borax,  antimony,  or 
litharge,  causes  a  dullness  of  shade,  or 
film,  that  reduces  their  value  for  decora- 
tive purposes,  where  clearness  and  bril- 
liancy are  of  the  first  importance. 

To  arrest  the  unsightly  defect  of 
"crazing,"  the  following  have  been  the 
most  successful  methods  employed,  in 
the  order  given: 

I. — Flux  made  of  10  parts  tincal;  4 
parts  oxide  of  zinc;  1  part  soda. 


II. — A  calcination  of  5  parts  oxide  of 
zinc;  1  part  pearl  ash. 

III. — Addition  of  raw  oxide  of  zinc, 
6  pounds  to  each  hundredweight  of 
glaze. 

To  glazed  brick  and  tile  makers,  whose 
chief  difficulty  appears  to  be  the  produc- 
tion of  a  slip  to  suit  the  contraction  of 
their  clay,  and  adhere  strongly  to  either 
a  clay  or  a  burnt  brick  or  tile,  the  follow- 
ing method  may  be  recommended: 

Mix  together: 

Ball  clay 10     parts 

Cornwall  stone 10     parts 

China  clay 7    parts 

Flint 6  ^  parts 

To  be  mixed  and  lawned  one  week 
before  use. 

To  Cut  Pottery.— Pottery  or  any  soft 
or  even  hard  stone  substance  can  be  cut 
without  chipping  by  a  disk  of  soft  iron, 
the  edge  of  which  has  been  charged  with 
emery,  diamond,  or  other  grinding  pow- 
der, that  can  be  obtained  at  any  tool 
agency.  The  cutting  has  to  be  done 
with  a  liberal  supply  of  water  fed  con- 
tinually to  the  revolving  disk  and  the 
substance  to  be  cut. 

BRICK  AND  TILEMAKERS'  GLAZED 
BRICKS : 

White. — When  the  brick  or  tile  leaves 
the  press,  with  a  very  soft  brush  cover  the 
part  to  be  glazed  with  No.  1  Slip;  after- 
wards dip  the  face  in  the  same  mixture. 

No.  i  Slip.— 

Same  clay  as  brick  . .        9  parts 

Flint 1  part 

Ball  clay 5  parts 

China 4  parts 

Allow  the  brick  to  remain  slowly  dry- 
ing for  8  to  10  hours,  then  when  moist 
dip  in  the  white  body. 

White  Body.— 

China  clay 24  parts 

Ball  clay 8  parts 

Feldspar 8  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

The  brick  should  now  be  dried  slowly 
but  thoroughly,  and  when  perfectly  dry 
dip  the  face  in  clean  cold  water,  and  im- 
mediately afterwards  in  glaze. 

Hard  Glaze.— 

Feldspar 18    parts 

Cornwall  stone 3£  parts 

Whiting 1 1  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc l|  parts 

Plaster  of  Paris f  part 


CERAMICS 


165 


Soft  Glaze. — 

White  lead 13     parts 

Feldspar 20     parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 3     parts 

Plaster  of  Paris 1     part 

Flint  glass 13     parts 

Cornwall  stone 3£  parts 

Paris  white 1J  parts 

Where  clay  is  used  that  will  stand  a 
very  high  fire,  the  white  lead  and  glass 
may  be  left  out.  A  wire  brush  should 
now  be  used  to  remove  all  superfluous 
glaze,  etc.,  from  the  sides  and  ends  of  the 
brick,  which  is  then  ready  for  the  kiln. 
In  placing,  set  the  bricks  face  to  face, 
about  an  inch  space  being  left  between 
the  two  glazed  faces.  All  the  mixtures, 
after  being  mixed  with  water  to  the  con- 
sistency of  cream,  must  be  passed  2  or 
3  times  through  a  very  fine  lawn.  The 
kiln  must  not  be  opened  till  perfectly 
cold. 

Process  for  Colored  Glazes. — Use  color, 
1  part,  to  white  body,  7  parts.  Use 
color,  1  part,  to  glaze,  9  parts. 

Preparation  of  Colors. — The  specified 
ingredients  should  all  be  obtained  finely 
ground,  and  after  being  mixed  in  the 
proportions  given  should,  in  a  saggar  or 
some  clay  vessel,  be  fired  in  the  brick 
kiln  and  afterwards  ground  for  use.  In 
firing  the  ingredients  the  highest  heat 
attainable  is  necessary. 

Turquoise. — 

Oxide  of  zinc 8    parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 1 J  parts 

Grass  Green. — 

Oxide  of  chrome 6     parts 

Flint 1     part 

Oxide  of  copper |  part 

Royal  Blue.— 

Pure  alumina 20  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 8  parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 4  parts 

Mazarine  Blue. — 

Oxide  of  cobalt 10  parts 

i'aris  white 9  parts 

Sulphate  barytes 1  part 

Red  Brown. — 

Oxide  of  zinc 40  parts 

Crocus  of  martis 6  parts 

Oxide  of  chrome 6  parts 

Red  lead 5  parts 

Boracic  acid 5  parts 

Red  oxide  of  iron  ....  1  part 

Orange. — 

Pure  alumina 5     parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 2     parts 

Bichromate  of  potash.  1     part 

Iron  scale \  part 


Claret  Brown. — 

Bichromate  of  potash. 

Flint 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Iron  scale 

Blue  Green. — 

Oxide  of  chrome 

Flint 

Oxide  of  cobalt. . 


Sky  Blue. — 

Flint 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Cobalt 

Phosphate  soda 

Chrome  Green. — 
Oxide  of  chrome. . .  . 

Oxide  of  copper 

Carbonate  of  cobalt . 
Oxide  of  cobalt 


Olive.— 

Oxide  of  chrome. . .  . 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Flint ..'. 

Oxide  of  cobalt 

Blood  Red.— 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Crocus  martis 

Oxide  of  chrome. . .  . 

Litharge 

Borax 

Red  oxide  of  iron.  . .. 

Black.— 

Chromate  of  iron. . . . 

Oxide  of  nickel 

Oxide  of  tin 

Oxide  of  cobalt 

Imperial  Blue. — 

Oxide  of  cobalt 

Black  color 

Paris  white 

Flint 

Carbonate  of  soda .  . 

Mahogany. — 

Chromate  of  iron. . . . 
Oxide  of  manganese. 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Oxide  of  tin 

Crocus  martis .  . 


Gordon  Green.  — 

Oxide  of  chrome 

Paris  white 

Bichromate  of  potash. 
Oxide  of  cobalt 

Violet.— 

Oxide  of  cobalt 

Oxide  of  manganese. . 


Oxide  of  zinc, 
Cornwall  stone 


2  parts 
2  parts 
1  part 
1  part 


6    parts 

2  parts 
f  part 

9    parts 

13     parts 

2 1  parts 

1     part 

3  parts 
1  part 

1  part 

2  parts 


3  parts 
2  parts 
5  parts 
1  part 


30  parts 
7  parts 
7  parts 
5  parts 
5  parts 
2  parts 


24  parts 
2  parts 
2  parts 
5  parts 

10  parts 
1£  parts 
7£  parts 
2 1  parts 

1  part 

30  parts 

20  parts 

12  parts 

4  parts 

2  parts 

12    parts 

8     parts 

4^  parts 

i  part 

2$  parts 
4  parts 
8  parts 
8  parts 


166 


CERAMICS 


Lavender. — 

Calcined  oxide  of  zinc  5     parts 

Carbonate  of  cobalt .  .  f  part 

Oxide  of  nickel J  part 

Paris  white 1     part 

Brown.  — 

Manganese 4  parts 

Oxide  of  chrome 2  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 4  parts 

Sulphate  barytes 2  parts 

Dove.— 

Oxide  of  nickel 7  parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 2  parts 

Oxide  of  chrome 1  part 

Oxide  of  flint 18  parts 

Paris  white 3  parts 

Yellow  Green. — 

Flint 6     parts 

Paris  white 4     parts 

Bichromate  of  potash.  4  i  parts 

Red  lead 2     parts 

Fluorspar 2     parts 

Plaster  of  Paris li  parts 

Oxide  of  copper £  part 

BODIES  REQUIRING  NO  STAIN: 
Ivory. — 

Cane  marl 16  parts 

Ball  clay 12  parts 

Feldspar 8  parts 

China  clay 6  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

Cream. — 

Ball  clay 22     parts 

China  clay 5i  parts 

Flint 5"  parts 

Feldspar 3J  parts 

Cane  marl 12     parts 

Black.— 

Ball  clay 120  parts 

Ground  ocher 120  parts 

Ground  manganese .  35  parts 

Buff.— 

Ball  clay 12  parts 

China  clay 10  parts 

Feldspar 8  parts 

Bull  fire  clay 16  parts 

Yellow  ocher 3  parts 

Drab.— 

Cane  marl 30  parts 

Ball  clay 10  parts 

Stone 7  parts 

Feldspar 4  parts 

Brown. — 

Red  marl 50  parts 

China  clay 7  parts 

Ground  manganese  . .      6  parts 
Feldspar 3  parts 


In  making  mazarine  blue  glazed  bricks 
use  the  white  body  and  stain  the  glaze 
only. 

Mazarine  blue 1  part 

Glaze 7  parts 

For  royal  blue  use  1  part  stain  to  6 
parts  white  body,  and  glaze  unstained. 

Blood-Red  Stain. — Numerous  brick 
manufacturers  possess  beds  of  clay  from 
which  good  and  sound  bricks  or  tiles 
can  be  made,  the  only  drawback  being 
that  the  clay  does  not  burn  a  good  color. 
In  many  cases  this  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  clay  contains  more  or  less  sul- 
phur or  other  impurity,  which  spoils  the 
external  appearance  of  the  finished 
article.  The  following  stain  will  con- 
vert clay  of  any  color  into  a  rich,  deep 
red,  mixed  in  proportions  of  stain,  1 
part,  to  clay,  60  parts. 

Stain.— 

Crocus  martis 20  parts 

Yellow  ocher 4  parts 

Sulphate  of  iron 10  parts 

Red  oxide  of  iron 2  parts 

A  still  cheaper  method  is  to  put  a  slip 
or  external  coating  upon  the  goods. 
The  slip  being  quite  opaque,  effectively 
hides  the  natural  color  of  the  brick  or 
tile  upon  which  it  may  be  used. 
The  process  is  to  mix: 

Blood-red  stain 1  part 

Good  red  clay 6  parts 

Add  water  until  the  mixture  becomes 
about  the  consistency  of.  cream,  then 
with  a  sponge  force  the  liquid  two  or  three 
times  through  a  very  fine  brass  wire  lawn, 
No.  80,  and  dip  the  goods  in  the  liquid 
as  soon  as  they  are  pressed  or  molded. 

Blue  Paviors. — Blue  paving  bricks 
may  be  produced  with  almost  any  kind 
of  clay  that  will  stand  a  fair  amount  of 
heat,  by  adopting  the  same  methods  as 
in  the  former  case  of  blood-red  bricks, 
that  is,  the  clay  may  be  stained  through- 
out, or  an  outside  coating  may  be  ap- 
plied. 

Stain  for  Blue  Paviors. — 

Ground  ironstone. ...    20  parts 

Chromate  of  iron 5  parts 

Manganese 6  parts 

Oxide  of  nickel 1  part 

Use  1  part  clay  and  1  part  stain  for 
coating,  and  50  or  60  parts  clay  and  1 
part  stain  for  staining  through. 
Fire  blue  paviors  very  hard. 

Buff  Terra-Co tta  Slip.— 

Buff  fire  clay 16  parts 

China  clay 6  parts 


CERAMICS 


167 


Yellow  ocher 3  parts 

Ball  clay 10  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

Add  water  to  the  materials  after  mix- 
ing well,  pass  through  the  fine  lawn,  and 
dip  the  goods  when  soft  in  the  liquid. 

Transparent  Glaze. — 

Ground  flint  glass 4     parts 

Ground  white  lead ....  4  parts 
Ground  oxide  of  zinc.  \  part 
This  glaz,e  is  suitable  for  bricks  or  tiles 
made  of  very  good  red  clay,  the  natural 
color  of  the  clay  showing  through  the 
glaze.  The  goods  must  first  be  fired 
sufficiently  hard  to  make  them  durable, 
afterwards  glazed,  and  fired  again.  The 
glaze  being  comparatively  soft  will  fuse  at 
about  half  the  heat  required  for  the  first 
burning.  The  glaze  may  be  stained,  if 
desired,  with  any  of  the  colors  given  in 
glazed-brick  recipes,  in  the  following 
proportions:  Stain,  1  part;  glaze,  1  part. 

SPECIAL    RECIPES    FOR    POTTERY 
AND  BRICK  AND  TILE  WORKS : 
Verifiable  Bodies.— The  following  mix- 
tures will  flux  only  at  a  very  high  heat. 
They  require   no  glaze  when  a   proper 
heat  is  attained,  and  they  are  admirably 
adapted  for  stoneware  glazes. 

I. — Cornwall  stone.  ...  20  parts 

Feldspar 12  parts 

China  clay 3  parts 

Whiting 2  parts 

Plaster  of  Paris  ...      1  £  parts 

II.— Feldspar 30  parts 

Flint 9  parts 

Stone 8  parts 

China  clay 3  parts 

III. — Feldspar 20  parts 

Stone.  .  .  . 5  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 3  parts 

Whiting 2  parts 

Plaster  of  Paris  ...      1  part 
Soda    crystals,   dis- 
solved        1  part 

Special  Glazes  for  Bricks  or  Pottery 
at  One  Burning. — To  run  these  glazes 
intense  heat  is  required. 

I. — Cornwall  stone 40     parts 

Flint 7     parts 

Paris  white 4     parts 

Ball  clay 15     parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 6     parts 

White  lead 15     parts 

II.— Feldspar 20     parts 

Cornwall  stone. ...  5     parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 3     parts 

Flint 3     parts 

Lynn  sand 1*  parts 

Sulphate  barytes. . .  1 J  parts 


III. — Feldspar 25  parts 

Cornwall  stone 6  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 2  parts 

China  clay 2  parts 

IV. — Cornwall  stone 118  parts 

Feldspar 40  parts 

Paris  white 28  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

V. — Feldspar 16  parts 

China  clay 4  parts 

Stone 4  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 2  parts 

Plaster  of  Paris  ....  1  part 

VI.— Feldspar 10  parts 

Stone 5  parts 

Flint 2  parts 

Plaster \  part 

The  following  glaze  is  excellent  for 
bricks  in  the  biscuit  and  pottery,  which 
require  an  easy  firing: 

White.— 

White  lead 20  parts 

Stone 9  parts 

Flint 9  parts 

Borax. 4  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 2  parts 

Feldspar 3  parts 

These  materials  should  be  procured 
finely  ground,  and  after  being  thoroughly 
mixed  should  be  placed  in  a  fire-clay 
crucible,  and  be  fired  for  5  or  6  hours, 
sharply,  or  until  the  material  runs  down 
into  a  liquid,  then  with  a  pair  of  iron 
tongs  draw  the  crucible  from  the  kiln 
and  pour  the  liquid  into  a  bucket  of  cold 
water,  grind  the  flux  to  an  extremely 
fine  powder,  and  spread  a  coating  upon 
the  plate  to  be  enameled,  previously 
brushing  a  little  gum  thereon.  The 
plate  must  then  be  fired  until  a  sufficient 
heat  is  attained  to  run  or  fuse  the  pow- 
der. 

POTTERY   BODIES   AND    GLAZES: 
Ordinary.  — 

I. — China  clay 2^  parts 

Stone 1 1  parts 

Bone 3     parts 

II. — China  clay 5     parts 

•  Stone 2£  parts 

Bone 7     parts 

Barytes 3     parts 

III. — Chain  clay 5     parts 

Stone 3     parts 

Flint \  part 

Barytes 8    parts 

Superior.  — 

I. — China  clay 35  parts 

Cornwall  stone 23  parts 

Bone 40  parts 

Flint 2  parts 


168 


CERAMICS 


II. — China  clay 35  parts 

Cornwall  stone 8  parts 

Bone 50  parts 

Flint 3  parts 

Blue  clay 4  parts 

III. — China  clay 8  parts 

Cornwall  stone 40  parts 

Bone 29  parts 

Flint 5  parts 

Blue  clay 18  parts 

IV.— China  clay 32  parts 

Cornwall  stone 23  parts 

Bone 34  parts 

Flint 6  parts 

Blue  clay 5  parts 

V. — China  clay 7  parts 

Stone 40  parts 

Bone. 28  parts 

Flint 5  parts 

Blue  clay 20  parts 

Finest  China  Bodies. — 

I. — China  clay 20  parts 

Bone 60  parts 

Feldspar 20  parts 

II.— China  clay 30  parts 

Bone 40  parts 

Feldspar 30  parts 

III.— China  clay 25  parts 

Stone 10  parts 

Bone 45  parts 

Feldspar 20  parts 

IV.— China  clay 30  parts 

Stone 15  parts 

Bone 35  parts 

Feldspar 20  parts 

Earthenware  Bodies. — 

I.— Ball  clay 13  parts 

China  clay 9$  parts 

Flint 5$  parts 

Cornwall  stone 4  parts 

II.— Ball  clay 12$  parts 

China  clay 8  parts 

Flint 5$  parts 

Cornwall  stone  ...  2$  parts 
One  pint  of  cobalt 

stain  to  1  ton  of 

glaze. 

III.— Ball  clay 13J  parts 

China  clay 11     parts 

Flint 4    parts 

Cornwall  stone 5     parts 

Feldspar 4     parts 

Stain  as  required. 

IV.— Ball  clay 18$  parts 

China  clay 13$  parts 

Flint 8$  parts 

Stone 4     parts 

Blue  stain,  2  pints  to  ton. 


V.— Ball  clay 15  parts 

China  clay 12  parts 

Flint 6  parts 

Stone 4  parts 

Feldspar 4  parts 

Blue  stain,  2  pints  to  ton. 

VI.  (Parian).— 

Stone 11  parts 

Feldspar 10  parts 

China  clay 8  parts 

COLORED  BODIES : 

Ivory  Body. — 

Ball  clay 22    parts 

China 5$  parts 

Flint 5     parts 

Stone 3$  parts 

Dark  Drab  Body.— 

Cane  marl 30  parts 

Ball  clay 10  parts 

Cornwall  stone 7  parts 

Feldspar 4  parts 

Black  Body.— 

Ball  clay 120  parts 

Ocher 120  parts 

Manganese 35  parts 

Cobalt  carbonate. .  2  parts 

Grind  the  three  last  mentioned  ingre- 
dients first. 

Caledonia  Body. — 

Yellow  clay 32  parts 

China  clay 10  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

Brown  Body. — 

Red  clay 50     parts 

Common  clay 7$  parts 

Manganese 1     part 

Flint 1     part 

Jasper  Body.— 

Cawk  clay 10     parts 

Blue  clay 10     parts 

Bone 5     parts 

Flint 2     parts 

Cobalt 1  part 

Stone  Body.— 

Stone 48  parts 

Blue  clay 25  parts 

China  clay 24  parts 

Cobalt ! 10  parts 

Egyptian  Black. — 

Blue  clay 235  parts 

Calcined  ocher. .  .  .  225  parts 

Manganese 45  parts 

China  clay 15  parts 

Ironstone  Body. — 

Stone 200  parts 

Cornwall  clay 150  parts 


CERAMICS 


169 


Blue  clay 200  parts 

Flint 100  parts 

Calx 1  part 

Cream  Body. — 

Blue  clay 1  £  parts 

Brown  clay if  parts 

Black  clay 1     part 

Cornish  clay 1     part 

Common  ball  clay. .      \  part 
Buff  color |  part 

Light  Drab.— 

Cane  marl 30  parts 

Ball  clay 24  parts 

Feldspar 7  parts 

Sage  Body. — 

Cane  marl 15  parts 

Ball  clay 15  parts 

China  clay 5  parts 

Stained  with  turquoise  stain. 

COLORED  GLAZES  FOR  POTTERY 

Blue.— 

White  glaze 100  parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt ...  3  parts 

Red  lead 10  parts 

Flowing  blue 3  parts 

Enamel  blue 3  parts 

Grind. 

Pink.— 

White  glaze 100  parts 

Red  lead 8  parts 

Marone  pink  U.  G.  8  parts 

Enamel  red 3  parts 

Grind. 

Buff.— 

White  glaze 100  parts 

Red  lead 10  parts 

Buff  color 8  parts 

Grind. 

Ivory.— 

White  glaze 100  parts 

Red  lead 8  parts 

Enamel  amber 8  parts 

Yellow  underglaze       2  parts 

Grind. 

Turquoise. — 

White  glaze 100  parts 

Red  lead 10  parts 

Carbonate  of  soda.  5  parts 

Enamel  blue 4  parts 

Malachite,  110 4  parts 

Grind. 

Yellow.— 

I.— White  glaze 100  parts 

Red  lead 10  parts 

Oxide  of  uranium ,        8  parts 
Grind, 


II.— Dried  flint 5  parts 

Cornwall  stone 15  parts 

Litharge 50  parts 

Yellow  underglaze. ..  4  parts 
Grind. 


Green.  — 
I. — Oxide  of  copper 

Flint  of  glass 

Flint 

Red  lead 

Grind,  then  take: 

Of  above 

White  glaze 

Or  stronger  as  required. 

II.— Red  lead 

Stone 

Flint 

Flint  glass 

China  clay 

Calcined     oxide     of 


copper 

Oxide  of  cobalt 

Grind  only. 


8  parts 
3  parts 
1  part 
6  parts 


1  part 
6  parts 


60  parts 

24  parts 

12  parts 

12  parts 

3  parts 

14  parts 

J  part 


Green  Glaze,  Best.— 

III.— Stone 80     parts 

Flint 8     parts 

Soda  crystals 4     parts 

Borax 3£  parts 

Niter 2     parts 

Whiting 2     parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt \  part 

Glost  fire,  then  take: 

Above  frit 60     parts 

Red  lead 57     parts 

Calcined     oxide     of 

copper 5|  parts 

Black.— 

Red  lead 24  parts 

Raddle 4  parts 

Manganese 4  parts 

Flint 2  parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 2  parts 

Carbonate  of  cobalt.  2  parts 

Glost  fire. 

WHITE  GLAZES: 
China.— Frit: 

I. — Stone 6  parts 

Niter 2  parts 

Borax 12  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

Pearl  ash 2  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 24     parts 

Stone 15^  parts 

Flint 6|  parts 

White  lead 31     parts 


170 


CERAMICS 


II.— Frit: 

Stone 24  parts 

Borax 53  parts 

Lynn  sand 40  parts 

Feldspar 32  parts 

Paris  white 16  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 90  parts 

Stone 30  parts 

White  lead 90  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

Glass 2  parts 

III.— Frit: 

Stone 50  parts 

Borax 40  parts 

Flint 30  parts 

Flint  glass 30  parts 

Pearl  barytes 10  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 160    parts 

Red  lead 30     parts 

Enamel  blue £  part 

Flint  glass 2     parts 

IV.— Frit: 

Borax 100  parts 

China  clay 55  parts 

Whiting 60  parts 

Feldspar 75  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 200    parts 

China  clay 16     parts 

White  clay 3*  parts 

Stone 3     parts 

Flint 2     parts 

V.— Frit: 

Stone 40  parts 

Flint 25  parts 

Niter 10  parts 

Borax 20  parts 

White  lead 10  parts 

Flint  glass 40  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 145  parts 

Stone 56  parts 

Borax 16  parts 

Flint 15  parts 

Red  lead 60  parts 

Flint  glass 8  parts 

Earthenware.  — Frit: 

L— Flint 108  parts 

China  clay 45  parts 

Paris  white 60  parts 

Borax 80  parts 

Soda  crystals 30  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 270  parts 

Flint 20  parts 


Paris  white 15  parts 

Stone 80  parts 

White  lead 65  parts 

II.— Frit: 

Flint 62  parts 

China  clay 30  parts 

Paris  white 38  parts 

Boracic  acid 48  parts 

Soda  crystals 26  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 230  parts 

Stone 160  parts 

Flint 60  parts 

Lead 120  parts 

III.— Frit: 

Stone 56  parts 

Paris  white 55  parts 

Flint 60  parts 

China  clay 20  parts 

Borax 120  parts 

Soda  crystals 15  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit... 212  parts 

Stone 130  parts 

Flint 50  parts 

Lead 110  parts 

Stain  as  required. 

IV.— Frit: 

Stone 100  parts 

Flint 44  parts 

Paris  white 46  parts 

Borax 70  parts 

Niter 10  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 200  parts 

Stone 60  parts 

Lead 80  parts 

Pearl  White  Glaze.— Frit: 

Flint 50  parts 

Stone 100  parts 

Paris  white 20  parts 

Borax 60  parts 

Soda  crystals 20  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 178  pounds 

Lead 55  pounds 

Stain 3  ounces 

Opaque  Glaze. — Frit: 

Borax 74     parts 

Stone 94    parts 

Flint 30     parts 

China  clay 22     parts 

Pearl  ash 5|  parts 

To  mill: 

Frit 175  parts 

Lead 46  parts 


CERAMICS 


171 


Flint 10 

Oxide  of  tin 12 

Flint  glass 12 

Glaze  for  Granite. — Frit: 

I.— Stone 100 

Flint 80 

China  clay 30 

Paris  white .  30 

Feldspar 40 

Soda  crystals 40 

Borax 80 

To  mill: 

Frit... 360 

Flint 50 

Stone 50 

Lead 80 

II.— Frit: 

Borax 100 

Stone..  50 


Flint 

Paris  white 

China  clay 

To  mill: 

Frit 

Stone 

Flint 

Lead.. 


50 
40 
20 


210 

104 

64 

95 


Raw  Glazes. — White: 

L— White  lead 160 

Borax 32 

Stone. 48 

Flint 52 

Stain  with  blue  and  grind. 

II.— White  lead 80 

Litharge.. 60 

Boracic  acid 40 

Stone 45 

Flint 50 

Treat  as  foregoing. 

HI.— White  lead 100 

Borax 4 

Flint 11 

Cornwall  stone. ...  50 

IV.— Red  lead 80 

Litharge 60 

Tincal 40 

Stone 40 

Flint 52 

ROCKINGHAM  GLAZES. 

I.— Litharge. 50 

Stone 7£ 

Red  marl 3 

Oxide  of  manganese  5 

Red  oxide  of  iron ...  1 

II.— White  lead 30 

Stone 3 

Flint 9 

Red  marl 3 

Manganese 5 


parts 
parts 
parts 


parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 


parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 


parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 


parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 


parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 

parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 

parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 


parts 

parts 

parts 

parts 

part 

parts 

parts 

parts 

parts 

parts 


III.— Red  lead 20  parts 

Stone 3  parts 

Flint 2  parts 

China  clay 2  parts 

Manganese 3  parts 

Red  oxide  of  iron.  .  .  1  part 

Stoneware  Bodies. — 

Ball  clay 14  parts 

China  clay 10  parts 

Stone 8  parts 

Ball  clay : .  8  parts 

China  clay 5  parts 

Flint 3  parts 

Stone 4  parts 

Ball  clay 14  parts 

China  clay 11  parts 

Flint 4  parts 

Stone 5  parts 

Feldspar 4  parts 

Cane  marl 16  parts 

China  clay 10  parts 

Stone 9  parts 

Flint 5  parts 

Glazes. — Hard  glaze: 

Stone 10    parts 

Flint 5     parts 

Whiting 1£  parts 

Red  lead 10     parts 

Hard  glaze: 

Feldspar 25  parts 

Flint 5  parts 

Red  lead 15  parts 

Plaster 1  part 

Softer: 

White  lead 13     parts 

Flint  glass 10     parts 

Feldspar 18     parts 

Stone 3     parts 

Whiting 1*  parts 


Best: 

Feldspar 


Flint  glass 

White  lead 14    parts 


....  20     parts 
14     parts 


Stone 


3     parts 


Oxide  of  zinc 3     parts 

Whiting 1*  parts 

Plaster 1     part 

Rockingham  Bodies. — 

Ball  clay 20  parts 

China  clay 13  parts 

Flint 7  parts 

Stone 1  part 

Cane  marl 22  parts 

China  clay 15  parts 

Flint 8  parts 

Feldspar 1  part 


CERAMICS 


Glazes. — 

I. —Red  lead 60  parts 

Stone 8  parts 

Red  clay 3  parts 

Best  manganese.  . .  5  parts 

II.— White  lead 60  parts 

Feldspar 6  parts 

Flint 16  parts 

Red  clay 6  parts 

Manganese 12  parts 

III.— Red  lead 100  parts 

Stone 15  parts 

Flint 10  parts 

China  clay 10  parts 

Manganese '. .  40  parts 

Crocus  martis 2  parts 

IV.— Litharge 100  parts 

Feldspar 14  parts 

China  clay 20  parts 

Manganese 40  parts 

Oxide  of  iron 2  parts 

Jet. — Procure  some  first-class  red  marl, 
add  water,  and,  by  passing  through  a  fine 
lawn,  make  it  into  a  slip,  and  dip  the 
ware  therein. 

When  fired  use  the  following: 

Glaze.— 

Stone 60    parts 

Flint 30     parts 

Paris  white 7|  parts 

Red  lead 140     parts 

One  part  mazarine  -blue  stain  to  10 
parts  glaze. 

Mazarine  Blue  Stain. — 

Oxide  of  cobalt 10  parts 

Paris  white 9  parts 

Sulphate  barytes 1  part 

Calcine. 


Another  Process  Body. 

Ball  clay 

China  clay 

Flint  clay 

Stone  clay 

Black  stain . . 


Glaze.— 

Litharge. 


Paris  white 

Flint 

Stone 

Black  stain 


Black  Stain.— 

Chromate  of  iron .  . . 

Oxide  of  nickel 

Oxide  of  tin 

Carbonate  of  cobalt. 

Oxide  of  manganese . 
Calcine  and  grind. 


16  parts 

12  parts 

9  parts 

6  parts 

7  parts 


70  parts 
3  parts 
12  parts 
30  parts 
20  parts 


12  parts 
2  parts 
2  parts 
5  parts 
2  parts 


Blue  Stains. — 

I. — Oxide  of  cobalt. . . , 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Stone 

Fire  this  very  hard. 
II.— Zinc 

Flint 

China  clay 

Oxide  of  cobalt. . . 
Hard  fire. 
III.— Whiting 

Flint 

Oxide  of  cobalt 

Glost  fire. 
Turquoise  Stain. — 

Prepared  cobalt . . 

Oxide  of  zinc 

China  clay 

Carbonate  of  soda 
Hard  fire. 


2^  parts 
7 1  parts 
7^  parts 

6  pounds 
4  pounds 

4  pounds 

5  ounces 


3f  parts 
3f  parts 
2J  parts 


It  parts 
6  parts 
6  parts 
1  part 


MATERIALS: 
Tin  Ash. — 

Old  lead 4  parts 

Grain  tin 2  parts 

Melt  in  an  iron  ladle,  and  pour  out  in 
water,  then  spread  on  a  dish,  and  calcine 
in  glost  oven  with  plenty  of  air. 

Oxide  of  Tin. — 

Granulated  tin 5     pounds 

Niter \  pound 

Put  on  saucers  and  fire  in  glost  oven. 

Oxide  of  Chrome  is  made  by  mixing 
powdered  bichromate  of  potash  with 
sulphur  as  follows: 

Potash 6  parts 

Flowers  of  sulphur. .      1  part 

Put  in  saggar,  inside  kiln,  so  that 
fumes  are  carried  away,  and  place  4  or 
5  pieces  of  red-hot  iron  on  the  top  so  as 
to  ignite  it.  Leave  about  12  hours,  then 
pound  very  fine,  and  put  in  saggar  again. 
Calcine  in  hard  place  of  biscuit  oven. 
Wash  this  until  the  water  is  quite  clear, 
and  dry  for  use. 

Production  of  Luster  Colors  on  Por- 
celain and  Glazed  Pottery.— The  luster 
colors  are  readily  decomposed  by  acids 
and  atmospheric  influences,  because 
they  do  not  contain,  in  consequence  of 
the  low  baking  temperature,  enough 
silicic  acid  to  form  resistive  compounds. 
In  order  to  attain  this,  G.  Alefeld  has 
patented  a  process  according  to  which 
such  compounds  are  added  to  the  luster 
preparations  as  leave  behind  after  the 
burning  an  acid  which  transforms  the 
luster  preparation  into  more  resisting 


CERAMICS 


173 


compounds.  In  this  connection  the  ad- 
mixture of  such  bodies  has  been  found 
advantageous,  as  they  form  phosphides 
with  the  metallic  oxides  of  the  lusters 
after  the  burning.  These  phosphides 
are  especially  fitted  for  the  production  of 
saturated  resisting  compounds,  not  only 
on  account  of  their  insolubility  in  water, 
but  also  on  account  of  their  colorings. 
Similarly  titanic-,  molybdic,  tungstic,  and 
vanadic  compounds  may  be  produced. 
The  metallic  phosphates  produced  by 
the  burning  give  a  luster  coating  which, 
as  regards  gloss,  is  not  inferior  to  the  non- 
saturated  metallic  oxides,  while  it  mate- 
rially excels  them  in  power  of  resistance. 
Since  the  lusters  to  be  applied  are  used 
dissolved  in  essential  oils,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  the  admixture  of  phosphoric 
substance  also  in  a  form  soluble  in  essen- 
tial oils.  For  the  production  of  this 
admixture  the  respective  chlorides,  pre- 
eminently phosphoric  chloride,  are  suit- 
able. They  are  mixed  with  oil  of  lav- 
ender in  the  ratio  of  1  to  5,  and  the 
resulting  reaction  product  is  added  to  the 
commercial  metallic  oxide  luster,  singly 
or  in  conjunction  with  precious  metal 
preparations  (glossy  gold,  silver,  plati- 
num, etc.)  in  the  approximate  propor- 
tion of  5  to  1.  Then  proceed  as  usual. 
Instead  of  the  chlorides,  nitrates  and 
acetates,  as.  well  as  any  readily  destruc- 
tible organic  compounds,  may  also  be 
employed,  which  are  entered  into  fusing 
rosin  or  rosinous  liquids. 

Metallic  Luster  on  Pottery. — Accord- 
ing to  a  process  patented  in  Germany,  a 
mixture  is  prepared  from  various  natural 
or  artificial  varieties  of  ocher,  to  which 
25-50  per  cent  of  finely  powdered  more 
or  less  metalliferous  or  sulphurous  coal  is 
added.  The  mass  treated  in  this  man- 
ner is  brought  together  in  saggars  with 
finely  divided  organic  substances,  such 
as  sawdust,  shavings,  wood-wool,  cut 
straw,  etc.,  and  subjected  to  feeble  red 
heat.  After  the  heating  the  material  is 
taken  put.  The  glazings  now  exhibit 
that  thin  but  stable  metallic  color  which 
is  governed  by  the  substances  used. 
Besides  coal,  salts  and  oxides  of  silver, 
cobalt,  cadmium,  chrome  iron,  nickel, 
manganese,  copper,  or  zinc  may  be  em- 
ployed. The  color-giving  layer  is  re- 
moved by  washing  or  brushing,  while 
the  desired  color  is  burned  in  and  re- 
mains. In  this  manner  handsome  shades 
can  be  produced. 

Metallic  Glazes  on  Enamels. — The 
formulas  used  by  the  Arabs  and  their 
Italian  successors  are  partly  disclosed  in 
manuscripts  in  the  British  and  South 


Kensington    Museums;   two    are    given 
below: 

Arab  Italian 

Copper  sulphide 26 . 87  24 .  74 

Silver  sulphide 1.15  1.03 

Mercury  sulphide 24  .  74 

Red  ocher 71.98  49.49 

These  were  ground  with  vinegar  and 
applied  with  the  brush  to  the  already 
baked  enamel.  A  great  variety  of  iri- 
descent and  metallic  tones  can  be  ob- 
tained by  one  or  the  other,  or  a  mixture 
of  the  following  formulas: 

I     II  III  IV    V    VI 

Copper  carbonate. .    30    .  .  .  .    28    .  .    95 

Copper  oxalate .      5    .  . 

Copper  sulphide 20 

Silver  carbonate 3  ..      2      1     5 

Bismuth  subnitrate.   ..    12  ..    ..    10    .. 

Stannous  oxide 25 

Red  ocher 70  85  55  70  84    .! 

Silver  chloride  and  yellow  ocher  may 
be  respectively  substituted  for  silver  car- 
bonate and  red  ocher.  The  ingredients, 
ground  with  a  little  gum  tragacanth  and 
water,  are  applied  with  a  brush  to  enam- 
els melting  about  1814°  F.,  and  are  fur- 
naced  at  1202°  F.  in  a  reducing  atmos- 
phere. After  cooling  the  ferruginous 
deposit  is  rubbed  off,  and  the  colors  thus 
brought  out. 

Sulphur,  free  or  combined,  is  not  nec- 
essary, cinnabar  has  no  action,  ocher 
may  be  dispensed  with,  and  any  organic 
gummy  matter  may  be  used  instead  of 
vinegar,  and  broom  is  not  needed  in  the 
furnace.  The  intensity  and  tone  of  the 
iridescence  depend  on  the  duration  of 
the  reduction,  and  the  nature  of  the 
enamel.  Enamels  containing  a  coloring 
base— copper,  iron,  antimony,  nickel — 
especially  in  presence  of  tin,  give  the 
best  results.  v 

To  Toughen  China.— To  toughen 
china  or  glass  place  the  new  article  in 
cold  water,  bring  to  boil  gradually, 
boil  for  4  hours,  and  leave  standing  in 
the  water  till  cool.  Glass  or  china 
toughened  in  this  way  will  never  crack 
with  hot  water. 

How  to  Tell  Pottery  and  Porcelain. — 
The  following  simple  test  will  serve: 
Hold  the  piece  up  to  the  light,  and  if  it 
can  be  seen  through — that  is,  if  it  is 
translucent — it  is  porcelain.  Pottery  is 
opaque,  and  not  so  hard  and  white  as 
porcelain.  The  main  differences  in  the 
manufacture  of  stoneware,  earthenware, 
and  porcelain  are  due  to  the  ingredients 
used,  to  the  way  they  are  mixed,  and  to 
the  degree  of  heat  to  which  they  are  sub- 


174 


CHEESE 


jected  in  firing.  Most  of  the  old  English 
wares  found  in  this  country  are  pottery 
or  semichina,  although  the  term  china 
is  commonly  applied  to  them  all. 


Cheese 

Manufacture. — The  process  of  cheese 
making  is  one  which  is  eminently  in- 
teresting and  scientific,  and  which,  in 
every  gradation,  depends  on  principles 
which  chemistry  has  developed  and  il- 
lustrated. When  a  vegetable  or  min- 
eral acid  is  added  to  milk,  and  heat 
applied,  a  coagulum  is  formed,  which, 
when  separated  from  the  liquid  por- 
tion, constitutes  cheese.  Neutral  salts, 
earthy  and  metallic  salts,  sugar,  and 
gum  arabic,  as  well  as  some  other  sub- 
stances, also  produce  the  same  effect; 
but  that  which  answers  the  purpose 
best,  and  which  is  almost  exclusively 
used  by  dairy  farmers,  is  rennet,  or  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  last  stom- 
ach of  the  calf.  Alkalies  dissolve  this 
curd  at  a  boiling  heat,  and  acids  again 
precipitate  it.  The  solubility  of  casein 
in  milk  is  occasioned  by  the  presence  of 
the  phosphates  and  other  salts  of  the  alka- 
lies. In  fresh  milk  these  substances  may 
be  readily  detected  by  the  property  it 
possesses  of  restoring  the  color  of  red- 
dened litmus  paper.  The  addition  of  an 
acid  neutralizes  the  alkali,  and  so  pre- 
cipitates the  curd  in  an  insoluble  state. 
The  philosophy  of  cheese  making  is  thus 
expounded  by  Liebig: 

"  The  acid  indispensable  to  the  co- 
agulation of  milk  is  not  added  to  the  milk 
in  the  preparation  of  cheese,  but  it  is 
formed  in  the  milk  at  the  expense  of  the 
milk-sugar  present.  A  small  quantity 
of  water  is  left  in  contact  with  a  small 
quantity  of  a  calf's  stomach  for  a  few 
hours,  or  for  a  night;  the  water  absorbs 
so  minute  a  portion  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane as  to  be  scarcely  ponderable;  this 
is  mixed  with  milk;  its  state  of  transfor- 
mation is  communicated  (and  this  is  a 
most  important  circumstance)  not  to  the 
cheese,  but  to  the  milk-sugar,  the  ele- 
ments of  which  transpose  themselves 
into  lactic  acid,  which  neutralizes  the 
alkalies,  and  thus  causes  the  separation 
of  the  cheese.  By  means  of  litmus  paper 
the  process  may  be  followed  and  observed 
through  all  its  stages;  the  alkaline  re- 
action of  the  milk  ceases  as  soon  as  the 
coagulation  begins.  If  the  cheese  is  not 
immediately  separated  from  the  whey, 
the  formation  of  lactic  acid  continues, 
the  fluid  turns  acid,  and.  the  cheese  itself 
passes  into  a  state  of  decomposition. 


"When  cheese-curd  is  kept  in  a  cool 
place  a  series  of  transformation  takes 
place,  in  consequence  of  which  it  as- 
sumes entirely  new  properties;  it  gradu- 
ally becomes  semi-transparent,  and  more 
or  less  soft,  throughout  the  whole  mass; 
it  exhibits  a  feebly  acid  reaction,  and 
develops  the  characteristic  caseous  odor. 
Fresh  cheese  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in 
water,  but  after  having  been  left  to  itself 
for  two  or  three  years  it  becomes  (es- 
pecially if  all  the  fat  be  previously  re- 
moved) almost  completely  soluble  in 
cold  water,  forming  with  it  a  solution 
which,  like  milk,  is  coagulated  by  the 
addition  of  the  acetic  or  any  mineral 
acid.  The  cheese,  which  whilst  fresh  is 
insoluble,  returns  during  the  maturation, 
or  ripening,  as  it  is  called,  to  a  state  sim- 
ilar to  that  in  which  it  originally  existed 
in  the  milk.  In  those  English,  Dutch, 
and  Swiss  cheeses  which  are  nearly  in- 
odorous, and  in  the  superior  kinds  of 
French  cheese,  the  casein  of  the  milk  is 
present  in  its  unaltered  state. 

"  The  odor  and  flavor  of  the  cheese  is 
due  to  the  decomposition  of  the  butter; 
the  non-volatile  acids,  the  margaric  and 
oleic  acids,  and  the  volatile  butyric  acid, 
capric  and  caproic  acids  are  liberated 
in  consequence  of  the  decomposition 
of  glycerine.  Butyric  acid  imparts  to 
cheese  its  characteristic  caseous  odor, 
and  the  differences  in  its  pungency  or 
aromatic  flavor  depend  upon  the  propor- 
tion of  free  butyric,  capric,  and  caproic 
acids  present.  In  the  cheese  of  certain 
dairies  and  districts,  valerianic  acid  has 
been  detected  along  with  the  other  acids 
just  referred  to.  Messrs  Jljenjo  and 
Laskowski  found  this  acid  in  the  cheese 
of  Limbourg,  and  M.  Bolard  in  that  of 
Roquefort. 

"  The  transition  of  the  insoluble  into 
soluble  casein  depends  upon  the  de- 
composition of  the  phosphate  of  lime  by 
the  margaric  acid  of  the  butter;  mar- 
garate  of  lime  is  formed,  whilst  the  phos- 
phoric acid  combines  with  the  casein, 
forming  a  compound  soluble  in  water. 

"  The  bad  smell  of  inferior  kinds  of 
cheese,  especially  those  called  meager  or 
poor  cheeses,  is  caused  by  certain  fetid 
products  containing  sulphur,  and  which 
are  formed  by  the  decomposition  or  pu- 
trefaction of  the  casein.  The  alteration 
which  the  butter  undergoes  (that  is,  in 
becoming  rancid),  or  which  occurs  in  the 
milk-sugar  still  present,  being  trans- 
mitted to  the  casein,  changes  both  the 
composition  of  the  latter  substance  and 
its  nutritive  qualities. 

"  The  principal  conditions  for  the  prep- 
aration of  the  superior  kinds  of  cheese. 


CHEESE 


175 


(other  obvious  circumstances  being  of 
course  duly  regarded)  are  a  careful 
removal  of  the  whey,  which  holds  the 
milk-sugar  in  solution,  and  a  low  tem- 
perature during  the  maturation  or  rip- 
ening of  the  cheese." 

Cheese  differs  vastly  in  quality  and 
flavor  according  to  the  method  em- 
ployed in  its  manufacture  and  the  rich- 
ness of  the  milk  of  which  it  is  made. 
Much  depends  upon  the  quantity  of 
cream  it  contains,  and,  consequently, 
when  a  superior  quality  of  cheese  is  de- 
sired cream  is  frequently  added  to  the 
curd.  This  plan  is  adopted  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  Stilton  cheese  and  others  of 
a  like  description.  The  addition  of  a 
pound  or  two  of  butter  to  the  curd  for  a 
middling  size  cheese  also  vastly  improves 
the  quality  of  the  product.  To  insure 
the  richness  of  the  milk,  not  only  should 
the  cows  be  properly  fed,  but  certain 
breeds  chosen.  Those  of  Alderney, 
Cheddar,  Cheshire,  etc.,  have  been 
widely  preferred. 

The  materials  employed  in  making 
cheese  are  milk  and  rennet.  Rennet  is 
used  either  fresh  or  salted  and  dried; 
generally  in  the  latter  state.  The  milk 
may  be  of  any  kind,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  cheese  required.  Cows' 
milk  is  that  generally  employed,  but  occa- 
sionally ewes'  milk  is  used;  and  some- 
times, though  more  rarely,  that  from 
goats. 

In  preparing  his  cheese  the  dairy 
farmer  puts  the  greater  portion  of  the 
milk  into  a  large  tub,  to  which  he  adds 
the  remainder,  sufficiently  heated  to 
raise  the  temperature  to  that  of  new 
milk.  The  whole  is  then  whisked  to- 
gether, the  rennet  or  rennet  liquor  added, 
and  the  tub  covered  over.  It  is  now  al- 
lowed to  stand  until  completely  **  turned," 
when  the  curd  is  gently  struck  down 
several  times  with  the  skimming  dish, 
after  which  it  is  allowed  to  subside. 
The  vat,  covered  with  cheese  cloth,  is 
next  placed  on  a  "  horse  "  or  "  ladder  " 
over  the  tub,  and  filled  with  curd  by 
means  of  the  skimmer,  care  being  taken 
to  allow  as  little  as  possible  of  the  oily 
particles  or  butter  to  run  back  with  the 
whey.  The  curd  is  pressed  down  with 
the  hands,  and  more  added  as  it  sinks. 
This  process  is  repeated  until  the  curd 
rises  to  about  two  inches  above  the  edge. 
The  newly  formed  cheese,  thus  partially 
separated  from  the  whey,  is  now  placed 
in  a  clean  tub,  and  a  proper  quantity  of 
salt,  as  well  as  of  annotta,  added  when 
that  coloring  is  used,  after  which  a  board 
is  placed  over  and  under  it,  and  pressure 
applied  for  about  2  or  3  hours.  The 


cheese  is  next  turned  out  and  surrounded 
by  a  fresh  cheese  cloth,  and  then  again 
submitted  to  pressure  in  the  cheese 
press  for  8  or  10  hours,  after  which  it  is 
commonly  removed  from  the  press,  salted 
all  over,  and  again  pressed  for  15  to  20 
hours.  The  quality  of  the  cheese  es- 
pecially depends  on  this  part  of  the  proc- 
ess, as  if  any  of  the  whey  is  left  in  the 
cheese  it  rapidly  becomes  bad-flavored. 
Before  placing  it  in  the  press  the  last 
time  the  common  practice  is  to  pare  the 
edges  smooth  and  sightly.  It  now  only 
remains  to  wash  the  outside  of  the 
cheese  in  warm  whey  or  water,  to  wipe 
it  dry,  and  to  color  it  with  annotta  or 
reddle,  as  is  usually  done. 

The  storing  of  the  newly  made  cheese 
is  the  next  point  that  engages  the  atten- 
tion of  the  maker  and  wholesale  dealer. 
The  same  principles  which  influence 
the  maturation  or  ripening  of  fermented 
liquors  also  operate  here.  A  cool  cellar, 
neither  damp  nor  dry,  and  which  is  un- 
influenced by  change  of  weather  or  sea- 
son, is  commonly  regarded  as  the  best 
for  the  purpose.  If  possible,  the  tem- 
perature should  on  no  account  be  per- 
mitted to  exceed  50°  or  52°  F.  at  any 
portion  of  the  year.  An  average  of 
about  45°  F.  is  preferable  when  it  can  be 
procured.  A  place  exposed  to  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  is  as  unfit  for 
storing  cheese  as  it  is  for  storing  beer. 
"The  quality  of  Roquefort  cheese,  which 
is  prepared  from  sheep's  milk,  and  is 
very  excellent,  depends  exclusively  upon 
the  places  where  the  cheeses  are  kept 
after  pressing  and  during  maturation. 
These  are  cellars,  communicating  with 
mountain  grottoes  and  caverns  which 
are  kept  constantly  cool,  at  about  41°  to 
42°  F.,  by  currents  of  air  from  clefts  in 
the  mountains.  The  value  of  these  cel- 
lars as  storehouses  varies  with  their 
property  of  maintaining  an  equable  and 
low  temperature." 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  very  slight 
differences  in  the  materials,  in  the  prep- 
aration, or  in  storing  of  the  cheese,  ma- 
terially influence  the  quality  and  flavor 
of  this  article.  The  richness  of  the  milk; 
the  addition  to  or  subtraction  of  cream 
from  the  milk;  the  separation  of  the 
curd  from  the  whey  with  or  without  com- 
pression; the  salting  of  the  curd;  the 
collection  of  the  curd,  either  whole  or 
broken,  before  pressing;  the  addition  of 
coloring  matter,  as  annotta  or  saffron,  or  of 
flavoring;  the  place  and  method  of  stor- 
ing; and  the  length  of  time  allowed  for 
maturation,  all  tend  to  alter  the  taste  and 
odor  of  the  cheese  in  some  or  other  par- 
ticular, and  that  in  a  way  readily  percep- 


176 


CHEESE 


tible  to  the  palate  of  the  connoisseur. 
No  other  alimentary  substance  appears 
to  be  so  seriously  affected  by  slight 
variations  in  the  quality  of  the  materials 
from  which  it  is  made,  or  by  such  ap- 
parently trifling  differences  in  the  meth- 
ods of  preparing. 

The  varieties  of  cheese  met  with  in 
commerce  are  very  numerous,  and  differ 
greatly  from  each  other  in  richness,  color, 
and  flavor.  These  are  commonly  dis- 
tinguished by  names  indicative  of  the 
places  in  which  they  have  been  manufac- 
tured, or  of  the  quality  of  the  materials 
from  which  they  have  been  prepared. 
Thus  we  have  Dutch,  Gloucester,  Stil- 
ton, skimmed  milk,  raw  milk,  cream,  and 
other  cheeses;  names  which  explain  them- 
selves. The  following  are  the  principal 
varieties : 

American  Factory. — Same  as  Cheddar. 

Brickbat. — Named  from  its  form; 
made,  in  Wiltshire,  of  new  milk  and 
cream. 

Brie. — A  soft,  white,  cream  cheese  of 
French  origin. 

Cheddar. — A  fine,  spongy  kind  of 
cheese,  the  eyes  or  vesicles  of  which  con- 
tain a  rich  oil;  made  up  into  round,  thick 
cheeses  of  considerable  size  (150  to  200 
pounds). 

Cheshire. — From  new  milk,  without 
skimming,  the  morning's  milk  being 
mixed  with  that  of  the  preceding  even- 
ing's, previously  warmed,  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  brought  to  the  heat  of  new 
milk.  To  this  the  rennet  is  added,  in 
less  quantity  than  is  commonly  used  for 
other  kinds  of  cheese.  On  this  point 
much  of  the  flavor  and  mildness  of  the 
cheese  is  said  to  depend.  A  piece  of 
dried  rennet,  of  the  size  of  a  half-dollar 
put  into  a  pint  of  water  over  night,  and 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  next  morn- 
ing, is  sufficient  for  18  or  20  gallons  of 
milk;  in  large,  round,  thick  cheeses  (100 
to  200  pounds  each).  They  are  gen- 
erally solid,  homogeneous,  and  dry,  and 
friable  rather  than  viscid. 

Cottenham. — A  rich  kind  of  cheese,  in 
flavor  and  consistence  not  unlike  Stilton, 
from  which,  however,  it  differs  in  shape, 
being  flatter  and  broader  than  the  latter. 

Cream. — From  the  "strippings"  (the 
last  of  the  milk  drawn  from  the  cow  at 
each  milking),  from  a  mixture  of  milk 
and  cream,  or  from  raw  cream  only,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  desired.  It  is 
usually  made  in  small  oblong,  square,  or 
rounded  cakes,  a  general  pressure  only 
(that  of  a  2-  or  4-pound  weight)  being 


applied  to  press  out  the  whey.  After  12 
hours  it  is  placed  upon  a  board  or  wood- 
en trencher,  and  turned  every  day  until 
dry.  It  ripens  in  about  3  weeks.  A 
little  salt  is  generally  added,  and  fre- 
quently a  little  powdered  lump  sugar. 

Damson. — Prepared  from  damsons 
boiled  with  a  little  water,  the  pulp  passed 
through  a  sieve,  and  then  boiled  with 
about  one-fourth  the  weight  of  sugar, 
until  the  mixture  solidifies  on  cooling;  it 
is  next  poured  into  small  tin  molds  pre- 
viously dusted  out  with  sugar.  Cherry 
cheese,  gooseberry  cheese,  plum  cheese, 
etc.,  are  prepared  in  the  same  way,  using 
the  respective  kinds  of  fruit.  They  are 
all  very  agreeable  candies  or  confections. 

Derbyshire. — A  small,  white,  rich 
variety,  very  similar  to  Dunlop  cheese. 

Dunlop. — Rich,  white,  and  buttery; 
in  round  forms,  weighing  from  30  to  60 
pounds. 

Dutch  (Holland).— Of  a  globular 
form,  5  to  14  pounds  each.  Those  from 
Edam  are  very  highly  salted;  those  from 
Gouda  less  so. 

Emmenthaler.  —  Same  as  Gruyere. 

Gloucester. — Single  Gloucester,  from 
milk  deprived  of  part  of  its  cream;  dou- 
ble Gloucester,  from  milk  retaining  the 
whole  of  the  cream.  Mild  tasted,  semi- 
buttery  consistence,  without  being  fri- 
able; in  large,  round,  flattish  forms. 

Green  or  Sage.  —From  milk  mixed  with 
the  juice  of  an  infusion  or  decoction  of 
sage  leaves,  to  which  marigold  flowers 
and  parsley  are  frequently  added. 

Gruyfere. — A  fine  kind  of  cheese  made 
in  Switzerland,  and  largely  consumed 
on  the  Continent.  It  is  firm  and  dry, 
and  exhibits  numerous  cells  of  con- 
siderable magnitude. 

Holland. — Same  as  Dutch. 

Leguminous. — The  Chinese  prepare 
an  actual  cheese  from  peas,  called  tao- 
foo,  which  they  sell  in  the  streets  of  Can- 
ton. The  paste  from  steeped  ground 
peas  is  boiled,  which  causes  the  starch  to 
dissolve  with  the  casein;  after  straining 
the  liquid  it  is  coagulated  by  a  solution 
of  gypsum;  this  coagulum  is  worked  up 
like  sour  milk,  salted,  and  pressed  into 
molds. 

Limburger. — A  strong  variety  of  cheese, 
soft  and  well  ripened. 

Lincoln.  —  From  new  milk  and  cream; 
in  pieces  about  2  inches  thick.  Soft,  and 
will  not  keep  over  2  or  3  months. 


CHEESE 


177 


Neufchatel. — A  much-esteemed  vari- 
ety of  Swiss  cheese;  made  of  cream,  and 
weighs  about  5  or  6  ounces. 

Norfolk. — Dyed  yellow  with  annotta 
or  saffron;  good,  but  not  superior;  in 
cheeses  of  30  to  50  pounds. 

Parmesan. — From  the  curd  of  skimmed 
milk,  hardened  by  a  gentle  heat.  The 
rennet  is  added  at  about  120°,  and  an 
hour  afterwards  the  curdling  milk  is  set 
on  a  slow  fire  until  heated  to  about  150° 
F.,  during  which  the  curd  separates  in 
small  lumps.  A  few  pinches  of  saffron 
are  then  thrown  in.  About  a  fortnight 
after  making  the  outer  crust  is  cut  off, 
and  the  new  surface  varnished  with  lin- 
seed oil,  and  one  side  colored  red. 

Roquefort. — From  ewes'  milk;  the 
best  prepared  in  France.  It  greatly 
resembles  Stilton,  but  is  scarcely  of 
equal  richness  or  quality,  and  possesses 
a  peculiar  pungency  and  flavor. 

Roquefort,  Imitation. — The  gluten  of 
wheat  is  kneaded  with  a  little  salt  and  a 
small  portion  of  a  solution  of  starch,  and 
made  up  into  cheeses.  It  is  said  that 
this  mixture  soon  acquires  the  taste, 
smell,  and  unctuosity  of  cheese,  and 
when  kept  a  certain  time  is  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  celebrated  Roquefort 
cheese,  of  which  it  possesses  all  the  pecu- 
liar pungency.  By  slightly  varying  the 
process  other  kinds  of  cheese  may  be 
imitated. 

Sage. — Same  as  green  cheese. 

Slipcoat  or  Soft. — A  very  rich,  white 
cheese,  somewhat  resembling  butter; 
for  present  use  only. 

Stilton. — The  richest  and  finest  cheese 
made  in  England.  From  raw  milk  to 
which  cream  taken  from  other  milk  is 
added;  in  cheeses  generally  twicers  high 
as  they  are  broad.  Like  wine,  this 
cheese  is  vastly  improved  by  age,  and  is 
therefore  seldom  eaten  before  it  is  2 
years  old.  A  spurious  appearance  of 
age  is  sometimes  given  to  it  by  placing 
it  in  a  warm,  damp  cellar,  or  by  sur- 
rounding it  with  masses  of  fermenting 
straw  or  dung. 

Suffolk. — From  skimmed  milk;  in 
round,  flat  forms,  from  24  to  30  pounds 
each.  Very  hard  and  horny. 

Swiss. — The  principal  cheeses  made 
in  Switzerland  are  the  Gruyere,  the 
Neufchatel,  and  the  Schabzieger  or 
green  cheese.  The  latter  is  flavored 
with  melitot. 

Westphalian. — Made  in  small  balls  or 
rolls  of  about  1  pound  each.  It  derives 


its  peculiar  flavor  from  the  curd  being 
allowed  to  become  partially  putrid  before 
being  pressed.  In  small  balls  or  rolls  of 
about  1  pound  each. 

Wiltshire. — Resembles  Cheshire  or 
Gloucester.  The  outside  is  painted  with 
reddle  or  red  ocher  or  whey. 

York. — From  cream.     It  will  not  keep. 

We  give  below  the  composition  of 
some  of  the  principal  varieties  of  cheese: 

Double 

Ched-  Glouces-  Skim 
dar         ter 

Water 36.64      35.61  43.64 

Casein 23.38      21.76  45.64 

Fatty  matter 35.44      38.16  5.76 

Mineral  matter..       4.54        4.47  4.96 

100.00    100.00     100.00 


Water 

Butter 

Casein 

Milk,  sugar,  and  ex- 
tractive matters 

Mineral  matter 


Stilton  Cother- 
stone 

32.18  38.28 
37.36  30.89 
24.31  23.93 


2.22 
3.93 


3.70 
3.20 


100.00       100.00 


Gruyere  Ordinary 

(Swiss)  Dutch 

Water 40.00  36.10 

Casein 31.50  29.40 

Fatty  matter 24.00  27.50 

Salts 3.00  .90 

Non  -  nitrogenous    or- 
ganic   matter    and 

loss 1.50  6.10 

100.00      100.00 

When  a  whole  cheese  is  cut,  and  the 
consumption  small,  it  is  generally  found 
to  become  unpleasantly  dry,  and  to  lose 
flavor  before  it  is  consumed.  This  is 
best  prevented  by  cutting  a  sufficient 
quantity  for  a  few  days'  consumption 
from  the  cheese,  and  keeping  the  re- 
mainder in  a  cool  place,  rather  damp 
than  dry,  spreading  a  thin  film  of  butter 
over  the  fresh  surface,  and  covering  it 
with  a  cloth  or  pan  to  keep  off  the  dirt. 
This  removes  the  objection  existing  in 
small  families  against  purchasing  a 
whole  cheese  at  a  time.  The  common 
practice  of  buying  small  quantities  of 
cheese  should  be  avoided,  as  not  only  a 
higher  price  is  paid  for  any  given  quality 
but  there  is  little  likelihood  of  obtaining 
exactly  the  same  flavor  twice  running. 
Should  cheese  become  too  dry  to  b§ 


178 


CHEWING    GUMS 


agreeable,  it  may  be  used  for  stewing, 
or  for  making  grated  cheese,  or  Welsh 
rarebits. 

Goats*  Milk  Cheese.— Goats'  milk 
cheese  is  made  as  follows:  Warm  20 
quarts  of  milk  and  coagulate  it  with 
rennet,  either  the  powder  or  extract. 
Separate  the  curds  from  the  whey  in  a 
colander.  After  a  few  days  the  dry  curd 
may  be  shaped  into  larger  or  smaller 
cheeses,  the  former  only  salted,  the  latter 
containing  salt  and  caraway  seed.  The 
cheeses  must  be  turned  every  day,  and 
sprinkled  with  salt,  and  any  mold  re- 
moved. After  a  few  days  they  may  be 
put  away  on  shelves  to  ripen,  and  left  for 
several  weeks.  Pure  goat's  milk  cheese 
should  be  firm  and  solid  all  the  way 
through.  Twenty  quarts  of  milk  will 
make  about  4  pounds  of  cheese, 

CHEESE  COLORANT: 

See  Food. 

CHEMICAL  GARDENS: 
See  Gardens,  Chemical. 

CHERRY  BALSAM: 
See  Balsam. 

CHERRY  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


Chewing  Gums 

Manufacture. — The  making  of  chew- 
ing gum  is  by  no  means  the  simple  oper- 
ation which  it  seems  to  be.  Much  expe- 
rience in  manipulation  is  necessary  to 
succeed,  and  the  published  formulas  can 
at  best  serve  as  a  guide  rather  than  as 
something  to  be  absolutely  and  blindly 
followed.  Thus,  if  the  mass  is  either  too 
hard  or  soft,  change  the  proportions  until 
it  is  right;  often  it  will  be  found  that 
different  purchases  of  the  same  article 
will  vary  in  their  characteristics  when 
worked  up.  But  given  a  basis,  the  man- 
ufacturer can  flavor  and  alter  to  suit 
himself.  The  most  successful  manu- 
facturers attribute  their  success  to  the 
employment  of  the  most  approved  ma- 
chinery and  the  greatest  attention  to 
details.  The  working  formulas  and  the 
processes  of  these  manufacturers  are 
guarded  as  trade  secrets,  and  aside  from 
publishing  general  formulas,  little  in- 
formation can  be  given. 

Chicle  gum  is  purified  by  boiling  with 
water  and  separating  the  foreign  matter. 
Flavorings,  pepsin,  sugar,  etc.,  are 
worked  in  under  pressure  by  suitable 
machinery.  Formula: 


I. — Gum  chicle 1  pound 

Sugar 2  pounds 

Glucose 1  pound 

Caramel  butter 1  pound 

First  mash  and  soften  the  gum  at  a 
gentle  heat.  Place  the  sugar  and  glu- 
cose in  a  small  copper  pan;  add  enough 
water  to  dissolve  the  sugar;  set  on  a  fire 
and  cook  to  244°  F. ;  lift  off  the  fire;  add 
the  caramel  butter  and  lastly  the  gum; 
mix  well  into  a  smooth  paste;  roll  out  on  a 
smooth  marble,  dusting  with  finely  pow- 
dered sugar,  run  through  sizing  machine 
to  the  proper  thickness,  cut  into  strips, 
and  again  into  thin  slices. 

II. — Chicle 6  ounces 

Paraffine 2  ounces 

Balsam  of  Tolu  ...        2  drachms 
Balsam  of  Peru. . .        1  drachm 

Sugar 20  ounces 

Glucose 8  ounces 

Water 6  ounces 

Flavoring,  enough. 

Triturate  the  chicle  and  balsams  in 
water,  take  out  and  add  the  paraffine, 
first  heated.  Boil  the  sugar,  glucose, 
and  water  together  to  what  is  known  to 
confectioners  as  "crack  "  heat,  pour  the 
syrup  over  the  oil  slab  and  turn  into  it 
the  gum  mixture,  which  will  make  it 
tough  and  plastic.  Add  any  desired 
flavor. 

III. — Gum  chicle 122  parts 

Paraffine 42  parts 

Balsam  of  Tolu. ...        4  parts 

Sugar 384  parts 

Water 48  parts 

Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  water  by  the 
aid  of  heat  and  pour  the  resultant  syrup 
on  an  oiled  slab.  Melt  the  gum,  balsam, 
and  paraffine  together  and  pour  on  top 
of  the  syrup,  and  work  the  whole  up  to- 
gether. 

IV. — Gum  chicle 240  parts 

White  wax 64  parts 

Sugar 640  parts 

Glucose 128  parts 

Water 192  parts 

Balsam  of  Peru ...        4  parts 
Flavoring  matter,  enough. 
Proceed  as  indicated  in  II. 

V.— Balsam  of  Tolu 4  parts 

Benzoin 1  part 

White  wax 1  part 

Paraffine 1  part 

Powdered  sugar.    ...    1  part 
Melt  together,  mix  well,  and  roll  into 
sticks  of  the  usual  dimensions. 

Mix,  and,  when  sufficiently  cool,  roll 
out  into  sticks  or  any  other  desirable 
form, 


CHEWING   GUMS— CHOLERA   REMEDIES 


179 


Spruce  Chewing  Gum. — 

Spruce  gum 20  parts 

Chicle 20  parts 

Sugar,  powdered. .   60  parts 

Melt  the  gums  separately,  mix  while 
hot,  and  immediately  add  the  sugar,  a 
small  portion  at  a  time,  kneading  it  thor- 
oughly on  a  hot  slab.  When  com- 
pletely incorporated  remove  to  a  cold 
slab,  previously  dusted  with  powdered 
sugar,  roll  out  at  once  into  sheets,  and 
cut  into  sticks.  Any  desired  flavor  or 
color  may  be  added  to  or  incorporated 
with  the  sugar. 

CHICKEN-COOP  APPLICATION: 

See  Insecticides. 

CHICKEN     DISEASES     AND     THEIR 
REMEDIES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

CHICORY,  TESTS  FOR: 

See  Foods. 

CHILBLAINS: 

See  Ointments. 

CHILBLAIN  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

CHILDREN,  DOSES  FOR: 
See  Doses. 

CHILLS,  BITTERS  FOR: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

CHINA  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives  and  Lutes. 

CHINA: 

See  Ceramics. 

CHINA,  TO  REMOVE  BURNED  LET- 
TERS FROM: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

CHINA  REPAIRING: 

See  Porcelain. 

CHINA  RIVETING. 

China  riveting  is  best  left  to  practical 
men,  but  it  can  be  done  with  a  drill  made 
from  a  splinter  of  a  diamond  fixed  on  a 
handle.  If  this  is  not  to  be  had,  get  a 
small  three-cornered  file,  harden  it  by 
placing  it  in  the  fire  till  red  hot,  and  then 
plunging  it  in  cold  water.  Next  grind 
the  point  on  a  grindstone  and  finish  on 
an  oilstone.  With  the  point  pick  out  the 
place  to  be  bored,  taking  care  to  do  it 

fently  for  fear  of  breaking  the  article, 
n  a  little  while  a  piece  will  break  off, 
then   the   hole   can   easily   be    made   by 
working    the    point    round.      The    wire 
may  then  be  passed  through  and  fas- 


tened. A  good  cement  may  be  made 
from  1  ounce  of  grated  cheese,  J  ounce 
of  finely  powdered  quicklime,  and  white 
of  egg  sufficient  to  make  a  paste.  The 
less  cement  applied  the  better,  using  a 
feather  to  spread  it  over  the  broken 
edge. 

CHLORIDES,  PLATT'S: 

See  Disinfectants. 

CHLORINE-PROOFING : 

See  Acid-Proofing. 

CHOCOLATE. 

Prepare  1,000  parts  of  finished  cacao 
and  30  parts  of  fresh  cacao  oil,  in  a 
warmed,  polished,  iron  mortar,  into  a 
liquid  substance,  add  to  it  800  parts  of 
finely  powdered  sugar,  and,  after  a  good 
consistency  has  been  reached,  60  parts  of 
powdered  iron  lactate  and  60  parts  of 
sugar  syrup,  finely  rubbed  together. 
Scent  with  40  parts  of  vanilla  sugar.  Of 
this  mass  weigh  out  tablets  of  125  parts 
into  the  molds. 

Coating  Tablets  with  Chocolate. —If  a 
chocolate  which  is  free  from  sugar  be 
placed  in  a  dish  over  a  water  bath,  it  will 
melt  into  a  fluid  of  proper  consistence 
for  coating  tablets.  No  water  must  be 
added.  The  coating  is  formed  by  dip- 
ping the  tablets.  When  they  are  suffi- 
ciently hardened  they  are  laid  on  oiled 
paper  to  dry. 

CHOCOLATE      CASTOR  -  OIL      LOZ- 
ENGES: 
See  Castor  Oil. 

CHOCOLATE  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

CHOCOLATE   EXTRACTS: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

CHOCOLATE  SODA  WATER: 

See  Beverages. 

CHOKING  IN  CATTLE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

CHOLERA  REMEDIES: 

Sun  Cholera  Mixture.— 

Tincture  of  opium ...  1  part 

Tincture  of  capsicum.  1  part 

Tincture  of  rhubarb. .  1  part 

Spirit  of  camphor  ....  1  part 

Spirit  of  peppermint .  .  1  pa~t 

Squibb's  Diarrhea  Mixture.— 

Tincture  opium 40  parts 

Tincture  capsicum. .  .    40  parts 

Spirit  camphor 40  parts 

Chloroform 15  parts 

Alcohol 65  parts 


180 


CHOLERA   REMEDIES— CIDER 


Aromatic  Rhubarb. — 

Cinnamon,  ground . .       8  parts 

Rhubarb 8  parts 

Calumba 4  parts 

Saffron 1  part 

Powdered  opium 2  parts 

Oil  peppermint 5  parts 

Alcohol,  q.  s.  ad  .  .  .  .  100  parts 
Macerate  the  ground  drugs  with  75 
parts  alcohol  in  a  closely  covered  per- 
colator for  several  days,  then  allow  per- 
colation to  proceed,  using  sufficient  al- 
cohol to  obtain  95  parts  of  percolate.  In 
percolate  dissolve  the  oil  of  peppermint. 

Rhubarb  and  Camphor. — 

Tincture  capsicum. . .  2  ounces 

Tincture  opium 2  ounces 

Tincture  camphor.. . .  3  ounces 

Tincture  catechu 4  ounces 

Tincture  rhubarb. ...  4  ounces 

Spirit  peppermint. ...  4  ounces 

Blackberry  Mixture. — 
Fluid    extract    black- 
berry root 2  pints 

Fluid  ginger,  soluble.  5J  ounces 

Fluid  catechu 5J  ounces 

Fluid  opium  for  tinc- 
ture   160  minims 

Brandy 8  ounces 

Sugar 4  pounds 

Essence  cloves 256  minims 

Essence  cinnamon  .  .  256  minims 

Chloroform 128  minims 

Alcohol  (25  per  cent), 

q.  s.  ad 1  gallon 

CHOWCHOW: 

See  Condiments. 

CHROME  YELLOW,  TEST  FOR: 

See  Pigments. 

CHROMIUM   GLUE: 

See  Adhesives. 


CHROMO  MAKING. 

The  production  of  chromo  pictures 
requires  a  little  skill.  Practice  is  neces- 
sary. The  glass  plate  to  be  used  should 
be  washed  off  with  warm  water,  and  then 
laid  in  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  nitric 
acid.  After  one  hour,  wash  with  clean, 
cold  water,  dry  with  a  towel,  and  polish 
the  plate  with  good  alcohol  on  the  in- 
side— hollow  side — until  no  finger  marks 
or  streaks  are  visible.  This  is  best  as- 
certained by  breathing  on  the  glass;  the 
breath  should  show  an  even  blue  surface 
on  the  glass. 

Coat  the  unmounted  photograph  to  be 
colored  with  benzine  by  means  of  wad- 


ding, but  without  pressure,  so  that  the 
retouching  of  the  picture  is  not  dis- 
turbed. Place  2  tablets  of  ordinary 
kitchen  gelatin  in  8f  ounces  of  distilled 
or  pure  rain  water,  soak  for  an  hour,  and 
then  heat  until  the  gelatin  has  com- 
pletely dissolved.  Pour  this  warm  solu- 
tion over  the  polished  side  of  the  glass, 
so  that  the  liquid  is  evenly  distributed. 
The  best  way  is  to  pour  the  solution  on 
the  upper  right-hand  corner,  allowing  it 
to  flow  into  the  left-hand  corner,  from 
there  to  the  left  below  and  right  below, 
finally  letting  the  superfluous  liquid 
run  off.  Take  the  photograph,  which 
has  been  previously  slightly  moistened 
on  the  back,  lay  it  with  the  picture 
side  on  the  gelatin-covered  plate,  cen- 
tering it  nicely,  and  squeeze  out  the 
excess  gelatin  solution  gently,  prefer- 
ably by  means  of  a  rubber  squeegee. 
Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  dis- 
place the  picture  in  this  manipulation,  as 
it  is  easily  spoiled. 

The  solution  must  never  be  allowed  to 
boil,  since  this  would  render  the  gelatin 
brittle  and  would  result  in  the  picture, 
after  having  been  finished,  cracking  off 
from  the  glass  in  a  short  time.  When 
the  picture  has  been  attached  to  the  glass 
plate  without  blisters  (which  is  best  ob- 
served from  the  back),  the  edge  of  the 
glass  is  cleansed  of  gelatin,  preferably 
by  means  of  a  small  sponge  and  luke- 
warm water,  and  the  plate  is  allowed  to 
dry  over  night. 

When  the  picture  and  the  gelatin  are 
perfectly  dry,  coat  the  back  of  the  picture 
a  few  times  with  castor  oil  until  it  is  per- 
fectly transparent;  carefully  remove  the 
oil  without  rubbing,  and  proceed  with 
the  painting,  which  is  best  accomplished 
with  good,  not  over-thick  oil  colors.  The 
coloring  must  be  observed  from  the  glass 
side,  and  for  this  reason  the  small  details, 
such  as  eyes,  lips,  beard,  and  hair, 
should  first  be  sketched  in.  When  the 
first  coat  is  dry  the  dress  and  the  flesh 
tints  are  painted.  The  whole  surface 
may  be  painted  over,  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  paint  shadows,  as  these  are  al- 
ready present  in  the  picture,  and  con- 
sequently show  the  color  through  in 
varying  strength. 

When  the  coloring  has  dried,  a  second 
glass  plate  should  be  laid  on  for  protec- 
tion, pasting  the  two  edges  together  with 
narrow  strips  of  linen. 

Cider 

To  Make  Cider.— Pick  the  apples  off 
the  tree  by  hand.  Every  apple  before 
going  into  the  press  should  be  carefully 


CIDER 


181 


wiped.  As  soon  as  a  charge  of  apples 
is  ground,  remove  the  pomace  and  put  in 
a  cask  with  a  false  bottom  and  a  strainer 
beneath  it,  and  a  vessel  to  catch  the 
drainage  from  pomace.  As  fast  as  the 
juice  runs  from  the  press  place  it  in 
clean,  sweet,  open  tubs  or  casks  with  the 
heads  out  and  provide  with  a  faucet,  put 
in  about  two  inches  above  bottom.  The 
juice  should  be  closely  watched  and  as 
soon  as  the  least  sign  of  fermentation  ap- 
pears (bubbles  on  top,  etc.)  it  should  be 
run  off  into  casks  prepared  for  this  pur- 
pose and  placed  in  a  moderately  cool 
room.  The  barrels  should  be  entirely 
filled,  or  as  near  to  the  bunghole  as 
possible.  After  fermentation  is  well 
under  way  the  spume  or  foam  should  be 
scraped  off  with  a  spoon  several  times  a 
day.  When  fermentation  has  ceased 
the  cider  is  racked  off  into  clean  casks, 
filled  to  the  bunghole,  and  the  bung 
driven  in  tightly.  It  is  now  ready  for 
use  or  for  bottling. 

Champagne  Cider. — I. — To  convert  or- 
dinary cider  into  champagne  cider,  pro- 
ceed as  follows:  To  100  gallons  of  good 
cider  add  3  gallons  of  strained  honey  (or 
24  pounds  of  white  sugar  will  answer), 
stir  in  well,  tightly  bung,  and  let  alone 
for  a  week.  Clarify  the  cider  by  adding 
a  half  gallon  of  skimmed  milk,  or  4  ounces 
of  gelatin  dissolved  in  sufficient  hot 
water  and  add  4  gallons  of  proof  spirit. 
Let  stand  3  days  longer,  then  syphon  off, 
bottle,  cork,  and  tie  or  wire  down. 
Bunging  the  cask  tightly  is  done  in  order 
to  induce  a  slow  fermentation,  and  thus 
retain  in  the  cider  as  much  carbonic  acid 
as  possible. 

II. — Put  10  gallons  of  old  and  clean 
cider  in  a  strong  and  iron-bound  cask, 
pitched  within  (a  sound  beer  cask  is  the 
very  thing),  and  add  and  stir  in  well  40 
ounces  of  simple  syrup.  Add  5  ounces 
of  tartaric  acid,  let  dissolve,  then  add  7| 
ounces  sodium  bicarbonate  in  powder. 
Have  the  bung  ready  and  the  moment 
the  soda  is  added  put  it  in  and  drive  it 
home.  The  cider  will  be  ready  for  use 
in  a  few  hours. 

Cider  Preservative. — I. — The  addition 
of  154  grains  of  bismuth  subnitrate  to  22 
gallons  of  cider  prevents,  or  materially 
retards,  the  hardening  of  the  beverage  on 
exposure  to  air;  moreover,  the  bismuth 
salt  renders  alcoholic  fermentation  more 
complete. 

II. — Calcium  sulphite  (sulphite  of 
lime)  is  largely  used  to  prevent  fermen- 
tation in  cider.  About  J  to  I  of  an  ounce 
of  the  sulphite  is  required  for  1  gallon  of 
cider.  It  should  first  be  dissolved  in  a 


small  quantity  of  cider,  then  added  to 
the  bulk,  and  the  whole  agitated  until 
thoroughly  mixed.  The  barrel  should 
then  be  bunged  and  allowed  to  stand  for 
several  days,  until  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phite is  exerted.  It  will  preserve  the 
sweetness  of  cider  perfectly,  but  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  add  too  much,  as 
that  would  impart  a  slight  sulphurous 
taste. 

Artificial  Ciders.— To  25  gallons  of 
soft  water  add  2  pounds  of  tartaric  acid, 
25  or  30  pounds  of  sugar,  and  a  pint  of 
yeast;  put  in  a  warm  place,  and  let  fer- 
ment for  15  days,  then  add  the  flavoring 
matter  to  suit  taste.  The  various  fruit 
ethers  are  for  sale  at  any  wholesale  drug 
house. 

Bottling  Sweet  Cider. — Champagne 
quarts  are  generally  used  for  bottling 
cider,  as  they  are  strong  and  will  stand 
pressure,  besides  being  a  convenient 
size  for  consumers.  In  making  cider 
champagne  the  liquor  should  be  clari- 
fied and  bottled  in  the  sweet  condition, 
that  is  to  say,  before  the  greater  part  of 
the  sugar  which  it  contains  has  been 
converted  into  alcohol  by  fermentation. 
The  fermentation  continues,  to  a  certain 
extent,  in  the  bottle,  transforming  more 
of  the  sugar  into  alcohol,  and  the  car- 
bonic acid,  being  unable  to  escape,  is 
dissolved  in  the  cider  and  produces  the 
sparkling. 

The  greater  the  quantity  of  sugar 
contained  in  the  liquor,  when  it  is  bot- 
tled, the  more  complete  is  its  carbona- 
tion  by  the  carbonic-acid  gas,  and  con- 
sequently the  more  sparkling  it  is  when 
poured  out.  But  this  is  true  only  within 
certain  limits,  for  if  the  production  of 
sugar  is  too  high  the  fermentation  will 
be  arrested. 

To  make  the  most  sparkling  cider  the 
liquor  is  allowed  to  stand  for  three,  four, 
five,  or  six  weeks,  during  which  fermen- 
tation proceeds.  The  time  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  apples,  and 
also  to  the  temperature;  when  it  is  very 
warm  the  first  fermentation  is  usually 
completed  in  7  days. 

Before  bottling,  the  liquid  must  be 
fined,  and  this  is  best  done  with  catechu 
dissolved  in  cold  cider,  2  ounces  of  cate- 
chu to  the  barrel  of  cider.  This  is  well 
stirred  and  left  to  settle  for  a  few  days. 

The  cider  at  this  stage  is  still  sweet, 
and  it  is  a  point  of  considerable  nicety 
not  to  carry  the  first  fermentation  too 
far.  The  bottle  should  not  be  quite 
filled,  so  as  to  allow  more  freedom  for 
the  carbonic-acid  gas  which  forms. 

When    the    bottles    have    been    filled, 


182 


CIDER— CIGARS 


corked,  and  wired  down,  they  should  be 
placed  in  a  good  cellar,  which  should  be 
dry,  or  else  the  cider  will  taste  of  the 
cork.  The  bottles  should  not  be  laid 
for  four  or  five  weeks,  or  breakage  will 
ensue.  When  they  are  being  laid  they 
should  be  placed  on  laths  of  wood  or  on 
dry  sand;  they  should  never  be  allowed 
on  cold  or  damp  floors. 

Should  the  cider  be  relatively  poor  in 
sugar,  or  if  it  has  been  fermented  too  far, 
about  1  ounce  of  powdered  loaf  sugar 
can  be  added  to  each  bottle,  or  else  a 
measure  of  sugar  syrup  before  pouring 
in  the  cider. 

Imitation  Cider. — 

I. — A  formula  for  an  imitation  cider  is 
as  follows: 

Rain  water 100  gallons 

Honey,  unstrained  .  .        6  gallons 
Catechu,  powdered.        3  ounces 
Alum,  powdered.  ...        5  ounces 
Yeast  (brewer's  pref- 
erably)         2  pints 

Mix  and  put  in  a  warm  place  to  fer- 
ment. Let  ferment  for  about  15  days; 
then  add  the  following,  stirring  well  in: 

Bitter  almonds,  crushed     8  ounces 
Cloves 8  ounces 

Let  stand  24  hours,  add  two  or  three 
gallons  of  good  whiskey,  and  rack  off  into 
clean  casks.  Bung  tightly,  let  stand  48 
hours,  then  bottle.  If  a  higher  color  is 
desired  use  caramel  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce the  correct  tinge.  If  honey  is  not 
obtainable,  use  sugar-house  molasses 
instead,  but  honey  is  preferable. 

II. — The    following,    when    properly 
prepared,   makes   a   passable   substitute 
for  cider,  and  a  very  pleasant  drink: 
Catechu,  powdered.  3  parts 

Alum,  powdered. . .  5  parts 

Honey 640  parts 

Water 12,800  parts 

Yeast 32  parts 

Dissolve  the  catechu,  alum,  and  honey 
in  the  water,  add  the  yeast,  and  put  in 
some  warm  place  to  ferment.  The  con- 
tainer should  be  filled  to  the  square  open- 
ing, made  by  sawing  out  five  or  six  inches 
of  the  center  of  a  stave,  and  the  spume 
skimmed  off  daily  as  it  arises.  In  cooler 
weather  from  2  weeks  to  18  days  will  be 
required  for  thorough  fermentation.  In 
warmer  weather  from  12  to  13  days  will 
be  sufficient.  When  fermentation  is  com- 
plete add  the  following  solution: 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds        1  part 

Oil  of  clover 1  part 

Caramel 32  parts 

Alcohol 192  parts 


The  alcohol  may  be  replaced  by  twice 
its  volume  of  good  bourbon  whiskey.  A 
much  cheaper,  but  correspondingly  poor 
substitute  for  the  above  may  be  made  as 
follows: 

Twenty-five  gallons  of  soft  water,  2 
pounds  tartaric  acid,  25  pounds  of  brown 
sugar,  and  1  pint  of  yeast  are  allowed  to 
stand  in  a  warm  place,  in  a  clean  cask 
with  the  bung  out,  for  24  hours.  Then 
bung  up  the  cask,  after  adding  3  gallons 
of  whiskey,  and  let  stand  for  48  hours, 
after  which  the  liquor  is  ready  for  use. 

CIDER  VINEGAR: 

See  Vinegar. 


Cigars 

Cigar  Sizes  and  Colors. — Cigars  are 
named  according  to  their  color  and 
shape.  A  dead-black  cigar,  for  instance, 
is  an  "Oscuro,"  a  very  dark-brown  one 
is  a  "Colorado,"  a  medium  brown  is  a 
"Colorado  Claro,"  and  a  yellowish  light 
brown  is  a  "Claro."  Most  smokers 
know  the  names  of  the  shades  from 
"Claro"  to  "Colorado,"  and  that  is  as 
far  as  most  of  them  need  to  know.  As  to 
the  shapes,  a  "Napoleon"  is  the  biggest 
of  all  cigars — being  7  inches  long;  a  "Per- 
fecto"  swells  in  the  middle  and  tapers 
down  to  a  very  small  head  at  the  lighting 
end;  a  "Panatela"  is  a  thin,  straight,  up- 
and-down  cigar  without  the  graceful 
curve  of  the  "Perfecto";  a  "Conchas"  is 
very  short  and  fat,  and  a  "Londres"  is 
shaped  like  a  "Perfecto"  except  that  it 
does  not  taper  to  so  small  a  head  at  the 
lighting  end.  A  "Reina  Victoria"  is  a 
"Londres"  that  comes  packed  in  a  rib- 
bon-tied bundle  of  50  pieces,  instead  of 
in  the  usual  four  layers  of  13,  12,  13  and 
12. 

How  to  Keep  Cigars. — Cigars  kept  in 
a  case  are  influenced  every  time  the  case 
is  opened.  Whatever  of  taint  there  may 
be  in  the  atmosphere  rushes  into  the 
case,  and  is  finally  taken  up  by  the  cigars. 
Even  though  the  cigars  have  the  appear- 
ance of  freshness,  it  is  not  the  original 
freshness  in  which  they  were  received 
from  the  factory.  They  have  been  dry, 
or  comparatively  so,  and  have  absorbed 
more  moisture  than  has  been  put  in  the 
case,  and  it  matters  not  what  that  mois- 
ture may  be,  it  can  never  restore  the 
flavor  that  was  lost  during  the  drying-out 
process. 

After  all,  it  is  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  to  take  good  care  of  cigars.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  a  comparatively  air- 
tight, zinc-lined  chest.  This  should  be 


CIGARS— CLARET   PUNCH 


183 


behind  the  counter  in  a  place  where  the 
temperature  is  even.  When  a  customer 
calls  for  a  cigar  the  dealer  takes  the  box 
out  of  the  chest,  serves  his  customer,  and 
then  puts  the  box  back  again.  The  box 
being  opened  for  a  moment  the  cigars  are 
not  perceptibly  affected.  The  cigars  in 
the  close,  heavy  chest  are  always  safe 
from  atmospheric  influences,  as  the  boxes 
are  closed,  and  the  chest  is  open  but  a 
moment,  while  the  dealer  is  taking  out  a 
box  from  which  to  serve  his  customer. 

Some  of  the  best  dealers  have  either  a 
large  chest  or  a  cool  vault  in  which  they 
keep  their  stock,  taking  out  from  time  to 
time  whatever  they  need  for  use.  Some 
have  a  number  of  small  chests,  in  which 
they  keep  different  brands,  so  as  to  avoid 
opening  and  closing  one  particular  chest 
so  often. 

It  may  be  said  that  it  is  only  the  high- 
er priced  cigars  that  need  special  care  in 
handling,  although  the  cheaper  grades 
are  not  to  be  handled  carelessly.  The 
Havana  cigars  are  more  susceptible  to 
change,  for  there  is  a  delicacy  of  flavor  to 
be  preserved  that  is  never  present  in  the 
cheaper  grades  of  cigars. 

Every  dealer  must,  of  course,  make  a 
display  in  his  show  case,  but  he  need  not 
serve  his  patrons  with  these  cigars.  The 
shrinkage  in  value  of  the  cigars  in  the 
case  is  merely  a  business  proposition  of 
profit  and  loss. 

Cigar  Flavoring.  —  I.  —  Macerate  2 
ounces  of  cinnamon  and  4  ounces  of 
tonka  beans,  ground  fine,  in  1  quart  of 
rum. 

II. — Moisten  ordinary  cigars  with  a 
strong  tincture  of  cascarilla,  to  which  a 
little  gum  benzoin  and  storax  may  be 
added.  Some  persons  add  a  small  quan- 
tity of  camphor  or  oil  of  cloves  or  cassia. 

III. — Tincture  of  valerian.  4  drachms 

Butyric  aldehyde.  .  .  4  drachms 

Nitrous  ether 1  drachm 

Tincture  vanilla. ...  2  drachms 

Alcohol 5  ounces 

Water     enough     to 

make 16  ounces 

IV. — Extract  vanilla 4    ounces 

Alcohol $  gallon 

Jamaica  rum £  gallon 

Tincture  valerian. . .      8     ounces 

Caraway  seed 2     ounces 

i          English  valerian  root     2    ounces 
Bitter  orange  peel. .  .      2     ounces 

Tonka  beans 4     drachms 

Myrrh 16     ounces 

Soak  the  myrrh  for  3  days  in  6  quarts 
of  water,  add  the  alcohol,  tincture  va- 
lerian, and  extract  of  vanilla,  and  after 


grinding  the  other  ingredients  to  a  coarse 
powder,  put  all  together  in  a  jug  and 
macerate  for  2  weeks,  occasionally  shak- 
ing; lastly,  strain. 

V.— Into  a  bottle  filled  with  £  pint  of 
French  brandy  put  1J  ounces  of  cascar- 
illa bark  and  1J  ounces  of  vanilla  pre- 
viously ground  with  £  pound  of  sugar; 
carefully  close  up  the  flask  and  distil  in  a 
warm  place.  After  3  days  pour  off  the 
liquid,  and  add  J  pint  of  mastic  extract. 
The  finished  cigars  are  moistened  with 
this  liquid,  packed  in  boxes,  and  pre- 
served from  air  by  a  well-closed  lid. 
They  are  said  to  acquire  a  pleasant  flavor 
and  mild  strength  through  this  treat- 
ment. 

Cigar  Spots. — The  speckled  appear- 
ance of  certain  wrappers  is  due  to  the 
work  of  a  species  of  fungus  that  attacks 
the  growing  tobacco.  In  a  certain  dis- 
trict of  Sumatra,  which  produces  an  ex- 
ceptionally fine  tobacco  for  wrappers, 
the  leaves  of  the  plant  are  commonly 
speckled  in  this  way.  Several  patents 
have  been  obtained  for  methods  of  spot- 
ting tobacco  leaves  artificially.  A  St. 
Louis  firm  uses  a  solution  composed  of: 

Sodium  carbonate 3  parts 

Calx  chlorinata 1  part 

Hot  water 8  parts 

Dissolve  the  washing  soda  in  the  hot 
water,  add  the  chlorinated  lime,  and 
heat  the  mixture  to  a  boiling  tempera- 
ture for  3  minutes.  When  cool,  decant 
into  earthenware  or  stoneware  jugs,  cork 
tightly,  and  keep  in  a  cool  place.  The 
corks  of  jugs  not  intended  for  immediate 
use  should  be  covered  with  a  piece  of 
bladder  or  strong  parchment  paper,  and 
tightly  tied  down  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
gas,  and  consequent  weakening  of  the 
bleaching  power  of  the  fluid.  The  pre- 
pared liquor  is  sprinkled  on  the  tobacco, 
the  latter  being  then  exposed  to  light  and 
air,  when,  it  is  said,  the  disagreeable  odor 
produced  soon  disappears. 

CINCHONA: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


CINNAMON  ESSENCE: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

CINNAMON  OIL  AS  AN  ANTISEPTIC: 

See  Antiseptics. 

CITRATE  OF  MAGNESIUM: 
See  Magnesium  Citrate. 

CLARET   LEMONADE   AND    CLARET 
PUNCH : 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonades. 


184 


CL A  RIFYING— CLEANING   PREPARATIONS 


CLARIFICATION    OF    GELATIN   AND 

GLUE: 
See  Gelatin. 

CLARIFYING. 

Clarification  is  the  process  by  which 
any  solid  particles  suspended  in  a  liquid 
are  either  caused  to  coalesce  together  or 
to  adhere  to  the  medium  used  for  clar- 
ifying, that  they  may  be  removed  by  fil- 
tration (which  would  previously  have 
been  impossible),  so  as  to  render  the 
liquid  clear. 

One  of  the  best  agents  for  this  purpose 
is  albumen.  When  clarifying  vegetable 
extracts,  the  albumen  which  is  naturally 
present  in  most  plants  accomplishes  this 
purpose  easily,  provided  the  vegetable 
matter  is  extracted  in  the  cold,  so  as  to 
get  as  much  albumen  as  possible  in  solu- 
tion. 

Egg  albumen  may  also  be  used.  The 
effect  of  albumen  may  be  increased  by 
the  addition  of  cellulose,  in  the  form  of  a 
fine  magma  of  filtering  paper.  This  has 
the  further  advantage  that  the  subse- 
quent filtration  is  much  facilitated. 

Suspended  particles  of  gum  or  pectin 
may  be  removed  by  cautious  precipita- 
tion with  tannin,  of  which  only  an  ex- 
ceedingly small  amount  is  usually  neces- 
sary. It  combines  with  the  gelatinous 
substances  better  with  the  aid  of  heat 
than  in  the  cold.  There  must  be  no  ex- 
cess of  tannin  used. 

Another  method  of  clarifying  liquids 
turbid  from  particles  of  gum,  albumen, 
pectin,  etc.,  is  to  add  to  them  a  definite 
quantity  of  alcohol.  This  causes  the 
former  substances  to  separate  in  more  or 
less  large  flakes.  The  quantity  of  alco- 
hol required  varies  greatly  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  liquid.  It  should  be 
determined  in  each  case  by  an  experiment 
on  a  small  scale. 

Resinous  or  waxy  substances,  such  as 
are  occasionally  met  with  in  honey,  etc., 
may  be  removed  by  the  addition  of  bole, 
pulped  filtering  paper,  and  heating  to 
boiling. 

In  each  case  the  clarifying  process 
may  be  hastened  by  making  the  separat- 
ing particles  specifically  heavier;  that  is, 
by  incorporating  some  heavier  sub- 
stance, such  as  talcum,  etc.,  which  may 
cause  the  flocculi  to  sink  more  rapidly, 
and  to  form  a  compact  sediment. 

Clarifying  powder  for  alcoholic  liquids: 

Egg  albumen,  dry. ...    40  parts 

Sugar  of  milk 40  parts 

Starch 20  parts 

Reduce  them  to  very  fine  powder,  and 
mix  thoroughly. 


For  clarifying  liquors,  wines,  essences, 
etc.,  take  for  every  quart  of  liquid  75 
grains  of  the  above  mixture,  shake  re- 
peatedly in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  the 
mixture  being  kept  in  a  warm '  room, 
then  filter. 

Powdered  talcum  renders  the  same 
service,  and  has  the  additional  advan- 
tage of  being  entirely  insoluble.  How- 
ever, the  above  mixture  acts  more  ener- 
getically. 

CLAY: 

Claying  Mixture  for  Forges. — Twenty 
parts  fire  clay;  20  parts  cast-iron  turn- 
ings; 1  part  common  salt;  ^  part  sal  am- 
moniac; all  by  measure. 

The  materials  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed  dry  and  then  wet  down  to  the  con- 
sistency of  common  mortar,  constantly 
stirring  the  mass  as  the  wetting  proceeds. 
A  rough  mold  shaped  to  fit  the  tuyere 
opening,  a  trowel,  and  a  few  minutes' 
time  are  all  that  are  needed  to  complete 
the  successful  claying  of  the  forge.  This 
mixture  dries  hard  and  when  glazed  by 
the  fire  will  last. 

Plastic  Modeling  Clay. — A  perma- 
nently plastic  clay  can  be  obtained  by 
first  mixing  it  with  glycerine,  turpen- 
tine, or  similar  bodies,  and  then  adding 
vaseline  or  petroleum  residues  rich  in 
vaseline.  The  proportion  of  clay  to  the 
vaseline  varies  according  to  the  desired 
consistency  of  the  product,  the  admix- 
ture of  vaseline  varying  from  10  to  50 
per  cent.  It  is  obvious  that  the  hardness 
of  the  material  decreases  with  the 
amount  of  vaseline  added,  so  that  the  one 
richest  in  vaseline  will  be  the  softest.  By 
the  use  of  various  varieties  of  clay  and 
the  suitable  choice  of  admixtures,  the 
plasticity,  as  well  as  the  color  of  the  mass, 
may  be  varied. 


Cleaning  Preparations  and 
Methods 

(See  also  Soaps,  Polishes,  and  House- 
hold Formulas). 

TO    REMOVE    STAINS    FROM     THE 

HANDS: 

Removal  of  Aniline -Dye  Stains  from 
the  Skin. — Rub  the  stained  skin  with 
a  pinch  of  slightly  moistened  red  crys- 
tals of  chromic  trioxide  until  a  distinct 
sensation  of  warmth  announces  the  de- 
struction of  the  dye  stuff  by  oxidation 
and  an  incipient  irritation  of  the  skin. 
Then  rinse  with  soap  and  water.  A  sin- 
gle application  usually  suffices  to  remove 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


185 


the  stain.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  call 
attention  to  the  poisonousness  and  strong 
caustic  action  of  chromic  trioxide;  but 
only  moderate  caution  is  required  to 
avoid  evil  effects. 

Pyrogallic-Acid  Stains  on  the  Fingers 
(see  also  Photography). — Pyro  stains  may 
be  prevented  fairly  well  by  rubbing  in  a 
little  wool  fat  before  beginning  work.  A 
very  effective  way  of  eliminating  devel- 
oper stains  is  to  dip  the  ringer  tips  occa- 
sionally during  development  into  the 
clearing  bath.  It  is  best  to  use  the 
clearing  bath,  with  ample  friction,  be- 
fore resorting  to  soap,  as  the  latter  seems 
to  have  a  fixing  effect  upon  the  stain. 
Lemon  peel  is  useful  for  removing  pyro 
stains,  and  so  are  the  ammonium  per- 
sulphate reducer  and  the  thiocarbamide 
clearer. 

To  Clean  Very  Soiled  Hands.— In  the 
morning  wash  in  warm  water,  using  a 
stiff  brush,  and  apply  glycerine.  Re- 
peat the  application  two  or  three  times 
during  the  day,  washing  and  brushing  an 
hour  or  so  afterwards,  or  apply  a  warm 
solution  of  soda  or  potash,  and  wash  in 
warm  water,  using  a  stiff  brush  as  before. 
Finally,  rub  the  hands  with  pumice  or 
infusorial  earth.  There  are  soaps  made 
especially  for  this  purpose,  similar  to 
those  for  use  on  woodwork,  etc.,  in 
which  infusorial  earth  or  similar  matter 
is  incorporated. 

To  Remove  Nitric-Acid  Stains. — One 
plan  to  avoid  stains  is  to  use  rubber 
finger  stalls,  or  rubber  gloves.  Nitric- 
acid  stains  can  be  removed  from  the 
hands  by  painting  the  stains  with  a  solu- 
tion of  permanganate  of  potash,  and 
washing  off  the  permanganate  with  a  5 
per  cent  solution  of  hydrochloric  (muri- 
atic) acid.  After  this  wash  the  hands 
with  pure  castile  soap.  Any  soap  that 
roughens  the  skin  should  be  avoided  at 
all  times.  Castile  soap  is  the  best  to 
keep  the  skin  in  good  condition. 

CLEANING  GILDED  ARTICLES: 

To  Clean  Gilt  Frames  and  Gilded  Sur- 
faces Generally. — Dip  a  soft  brush  in 
alcohol  to  which  a  few  drops  of  ammonia 
water  has  been  added,  and  with  it  go 
over  the  surface.  Do  not  rub — at  least, 
not  roughly,  or  harshly.  In  the  course 
of  five  minutes  the  dirt  will  have  become 
soft,  and  easy  of  removal.  Then  go  over 
the  surface  again  gently  with  the  same  or 
a  similar  brush  dipped  in  rain  water. 
Now  lay  the  damp  article  in  the  sunlight 
to  dry.  If  there  is  no  sunlight,  place  it 
near  a  warm  (but  not  hot}  stove,  and 
let  dry  completely.  In  order  to  avoid 


streaks,  take  care  that  the  position  of  the 
article,  during  the  drying,  is  not  exactly 
vertical. 

To  Clean  Fire-Gilt  Articles.— Fire-gilt 
articles  are  cleaned,  according  to  their 
condition,  with  water,  diluted  hydro- 
chloric acid,  ammonia,  or  potash  solu- 
tion. If  hydrochloric  acid  is  employed 
thorough  dilution  with  water  is  especially 
necessary.  The  acidity  should  hardly 
be  noticeable  on  the  tongue. 

To  clean  gilt  articles,  such  as  gold 
moldings,  etc.,  when  they  have  become 
tarnished  or  covered  with  flyspecks,  etc., 
rub  them  slowly  with  an  onion  cut  in  half 
and  dipped  in  rectified  alcohol,  and  wash 
off  lightly  with  a  moist  soft  sponge  after 
about  2  hours. 

Cleaning  Gilded  and  Polychromed 
Work  on  Altars. — To  clean  bright  gold 
a  fine  little  sponge  is  used  which  is 
moistened  but  lightly  with  tartaric  acid 
and  passed  over  the  gilding.  Next  go 
over  the  gilt  work  with  a  small  sponge 
saturated  with  alcohol  to  remove  all  dirt. 
For  matt  gilding,  use  only  a  white  flannel 
dipped  in  lye,  and  carefully  wipe  off  the 
dead  gold  with  this,  drying  next  with  a 
fine  linen  rag.  To  clean  polychromed 
work  sponge  with  a  lye  of  rain  water, 
1,000  parts,  and  calcined  potash,  68 
parts,  and  immediately  wash  off  with  a 
clean  sponge  and  water,  so  that  the  lye 
does  not  attack  the  paint  too  much. 

SPOT  AND  STAIN  REMOVERS: 
To  Remove  Aniline  Stains. — 

I. — Sodium  nitrate 7  grains 

Diluted  sulphuric  acid  15  grains 

Water 1  ounce 

Let  the  mixture  stand  a  day  or  two 
before  using.  Apply  to  the  spot  with  a 
sponge,  and  rinse  the  goods  with  plenty 
of  water. 

II. — An  excellent  medium  for  the  re- 
moval of  aniline  stains,  which  are  often 
very  stubborn,  has  been  found  to  be 
liquid  opodeldoc.  After  its  use  the 
stains  are  said  to  disappear  at  once  and 
entirely. 

Cleansing  Fluids. — A  spot  remover  is 
made  as  follows: 

I. — Saponine 7  parts 

Water 130  parts 

Alcohol 70  parts 

Benzine.  ...  % 1,788  parts 

Oil  mirbane 5  parts 

II. — Benzene  (benzol)..        89  parts 

Ascetic  ether 10  parts 

Pear  oil 1  part 

This  yields  an  effective  grease  eradi- 
cator,  of  an  agreeable  odor. 


186 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS  AND   METHODS 


III.— To  Remove  Stains  of  Sulphate  of 
copper,  or  of  salts  of  mercury,  silver,  or 
gold  from  the  hands,  etc.,  wash  them  first 
with  a  dilute  solution  either  of  ammonia, 
iodide,  bromide,  or  cyanide  of  potassium, 
and  then  with  plenty  of  water;  if  the 
stains  are  old  ones  they  should  first  be 
rubbed  with  the  strongest  acetic  acid 
and  then  treated  as  above. 

Removal  of  Picric-Acid  Stains. — I. — 
Recent  stains  of  picric  acid  may  be  re- 
moved readily  if  the  stain  is  covered  with 
a  layer  of  magnesium  carbonate,  the  car- 
bonate moistened  with  a  little  water  to 
form  a  paste,  and  the  paste  then  rubbed 
over  the  spot. 

II.  — Apply  a  solution  of 

Boric  acid 4  parts 

Sodium  benzoate. ...        1  part 
Water 100  parts 

III. — Dr.  Prieur,  of  Besan9on,  recom- 
mends lithium  carbonate  for  the  removal 
of  picric-acid  stains  from  the  skin  or 
from  linen.  The  method  of  using  it  is 
simply  to  lay  a  small  pinch  on  the  stain, 
and  moisten  the  latter  with  water.  Fresh 
stains  disappear  almost  instantly,  and 
old  ones  in  a  minute  or  two. 

To  Remove  Finger  Marks  from  Books, 
etc. — I. — Pour  benzol  (not  benzine  or 
gasoline,  but  Merck's  "c.  p."  crystalliz- 
able)  on  calcined  magnesia  until  it  be- 
comes a  crumbling  mass,  and  apply  this 
to  the  spot,  rubbing  it  in  lightly,  with  the 
tip  of  the  finger.  When  the  benzol 
evaporates,  brush  off.  Any  dirt  that  re- 
mains can  be  removed  by  using  a  piece 
of  soft  rubber. 

II. — If  the  foregoing  fails  (which  it 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  does),  try  the 
following:  Make  a  hot  solution  of  sodium 
hydrate  in  distilled  water,  of  strength  of 
from  3  per  cent  to  5  per  cent,  according 
to  the  age,  etc.,  of  the  stain.  Have  pre- 
pared some  bits  of  heavy  blotting  paper 
somewhat  larger  than  the  spot  to  be  re- 
moved; also,  a  blotting  pad,  or  several 
pieces  of  heavy  blotting  paper.  Lay  the 
spiled  page  face  downward  on  the  blot- 
ting pad,  then,  saturating  one  of  the  bits 
of  blotter  with  the  hot  sodium  hydrate 
solution,  put  it  on  the  stain  and  go  over 
it  with  a  hot  smoothing  iron.  If  one  ap- 
plication does  not  remove  all  the  grease 
or  stain,  repeat  the  operation.  Then 
saturate  another  bit  of  blotting  paper  with 
a  4  per  cent  or  5  per  cent  solution  of  hy- 
drochloric acid  in  distilled  water,  apply 
it  to  the  place,  and  pass  the  iron  over  it 
to  neutralize  the  strong  alkali.  This  process 
will  instantly  restore  any  faded  writing 
or  printing,  and  make  the  paper  bright 
and  fresh  again. 


Glycerine  as  a  Detergent. — For  cer- 
tain kinds  of  obstinate  spots  (such  as 
coffee  and  chocolate,  for  instance)  there 
is  no  better  detergent  than  glycerine, 
especially  for  fabrics  with  delicate  colors. 
Apply  the  glycerine  to  the  spot,  with  a 
sponge  or  otherwise,  let  stand  a  min- 
ute or  so,  then  wash  off  with  water  or 
alcohol.  Hot  glycerine  is  even  more 
efficient  than  cold. 

CLEANING  SKINS  AND  LEATHER: 

See  also  Leather. 

To  Clean  Colored  Leather. — Pour  car- 
bon bisulphide  on  non-vulcanized  gutta- 
percha,  and  allow  it  to  stand  about  24 
hours.  After  shaking  actively  add  more 
gutta-percha  gradually  until  the  solution 
becomes  of  gelatinous  consistency. 
This  mixture  is  applied  in  suitable  quan- 
tity to  oil-stained,  colored  leather  and 
allowed  to  dry  two  or  three  hours.  The 
subsequent  operation  consists  merely  in 
removing  the  coat  of  gutta-percha  from 
the  surface  of  the  leather — that  is,  rub- 
bing it  with  the  fingers,  and  rolling  it  off 
the  surface. 

The  color  is  not  injured  in  the  least  by 
the  sulphuret  of  carbon;  only  those 
leathers  on  which  a  dressing  containing 
starch  has  been  used  look  a  little  lighter 
in  color,  but  the  better  class  of  leathers 
are  not  so  dressed.  The  dry  gutta-per- 
cha can  be  redissolved  in  sulphuret  of 
carbon  and  used  over  again. 

To  Clean  Skins  Used  for  Polishing 
Purposes. — First  beat  them  thoroughly 
to  get  rid  of  dust,  then  go  over  the  surface 
on  both  sides  with  a  piece  of  good  white 
soap  and  lay  them  in  warm  water  in 
which  has  been  put  a  little  soda.  Let 
them  lie  here  for  2  hours,  then  wash  them 
in  plenty  of  tepid  water,  rubbing  them 
vigorously  until  perfectly  clean.  This 
bath  should  also  be  made  alkaline  with 
soda.  The  skins  are  finally  rinsed  in 
warm  water,  and  dried  quickly.  Cold 
water  must  be  avoided  at  all  stages  of  the 
cleansing  process,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to 
shrink  and  harden  the  skins. 

The  best  way  to  clean  a  chamois  skin 
is  to  wash  and  rinse  it  out  in  clean  water 
immediately  after  use,  but  this  practice  is 
apt  to  be  neglected  so  that  the  skin  be- 
comes saturated  with  dirt  and  grime. 
To  clean  it,  first  thoroughly  soak  in 
clean,  soft  water.  Then,  after  soaping 
it  and  rolling  it  into  a  compact  wad,  beat 
with  a  small  round  stick — a  buggy  spoke, 
say — turning  the  wad  over  repeatedly, 
and  keeping  it  well  wet  and  soaped. 
This  should  suffice  to  loosen  the  dirt. 
Then  rinse  in  clean  water  until  the  skin 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


187 


is  clean.  As  wringing  by  hand  is  apt  to 
injure  the  chamois  skin,  it  is  advisable  to 
use  a  small  clothes  wringer.  Before 
using  the  skin  again  rinse  it  in  clear  water 
to  which  a  little  pulverized 


alum  has 


been  added. 


STRAW-HAT  RENOVATION: 

To  Renovate  Straw  Hats.— I. — Hats 
made  of  natural  (uncolored)  straw,  which 
have  become  soiled  by  wear,  may  be 
cleaned  by  thoroughly  sponging  with  a 
weak  solution  of  tartaric  acid  in  water, 
followed  by  water  alone.  The  hat  after 
being  so  treated  should  be  fastened  by 
the  rim  to  a  board  by  means  of  pins,  so 
that  it  will  keep  its  shape  in  drying. 
II. — Sponge  the  straw  with  a  solution  of 

By  weight 
Sodium  hyposulphite.    10  parts 

Glycerine 5  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Water 75  parts 

Lay  aside  in  a  damp  place  for  24  hours 
and  then  apply 

By  weight 

Citric  acid 2  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Water 90  parts 

Press  with  a  moderately  hot  iron,  after 
stiffening  with  weak  gum  water,  if  neces- 
sary. 

III. — If  the  hat  has  become  much  dark- 
ened in  tint  by  wear  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur  may  be  employed.  The  material 
should  be  first  cleaned  by  thoroughly 
sponging  with  an  aqueous  solution  of 
potassium  carbonate,  followed  by  a  sim- 
ilar application  of  water,  and  it  is  then 
suspended  over  the  sulphur  fumes. 
These  are  generated  by  placing  in  a  metal 
or  earthen  dish,  so  mounted  as  to  keep  the 
heat  from  setting  fire  to  anything  beneath, 
some  brimstone  (roll  sulphur),  and 
sprinkling  over  it  some  live  coals  to  start 
combustion.  The  operation  is  con- 
ducted in  a  deep  box  or  barrel,  the  dish 
of  burning  sulphur  being  placed  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  article  to  be  bleached 
being  suspended  from  a  string  stretched 
across  the  top.  A  cover  not  fitting  so 
tightly  as  to  exclude  all  air  is  placed  over 
it,  and  the  apparatus  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  few  hours. 

Hats  so  treated  will  require  to  be  stif- 
fened by  the  application  of  a  little  gum 
water,  and  pressed  on  a  block  with  a 
hot  iron  to  bring  them  back  into  shape. 

Waterproof  Stiffening  for  Straw  Hats. 
— If  a  waterproof  stiffening  is  required 
use  one  of  the  varnishes  for  which  for- 
mulas follow: 


I. — Copal 450  parts 

Sandarac 75  parts 

Venice  turpentine  40  parts 

Castor  oil 5  parts 

Alcohol 800  parts 

II.— Shellac 500  parts 

Sandarac 175  parts 

Venice  turpentine       50  parts 

Castor  oil 15  parts 

Alcohol 2,000  parts 

III.— Shellac 750  parts 

Rosin 150  parts 

Venice  turpentine     150  parts 

Castor  oil 20  parts 

Alcohol 2,500  parts 

How  to  Clean  a  Panama  Hat. — Scrub 
with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  a 
nail  brush  being  used  as  an  aid  to  get 
the  dirt  away.  The  hat  is  then  placed  in 
the  hot  sun  to  dry  and  in  the  course  of 
two  or  three  hours  is  ready  for  use.  It 
will  not  only  be  as  clean  as  when  new, 
but  it  will  retain  its  shape  admirably. 
The  cleaned  hat  will  be  a  trifle  stiff  at 
first,  but  will  soon  grow  supple  under 
wear. 

A  little  glycerine  added  to  the  rinsing 
water  entirely  prevents  the  stiffness  and 
brittleness  acquired  by  some  hats  in  dry- 
ing, while  a  little  ammonia  in  the  wash- 
ing water  materially  assists  in  the  scrub- 
bing process.  Ivory,  or,  in  fact,  any 
good  white  soap,  will  answer  as  well  as 
castile  for  the  purpose.  It  is  well  to 
rinse  a  second  time,  adding  the  glycerine 
to  the  water  used  the  second  time.  Im- 
merse the  hat  completely  in  the  rinse 
water,  moving  it  about  to  get  rid  of 
traces  of  the  dirty  water.  When  the  hat 
has  been  thoroughly  rinsed,  press  out  the 
surplus  water,  using  a  Turkish  bath  towel 
for  the  purpose,  and  let  it  rest  on  the 
towel  when  drying. 

PAINT,  VARNISH,  AND  ENAMEL  RE- 
MOVERS: 

To  Remove  Old  Oil,  Paint,  or  Varnish 
Coats. — I. — Apply  a  mixture  of  about  5 
parts  of  potassium  silicate  (water  glass, 
36  per  cent),  about  1  part  of  soda  lye  (40 
per  cent),  and  1  part  of  ammonia.  The 
composition  dissolves  the  old  varnish 
coat,  as  well  as  the  paint,  down  to  the 
bottom.  The  varnish  coatings  which 
are  to  be  removed  may  be  brushed  off  or 
left  for  days  in  a  hardened  state.  Upon 
being  thoroughly  moistened  with  water 
the  old  varnish  may  be  readily  washed 
off,  the  lacquer  as  well  as  the  oil  paint 
coming  off  completely.  The  ammonia 
otherwise  employed  dissolves  the  var- 
nish, but  not  the  paint, 


188 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS    AND   METHODS 


II. — Apply  a  mixture  of  1  part  oil  of 
turpentine  and  2  parts  of  ammonia. 
This  is  effective,  even  if  the  coatings 
withstand  the  strongest  lye.  The  two 
liquids  are  shaken  in  a  bottle  until  they 
mix  like  milk.  The  mixture  is  applied 
to  the  coating  with  a  little  oakum;  after  a 
few  minutes  the  old  paint  can  be  wiped 
off. 

To  Clean  Brushes  and  Vessels  of  Dry 
Paint  (see  also  Brushes  and  Paints). — 
The  cleaning  o£  the  brushes  and  ves- 
sels in  which  the  varnish  or  oil  paint  had 
dried  is  usually  done  by  boiling  with 
soda  solution.  This  frequently  spoils  the 
brushes  or  cracks  the  vessels  if  of  glass; 
besides,  the  process  is  rather  slow  and 
dirty.  A  much  more  suitable  remedy  is 
amyl  acetate,  which  is  a  liquid  with  a 
pleasant  odor  of  fruit  drops,  used  mainly 
for  dissolving  and  cementing  celluloid. 
If  amyl  acetate  is  poured  over  a  paint 
brush  the  varnish  or  hardened  paint  dis- 
solves almost  immediately  and  the  brush 
is  again  rendered  serviceable  at  once.  If 
necessary,  the  process  is  repeated.  For 
cleaning  vessels  shake  the  liquid  about  in 
them,  which  softens  the  paint  so  that  it 
can  be  readily  removed  with  paper.  In 
this  manner  much  labor  can  be  saved. 
The  amyl  acetate  can  be  easily  removed 
from  the  brushes,  etc.,  by  alcohol  or  oil 
of  turpentine. 

Varnish  and  Paint  Remover. — Dis- 
solve 20  parts  of  caustic  soda  (98  per 
cent)  in  100  parts  of  water,  mix  the  solu- 
tion with  20  parts  of  mineral  oil,  and  stir 
in  a  kettle  provided  with  a  mechanical 
stirrer,  until  the  emulsion  is  complete. 
Now  add,  with  stirring,  20  parts  of  saw- 
dust and  pass  the  whole  through  a  paint 
mill  to  obtain  a  uniform  intermixture. 
Apply  the  paste  moist. 

To  Remove  Varnish  from  Metal.— To 
remove  old  varnish  from  metals,  it  suf- 
fices to  dip  the  articles  in  equal  parts  of 
ammonia  and  alcohol  (95  per  cent). 

To  Remove  Water  Stains  from  Var- 
nished Furniture. — Pour  olive  oil  into  a 
dish  and  scrape  a  little  white  wax  into  it. 
This  mixture  should  be  heated  until 
the  wax  melts  and  rubbed  sparingly  on 
the  stains.  Finally,  rub  the  surface  with 
a  linen  rag  until  it  is  restored  to  bril- 
liancy. 

To  Remove  Paint,  Varnish,  etc.,  from 
Wood. — Varnish,  paint,  etc.,  no  matter 
how  old  and  hard,  may  be  softened  in  a 
few  minutes  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
scraped  off,  by  applying  the  following 
mixture; 


Water  glass 5  parts 

Soda  lye,   40°  B.   (27 

per  cent) 1  part 

Ammonia  water 1  part 

Mix. 

Removing  Varnish,  etc. — A  patent 
has  been  taken  out  in  England  for  a 
liquid  for  removing  varnish,  lacquer,  tar, 
and  paint.  The  composition  is  made  by 
mixing  4  ounces  of  benzol,  3  ounces  of 
fusel  oil,  and  1  ounce  of  alcohol.  It  is 
stated  by  the  inventor  that  this  mixture, 
if  applied  to  a  painted  or  varnished  sur- 
face, will  make  the  surface  quite  clean  in 
less  than  10  minutes,  and  that  a  paint- 
soaked  brush  "  as  hard  as  iron  "  can  be 
made  as  soft  and  pliable  as  new  by 
simply  soaking  for  an  hour  or  so  in  the 
mixture. 

To  Remove  Enamel  and  Tin  Solder. — 
Pour  enough  of  oil  of  vitriol  (concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid)  over  powdered 
fluorspar  in  an  earthen  or  lead  vessel,  so 
as  just  to  cover  the  parts  whereby  hydro- 
fluoric acid  is  generated.  For  use,  dip 
the  article  suspended  on  a  wire  into  the 
liquid  until  the  enamel  or  the  tin  is  eaten 
away  or  dissolved,  which  does  not  injure 
the  articles  in  any  way.  If  heated,  the 
liquid  acts  more  rapidly.  The  work 
should  always  be  conducted  in  the  open 
air,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  in- 
hale the  fumes,  which  are  highly  inju- 
rious to  the  health,  and  not  to  get  any 
liquid  on  the  skin,  as  hydrofluoric  acid 
is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  poisons. 
Hydrofluoric  acid  must  be  kept  in  earth- 
en or  leaden  vessels,  as  it  destroys  glass. 

Removing  Paint  and  Varnish  from 
Wood. — The  following  compound  is 
given  as  one  which  will  clean  paint  or 
varnish  from  wood  or  stone  without  in- 
juring the  material: 

Flour  or  wood  pulp. .  385  parts 
Hydrochloric  acid. . .  450  parts 
Bleaching  powder..  .  160  parts 

Turpentine 5  parts 

This  mixture  is  applied  to  the  surface 
and  left  on  for  some  time.  It  is  then 
brushed  off,  and  brings  the  paint  away 
with  it.  It  keeps  moist  quite  long  enough 
to  be  easily  removed  after  it  has  acted. 

Paste  for  Removing  Old  Paint  or 
Varnish  Coats. — 

I. — Sodium  hydrate 5  parts 

Soluble  soda  glass  ...  3  parts 

Flour  paste 6  parts 

Water 4  parts 

II. — Soap 10  parts 

Potassium  hydrate.  . .  7  parts 

Potassium  silicate. ...  2  parts 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


189 


To  Remove  Old  Enamel.— Lay  the 
articles  horizontally  in  a  vessel  contain- 
ing a  concentrated  solution  of  alum  and 
boil  them.  The  solution  should  be  just 
sufficient  to  cover  the  pieces.  In  20  or 
25  minutes  the  old  enamel  will  fall  into 
dust,  and  the  article  can  be  polished  with 
emery.  If  narrow  and  deep  vessels  are 
used  the  operation  will  require  more 
time. 

INK  ERADICATORS: 

Two-Solution  Ink  Remover. — 

I. — (a)   Citric  acid 1  part 

Concentrated  solu- 
tion of  borax  ...      2  parts 
Distilled  water. ...    16  parts 
Dissolve  the  acid  in  the  water,  add  the 
borax  solution,  and  mix  by  agitation. 

(fc)  Chloride  of  lime. . .  3  parts 

Water 16  parts 

Concentrated  bor- 
ax solution  .....  2  parts 

Add  the  chloride  of  lime  to  the  water, 
shake  well  and  set  aside  for  a  week,  then 
decant  the  clear  liquid  and  to  it  add  the 
borax  solution. 

For  use,  saturate  the  spot  with  solu- 
tion (a),  apply  a  blotter  to  take  off  the  ex- 
cess of  liquid,  then  apply  solution  (6). 
When  the  stain  has  disappeared,  apply 
the  blotter  and  wet  the  spot  with  clean 
water;  finally  dry  between  two  sheets  of 
blotting  paper. 

II. — (a)  Mix,  in  equal  parts,  potassium 
chloride,  potassium  hypochlorite,  and  oil 
of  peppermint.  (&)  Sodium  chloride, 
hydrochloric  acid  and  water,  in  equal 
parts. 

Wet  the  spot  with  (a),  let  dry,  then 
brush  it  overlightly  with  (6),  and  rinse  in 
clear  water. 

A  good  single  mixture  which  will  an- 
swer for  most  inks  is  made  by  mixing 
citric  acid  and  alum  in  equal  parts.  If 
desired  to  vend  in  a  liquid  form  add  an 
equal  part  of  water.  In  use,  the  powder 
is  spread  well  over  the  spot  and  (if  on 
cloth  or  woven  fabrics)  well  rubbed  in 
with  the  fingers.  A  few  drops  of  water 
are  then  added,  and  also  rubbed  in.  A 
final  rinsing  with  water  completes  the 
process. 

Ink  Erasers. — I. — Inks  made  with  nut- 
galls  and  copperas  can  be  removed  by 
using  a  moderately  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  oxalic  acid,  followed  by  use  of 
pure  water  and  frequent  drying  with 
clean  blotting  paper.  Most  other  black 
inks  are  erased  by  use  of  a  weak  solution 
of  chlorinated  lime,  followed  by  dilute 
acetic  acid  and  water,  with  frequent  dry- 


ing with  blotters.  Malachite  green  ink 
is  bleached  by  ammonia  water;  silver 
inks  by  potassium  cyanide  or  sodium 
hyposulphite.  Some  aniline  colors  are 
easily  removed  by  alcohol,  and  nearly  all 
by  chlorinated  lime,  followed  by  diluted 
acetic  acid  or  vinegar.  In  all  cases 
apply  the  substances  with  camel's-hair 
brushes  or  feathers,  and  allow  them  to 
remain  no  longer  than  necessary,  after 
which  rinse  well  with  water  and  dry  with 
blotting  paper. 
II. — Citric  acid 1  part 

Water,  distilled 10  parts 

Concentrated  solution 

of  borax 2  parts 

Dissolve  the  citric  acid  in  the  water 
and  add  the  borax.  Apply  to  the  paper 
with  a  delicate  camel's-hair  pencil,  re- 
moving any  excess  of  water  with  a  blot- 
ter. A  mixture  of  oxalic,  citric,  and  tar- 
taric  acids,  in  equal  parts,  dissolved  in 
just  enough  water  to  give  a  clean  solution, 
acts  energetically  on  most  inks. 

Erasing  Powder  or  Pounce. — Alum,  1 
part;  amber,  1  part;  sulphur,  1  part; 
saltpeter,  1  part.  Mix  well  together  and 
keep  in  a  glass  bottle.  If  a  little  of 
this  powder  is  placed  on  an  ink  spot  or 
fresh  writing,  rubbing  very  lightly  with  a 
clean  linen  rag,  the  spot  or  the  writing 
will  disappear  at  once. 

Removing  Ink  Stains. — I. — The  ma- 
terial requiring  treatment  should  first  be 
soaked  in  clean,  warm  water,  the  super- 
fluous moisture  removed,  and  the  fabric 
spread  over  a  clean  cloth.  Now  allow 
a  few  minims  of  liquor  ammonia?  fortis, 
specific  gravity  0.891,  to  drop  on  the  ink 
spot,  then  saturate  a  tiny  tuft  of  absorbent 
cotton-wool  with  acidum  phosphoricum 
dilutum,  B.  P.,  and  apply  repeatedly  and 
with  firm  pressure  over  the  stain;  repeat 
the  procedure  two  or  three  times,  and 
finally  rinse  well  in  warm  water,  after- 
wards drying  in  the  sun,  when  every 
trace  of  ink  will  have  vanished.  This 
method  is  equally  reliable  for  old  and 
fresh  ink  stains,  is  rapid  in  action,  and 
will  not  injure  the  most  delicate  fabric. 

II. — To  remove  ink  spots  the  fabric 
is  soaked  in  warm  water,  then  it  is 
squeezed  out  and  spread  upon  a  clean 
piece  of  linen.  Now  apply  a  few  drops 
of  liquid  ammonia  of  a  specific  gravitj' 
of  0.891  to  the  spot,  and  dab  it  next 
with  a  wad  of  cotton  which  has  been 
saturated  with  dilute  phosphoric  acid. 
After  repeating  the  process  several  times 
and  drying  the  piece  in  the  sun,  the  ink 
spot  will  have  disappeared  without  leav- 
ing the  slightest  trace. 


190 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


III. — Ink  spots  may  be  removed  by 
the  following  mixture: 

Oxalic  acid 10  parts 

Stannic  chloride  ....        2  parts 

Acetic  acid 5  parts 

Water  to  make 500  parts 

Mix. 

IV. — The  customary  method  of  cleans- 
ing ink  spots  is  to  use  oxalic  acid.  Thick 
blotting  paper  is  soaked  in  a  concen- 
trated solution  and  dried.  It  is  then  laid 
immediately  on  the  blot,  and  in  many 
instances  will  take  the  latter  out  without 
leaving  a  trace  behind.  In  more  stub- 
born cases  the  cloth  is  dipped  in  boiling 
water  and  rubbed  with  crystals  of  oxalic 
acid,  after  which  it  is  soaked  in  a  weak 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime — say  1  ounce 
to  a  quart  of  water.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  linen  should  be  thoroughly 
rinsed  in  several  waters  afterwards. 
Oxalic  acid  is  undesirable  for  certain 
fabrics  because  it  removes  the  color. 

V. — Here  is  a  more  harmless  method: 
Equal  parts  of  cream  of  tartar  and  citric 
acid,  powdered  fine,  and  mixed  together. 
This  forms  the  "  salts  of  lemon  "  sold  by 
druggists.  Procure  a  hot  dinner  plate, 
lay  the  part  stained  in  the  plate,  and 
moisten  with  hot  water;  next  rub  in  the 
above  powder  with  the  bowl  of  a  spoon 
until  the  stains  disappear;  then  rinse  in 
clean  water  and  dry. 

To  Remove  Red  (Aniline)  Ink.— 
Stains  of  red  anilines,  except  eosine,  are 
at  once  removed  by  moistening  with 
alcohol  of  94  per  cent,  acidulated  with 
acetic  acid.  Eosine  does  not  disappear 
so  easily.  The  amount  of  acetic  acid  to 
be  used  is  ascertained  by  adding  it,  drop 
by  drop,  to  the  alcohol,  testing  the 
mixture  from  time  to  time,  until  when 
dropped  on  the  stain,  the  latter  at  once 
disappears. 

CLEANING  OF  WALLS,  CEILINGS,  AND 
WALL  PAPER: 

See  also  Household  Formulas. 

To  Renovate  Brick  Walls.— Dissolve 
glue  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  1  ounce 
of  glue  to  every  gallon  of  water;  add, 
while  hot,  a  piece  of  alum  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg,  £  pound  Venetian  red,  and  1 
pound  Spanish  brown.  Add  more  water 
if  too  dark;  more  red  and  brown  if  too 
light. 

Cleaning  Painted  Doors,  Walls,  etc. — 
The  following  recipe  is  designed  for 
painted  objects  that  are  much  soiled. 
Simmer  gently  on  the  fire,  stirring  con- 
stantly, 30  parts,  by  weight,  of  pulverized 
borax,  and  450  parts  of  brown  soap  of 


good  quality,  cut  in  small  pieces,  in  3,000 
parts  of  water.  The  liquid  is  applied  by 
means  of  flannel  and  rinsed  off  at  once 
with  pure  water. 

To  Remove  Aniline  Stains  from  Ceil- 
ings, etc. — In  renewing  ceilings,  the  old 
aniline  color  stains  are  often  very  annoy- 
ing, as  they  penetrate  the  new  coating. 
Painting  over  with  shellac  or  oil  paint 
will  bring  relief,  but  other  drawbacks 
appear.  A  very  practical  remedy  is  to 
place  a  tin  vessel  on  the  floor  of  the  room, 
and  to  burn  a  quantity  of  sulphur  in  it 
after  the  doors  and  windows  of  the  room 
have  been  closed.  The  sulphur  vapors 
destroy  the  aniline  stains,  which  disap- 
pear entirely. 

Old  Ceilings. — In  dealing  with  old 
ceilings  the  distemper  must  be  washed 
off  down  to  the  plaster  face,  all  cracks 
raked  out  and  stopped  with  putty  (plas- 
ter of  Paris  and  distemper  mixed),  and 
the  whole  rubbed  smooth  with  pumice 
stone  and  water;  stained  parts  should  be 
painted  with  oil  color,  and  the  whole 
distempered.  If  old  ceilings  are  in  bad 
condition  it  is  desirable  that  they  should 
be  lined  with  paper,  which  should  have 
a  coat  of  weak  size  before  being  distem- 
pered. 

Oil  Stains  on  Wall  Paper.— Make  a 
medium  thick  paste  of  pipe  clay  and 
water,  applying  it  carefully  flat  upon  the 
oil  stain,  but  avoiding  all  friction.  The 
paste  is  allowed  to  remain  10  to  12  hours, 
after  which  time  it  is  very  carefully  re- 
moved with  a  soft  rag.  In  many  cases  a 
repeated  action  will  be  necessary  until 
the  purpose  desired  is  fully  reached. 
Finally,  however,  this  will  be  obtained 
without  blurring  or  destroying  the  de- 
sign of  the  wall  paper,  unless  it  be  of  the 
cheapest  variety.  In  the  case  of  a  light, 
delicate  paper,  the  paste  should  be  com- 
posed of  magnesia  and  benzine. 

To  Clean  Painted  Walls.— A  simple 
method  is  to  put  a  little  aqua  ammonia 
in  moderately  warm  water,  dampen  a 
flannel  with  it,  and  gently  wipe  over  the 
painted  surface.  No  scrubbing  is  nec- 
essary. 

Treatment  of  Whitewashed  Walls.— 
It  is  suggested  that  whitewashed  walls 
which  it  is  desired  to  paper,  with  a  view 
to  preventing  peeling,  should  be  treated 
with  water,  after  which  the  scraper 
should  be  vigorously  used.  If  the  white- 
•wash  has  been  thoroughly  soaked  it  can 
easily  be  removed  with  the  scraper. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  every  part  of 
the  wall  is  well  scraped. 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


191 


Cleaning  Wall  Paper. — I. — To  clean 
wall  paper  the  dust  should  first  be  re- 
moved by  lightly  brushing,  preferably 
with  a  feather  duster,  and  the  surface 
then  gently  rubbed  with  slices  of  moder- 
ately stale  bread,  the  discolored  surface 
of  the  bread  being  removed  from  time 
to  time,  so  as  to  expose  a  fresh  portion  for 
use.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
scratching  the  paper  with  the  crust  of  the 
bread,  and  the  rubbing  should  be  in  one 
direction,  the  surface  being  systematically 
gone  over,  as  in  painting,  to  avoid  the 
production  of  streaks. 

II. — Mix  4  ounces  of  powdered  pumice 
with  1  quart  of  flour,  and  with  the  aid  of 
water  make  a  stiff  dough.  Form  the 
dough  into  rolls  2  inches  in  diameter  and 
6  inches  long;  sew  each  roll  separately 
in  a  cotton  cloth,  then  boil  for  40  or  50 
minutes,  so  as  to  render  the  mass  firm. 
Allow  to  stand  for  several  hours,  remove 
the  crust,  and  they  are  ready  for  use. 

III. — Bread  will  clean  paper;  but  un- 
less it  is  properly  used  the  job  will  be  a 
very  tedious  one.  Select  a  "  tin  "  loaf  at 
least  two  days  old.  Cut  off  the  crust  at 
one  end,  and  rub  down  the  paper,  com- 
mencing at  the  top.  Do  not  rub  the 
bread  backwards  and  forwards,  but  in 
single  strokes.  When  the  end  gets  dirty 
take  a  very  sharp  knife  and  pare  off  a 
thin  layer;  then  proceed  as  before. 

It  is  well  to  niake  sure  that  the  walls 
are  quite  dry  before  using  the  bread,  or  it 
may  smear  the  pattern.  If  the  room  is 
furnished  it  will,  of  course,  be  necessary 
to  place  cloths  around  the  room  to  catch 
the  crumbs. 

IV. — A  preparation  for  cleansing  wall 
paper  that  often  proves  much  more  effec- 
tual than  ordinary  bread,  especially  when 
the  paper  is  very  dirty,  is  made  by  mix- 
ing §  dough  and  ^  plaster  of  Paris.  This 
should  be  made  a  day  before  it  is  needed 
for  use,  and  should  be  very  gently  baked. 

If  there  are  any  grease  spots  they 
should  be  removed  by  holding  a  hot 
flatiron  against  a  piece  of  blotting  paper 
placed  over  them.  If  this  fails,  a  little 
fuller's  earth  or  pipe  clay  should  be  made 
into  a  paste  with  water,  and  this  should 
then  be  carefully  plastered  over  the 
grease  spots  and  allowed  to  remain  till 
quite  dry,  when  it  will  be  found  to  have 
absorbed  the  grease. 

V. — Mix  together  1  pound  each  of  rye 
flour  and  white  flour  into  a  dough, 
which  is  partially  cooked  and  the  crust 
removed.  To  this  1  ounce  common 
salt  and  £  ounce  of  powdered  naph- 
thaline are  added,  and  finally  1  ounce  of 
corn  meal,  and  |  ounce  of  burnt  umber. 
The  composition  is  formed  into  a  mass. 


of  the  proper  size  to  be  grasped  in  the 
hand,  and  in  use  it  should  be  drawn  in 
one  direction  over  the  surface  to  be 
cleaned. 

VI. — Procure  a  soft,  flat  sponge,  being 
careful  that  there  are  no  hard  or  gritty 
places  in  it,  then  get  a  bucket  of  new, 
clean,  dry,  wheat  bran.  Hold  the 
sponge  flat  side  up,  and  put  a  handful  of 
bran  on  it,  then  quickly  turn  against  the 
wall,  and  rub  the  wall  gently  and  care- 
fully with  it;  then  repeat  the  operation. 
Hold  a  large  pan  or  spread  down  a  drip 
cloth  to  catch  the  bran  as  it  falls,  but 
never  use  the  same  bran  twice.  Still 
another  way  is  to  use  Canton  flannel  in 
strips  a  foot  wide  and  about  3  yards 
long.  Roll  a  strip  around  a  stick  1 
inch  thick  and  10  inches  long,  so  as  to 
have  the  ends  of  the  stick  covered,  with 
the  nap  of  the  cloth  outside.  As  the 
cloth  gets  soiled,  unroll  the  soiled  part 
and  roll  it  up  with  the  soiled  face  inside. 

In  this  way  one  can  change  places  on 
the  cloth  when  soiled  and  use  the  whole 
face  of  the  cloth.  To  take  out  a  grease 
spot  requires  care.  First,  take  several 
thicknesses  of  brown  wrapping  paper 
and  make  a  pad,  place  it  against  the 
grease  spot,  and  hold  a  hot  flatiron 
against  it  to  draw  out  the  grease,  which 
will  soak  into  the  brown  paper.  Be 
careful  to  have  enough  layers  of  brown 
paper  to  keep  the  iron  from  scorching  or 
discoloring  the  wall  paper.  If  the  first 
application  does  not  take  out  nearly  all 
the  grease,  repeat  with  clean  brown 
paper  or  a  blotting  pad  Then  take  an 
ounce  vial  of  washed  sulphuric  ether  and 
a  soft,  fine,  clean  sponge,  and  sponge  the 
spot  carefully  until  all  the  grease  disap- 
pears. Do  not  wipe  the  place  with  the 
sponge  and  ether,  but  dab  the  sponge 
carefully  against  the  place.  A  small 
quantity  of  ether  is  advised,  as  it  is  very 
inflammable. 

CLOTHES  AND  FABRIC  CLEANERS: 
Soaps  for  Clothing  and  Fabrics. — 
When  the  fabric  is  washable  and  the 
color  fast,  ordinary  soap  and  water  are 
sufficient  for  removing  grease  and  the  or- 
dinarily attendant  dirt;  but  special  soaps 
are  made  which  may  possibly  be  more 
effectual. 

I. — Powdered  borax.  ...      30  parts 
Extract  of  soap  bark     30  parts 

Ox  gall  (fresh) 120  parts 

Castile  soap 450  parts 

First  make  the  soap-bark  extract  by 
boiling  the  crushed  bark  in  water  until 
it  has  assumed  a  dark  color,  then  strain 
the  liquid  into  an  evaporating  dish,  and 


192 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND    METHODS 


by  the  aid  of  heat  evaporate  it  to  a  solid 
extract;  then  powder  and  mix  it  with  the 
borax  and  the  ox  gall.  Melt  the  castile 
soap  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  water 
and  warming,  then  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients and  mix  well. 

About  100  parts  of  soap  bark  make  20 
parts  of  extract. 

II. — Castile  soap 2     pounds 

Potassium  carbonate. .      *  pound 

Camphor £  ounce 

Alcohol |  ounce 

Ammonia  water £  ounce 

Hot  water,  £  pint,  or  sufficient. 

Dissolve  the  potassium  carbonate  in 
the  water,  add  the  soap  previously  re- 
duced to  thin  shavings,  keep  warm  over 
a  water  bath,  stirring  occasionally,  until 
dissolved,  adding  more  water  if  neces- 
sary, and  finally,  when  of  a  consistence 
to  become  semisolid  on  cooling,  remove 
from  the  fire.  When  nearly  ready  to 
set,  stir  in  the  camphor,  previously  dis- 
solved in  the  alcohol  and  the  ammonia. 

The  soap  will  apparently  be  quite  as 
efficacious  without  the  camphor  and 
ammonia. 

If  a  paste  is  desired,  a  potash  soap 
should  be  used  instead  of  the  castile  in 
the  foregoing  formula,  and  a  portion  or 
all  of  the  water  omitted.  Soaps  made 
from  potash  remain  soft,  while  soda 
soaps  harden  on  the  evaporation  of  the 
water  which  they  contain  when  first 
made. 

A  liquid  preparation  may  be  obtained, 
of  course,  by  the  addition  of  sufficient 
water,  and  some  more  alcohol  would 
probably  improve  it. 

Clothes-Cleaning  Fluids  : 
See  also  Household  Formulas. 

I. — Borax 1  ounce 

Castile  soap 1  ounce 

Sodium  carbonate.  .  .    3  drachms 

Ammonia  water 5  ounces 

Alcohol 4  ounces 

Acetone 4  ounces 

Hot  water  to  make.  .  .  4  pints 
Dissolve  the  borax,  sodium  bicarbo- 
nate, and  soap  in  the  hot  water,  mix  the 
acetone  and  alcohol  together,  unite  the 
two  solutions,  and  then  add  the  ammonia 
water.  The  addition  of  a  couple  of 
ounces  of  rose  water  will  render  it  some- 
what fragrant. 

II. — A  strong  decoction  of  soap  bark, 
preserved  by  the  addition  of  alcohol, 
forms  a  good  liquid  cleanser  for  fabrics 
of  the  more  delicate  sort. 


III. — Chloroform. . . . 
Ether. . 


15  parts 
15  parts 


Alcohol 120  parts 

Decoction  of  quillaia 

bark  of  30°  ....  4,500  parts 

IV. — Acetic  ether 10  parts 

Amyl  acetate 10  parts 

Liquid  ammonia..  .  .    10  parts 

Dilute  alcohol 70  parts 

V. — Another  good  non-inflammable 
spot  remover  consists  of  equal  parts  of 
acetone,  ammonia,  and  diluted  alcohol. 
For  use  in  large  quantities  carbon  tetra- 
chloride  is  suggested. 

VI. — Castile  soap 4  av.  ounces 

Water,  boiling. ...    32  fluidounces 
Dissolve  and  add: 

Water 1  gallon 

Ammonia 8  fluidounces 

Ether 2  fluidounces 

Alcohol 4  fluidounces 

To  Remove  Spots  from  Tracing  Cloth. 
— It  is  best  to  use  benzine,  which  is  ap- 
plied by  means  of  a  cotton  rag.  The 
benzine  also  takes  off  lead-pencil  marks, 
but  does  not  attack  India  and  other  inks. 
The  places  treated  with  benzine  should 
subsequently  be  rubbed  with  a  little 
talcum,  otherwise  it  would  not  be  pos- 
sible to  use  the  pen  on  them. 

Removal  of  Paint  from  Clothing. — 
Before  paint  becomes  "  dry "  it  can  be 
removed  from  cloth  by  the  liberal  appli- 
cation of  turpentine  or  benzine.  If  the 
spot  is  not  large,  it  may  be  immersed  in 
the  liquid;  otherwise,  a  thick,  folded, 
absorbent  cloth  should  be  placed  under 
the  fabric  which  has  been  spotted,  and 
the  liquid  sponged  on  freely  enough  that 
it  may  soak  through,  carrying  the  greasy 
matter  with  it.  Some  skill  in  manipu- 
lation is  requisite  to  avoid  simply  spread- 
ing the  stain  and  leaving  a  "ring"  to 
show  how  far  it  has  extended. 

When  benzine  is  used  the  operator 
must  be  careful  to  apply  it  only  in  the 
absence  of  light  or  fire,  on  account  of  the 
extremely  inflammable  character  of  the 
vapor. 

Varnish  stains,  when  fresh,  are  treated 
in  the  same  way,  but  the  action  of  the 
solvent  may  possibly  not  be  so  complete 
on  account  of  the  gum  rosins  present. 

When  either  paint  or  varnish  has 
dried,  its  removal  becomes  more  diffi- 
cult. In  such  case  soaking  in  strong 
ammonia  water  may  answer.  An  emul- 
sion, formed  by  shaking  together  2  parts 
of  ammonia  water  and  1  of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, has  been  recommended. 

To  Remove  Vaseline  Stains  from 
Clothing. — Moisten  the  spots  with  a  mix- 
ture of  1  part  of  aniline  oil,  1  of  pow- 


CLEANING    PREPARATIONS 'AND   METHODS 


193 


dered  soap,  and  10  of  water.  After 
allowing  the  cloth  to  lie  for  5  or  10  min- 
utes, wash  with  water. 

To  Remove  Grease  Spots  from  Plush. 
—  Place  fresh  bread  rolls  in  the  oven, 
break  them  apart  as  soon  as  they  have 
become  very  hot,  and  rub  the  spots  with 
the  crumbs,  continuing  the  work  by  us- 
ing new  rolls  until  all  traces  of  fat  have 
disappeared  from  the  fabric.  Purified 
benzine,  which  does  not  alter  even  the 
most  delicate  colors,  is  also  useful  for 
this  purpose. 

To  Remove  Iron  Rust  from  Muslin 
and  Linen.  —  Wet  with  lemon  juice  and 
salt  and  expose  to  the  sun.  If  one  ap- 
plication does  not  remove  the  spots,  a 
second  rarely  fails  to  do  so. 

Keroclean.  —  This  non  -  inflammable 
cleanser  removes  grease  spots  from  deli- 
cate fabrics  without  injury,  cleans  all 
kinds  of  jewelry  and  tableware  by  re- 
moving fats  and  tarnish,  kills  moths, 
insects,  and  household  pests  by  suffo- 
cation and  extermination,  and  cleans 
ironware  by  removing  rust,  brassware  by 
removing  grease,  copperware  by  remov- 
ing verdigris.  It  is  as  clear  as  water 
and  will  stand  any  fire  test. 

Kerosene  ............    1  ounce 

Carbon    tetrachloride 

(commercial)  .......    3  ounces 

Oil  of  citronella  .......    2  drachms 

Mix,  and  filter  if  necessary.  If  a 
strong  odor  of  carbon  bisulphide  is  de- 
tected in  the  carbon  tetrachloride  first 
shake  with  powdered  charcoal  and  filter. 


To  Clean  Gold  and  Silver  Lace.  — 
I.  —  Alkaline  liquids  sometimes  used  for 
cleaning  gold  lace  are  unsuitable,  for 
they  generally  corrode  or  change  the 
color  of  the  silk.  A  solution  of  soap  also 
interferes  with  certain  colors,  and  should 
therefore  not  be  employed.  Alcohol  is 
an  effectual  remedy  for  restoring  the 
luster  of  gold,  and  it  may  be  used  with- 
out any  danger  to  the  silk,  but  where  the 
gold  is  worn  off,  and  the  base  metal  ex- 
posed, it  is  not  so  successful  in  accom- 
plishing its  purpose,  as  by  removing  the 
tarnish  the  base  metal  becomes  more 
distinguishable  from  the  fine  gold. 

II.  —  To  clean  silver  lace  take  alabas- 
ter in  very  fine  powder,  lay  the  lace  upon 
a  cloth,  and  with  a  soft  brush  take  up 
some  of  the  powder,  and  rub  both  sides 
with  it  till  it  becomes  bright  and  clean, 
afterwards    polish    with    another    brush 
until  all  remnants  of  the  powder  are  re- 
moved, and  it  exhibits  a  lustrous  surface. 

III.  —  Silver  laces  are  put  in  curdled 


milk  for  24  hours.  A  piece  of  Venetian 
soap,  or  any  other  good  soap,  is  scraped 
and  stirred  into  2  quarts  of  rain  water. 
To  this  a  quantity  of  honey  and  fresh  ox 
gall  is  added,  and  the  whole  is  stirred  for 
some  time.  If  it  becomes  too  thick, 
more  water  is  added.  This  mass  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  half  a  day,  and  the 
wet  laces  are  painted  with  it.  Wrap  a 
wet  cloth  around  the  roller  of  a  mangle, 
wind  the  laces  over  this,  put  another  wet 
cloth  on  top,  and  press,  wetting  and  re 
peating  the  application  several  times. 
Next,  dip  the  laces  in  a  clear  solution  of 
equal  parts  of  sugar  and  gum  arabic, 
pass  them  again  through  the  mangle, 
between  two  clean  pieces  of  cloth,  and 
hang  them  up  to  dry  thoroughly,  attach- 
ing a  weight  to  the  lower  end. 

IV. — Soak  gold  laces  over  night  in 
cheap  white  wine  and  then  proceed  as 
with  silver  laces.  If  the  gold  is  worn  off, 
put  771  grains  of  shellac,  31  grains  of 
dragon's  blood,  31  grains  of  turmeric  in 
strong  alcohol  and  pour  off  the  ruby-col- 
ored fluid.  Dip  a  fine  hair  pencil  in  this, 
paint  the  pieces  to  be  renewed,  and  hold 
a  hot  flatiron  a  few  inches  above  them, 
so  that  only  the  laces  receive  the  heat. 

V. — Silver  embroideries  may  also  be 
cleaned  by  dusting  them  with  Vienna 
lime,  and  brushing  off  with  a  velvet 
brush. 

For  gildings  the  stuff  is  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  gold  chloride,  and  this  is  re- 
duced by  means  of  hydrogen  in  another 
vessel. 

For  silvering,  one  of  the  following  two 
processes  may  be  employed:  (a)  Paint- 
ing with  a  solution  of  1  part  of  phos- 
phorus in  15  parts  bisulphide  of  carbon 
and  dipping  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver;  (6)  dipping  for  2  hours  in  a  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  mixed  with  am- 
monia, then  exposing  to  a  current  of  pure 
hydrogen. 

To  Remove  Silver  Stains  from  White 
Fabrics. — Moisten  the  fabric  for  two  or 
three  minutes  with  a  solution  of  5  parts 
of  bromine  and  500  parts  of  water. 
Then  rinse  in  clear  water.  If  a  yellow- 
ish stain  remains,  immerse  in  a  solution 
of  150  parts  of  sodium  hyposulphite  in 
500  parts  of  water,  and  again  rinse  in 
clear  water. 

Rust-Spot  Remover. — Dissolve  potas- 
sium bioxalate,  200  parts,  in  distilled 
water,  8,800  parts;  add  glycerine,  1,000 
parts,  and  filter.  Moisten  the  rust  or 
ink  spots  with  this  solution;  let  the  linen, 
etc.,  lie  for  3  hours,  rubbing  the  moist- 
ened spots  frequently,  and  then  wash  well 
with  water. 


194 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


To  Clean  Quilts. — Quilts  are  cleaned  > 
by  first  washing  them  in  lukewarm  soap- 
suds, then  laying  them  in  cold,  soft  (rain) 
water  over  night.  The  next  day  they 
are  pressed  as  dry  as  possible  and  hung 
up;  the  ends,  in  which  the  moisture  re- 
mains for  a  long  time,  must  be  wrung 
out  from  time  to  time. 

It  is  very  essential  to  beat  the  drying 
quilts  frequently  with  a  smooth  stick  or 
board.  This  will  have  the  effect  of 
swelling  up  the  wadding,  and  preventing 
it  from  felting.  Furthermore,  the  quilts 
should  be  repeatedly  turned  during  the 
drying  from  right  to  left  and  also  from 
top  to  bottom.  In  this  manner  streaks 
are  avoided. 

Removal  of  Peruvian-Balsam  Stains. 
—The  fabric  is  spread  out,  a  piece  of 
filter  paper  being  placed  beneath  the 
stain,  and  the  latter  is  then  copiously 
moistened  with  chloroform,  applied  by 
means  of  a  tuft  of  cotton  wool.  Rubbing 
is  tc  be  avoided. 

Solution  for  Removing  Nitrate  of  Sil- 
ver Spots. — 

Bichloride  of  mercury     5  parts 
Ammonium  chloride.      5  parts 

Distilled  water 40  parts 

Apply  the  mixture  to  the  spots  with  a 
cloth,  then  rub.  This  removes,  almost 
instantaneously,  even  old  stains  on  linen, 
cotton,  or  wool.  Stains  on  the  skin  thus 
treated  become  whitish  yellow  and  soon 
disappear. 

Cleaning  Tracings. — Tracing  cloth 
can  be  very  quickly  and  easily  cleaned, 
and  pencil  marks  removed  by  the  use  of 
benzine,  which  is  applied  with  a  cotton 
swab.  It  may  be  rubbed  freely  over  the 
tracing  without  injury  to  lines  drawn  in 
ink,  or  even  in  water  color,  but  the  pencil 
marks  and  dirt  will  quickly  disappear. 
The  benzine  evaporates  almost  immedi- 
ately, leaving  the  tracing  unharmed. 
The  surface,  however,  has  been  softened 
and  must  be  rubbed  down  with  talc,  or 
some  similar  substance,  before  drawing 
any  more  ink  lines. 

The  glaze  may  be  restored  to  tracing 
cloth  after  using  the  eraser  by  rubbing 
the  roughened  surface  with  a  piece  of 
hard  wax  from  an  old  phonograph 
cylinder.  The  surface  thus  produced  is 
superior  to  that  of  the  original  glaze,  as 
it  is  absolutely  oil-  and  water-proof. 

Rags  for  Cleaning  and  Polishing. — 
Immerse  flannel  rags  in  a  solution  or  20 
parts  of  dextrine  and  30  parts  of  oxalic 
acid  in  20  parts  of  logwood  decoction; 
gently  wring  them  out,  and  sift  over  them 
a  mixture  of  finely  powdered  tripoli  and 


pumice  stone.  Pile  the  moist  rags  one 
upon  another,  placing  a  layer  of  the  pow- 
der between  each  two.  Then  press,  sepa- 
rate, and  dry. 

Cleaning  Powder. — 

Bole. 500  parts 

Magnesium      carbo- 
nate       50  parts 

Mix  and  make  into  a  paste  with  a 
small  quantity  of  benzine  or  water;  apply 
to  stains  made  by  fats  or  oils  on  the  cloth- 
ing and  when  dry  remove  with  a  brush. 

CLEANING     PAINTED      AND      VAR- 
NISHED SURFACES: 

Cleaning  and  Preserving  Polished 
Woodwork. — Rub  down  all  the  polished 
work  with  a  very  weak  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  shellac  (1  to  20  or  even  1  to  30) 
and  linseed  oil,  spread  on  a  linen  cloth. 
The  rubbing  should  be  firm  and  hard. 
Spots  on  the  polished  surface,  made  by 
alcohol,  tinctures,  water,  etc.,  should  be 
removed  as  far  as  possible  and  as  soon  as 
possible  after  they  are  made,  by  the  use 
of  boiled  linseed  oil.  Afterwards  they 
should  be  rubbed  with  the  shellac  and 
linseed  oil  solution  on  a  soft  linen  rag. 
If  the  spots  are  due  to  acids  go  over  them 
with  a  little  dilute  ammonia  water.  Ink 
spots  may  be  removed  with  dilute  or  (if 
necessary)  concentrated  hydrochloric 
acid,  following  its  use  with  dilute  ammo- 
nia water.  In  extreme  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  use  the  scraper  or  sandpa- 
per, or  both. 

Oak  as  a  general  thing  is  not  polished, 
but  has  a  matt  surface  which  can  be 
washed  with  water  and  soap.  First  all 
stains  and  spots  should  be  gone  over 
with  a  sponge  or  a  soft  brush  and  very 
weak  ammonia  water.  The  carved  work 
should  be  freed  of  dust,  etc.,  by  the  use 
of  a  stiff  brush,  and  finally  washed 
with  dilute  ammonia  water.  When  dry 
it  should  be  gone  over  very  thinly  and 
evenly  with  brunoline  applied  with  a 
soft  pencil.  If  it  is  desired  to  give  an 
especially  handsome  finish,  after  the 
surface  is  entirely  dry,  give  it  a  prelim- 
inary coat  of  brunoline  and  follow  this 
on  the  day  after  with  a  second.  Bruno- 
line  may  be  purchased  of  any  dealer  in 
paints.  To  make  it,  put  70  parts  of  lin- 
seed oil  in  a  very  capacious  vessel  (on 
account  of  the  foam  that  ensues)  and  add 
to  it  20  parts  of  powdered  litharge,  20 
parts  of  powdered  minium,  and  10  parts 
of  lead  acetate,  also  powdered.  Boil 
until  the  oil  is  completely  oxidized,  stir- 
ring constantly.  When  completely  oxi- 
dized the  oil  is  no  longer  red,  but  is  of  a 
dark  brown  color.  When  it  acquires 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND  METHODS 


195 


this  color,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  add 
160  parts  of  turpentine  oil,  and  stir  well. 
This  brunoline  serves  splendidly  for 
polishing  furniture  or  other  polished 
wood. 

To  Clean  Lacquered  Goods. — Papier- 
mache  and  lacquered  goods  may  be 
cleaned  perfectly  by  rubbing  thoroughly 
with  a  paste  made  of  wheat  flour  and 
olive  oil.  Apply  with  a  bit  of  soft  flan- 
nel or  old  linen,  rubbing  hard;  wipe  off 
and  polish  by  rubbing  with  an  old  silk 
handkerchief. 

Polish  for  Varnished  Work. — To  reno- 
vate varnished  work  make  a  polish  of  1 
quart  good  vinegar,  2  ounces  butter  of 
antimony,  2  ounces  alcohol,  and  1  quart 
oil.  Shake  well  before  using. 

To  Clean  Paintings. — To  clean  an  oil 
painting,  take  it  out  of  its  frame,  lay  a 
piece  of  cloth  moistened  with  rain  water 
on  it,  and  leave  it  for  a  while  to  take  up 
the  dirt  from  the  picture.  Several  appli- 
cations may  be  required  to  secure  a 
perfect  result.  Then  wipe  the  picture 
very  gently  with  a  tuft  of  cotton  wool 
damped  with  absolutely  pure  linseed  oil. 
Gold  frames  may  be  cleaned  with  a 
freshly  cut  onion;  they  should  be  wiped 
with  a  soft  sponge  wet  with  rain  water  a 
few  hours  after  the  application  of  the 
onion,  and  finally  wiped  with  a  soft  rag. 

Removing  and  Preventing  Match 
Marks. — The  unsightly  marks  made  on 
a  painted  surface  by  striking  matches  on 
it  can  sometimes  be  removed  by  scrub- 
bing with  soapsuds  and  a  stiff  brush. 
To  prevent  match  marks  dip  a  bit  of 
flannel  in  alboline  (liquid  vaseline),  and 
with  it  go  over  the  surface,  rubbing  it 
hard.  A  second  rubbing  with  a  dry  bit 
of  flannel  completes  the  job.  A  man 
may  "  strike  "  a  match  there  all  day,  and 
neither  get  a  light  nor  make  a  mark. 

GLOVE  CLEANERS: 

Powder  for  Cleaning  Gloves. — 
I. — White  bole  or  pipe 

clay 60.0  parts 

Orris     root     (pow- 
dered)     30.0  parts 

Powdered        grain 

soap 7.5  parts 

Powdered  borax.  .  .    15  . 0  parts 
Ammonium    chlor- 
ide        2.5  parts 

Mix  the  above  ingredients.  Moisten 
the  gloves  with  a  damp  cloth,  rub  on  the 
powder,  and  brush  off  after  drying. 

II. — Four  pounds  powdered  pipeclay, 
2  pounds  powdered  white  soap,  1  ounce 


|  lemon  oil,  thoroughly  rubbed  together. 
To  use,  make  powder  into  a  thin  cream 
with  water  and  rub  on  the  gloves  while 
on  the  hands.  This  is  a  cheaply  pro- 
duced compound,  and  does  its  work  ef- 
fectually. 

Soaps  and  Pastes  for  Cleaning  Gloves. — 

I. — Soft  soap 1  ounce 

Water 4  ounces 

Oil  of  lemon £  drachm 

Precipitated  chalk,  a 
sufficient  quantity. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water,  add  the 
oil,  and  make  into  a  stiff  paste  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  chalk. 

II. — White  hard  soap. ...      1  part 

Talcum 1  part 

Water 4  parts 

Shave  the  soap  into  ribbons,  dissolve 
in  the  water  by  the  aid  of  heat,  and  in- 
corporate the  talcum. 

III. — Curd  soap 1  av.  ounce 

Water 4  fluidounces 

Oil  of  lemon £  fluidrachm 

French  chalk,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Shred  the  soap  and  melt  it  in  the  water 
by  heat,  add  the  oil  of  lemon,  and  make 
into  a  stiff  paste  with  French  chalk. 

IV. — White    castile    soap, 

old  and  dry 15  parts 

Water 15  parts 

Solution  of  chlorin- 
ated soda 16  parts 

Ammonia  water.  ...  1  part 
Cut  or  shave  up  the  soap,  add  the 
water,  and  heat  on  the  water  bath  to  a 
smooth  paste.  Remove,  let  cool,  and 
add  the  other  ingredients  and  mix  thor- 
oughly. 

V. — Castile  soap,  white, 

old,  and  dry 100  parts 

Water 75  parts 

Tincture  of  quillaia  10  parts 
Ether,  sulphuric. . .  10  parts 
Ammonia  water, 

FF ..        5  parts 

Benzine,  deodorized  75  parts 
Melt  the  soap,  previously  finely 
shaved,  in  the  water,  bring  to  a  boil  and 
remove  from  the  fire.  Let  cool  down, 
then  add  the  other  ingredients,  incor- 
porating them  thoroughly.  This  should 
be  put  up  in  collapsible  tubes  or  tightly 
closed  metallic  boxes.  This  is  also  use- 
ful for  clothing. 

Liquid  Cloth  and  Glove  Cleaner. — 

Gasoline 1  gallon 

Chloroform 1  ounce 

Carbon  disulphide.  ..      1  ounce 


196 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


Essential  oil  almond..      5  drops 

Oil  bergamot 1  drachm 

Oil  cloves 5  drops 

Mix.  To  be  applied  with  a  sponge 
or  soft  cloth. 

STONE  CLEANING: 

Cleaning  and  Polishing  Marble. — 
I. — Marble  that  has  become  dirty  by 
ordinary  use  or  exposure  may  be  cleaned 
by  a  simple  bath  of  soap  and  water. 

If  this  does  not  remove  stains,  a  weak 
solution  of  oxalic  acid  should  be  applied 
with  a  sponge  or  rag,  washing  quickly 
and  thoroughly  with  water  to  minimize 
injury  to  the  surface. 

Rubbing  well  after  this  with  chalk 
moistened  with  water  will,  in  a  measure, 
restore  the  luster.  Another  method  of 
finishing  is  to  apply  a  solution  of  white 
wax  in  turpentine  (about  1  in  10),  rub- 
bing thoroughly  with  a  piece  of  flannel 
or  soft  leather. 

If  the  marble  has  been  much  exposed, 
so  that  its  luster  has  been  seriously  im- 
paired,, it  may  be  necessary  to  repolish 
it  in  a  more  thorough  manner.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  rubbing  it  first 
with  sand,  beginning  with  a  moderately 
coarse-grained  article  and  changing  this 
twice  for  finer  kinds,  after  which  tripoli 
or  pumice  is  used.  The  final  polish  is 
given  by  the  so-called  putty  powder.  A 
plate  of  iron  is  generally  used  in  applying 
the  coarse  sand;  with  the  fine  sand  a 
leaden  plate  is  used;  and  the  pumice  is 
employed  in  the  form  of  a  smooth-surfaced 
piece  of  convenient  size.  For  the  final 
polishing  coarse  linen  or  bagging  is  used, 
wedged  tightly  into  an  iron  planing  tool. 
During  all  these  applications  water  is 
allowed  to  trickle  over  the  face  of  the 
stone. 

The  putty  powder  referred  to  is  bin- 
oxide  of  tin,  obtained  by  treating  metal- 
lic tin  with  nitric  acid,  which  converts 
the  metal  into  hydrated  metastannic  acid. 
This,  when  heated,  becomes  anhydrous. 
In  this  condition  it  is  known  as  putty 
powder.  In  practice  putty  powder  is 
mixed  with  alum,  sulphur,  and  other 
substances,  the  mixture  used  being  de- 
pendent upon  the  nature  of  the  stone  to 
be  polished. 

According  to  Warwick,  colored  mar- 
ble should  not  be  treated  with  soap  and 
water,  but  only  with  the  solution  of  bees- 
wax above  mentioned. 

II. — Take  2  parts  of  sodium  bicarbon- 
ate, 1  part  of  powdered  pumice  stone, 
and  1  part  of  finely  pulverized  chalk. 
Pass  through  a  fine  sieve  to  screen  out 
all  particles  capable  of  scratching  the 
marble,  and  add  sufficient  water  to  form 


a  pasty  mass.  Rub  the  marble  with  it 
vigorously,  and  end  the  cleaning  with 
soap  and  water. 

III.— Ox  gall 1  part 

Saturated  solution 
of  sodium  carbo- 
nate   4  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine.  .      1  part 
Pipe  clay  enough  to  form  a  paste. 

IV. — Sodium  carbonate.  2  ounces 
Chlorinated  lime.  .  1  ounce 
Water 14  ounces 

Mix  well  and  apply  the  magma  to  the 
marble  with  a  cloth,  rubbing  well  in,  and 
finally  rubbing  dry.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary to  repeat  this  operation. 

V. — Wash  the  surface  with  a  mixture 
of  finely  powdered  pumice  stone  and  vin- 
egar, and  leave  it  for  several  hours;  then 
brush  it  hard  and  wash  it  clean.  When 
dry,  rub  with  whiting  and  wash  leather. 

VI. — Soft  soap 4  parts 

Whiting 4  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate  1  part 
Copper  sulphate,  .  .   2  parts 

Mix  thoroughly  and  rub  over  the  mar- 
ble with  a  piece  of  flannel,  and  leave  it 
on  for  24  hours,  then  wash  it  off  with 
clean  water,  and  polish  the  marble  with 
a  piece  of  flannel  or  an  old  piece  of  felt. 

VII. — A  strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
effectually  takes  out  ink  stains.  In 
handling  it  the  poisonous  nature  of  this 
acid  should  not  be  forgotten. 

VIII. — Iron  mold  or  ink  spots  may 
be  taken  out  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Take  J  ounce  of  butter  of  antimony 
and  1  ounce  of  oxalic  acid  and  dissolve 
them  in  1  pint  of  rain  water;  add  enough 
flour  to  bring  the  mixture  to  a  proper 
consistency.  Lay  it  evenly  on  the 
stained  part  with  a  brush,  and,  after  it 
has  remained  for  a  few  days,  wash  it  off 
and  repeat  the  process  if  the  stain  is  not 
wholly  removed. 

IX. — To  remove  oil  stains  apply  com- 
mon clay  saturated  with  benzine.  If 
the  grease  has  remained  in  long  the 
polish  will  be  injured,  but  the  stain  will 
be  removed. 

X. — The  following  method  for  remov- 
ing rust  from  iron  depends  upon  the  solu- 
bility of  the  sulphide  of  iron  in  a  solution 
of  cyanide  of  potassium.  Clay  is  made 
into  a  thin  paste  with  ammonium  sul- 
phide, and  the  rust  spot  smeared  with 
the  mixture,  care  being  taken  that  the 
spot  is  only  just  covered.  After  ten 
minutes  this  paste  is  washed  off  and  re- 
placed by  one  consisting  of  white  bole 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
cyanide  (1  to  4),  which  is  in  its  turn 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND    METHODS 


197 


washed  off  after  about  2|  hours.  Should 
a  reddish  spot  remain  after  washing  off 
the  first  paste,  a  second  layer  may  be  ap- 
plied for  about  5  minutes. 

XI. — Soft  soap 4  ounces 

Whiting 4  ounces 

Sodium  carbonate.      1  ounce 
Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Make  into  a  thin  paste,  apply  on  the 
soiled  surface,  and  wash  off  after  24 
hours. 

XII. — In  a  spacious  tub  place  a  tall 
vessel  upside  down.  On  this  set  the 
article  to  be  cleaned  so  that  it  will  not 
stand  in  the  water,  which  would  loosen 
the  cemented  parts.  Into  this  tub  pour 
a  few  inches  of  cold  water — hot  water 
renders  marble  dull — take  a  soft  brush 
and  a  piece  of  Venetian  soap,  dip  the 
former  in  the  water  and  rub  on  the  latter 
carefully,  brushing  off  the  article  from 
top  to  bottom.  When  in  this  manner 
dust  and  dirt  have  >been  dissolved,  wash 
off  all  soap  particles  by  means  of  a  water- 
ing p.ot  and  cold  water,  dab  the  object 
with  a  clean  sponge,  which  absorbs  the 
moisture,  place  it  upon  a  cloth  and  care- 
fully dry  with  a  very  clean,  soft  cloth, 
rubbing  gently.  This  treatment  will 
restore  the  former  gloss  to  the  marble. 

XIII. — Mix  and  shake  thoroughly  in 
a  bottle  equal  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  lemon  juice.  Moisten  the  spots  and 
rub  them  lightly  with  a  linen  cloth  and 
they  will  disappear. 

XIV. — Ink  spots  are  treated,  with  acid 
oxalate  of  potassium;  blood  stains  by 
brushing  with  alabaster  dust  and  dis- 
tilled water,  then  bleaching  with  chlorine 
solution.  Alizarine  ink  and  aniline  ink 
spots  can  be  moderated  by  laying  on  rags 
saturated  with  Javelle  water,  chlorine  wa- 
ter, or  chloride  of  lime  paste.  Old  oil 
stains  can  only  be  effaced  by  placing  the 
whole  piece  of  marble  for  hours  in  ben- 
zine. Fresh  oil  or  grease  spots  are  oblit- 
erated by  repeated  applications  of  a 
little  damp,  white  clay  and  subsequent 
brushing  with  soap  water  or  weak  soda 
solution.  For  many  other  spots  an  ap- 
plication of  benzine  and  magnesia  is  useful. 

XV. — Marble  slabs  keep  well  and  do 
not  lose  their  fresh  color  if  they  are 
cleaned  with  hot  water  only,  without  the 
addition  of  soap,  which  is  injurious  to 
the  color.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no 
liquid  dries  on  the  marble.  If  spots  of 
wine,  coffee,  beer,  etc.,  have  already  ap- 
peared, they  are  cleaned  with  diluted 
spirit  of  sal  ammoniac,  highly  diluted 
oxalic  acid,  Javelle  water,  ox  gall,  or, 
take  a  quantity  of  newly  slaked  lime,  mix 
it  with  water  into  a  paste-like  consistency, 


apply  the  paste  uniformly  on  the  spot 
with  a  brush,  and  leave  the  coating  alone 
for  two  to  three  days  before  it  is  washed 
off.  If  the  spots  are  not  removed  by  a 
single  application,  repeat  the  latter.  In 
using  Javelle  water  1  or  2  drops  should 
be  carefully  poured  on  each  spot,  rinsing 
off  with  water. 

To  Remove  Grease  Spots  from  Marble. 
— If  the  spots  are  fresh,  rub  them  over 
with  a  piece  of  cloth  that  has  been  dipped 
into  pulverized  china  clay,  repeating  the 
operation  several  times,  and  then  brush 
with  soap  and  water.  When  the  spots 
are  old  brush  with  distilled  water  and 
finest  French  plaster  energetically,  then 
bleach  with  chloride  of  lime  that  is  put 
on  a  piece  of  white  cloth.  If  the  piece  of 
marble  is  small  enough  to  permit  it,  soak 
it  for  a  few  hours  in  refined  benzine. 

Preparation  for  Cleaning  Marble, 
Furniture,  and  Metals,  Especially  Cop- 
per.— This  preparation  is  claimed  to  give 
very  quickly  perfect  brilliancy,  persisting 
without  soiling  either  the  hand  or  the 
articles,  and  without  leaving  any  odor  o$ 
copper.  The  following  is  the  composi- 
tion for  100  parts  of  the  product:  Wax, 
2.4  parts;  oil  of  turpentine,  9.4  parts; 
acetic  acid,  42  parts;  citric  acid,  42  parts; 
white  soap,  42  parts. 

Removing  Oil  Stains. from  Marble. — 
Saturate  fuller's  earth  with  a  solution  of 
equal  parts  of  soap  liniment,  ammonia, 
and  water;  apply  to  the  greasy  part  of 
the  marble;  keep  there  for  some  hours, 
pressed  down  with  a  smoothing  iron 
sufficiently  hot  to  warm  the  mass,  and 
as  it  evaporates  occasionally  renew  the 
solution.  When  wiped  off  dry  the  stain 
will  have  nearly  disappeared.  Some 
days  later,  when  more  oil  works  toward 
the  surface  repeat  the  operation.  A  few 
such  treatments  should  suffice. 

Cleaning  Terra  Cotta. — After  having 
carefully  removed  all  dust,  paint  the  terra 
cotta,  by  means  of  a  brush,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  slightly  gummed  water  and  finely 
powdered  terra  cotta. 

Renovation  of  Polished  and  Varnished 
Surfaces  of  Wood,  Stone,  etc. — This  is 
composed  of  the  following  ingredients, 
though  the  proportions  may  be  varied: 
Cereal  flour  or  wood  pulp,  38*  parts; 
hydrochloric  acid,  45  parts;  chloride  of 
lime,  16  parts;  turpentine,  *  part.  After 
mixing  the  ingredients  thoroughly  in 
order  to  form  a  homogeneous  paste,  the 
object  to  be  treated  is  smeared  with  it 
and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time. 
The  paste  on  the  surface  is  then  removed 
by  passing  over  it  quickly  a  piece  of  soft 


198 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


leather  or  a  brush,  which  will  remove 
dirt,  grease,  and  other  deleterious  sub- 
stances. By  rubbing  gently  with  a 
cloth  or  piece  of  leather  a  polished  sur- 
face will  be  imparted  to  wood,  and  ob- 
jects of  metal  will  be  rendered  lustrous. 

The  addition  of  chloride  of  lime  tends 
to  keep  the  paste  moist,  thus  allowing  the 
ready  removal  of  the  paste  without  dam- 
aging the  varnish  or  polish,  while  the 
turpentine  serves  as  a  disinfectant  and 
renders  the  odor  less  disagreeable  during 
the  operation. 

The  preparation  is  rapid  in  its  action, 
and  does  not  affect  the  varnished  or 
polished  surfaces  of  wood  or  marble. 
While  energetic  in  its  cleansing  action  on 
brass  and  other  metallic  objects,  it  is 
attended  with  no  corrosive  effect. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  Spots. — To  remove 
these  spots  from  white  marble,  they 
should  be  painted  with  Javelle  water, 
and  after  having  been  washed,  passed 
over  a  concentrated  solution  of  thiosul- 
phate  of  soda  (hyposulphite). 

To  Remove  Oil-Paint  Spots  from 
Sandstones. — This  may  be  done  by 
washing  the  spots  with  pure  turpentine 
oil,  then  covering  the  place  with  white 
argillaceous  earth  (pipe  clay),  leaving  it 
to  dry,  and  finally  rubbing  with  sharp 
soda  lye,  using  a  brush.  Caustic  am- 
monia also  removes  oil-paint  spots  from 
sandstones. 

RUST  REMOVERS: 

To  Remove  Rust  from  Iron  or  Steel 
Utensils.  — 

I. — Apply  the  following  solution  by 
means  of  a  brush,  after  having  removed 
any  grease  by  rubbing  with  a  clean,  dry 
cloth:  100  parts  of  stannic  chloride  are 
dissolved  in  1,000  parts  of  water;  this 
solution  is  added  to  one  containing  2 
parts  tartaric  acid  dissolved  in  1,000 
parts  of  water,  and  finally  20  cubic  cen- 
timeters indigo  solution,  diluted  with 
2,000  parts  of  water,  are  added.  Afte 
allowing  the  solution  to  act  upon  the 
stain  for  a  few  seconds,  it  is  rubbed  clean, 
first  with  a  moist  cloth,  then  with  a  dry 
cloth;  to  restore  the  polish  use  is  made  of 
silver  sand  and  jewelers'  rouge. 

II. — When  the  rust  is  recent  it  is  re- 
moved by  rubbing  the  metal  with  a  cork 
charged  with  oil.  In  this  manner  a  per- 
fect polish  is  obtained.  To  take  off  old 
rust,  mix  equal  parts  of  fine  tripoli  and 
flowers  of  sulphur,  mingling  this  mixture 
with  olive  oil,  so  as  to  >orm  a  paste. 
Hub  the  iron  with  this  preparation  by 
means  of  a  skin. 

III. — The  rusty  piece  is  connected 
with  a  piece  of  zinc  and  placed  in  water 


containing  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  After 
the  articles  have  been  in  the  liquid  for 
several  days  or  a  week,  the  rust  will  have 
completely  disappeared.  The  length  of 
time  will  depend  upon  the  depth  to 
which  the  rust  has  penetrated.  A  little 
sulphuric  acid  may  be  added  from  time 
to  time,  but  the  chief  point  is  that  the 
zinc  always  has  good  electric  contact 
with  the  iron.  To  insure  this  an  iron 
wire  may  be  firmly  wound  around  the 
iron  object  and  connected  with  the  zinc. 
The  iron  is  not  attacked  in  the  least,  as 
long  as  the  zinc  is  kept  in  good  electric 
contact  with  it.  When  the  articles  are 
taken  from  the  liquid  they  assume  a  dark 
gray  or  black  color  and  are  then  washed 
and  oiled. 

IV. — The  rust  on  iron  and  steel  ob- 
jects, especially  large  pieces,  is  readily 
removed  by  rubbing  the  pieces  with  oil 
of  tartar,  or  with  very  fine  emery  and  a 
little  oil,  or  by  putting  powdered  alum  in 
strong  vinegar  and  rubbing  with  this 
alumed  vinegar. 

V. — Take  cyanide  of  calcium,  25 
parts;  white  soap,  powdered,  25  parts; 
Spanish  white,  50  parts;  and  water,  200 
parts.  Triturate  all  well  and  rub  the 
piece  with  this  paste.  The  effect  will  be 
quicker  if  before  using  this  paste  the 
rusty  object  has  been  soaked  for  5  to 
10  minutes  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  the  ratio  of  1  part  of  cya- 
nide to  2  parts  of  water. 

VI. — To  remove  rust  from  polished 
steel  cyanide  of  potassium  is  excellent. 
If  possible,  soak  the  instrument  to  be 
cleaned  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium in  the  proportion  of  1  ounce  of  cya- 
nide to  4  ounces  of  water.  Allow  this 
to  act  till  all  loose  rust  is  removed,  and 
then  polish  with  cyanide  soap.  The 
latter  is  made  as  follows:  Potassium  cya- 
nide, precipitated  chalk,  white  castile 
soap.  Make  a  saturated  solution  of  the 
cyanide  and  add  chalk  sufficient  to  make 
a  creamy  paste.  Add  the  soap  cut  in 
fine  shavings  and  thoroughly  incorporate 
in  a  mortar.  When  the  mixture  is  stiff 
cease  to  add  the  soap.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  potassium  cyanide  is  a 
virulent  poison. 

VII. — Apply  turpentine  or  kerosene 
oil,  and  after  letting  it  stand  over  night, 
clean  with  finest  emery  cloth. 

VIII. — To  free  articles  of  iron  and 
.  steel  from  rust  and  imbedded  grains  of 
sand  the  articles  are  treated  with  fluor- 
hydric  acid  (about  2  per  cent)  1  to  2 
hours,  whereby  the  impurities  but  not  the 
metal  are  dissolved.  This  is  followed  by 
a  washing  with  lime  milk,  to  neutralize 
any  fluorhydric  acid  remaining. 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


199 


To  Remove  Rust  from  Nickel. — First 
grease  the  articles  well;  then,  after  a  few 
days,  rub  them  with  a  rag  charged  with 
ammonia.  If  the  rust  spots  persist,  add 
a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  the 
ammonia,  rub  and  wipe  off  at  once. 
Next  rinse  with  water,  dry,  and  polish 
with  tripoli. 

Removal  of  Rust.— To  take  off  the 
rust  from  small  articles  which  glass  or 
emery  paper  would  bite  too  deeply,  the 
ink-erasing  rubber  used  in  business 
offices  may  be  employed.  By  beveling  it, 
or  cutting  it  to  a  point  as  needful,  it  can 
be  introduced  into  the  smallest  cavities 
and  windings,  and  a  perfect  cleaning  be 
effected. 

To  Remove  Rust  from  Instruments. — 
I. — Lay  the  instruments  over  night  in 
a  saturated  solution  of  chloride  of  tin. 
The  rust  spots  will  disappear  through 
reduction.  Upon  withdrawal  from  the 
solution  the  instruments  are  rinsed  with 
water,  placed  in  a  hot  soda-soap  solution, 
and  dried.  Cleaning  with  absolute  alco- 
hol and  polishing  chalk  may  also  follow. 

II. — Make  a  solution  of  1  part  of 
kerosene  in  200  parts  of  benzine  or  car- 
bon tetrachloride,  and  dip  the  instru- 
ments, which  have  been  dried  by  leaving 
them  in  heated  air,  in  this,  moving  their 
parts,  if  movable,  as  in  forceps  and  scis- 
sors, about  under  the  liquid,  so  that  it 
may  enter  all  the  crevices.  Next  lay  the 
instruments  on  a  plate  in  a  dry  room,  so 
that  the  benzine  can  evaporate.  Nee- 
dles are  simply  thrown  in  the  paraffine 
solution,  and  taken  out  with  tongs  or 
tweezers,  after  which  they  are  allowed  to 
dry  on  a  plate. 

III. — Pour  olive  oil  on  the  rust  spots  and 
leave  for  several  days;  then  rub  with 
emery  or  tripoli,  without  wiping  off  the 
oil  as  far  as  possible,  or  always  bringing 
it  back  on  the  spot.  Afterwards  remove 
the  emery  and  the  oil  with  a  rag,  rub 
again  with  emery  soaked  with  vinegar, 
and  finally  with  fine  plumbago  on  a  piece 
of  chamois  skin. 

To  Preserve  Steel  from  Rust.— To 
preserve  steel  from  rust  dissolve  1  part 
caoutchouc  and  16  parts  turpentine 
with  a  gentle  heat,  then  add  8  parts 
boiled  oil,  and  mix  by  bringing  them  to 
t.he  heat  of  boiling  water.  Apply  to  the 
steel  with  a  brush,  the  same  as  varnish. 
It  can  be  removed  again  with  a  cloth 
soaked  in  turpentine. 

METAL  CLEANING: 

Cleaning  and  Preserving  Medals, 
Coins,  and  Small  Iron  Articles. — The 


coating  of  silver  chloride  may  be  reduced 
with  molten  potassium  cyanide.  Then 
boil  the  article  in  water,  displace  the 
water  with  alcohol,  and  dry  in  a  drying 
closet.  When  dry  brush  with  a  soft 
brush  and  cover  with  "  zaponlack  "  (any 
good  transparent  lacquer  or  varnish  will 
answer). 

Instead  of  potassium  cyanide  alone,  a 
mixture  of  that  and  potassium  carbonate 
may  be  used.  After  treatment  in  this 
way,  delicate  objects  of  silver  become  less 
brittle.  Another  way  is  to  put  the  article 
in  molten  sodium  carbonate  and  remove 
the  silver  carbonate  thus  formed,  by 
acetic  acid  of  50  per  cent  strength.  This 
process  produces  the  finest  possible 
polish. 

The  potassium-cyanide  process  may  be 
used  with  all  small  iron  objects.  For 
larger  ones  molten  potassium  rhodanide 
is  recommended.  This  converts  the 
iron  oxide  into  iron  sulphide  that  is  eas- 
ily washed  off  and  leaves  the  surface  of  a 
fine  black  color. 

Old  coins  may  be  cleansed  by  first 
immersing  them  in  strong  nitric  acid  and 
then  washing  them  in  clean  water.  Wipe 
them  dry  before  putting  away. 

To  Clean  Old  Medals. — Immerse  in 
lemon  juice  until  the  coating  of  oxide  has 
completely  disappeared;  24  hours  is  gen- 
erally sufficient,  but  a  longer  time  is  not 
harmful. 

Steel  Cleaner. — Smear  the  object  with 
oil,  preferably  petroleum,  and  allow  some 
days  for  penetration  of  the  surface  of  the 
metal.  Then  rub  vigorously  with  a  piece 
of  flannel  or  willow  wood.  Or,  with  a 
paste  composed  of  olive  oil,  sulphur 
flowers,  and  tripoli,  or  of  rotten  stone 
and  oil.  Finally,  a  coating  may  be  em- 
ployed, made  of  10  parts  of  potassium 
cyanide  and  1  part  of  cream  of  tartar;  or 
2-5  parts  of  potassium  cyanide,  with  the 
'iiddition  of  55  parts  of  carbonate  of  lime 
and  20  parts  of  white  soap. 

Restoring  Tarnished  Gold.— 

Sodium  bicarbonate.  20  ounces 
Chlorinated  lime.. . .      1  ounce 

Common  salt 1  ounce 

Water 16  ounces 

Mix  well  and  apply  with  a  soft  brush. 

A  very  small  quantity  of  the  solution 
is  sufficient,  and  it  may  be  used  either 
cold  or  lukewarm.  Plain  articles  may 
be  brightened  by  putting  a  drop  or  two 
of  the  liquid  upon  them  and  lightly 
brushing  the  surface  with  fine  tissue 
paper. 


£00 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


Cleaning  Copper.  — 
I. — Use   Armenian  bole  mixed  into  a 
paste  with  oleic  acid. 

II. — Rotten  stone 1  part 

Iron  subcarbonate.  .      3  parts 
Lard  oil,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

HI. — Iron  oxide 10  parts 

Pumice  stone 32  parts 

Oleic  acid,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

IV. — Soap,  cut  fine 16  parts 

Precipitated  chalk  . .      2  parts 

Jewelers'  rouge 1  part 

Cream  of  tartar 1  part 

Magnesium  carbonate  1  part 
Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  smallest  quan- 
tity of  water  that  will  effect  solution  over 
a  water  bath.      Add  the  other  ingredients 
to  the  solution  while  still  hot,  stirring 
constantly. 

To  Remove  Hard  Grease,  Paint,  etc., 
from  Machinery. — To  remove  grease, 
paint,  etc.,  from  machinery  add  half  a 
pound  of  caustic  soda  to  2  gallons  of 
water  and  boil  the  parts  to  be  cleaned  in 
the  fluid.  It  is  possible  to  use  it  several 
times  before  its  strength  is  exhausted. 

Solutions  for  Cleaning  Metals. — 

I._Water 20  parts 

Alum 2  parts 

Tripoli.. 2  parts 

Nitric  acid 1  part 

II.— Water. 40  parts 

Oxalic  acid 2  parts 

Tripoli 7  parts 

To  Cleanse  Nickel.— I. — Fifty  parts  of 
rectified  alcohol;  1  part  of  sulphuric 
acid;  1  part  of  nitric  acid.  Plunge  the 
piece  in  the  bath  for  10  to  15  seconds, 
rinse  it  off  in  cold  water,  and  dip  it  next 
into  rectified  alcohol.  Dry  with  a  fine 
linen  rag  or  with  sawdust. 

II. — Stearine  oil 1  part 

Ammonia  water 25  parts 

Benzine 50  parts 

Alcohol 75  parts 

Rub  up  the  stearine  with  the  ammonia, 
add  the  benzine  and  then  the  alcohol, 
and  agitate  until  homogeneous.  Put  in 
wide-mouthed  vessels  and  close  care- 
fully. 

To  Clean  Petroleum  Lamp  Burners. — 
Dissolve  in  a  quart  of  soft  water  an 
ounce  or  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  washing 
soda,  using  an  old  half-gallon  tomato  can. 
Into  this  put  the  burner  after  removing 
the  wick,  set  it  on  the  stove,  and  let  it 
boil  strongly  for  5  or  6  minutes,  then 
take  out,  rinse  under  the  tap,  and  dry. 


Every  particle  of  carbonaceous  matter 
will  thus  be  got  rid  of,  and  the  burner  be 
as  clean  and  serviceable  as  new.  This 
ought  to  be  done  at  least  every  month, 
but  the  light  would  be  better  if  it  were 
done  every  2  weeks. 

Gold-Ware  Cleaner. — 

Acetic  acid 2  parts 

Sulphuric  acid 2  parts 

Oxalic  acid 1  part 

Jewelers'  rouge 2  parts 

Distilled  water 200  parts 

Mix  the  acids  and  water  and  stir  in  the 
rouge,  after  first  rubbing  it  up  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  liquid.  With  a  clean  cloth, 
wet  with  this  mixture,  go  well  over  the 
article.  Rinse  off  with  hot  water  and 
dry. 

Silverware  Cleaner. — Make  a  thin  paste 
of  levigated  (not  precipitated)  chalk  and 
sodium  hyposulphite,  in  equal  parts, 
rubbed  up  in  distilled  water.  Apply 
this  paste  to  the  surface,  rubbing  well 
with  a  soft  brush.  Rinse  in  clear  water 
and  dry  in  sawdust.  Some  authorities 
advise  the  cleaner  to  let  the  paste  dry  on 
the  ware,  and  then  to  rub  off  and  rinse 
with  hot  water. 

Silver-Coin  Cleaner. — Make  a  bath  of 
10  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  90  parts  of 
water,  and  let  the  coin  lie  in  this  until  the 
crust  of  silver  sulphide  is  dissolved.  From 
5  to  10  minutes  usually  suffice.  Rinse 
in  running  water,  then  rub  with  a  soft 
brush  and  castile  soap,  rinse  again,  dry 
with  a  soft  cloth,  and  then  carefully  rub 
with  chamois. 

Cleaning  Silver-Plated  Ware.— Into 
a  wide-mouthed  bottle  provided  with  a 
good  cork  put  the  following  mixture: 

Cream  of  tartar 2  parts 

Levigated  chalk 2  parts 

Alum 1  part 

Powder  the  alum  and  rub  up  with  the 
other  ingredients,  and  cork  tightly. 
When  required  for  use  wet  sufficient  of 
the  powder  and  with  soft  linen  rags  rub 
the  article,  being  careful  not  to  use 
much  pressure,  as  otherwise  the  thin 
layer  of  plating  may  be  cut  through. 
Rinse  in  hot  suds,  and  afterwards  in  clear 
water,  and  dry  in  sawdust.  When 
badly  blackened  with  silver  sulphide,  if 
small,  the  article  may  be  dipped  for  an 
instant  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  imme- 
diately rinsed  in  running  water.  Larger 
articles  may  be  treated  as  coins  are — 
immersed  for  2  or  3  minutes  in  a  10 
per  cent  aqueous  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid,  or  the  surface  may  be  rapidly  wiped 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


201 


with  a  swab  carrying  nitric  acid  and  in- 
stantly rinsed  in  running  water. 

Cleaning  Gilt  Bronze  Ware. — If  greasy, 
wash  carefully  in  suds,  or,  better,  dip  into 
a  hot  solution  of  caustic  potash,  and  then 
wash  in  suds  with  a  soft  rag,  and  rinse  in 
running  water.  If  not  then  clean  and 
bright,  dip  into  the  following  mixture: 

Nitric  acid 10  parts 

Aluminum  sulphate  . .      1  part 

Water 40  parts 

Mix.      Rinse  in  running  water. 

Britannia  Metal  Cleaner. — Rub  first 
with  jewelers'  rouge  made  into  a  paste 
with  oil;  wash  in  suds,  rinse,  dry,  and 
finish  with  chamois  or  wash  leather. 

To  Remove  Ink  Stains  on  Silver. — 
Silver  articles  in  domestic  use,  and  espe- 
cially silver  or  plated  inkstands,  fre- 
quently become  badly  stained  with  ink. 
These  stains  cannot  be  removed  by  ordi- 
nary processes,  but  readily  yield  to  a 
paste  of  chloride  of  lime  and  water.  Ja- 
velle  water  may  be  also  used. 

Removing  Egg  Stains.  — A  pinch  of  table 
salt  taken  between  the  thumb  and  finger 
and  rubbed  on  the  spot  with  the  end  of 
the  finger  will  usually  remove  the  darkest 
egg  stain  from  silver. 

To  Clean  Silver  Ornaments. — Make  a 
strong  solution  of  soft  soap  and  water, 
and  in  this  boil  the  articles  for  a  few  min- 
utes— five  will  usually  be  enough.  Take 
out,  pour  the  soap  solution  into  a  basin, 
and  as  soon  as  the  liquid  has  cooled  down 
sufficiently  to  be  borne  by  the  hand,  with 
a  soft  brush  scrub  the  articles  with  it. 
Rinse  in  boiling  water  and  place  on  a 
porous  substance  (a  bit  of  tiling,  a  brick, 
or  unglazed  earthenware)  to  dry.  Fi- 
nally give  a  light  rubbing  with  a  chamois. 
Articles  thus  treated  look  as  bright  as 
new. 

Solvent  for  Iron  Rust. — Articles  at- 
tacked by  rust  may  be  conveniently 
cleaned  by  dipping  them  into  a  well- 
saturated  solution  of  stannic  chloride. 
The  length  of  time  of  the  action  must  be 
regulated  according  to  the  thickness  of 
the  rust.  As  a  rule  12  to  24  hours  will 
suffice,  but  it  is  essential  to  prevent  an 
excess  of  acid  in  the  bath,  as  this  is  liable 
to  attack  the  iron  itself.  After  the  ob- 
jects have  been  removed  from  the  bath 
they  must  be  rinsed  with  water,  and  sub- 
sequently with  ammonia,  and  then 
quickly  dried.  Greasing  with  vaseline 
seems  to  prevent  new  formation  of  rust. 
Objects  treated  in  this  manner  are  said 
to  resemble  dead  silver. 

Professor  Weber   proposed  a  diluted 


alkali,  and  it  has  been  found  that  after 
employing  this  remedy  the  dirt  layer  is 
loosened  and  the  green  platina  reappears. 
Potash  has  been  found  to  be  an  efficacious 
remedy,  even  in  the  case  of  statues  that 
had  apparently  turned  completely  black. 

To  Clean  Polished  Parts  of  Machines. 
— Put  in  a  flask  1,000  parts  of  petroleum; 
add  20  parts  of  paraffine,  shaved  fine; 
cork  the  bottle  and  stand  aside  for  a 
couple  of  days,  giving  it  an  occasional 
shake.  The  mixture  is  now  ready  for 
use.  To  use,  shake  the  bottle,  pour  a 
little  of  the  liquid  upon  a  woolen  rag  and 
rub  evenly  over  the  part  to  be  cleaned; 
or  apply  with  a  brush.  Set  the  article 
aside  and,  next  day,  rub  it  well  with  a 
dry,  woolen  rag.  Every  particle  of  rust, 
resinified  grease,  etc.,  will  disappear 
provided  the  article  has  not  been  neglected 
too  long.  In  this  case  a  further  applica- 
tion of  the  oil  will  be  necessary.  If  too 
great  pressure  has  not  been  made,  or  the 
rubbing  continued  too  long,  the  residual 
oil  finally  leaves  the  surface  protected  by 
a  delicate  layer  of  paraffine  that  will  pre- 
vent rusting  for  a  long  time. 

To  Clean  Articles  of  Nickel. — Lay 
them  for  a  few  seconds  in  alcohol  con- 
taining 2  per  cent  of  sulphuric  acid;  re- 
move, wash  in  running  water,  rinse  in 
alcohol,  and  rub  dry  with  a  linen  cloth. 
This  process  gives  a  brilliant  polish  and 
is  especially  useful  with  plated  articles  on 
the  plating  of  which  the  usual  polishing 
materials  act  very  destructively.  The 
yellowest  and  brownest  nickeled  articles 
are  restored  to  pristine  brilliancy  by 
leaving  them  in  the  alcohol  and  acid  for 
15  seconds.  Five  seconds  suffice  ordi- 
narily. 

How  to  Renovate  Bronzes. — For  gilt 
work,  first  remove  all  grease,  dirt,  wax, 
etc.,  with  a  solution  in  water  of  potas- 
sium or  sodium  hydrate,  then  dry,  and 
with  a  soft  rag  apply  the  following: 

Sodium  carbonate. .  7  parts 

Spanish  whiting 15  parts 

Alcohol,  85  per  cent  50  parts 

Water 125  parts 

Go  over  every  part  carefully,  using  a 
brush  to  get  into  the  minute  crevices. 
When  this  dries  on,  brush  off  with  a  fine 
linen  cloth  or  a  supple  chamois  skin. 

Or  the  following  plan  may  be  used: 
Remove  grease,  etc.,  as  directed  above, 
dry  and  go  over  the  spots  where  the  gilt 
surface  is  discolored  with  a  brush  dipped 
in  a  solution  of  two  parts  of  alum  in  250 
parts  of  water  and  65  parts  of  nitric  acid. 
As  soon  as  the  gilding  reappears  or  the 


202 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


surface  becomes  bright,  wash  off,  and 
dry  in  the  direct  sunlight. 

Still  another  cleaner  is  made  of  nitric 
acid,  30  parts;  aluminum  sulphate,  4 
parts;  distilled  or  rain  water,  125  parts. 
Clean  of  grease,  etc.,  as  above,  and  apply 
the  solution  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil. 
Rinse  off  and  dry  in  sawdust.  Finally, 
some  articles  are  best  cleaned  by  im- 
mersing in  hot  soap  suds  and  rubbing 
with  a  soft  brush.  Rinse  in  clear,  hot 
water,  using  a  soft  brush  to  get  the  residual 
suds  out  of  crevices.  Let  dry,  then  finish 
by  rubbing  the  gilt  spots  or  places  with  a 
soft,  linen  rag,  or  a  bit  of  chamois. 

There  are  some  bronzes  gilt  with  imi- 
tation gold  and  varnished.  Where  the 
work  is  well  done  and  the  gilding  has  not 
been  on  too  long,  they  will  deceive  even 
the  practiced  eye.  The  deception,  how- 
ever, may  easily  be  detected  by  touching 
a  spot  on  the  gilt  surface  with  a  glass  rod 
dipped  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate. If  the  gilding  is  true  no  discolor- 
ation will  occur,  but  if  false  a  brown 
spot  will  be  produced. 

To  Clean  a  Gas  Stove. — An  easy  meth- 
od of  removing  grease  spots  consists  in 
immersing  the  separable  parts  for  sev- 
eral hours  in  a  warm  lye,  heated  to  about 
70°  C.  (158°  F.),  said  lye  to  be  made  of 
9  parts  of  caustic  soda  and  180  parts  of 
water.  These  pieces,  together  with  the 
fixed  parts  of  the  stove,  may  be  well 
brushed  with  this  lye  and  afterwards 
rinsed  in  clean,  warm  water.  The 
grease  will  be  dissolved,  and  the  stove 
restored  almost  to  its  original  state. 

Cleaning  Copper  Sinks. — Make  rot- 
ten stone  into  a  stiff  paste  with  soft  soap 
and  water.  Rub  on  with  a  woolen  rag, 
and  polish  with  dry  whiting  and  rotten 
stone.  Finish  with  a  leather  and  dry 
whiting.  Many  of  the  substances  and 
mixtures  used  to  clean  brass  will  effec- 
tively clean  copper.  Oxalic  acid  is  said 
to  be  the  best  medium  for  cleaning  cop- 
per, but  after  using  it  the  surface  of  the 
copper  must  be  well  washed,  dried,  and 
then  rubbed  with  sweet  oil  and  tripoli,  or 
some  other  polishing  agent.  Otherwise 
the  metal  will  soon  tarnish  again. 

Treatment  of  Cast-iron  Grave  Crosses. 
— The  rust  must  first  be  thoroughly  re- 
moved with  a  steel-wire  brush.  When 
this  is  done  apply  one  or  two  coats  of  red 
lead  or  graphite  paint.  After  this  prim- 
ing has  oecome  hard,  paint  with  double- 
burnt  lampblack  and  equal  parts  of  oil  of 
turpentine  and  varnish.  This  coating 
is  followed  by  one  of  lampblack  ground 
with  coach  varnish.  Now  paint  the  sin- 


gle portions  with  "  mixtion "  (gilding 
oil)  and  gild  as  usual.  Such  crosses  look 
better  when  they  are  not  altogether 
black.  Ornaments  may  be  very  well 
treated  in  colors  with  oil  paint  and  then 
varnished.  The  crosses  treated  in  this 
manner  are  preserved  for  many  years, 
but  it  is  essential  to  use  good  exterior  or 
coach  varnish  for  varnishing,  and  not  the 
so-called  black  varnish,  which  is  mostly 
composed  of  asphalt  or  tar. 

Cleaning  Inferior  Gold  Articles. — The 
brown  film  which  forms  on  low-quality 
gold  articles  is  removed  by  coating  with 
fuming  hydrochloric  acid,  whereupon 
they  are  brushed  off  with  Vienna  lime 
and  petroleum.  Finally,  clean  the  ob- 
jects with  benzine,  rinse  again  in  pure 
benzine,  and  dry  in  sawdust. 

To  Clean  Bronze. — Clean  the  bronze 
with  soft  soap;  next  wash  it  in  plenty  of 
water;  wipe,  let  dry,  and  apply  light  en- 
caustic mixture  composed  of  spirit  of 
turpentine  in  which  a  small  quantity  of 
yellow  wax  has  been  dissolved.  The  en- 
caustic is  spread  by  means  of  a  linen  or 
woolen  wad.  For  gilt  bronze,  add  1 
spoonful  of  alkali  to  3  spoonfuls  of  water 
and  rub  the  article  with  this  by  means 
of  a  ball  of  wadding.  Next  wipe  with  a 
clean  chamois,  similar  to  that  employed 
in  silvering. 

How  to  Clean  Brass  and  Steel.— To 
clean  brasses  quickly  and  economically, 
rub  them  with  vinegar  and  salt  or  with 
oxalic  acid.  Wash  immediately  after 
the  rubbing,  and  polish  with  tripoli  and 
sweet  oil.  Unless  the  acid  is  washed  off 
the  article  will  tarnish  quickly.  Copper 
kettles  and  saucepans,  brass  andirons, 
fenders,  and  candlesticks  and  trays  are 
best  cleaned  with  vinegar  and  salt. 
Cooking  vessels  in  constant  use  need  only 
to  be  well  washed  afterwards.  Things 
for  show — even  pots  and  pans — need 
the  oil  polishing,  which  gives  a  deep, 
rich,  yellow  luster,  good  for  six  months. 
Oxalic  acid  and  salt  should  be  employed 
for  furniture  brasses — if  it  touches  the 
wood  it  only  improves  the  tone.  Wipe 
the  brasses  well  with  a  wet  cloth,  and 
polish  thoroughly  with  oil  and  tripoli. 
Sometimes  powdered  rotten  stone  does 
better  than  the  tripoli.  Rub,  after  using, 
either  with  a  dry  cloth  or  leather,  until 
there  is  no  trace  of  oil.  The  brass  to  be 
cleaned  must  be  freed  completely  from 
grease,  caked  dirt,  and  grime.  Wash 
with  strong  ammonia  suds  and  rinse  dry 
before  beginning  with  the  acid  and  salt. 

The  best  treatment  for  wrought  steel 
is  to  wash  it  very  clean  with  a  stiff  brush 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


and  ammonia  soapsuds,  rinse  well,  dry 
by  heat,  oil  plentifully  with  sweet  oil,  and 
dust  thickly  with  powdered  quicklime. 
Let  the  lime  stay  on  2  days,  then  brush 
it  off  with  a  clean,  very  stiff  brush.  Polish 
with  a  softer  brush,  and  rub  with  cloths 
until  the  luster  comes  out.  By  leaving 
the  lime  on,  iron  and  steel  may  be  kept 
from  rust  almost  indefinitely. 

Before  wetting  any  sort  of  bric-a-brac, 
and  especially  bronzes,  remove  all  the 
dust  possible.  After  dusting,  wash  well 
in  strong  white  soapsuds  and  ammonia, 
rinse  clean,  polish  with  just  a  suspicion 
of  oil  and  rotten  stone,  and  rub  off  after- 
wards every  trace  of  the  oil.  Never  let 
acid  touch  a  bronze  surface,  unless  to 
eat  and  pit  it  for  antique  effects. 

Composition  for  Cleaning  Copper, 
Nickel,  and  other  Metals. — Wool  grease, 
46  parts,  by  weight;  fire  clay,  30  parts, 
by  weight;  paraffine,  5  parts,  by  weight; 
Canova  wax,  5  parts,  by  weight;  cocoa- 
nut  oil,  10  parts,  by  weight;  oil  of  mir- 
bane,  1  part,  by  weight.  After  mixing 
these  different  ingredients,  which  con- 
stitute a  paste,  this  is  molded  in  order  to 
give  a  cylindrical  form,  and  introduced 
into  a  case  so  that  it  can  be  used  like  a 
stick  of  cosmetic. 

Putz  Pomade. — I. — Oxalic  acid,  1  part; 
caput  mortuum,  15  parts  (or,  if  white 
pomade  is  desired,  tripoli,  12  parts); 
powdered  pumice  stone,  best  grade,  20 
parts;  palm  oil,  60  parts;  petroleum  or 
oleine,  4  parts.  Perfume  with  mirbane 
oil. 

II. — Oxalic  acid 1  part 

Peroxide     of    iron 

(jewelers' rouge)..  15  parts 

Rotten  stone 20  parts 

Palm  oil 60  parts 

Petrolatum 5  parts 

Pulverize  the  acid  and  the  rotten  stone 
and  mix  thoroughly  with  the  rouge. 
Sift  to  remove  all  grit,  then  make  into  a 
paste  with  the  oil  and  petrolatum.  A 
little  nitro-benzol  may  be  added  to  scent 
the  mixture. 

III.— Oleine 40  parts 

Ceresine 5  parts 

Tripoli 40  parts 

Light    mineral    oil 

(0.870) 20  parts 

Melt  the  oleine,  ceresine,  and  min- 
eral oil  together,  and  stir  in  the  tripoli; 
next,  grind  evenly  in  a  paint  mill. 

To  Clean  Gummed  Parts  of  Ma- 
chinery.— Boil  about  10  to  15  parts  of 
caustic  soda  or  100  parts  of  soda  in  1,000 
parts  of  water,  immerse  the  parts  to  be 


cleaned  in  this  for  some  time,  or,  better, 
boil  them  with  it.  Then  rinse  and  dry. 
For  small  shops  this  mode  of  cleaning  is 
doubtless  the  best. 

To  Remove  Silver  Plating. — I. — Put 
sulphuric  acid  100  parts  and  potassium 
nitrate  (saltpeter)  10  parts  in  a  vessel 
of  stoneware  or  porcelain,  heated  on  the 
water  bath.  When  the  silver  has  left  the 
copper,  rinse  the  objects  several  times. 
This  silver  stripping  bath  may  be  used 
several  times,  if  it  is  kept  in  a  well-closed 
bottle.  When  it  is  saturated  with  silver, 
decant  the  liquid,  boil  it  to  dryness,  then 
add  the  residue  to  the  deposit,  and  melt  in 
the  crucible  to  obtain  the  metal. 

II. — Stripping  silvered  articles  of  the 
silvering  may  be  accomplished  by  the  fol- 
lowing mixture:  Sulphuric  acid,  60°  B., 
3  parts;  nitric  acid,  40°  B.,  1  part;  heat 
the  mixture  to  about  166°  F.,  and  im- 
merse the  articles  by  means  of  a  copper 
wire.  In  a  few  seconds  the  acid  mixture 
will  have  done  the  work.  A  thorough 
rinsing  off  is,  of  course,  necessary. 

To  Clean  Zinc  Articles. — In  order  to 
clean  articles  of  zinc,  stir  rye  bran  into  a 
paste  with  boiling  water,  and  add  a  hand- 
ful of  silver  sand  and  a  little  vitriol. 
Rub  the  article  with  this  paste,  rinse  with 
water,  dry,  and  polish  with  a  cloth. 

To  Remove  Rust  from  Nickel. — Smear 
the  rusted  parts  well  with  grease  (ordi- 
nary animal  fat  will  do),  and  allow  the 
article  to  stand  several  days.  If  the 
rust  is  not  thick  the  grease  and  rust  may 
be  rubbed  off  with  a  cloth  dipped  in  am- 
monia. If  the  rust  is  very  deep,  apply  a 
diluted  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
taking  care  that  the  acid  does  not  touch 
the  metal,  and  the  rust  may  be  easily 
rubbed  off.  Then  wash  the  article  and 
polish  in  the  usual  way. 

Compound  for  Cleaning  Brass. — To 
make  a  brass  cleaning  compound  use 
oxalic  acid,  1  ounce;  rotten  stone,  6 
ounces;  enough  whale  oil  and  spirits  of 
turpentine  of  equal  parts,  to  mix,  and 
make  a  paste. 

To  Clean  Gilt  Objects.— I.— Into  an 
ordinary  drinking  glass  pour  about  20 
drops  of  ammonia,  immerse  the  piece  to 
be  cleaned  repeatedly  in  this,  and  brush 
with  a  soft  brush.  Treat  the  article 
with  pure  water,  then  with  alcohol,  and 
wipe  with  a  soft  rag. 

II. — Boil  common  alum  in  soft,  pure 
water,  and  immerse  the  article  in  the 
solution,  or  rub  the  spot  with  it>  and  dry 
with  sawdust. 

III. — For    cleaning     picture    frames, 


&04         CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


moldings,  and,  in  fact,  all  kinds  of  gilded 
work,  the  best  medium  is  liquor  potassse, 
diluted  with  about  5  volumes  of  water. 
Dilute  alcohol  is  also  excellent.  Methylated 
wood  spirit,  if  the  odor  is  not  objectionable, 
answers  admirably. 

To  Scale  Cast  Iron. — To  remove  the 
scale  from  cast  iron  use  a  solution  of  1 
part  vitriol  and  2  parts  water;  after  mix- 
ing, apply  to  the  scale  with  a  cloth  rolled 
in  the  form  of  a  brush,  using  enough  to 
wet  the  surface  well.  After  8  or  10  hours 
wash  off  with  water,  when  the  hard,  scaly 
surface  will  be  completely  removed. 

Cleaning  Funnels  and  Measures. — 
Funnels  and  measures  used  for  measur- 
ing varnishes,  oils,  etc.,  may  be  cleaned 
by  soaking  them  in  a  strong  solution  of 
lye  or  pearlash.  Another  mixture  for 
the  same  purpose  consists  of  pearlash 
with  quicklime  in  aqueous  solution. 
The  measures  are  allowed  to  soak  in  the 
solution  for  a  short  time,  when  the  resin- 
ous matter  of  the  paint  or  varnish  is 
easily  removed.  A  thin  coating  of  pe- 
troleum lubricating  oils  may  be  removed, 
it  is  said,  by  the  use  of  naphtha  or  petro- 
leum benzine. 

To  Clean  Aluminum. — I. — Aluminum 
articles  are  very  hard  to  clean  so  they  will 
have  a  bright,  new  appearance.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  the  matted  or 
frosted  pieces.  To  restore  the  pieces  to 
brilliancy  place  them  for  some  time  in 
water  that  has  been  slightly  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid. 

II. — Wash  the  aluminum  with  coal-oil, 
gasoline  or  benzine,  then  put  it  in  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  caustic  potash,  and 
after  washing  it  with  plenty  of  water, 
dip  it  in  the  bath  composed  of  |  nitric 
acid  and  $  water.  Next,  subject  it  to  a 
bath  of  concentrated  nitric  acid,  and 
finally  to  a  mixture  of  rum  and  olive  oil. 
To  render  aluminum  capable  of  being 
worked  like  pure  copper,  §  of  oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  £  steanc  acid  are  used. 
For  polishing  by  hand,  take  a  solution  of 
30  parts  of  borax  and  1,000  parts  of 
water,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of 
ammonia  have  been  added. 

How  to  Clean  Tarnished  Silver.— I.— 
If  the  articles  are  only  slightly  tarnished, 
mix  3  parts  of  best  washed  and  purified 
chalk  and  1  part  of  white  soap,  adding 
water,  till  a  thin  paste  is  formed,  which 
should  be  rubbed  on  the  silver  with  a  dry 
brush,  till  the  articles  are  quite  bright. 
As  a  substitute,  whiting,  mixed  with  caus- 
tic ammonia  to  form  a  paste,  may  be 
used.  This  mixture  is  very  effective,  but 
it  irritates  the  eyes  and  nose. 


II. — An  efficacious  preparation  is  ob- 
tained by  mixing  beech-wood  ashes,  2 
parts;  Venetian  soap,  yo^  part;  cooking 
salt,  2  parts;  rain  water,  8  parts.  Brush 
the  silver  with  this  lye,  using  a  somewhat 
stiff  brush. 

III. — A  solution  of  crystallized  potas- 
sium permanganate  has  been  recom- 
mended. 

IV. — A  grayish  violet  film  which  silver- 
ware acquires  from  perspiration,  can  be 
readily  removed  by  means  of  ammonia. 

V. — To  remove  spots  from  silver  lay  it 
for  4  hours  in  soapmakers'  lye,  then  throw  on 
fine  powdered  gypsum,  moisten  the  latter 
with  vinegar  to  cause  it  to  adhere,  dry 
near  the  fire,  and  wipe  off.  Next  rub 
the  spot  with  dry  bran.  This  not  only 
causes  it  to  disappear,  but  gives  extraor- 
dinary gloss  to  the  silver. 

VI. — Cleaning  with  the  usual  fine 
powders  is  attended  with  some  difficulty 
and  inconvenience.  An  excellent  result 
is  obtained  without  injury  to  the  silver  by 
employing  a  saturated  solution  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  which  is  put  on  with  a 
brush  or  rag.  The  article  is  then 
washed  with  plenty  of  water. 

VII. — Never  use  soap  on  silverware, 
as  it  dulls  the  luster,  giving  the  article 
more  the  appearance  of  pewter  than 
silver.  When  it  wants  cleaning,  rub  it 
with  a  piece  of  soft  leather  and  prepared 
chalk,  made  into  a  paste  with  pure  water, 
entirely  free  from  grit. 

To  Clean  Dull  Gold. —I— Take  80  parts, 
by  weight,  of  chloride  of  lime,  and  rub  it 
up  with  gradual  addition  of  water  in  a 
porcelain  mortar  into  a  thin,  even  paste, 
which  is  put  into  a  solution  of  80  parts, 
by  weight,  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  20 
parts,  by  weight,  of  salt,  in  3,000  parts, 
by  weight,  of  water.  Shake  it,  and  let 
stand  a  few  days  before  using.  If  the 
preparation  is  to  be  kept  for  any  length 
of  time  the  bottle  should  be  placed,  well 
corked,  in  the  cellar.  For  use,  lay  the 
tarnished  articles  in  a  dish,  pour  the 
liquid,  which  has  previously  been  well 
shaken,  over  them  so  as  just  to  cover 
them,  and  leave  them  therein  for  a  few 
days. 

II. — Bicarbonate  of  soda.    31      parts 
Chloride  of  lime. .  . .     15.5  parts 

Cooking  salt 15      parts 

Water 240      parts 

Grind  the  chloride  of  lime  with  a  little 
water  to  a  thin  paste,  in  a  porcelain  ves- 
sel, and  add  the  remaining  chemicals. 
Wash  the  objects  with  the  aid  of  a  soft 
brush  with  the  solution,  rinse  several 
times  in  water,  ana  ary  in  fine  sawdust. 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


205 


Cleaning  Bronze  Objects. — Employ 
powdered  chicory  mixed  with  water,  so 
as  to  obtain  a  paste,  which  is  applied 
with  a  brush.  After  the  brushing,  rinse 
off  and  dry  in  the  sun  or  near  a  stove. 

Cleaning  Gilded  Bronzes. — I. — Com- 
mence by  removing  the  spots  of  grease 
and  wax  with  a  little  potash  or  soda  dis- 
solved in  water.  Let  dry,  and  apply  the 
following  mixture  with  a  rag:  Carbonate 
of  soda,  7  parts;  whiting,  15  parts;  alco- 
hol (85°),  50  parts;  water,  125  parts. 
When  this  coating  is  dry  pass  a  fine  linen 
cloth  or  a  piece  of  supple  skin  over  it. 
The  hollow  parts  are  cleaned  with  a 
brush. 

II. — After  removing  the  grease  spots, 
let  dry  and  pass  over  all  the  damaged 
parts  a  pencil  dipped  in  the  following 
mixture:  Alum,  2  parts;  nitric  acid,  65; 
water,  250  parts.  When  the  gilding  be- 
comes bright,  wipe,  and  dry  in  the  sun  or 
near  a  fire. 

III. — Wash  in  hot  water  containing  a 
little  soda,  dry,  and  pass  over  the  gilding 
a  pencil  soaked  in  a  liquid  made  of  30 
parts  nitric  acid,  4  parts  of  aluminum 
phosphate,  and  125  parts  of  pure  water. 
Dry  in  sawdust. 

IV. — Immerse  the  objects  in  boiling 
soap  water,  and  facilitate  the  action  of 
the  soap  by  rubbing  with  a  soft  brush; 
put  the  objects  in  hot  water,  brush  them 
carefully,  and  let  them  dry  in  the  air; 
when  they  are  quite  dry  rub  the  shining 
parts  only  with  an  old  linen  cloth  or  a 
soft  leather,  without  touching  the  others. 

Stripping  Gilt  Articles. — Degilding  or 
stripping  gilt  articles  may  be  done  by  at- 
taching the  object  to  the  positive  pole  of 
a  battery  and  immersing  it  in  a  solution 
composed  of  1  pound  of  cyanide  dissolved 
in  about  1  gallon  of  water.  Desilvering 
may  be  effected  in  the  same  manner. 

To  Clean  Tarnished  Zinc.— Apply  with 
a  rag  a  mixture  of  1  .part  sulphuric  acid 
with  12  parts  of  water.  Rinse  the  zinc 
with  clear  water. 

Cleaning  Pewter  Articles. — Pour  hot 
lye  of  wood  ashes  upon  the  tin,  throw  on 
sand,  and  rub  with  a  hard,  woolen  rag, 
hat  felt,  or  whisk  until  all  particles  of  dirt 
have  been  dissolved.  To  polish  pewter 
plates  it  is  well  to  have  the  turner  make 
similar  wooden  forms  fitting  the  plates, 
and  to  rub  them  clean  this  way.  Next 
they  are  rinsed  with  clean  water  and 
placed  on  a  table  with  a  clean  linen  cover 
on  which  they  are  left  to  dry  without 
being  touched,  otherwise  spots  will  ap- 
pear. This  scouring  is  not  necessary  so 
often  if  the  pewter  is  rubbed  with  wheat 


bran  after  use  and  cleaned  perfectly. 
New  pewter  is  polished  with  a  paste  of 
whiting  and  brandy,  rubbing  the  dishes 
with  it  until  the  mass  becomes  dry. 

To  Clean  Files.— Files  which  have  be- 
come clogged  with  tin  or  lead  are 
cleaned  by  dipping  for  a  few  seconds  into 
concentrated  nitric  acid.  To  remove 
iron  filings  from  the  file  cuts,  a  bath  of 
blue  vitriol  is  employed.  After  the  files 
have  been  rinsed  in  water  they  are  like- 
wise dipped  in  nitric  acid.  File-ridges 
closed  up  by  zinc  are  cleaned  by  im- 
mersing the  files  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid.  Such  as  have  become  filled  with 
copper  or  brass  are  also  treated  with 
nitric  acid,  but  here  the  process  has  to  be 
repeated  several  times.  The  files  should 
always  be  rinsed  in  water  after  the  treat- 
ment, brushed  with  a  stiff  brush,  and 
dried  in  sawdust  or  by  pouring  alcohol 
over  them,  and  letting  it  burn  off  on  the 
file. 

Scale  Pan  Clearer. — About  the  quick- 
est cleaner  for  brass  scale  pans  is  a  solu- 
tion of  potassium  bichromate  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  using  about  1  part  of 
chromate,  in  powder,  to  3  parts  of  acid 
and  6  parts  of  water.  In  this  imbibe  a 
cloth  wrapped  around  a  stick  (to  protect 
the  hands),  and  with  it  rub  the  pans. 
Do  this  at  tap  or  hydrant,  so  that  no  time 
is  lost  in  placing  the  pan  in  running 
water  after  having  rubbed  it  with  the 
acid  solution.  For  pans  not  very  badly 
soiled  rubbing  with  ammonia  water  and 
rinsing  is  sufficient. 

Tarnish  on  Electro -Plate  Goods. — 
This  tarnish  can  be  removed  by  dipping 
the  article  for  from  1  to  15  minutes — • 
that  is,  until  the  tarnish  shall  have  been 
removed — in  a  pickle  of  the  following 
composition:  Rain  water  2  gallons  and 
potassium  cyanide  £  pound.  Dissolve 
together,  and  fill  into  a  stone  jug  or  jar, 
and  close  tightly.  The  article,  after 
having  been  immersed,  must  be  taken 
out  and  thoroughly  rinsed  in  several 
waters,  then  dried  with  fine,  clean  saw- 
dust. Tarnish  on  jewelry  can  be  speed- 
ily removed  by  this  process;  but  if  the 
cyanide  is  not  completely  removed  it 
will  corrode  the  goods. 

OIL-,  GREASE-,  PAINT-SPOT  ERAD- 
ICATORS: 
Grease- and  Paint -Spot  Eradicators. — 

I. — Benzol 500  parts 

Benzine 500  parts 

Soap,    best    white, 

shaved 5  parts 

Water,  warm,  sufficient. 


206 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  warm  water, 
using  from  50  to  60  parts.  Mix  the  ben- 
zol and  benzine,  and  add  the  soap  solu- 
tion, a  little  at  a  time,  shaking  up  well 
after  each  addition.  If  the  mixture  is 
slow  in  emulsifying,  add  at  one  time  from 
50  to  100  parts  of  warm  water,  and  shake 
violently.  Set  the  emulsion  aside  for  a 
few  days,  or  until  it  separates,  then  de- 
cant the  superfluous  water,  and  pour  the 
residual  pasty  mass,  after  stirring  it  up 
well,  into  suitable  boxes. 

II. — Soap  spirit 100  parts 

Ammonia  solution, 

10  per  cent 25  parts 

Acetic  ether 15  parts 

III. — Extract  of  quillaia  .  1  part 

Borax 1  part 

Ox  gall,  fresh 6  parts 

Tallow  soap 15  parts 

Triturate  the  quillaia  and  borax  to- 
gether, incorporate  the  ox  gall,  and, 
finally,  add  the  tallow  soap  and  mix 
thoroughly  by  kneading.  The  product 
is  a  plastic  mass,  which  may  be  rolled 
into  sticks  or  put  up  into  boxes. 

Removing  Oil  Spots  from  .Leather. — 
To  remove  oil  stains  from  leather,  dab 
the  spot  carefully  with  spirits  of  sal  am- 
moniac, and  after  allowing  it  to  act  for 
a  while,  wash  with  clean  water.  This 
treatment  may  have  to  be  repeated  a  few 
times,  taking  care,  however,  not  to  injure 
the  color  of  the  leather.  Sometimes  the 
spot  may  be  removed  very  simply  by 
spreading  the  place  rather  thickly  with 
butter  and  letting  this  act  for  a  few  hours. 
Next  scrape  off  the  butter  with  the  point 
of  a  knife,  and  rinse  the  stain  with  soap 
and  lukewarm  water. 

To  Clean  Linoleum. — Rust  spots  and 
other  stains  can  be  removed  from  lino- 
leum by  rubbing  with  si^eel  chips. 

To  Remove  Putty,  Grease,  etc.,  from 
Plate  Glass. — To  remove  all  kinds  of 
greasy  materials  from  glass,  and  to  leave 
the  latter  bright  and  clean,  use  a  paste 
made  of  benzine  and  burnt  magnesia  of 
such  consistence  that  when  the  mass  is 
pressed  between  the  fingers  a  drop  of 
benzine  will  exude.  With  this  mixture 
and  a  wad  of  cotton,  go  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  glass,  rubbing  it  well. 
One  rubbing  is  usually  sufficient.  After 
drying,  any  of  the  substance  left  in  the 
corners,  etc.,  is  easily  removed  by  brush- 
ing with  a  suitable  brush.  The  same 
preparation  is  very  useful  for  cleaning 
mirrors  and  removing  grease  stains  from 
books,  papers,  etc. 


Removing  Spots  from  Furniture. — 
White  spots  on  polished  tables  are  re- 
moved in  the  following  manner:  Coat  the 
spot  with  oil  and  pour  on  a  rag  a  few 
drops  of  "  mixtura  balsamica  oleosa," 
which  can  be  bought  in  every  drug  store, 
and  rub  on  the  spot,  which  will  disappear 
immediately. 

To  Remove  Spots  from  Drawings, 
etc. — Place  soapstone,  fine  meerschaum 
shavings,  amianthus,  or  powdered  mag- 
nesia on  the  spot,  and,  if  necessary,  lay 
on  white  filtering  paper,  saturating  it 
with  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  Allow  this 
to  act  for  a  few  hours,  and  remove  the 
application  with  a  brush.  If  necessary, 
repeat  the  operation.  In  this  manner 
black  coffee  spots  were  removed  from  a 
valuable  diagram  without  erasure  by 
knife  or  rubber. 

WATCHMAKERS'    AND    JEWELERS' 
CLEANING  PREPARATIONS: 

To  Clean  the  Tops  of  Clocks  in  Re- 
pairing.— Sprinkle  whiting  on  the  top. 
Pour  good  vinegar  over  this  and  rub 
vigorously.  Rinse  in  clean  water  and 
dry  slowly  in  the  sun  or  at  the  fire.  A 
good  polish  will  be  obtained. 

To  Clean  Watch  Chains.— Gold  or 
silver  watch  chains  can  be  cleaned  with 
a  very  excellent  result,  no  matter  whether 
they  be  matt  or  polished,  by  laying  them 
for  a  few  seconds  in  pure  aqua  ammonia; 
they  are  then  rinsed  in.  alcohol,  and 
finally  shaken  in  clean  sawdust,  free  from 
sand.  Imitation  gold  and  plated  chains 
are  first  cleaned  in  benzine,  then  rinsed 
in  alcohol,  and  afterwards  shaken  in  dry 
sawdust.  Ordinary  chains  are  first 
dipped  in  the  following  pickle:  Pure 
nitric  acid  is  mixed  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  in  the  proportion  of  10 
parts  of  the  former  to  2  parts  of  the  latter; 
a  little  table  salt  is  added.  The  chains 
are  boiled  in  this  mixture,  then  rinsed 
several  times  in  water,  afterwards  in 
alcohol,  and  finally  dried  in  sawdust. 

Cleaning  Brass  Mountings  on  Clock 
Cases,  etc. — The  brass  mountings  are 
first  cleaned  of  dirt  by  dipping  them  for 
a  short  time  into  boiling  soda  lye,  and 
next  are  pickled,  still  warm,  if  possible, 
in  a  mixture  consisting  of  nitric  acid,  60 
parts;  sulphuric  acid,  40  parts;  cooking 
salt,  1  part;  and  shining  soot  (lamp- 
black), £  part,  whereby  they  acquire  a 
handsome  golden-yellow  coloring.  The 
pickling  mixture,  however,  must  not  be  em- 
ployed immediately  after  pouring  together 
the  acids,  which  causes  a  strong  genera- 
tion of  heat,  but  should  settle  for  at  least 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS    AND   METHODS 


207 


1  day.  This  makes  the  articles  hand- 
somer and  more  uniform.  After  the  dip- 
ping the  objects  are  rinsed  in  plenty  of 
clean  water  and  dried  on  a  hot,  iron  plate, 
and  at  the  same  time  warmed  for  lac- 
quering. Since  the  pieces  would  be 
lacquered  too  thick  and  unevenly  in  pure 
gold  varnish,  this  is  diluted  with  alcohol, 
1  part  of  gold  varnish  sufficing  for  10 
parts  of  alcohol.  Into  this  liquid  dip  the 
mountings  previously  warmed  and  dry 
them  again  on  the  hot  plate. 

Gilt  Zinc  Clocks. — It  frequently  hap- 
pens that  clocks  of  gilt  zinc  become 
covered  with  green  spots.  To  remove 
such  spots  the  following  process  is  used: 
Soak  a  small  wad  of  cotton  in  alkali  and 
rub  it  on  the  spot.  The  green  color  will 
disappear  at  once,  but  the  gilding  being 
gone,  a  black  spot  will  remain.  Wipe 
off  well  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  alkali. 
To  replace  the  gilding,  put  on,  by  means 
of  liquid  gum  arabic,  a  little  bronze  pow- 
der of  the  color  of  the  gilding.  The 
powdered  bronze  is  applied  dry  with  the 
aid  of  a  brush  or  cotton  wad.  When  the 
gilding  of  the  clock  has  become  black  or 
dull  from  age,  it  may  be  revived  by  im- 
mersion in  a  bath  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, but  frequently  it  suffices  to  wash  it 
with  a  soft  brush  in  soap  and  water,  in 
which  a  little  carbonate  of  soda  has  been 
dissolved.  Brush  the  piece  in  the  lather, 
rinse  in  clean  water,  and  dry  in  rather 
hot  sav.'dust.  The  piece  should  be  dried 
well  inside  and  outside,  as  moisture  will 
cause  it  to  turn  black. 

To  Clean  Gummed  Up  Springs. — 
Dissolve  caustic  soda  in  warm  water, 
place  the  spring  in  the  solution  and  leave 
it  there  for  about  one  half  hour.  Any 
oil  still  adhering  may  now  easily  be 
taken  off  with  a  hard  brush;  next,  dry  the 
spring  with  a  clean  cloth.  In  this  man- 
ner gummed  up  parts  of  tower  clocks, 
locks,  etc.,  may  be  quickly  and  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  and  oil  paint  may  be 
removed  from  metal  or  wood.  The  lye 
is  sharp,  but  free  from  danger,  nor  are 
the  steel  parts  attacked  by  it. 

To  Clean  Soldered  Watch  Cases.— 
Gold,  silver,  and  other  metallic  watch 
cases  which  in  soldering  have  been  ex- 
posed to  heat,  are  laid  in  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid  (1  part  acid  to  10  to  15  parts 
water),  to  free  them  from  oxide.  Heat- 
ing the  acid  accelerates  the  cleaning  proc- 
ess. The  articles  are  then  well  rinsed 
in  water  and  dried.  Gold  cases  are  next 
brushed  with  powdered  tripoli  moistened 
with  oil,  to  remove  the  pale  spots  caused 
by  the  heat  and  boiling,  and  to  restore 


the  original  color.  After  that  they  are 
cleaned  with  soap  water  and  finally  pol- 
ished with  rouge.  Silver  cases  are  pol- 
ished after  boiling,  with  a  scratch  brush 
dipped  in  beer. 

A  Simple  Way  to  Clean  a  Clock.— Take 
a  bit  of  cotton  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 
dip  it  in  kerosene  and  place  it  on  the 
floor  of  the  clock,  in  the  corner;  shut  the 
door  of  the  clock,  and  wait  3  or  4  days. 
The  clock  will  be  like  a  new  one — and 
if  you  look  inside  you  will  find  the  cotton 
batting  black  with  dust.  The  fumes  of 
the  oil  loosen  the  particles  of  dust,  and 
they  fall,  thus  cleaning  the  clock. 

To  Restore  the  Color  of  a  Gold  or  Gilt 
Dial. — Dip  the  dial  for  a  few  seconds  in 
the  following  mixture:  Half  an  ounce  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  is  dissolved  in  a 
quart  of  hot  water,  and  2  ounces  of 
strong  ammonia,  mixed  with  £  an  ounce 
of  alcohol,  are  added  to  the  solution.  On 
removal  from  this  bath,  the  dial  should 
immediately  be  immersed  in  warm  water, 
then  brushed  with  soap,  rinsed,  and 
dried  in  hot  boxwood  dust.  Or  it  may 
simply  be  immersed  in  dilute  nitric  acid; 
but  in  this  case  any  painted  figures  will 
be  destroyed. 

A  Bath  for  Cleaning  Clocks. — In  an 
enameled  iron  or  terra -cotta  vessel 
pour  2,000  parts  of  water,  add  50  parts 
of  scraped  Marseilles  soap,  80  to  100 
parts  of  whiting,  and  a  small  cup  of 
spirits  of  ammonia.  To  hasten  the  proc- 
ess of  solution,  warm,  but  do  not  allow 
to  boil. 

If  the  clock  is  very  dirty  or  much  oxi- 
dized, immerse  the  pieces  in  the  bath 
while  warm,  and  as  long  as  necessary. 
Take  them  out  with  a  skimmer  or 
strainer,  and  pour  over  them  some  ben- 
zine, letting  the  liquid  fall  into  an  empty 
vessel.  This  being  decanted  and  bot- 
tled can  be  used  indefinitely  for  rinsing. 

If  the  bath  has  too  much  alkali  or  is 
used  when  too  hot,  it  may  affect  the 
polish  and  render  it  dull.  This  may  be 
obviated  by  trying  different  strengths  of 
the  alkali.  Pieces  of  blued  steel  are  not 
injured  by  the  alkali,  even  when  pure. 

To  Remove  a  Figure  or  Name  from  a 
Dial. — Oil  of  spike  lavender  may  be 
employed  for  erasing  a  letter  or  number. 
Enamel  powder  made  into  a  paste  with 
water,  oil,  or  turpentine  is  also  used  for 
this  purpose.  It  should  be  previously 
levigated  so  as  to  obtain  several  degrees  of 
fineness.  The  powder  used  for  repol- 
ishing  the  surface,  where  an  impression 
has  been  removed,  must  be  extremely 
fine.  It  is  applied  with  a  piece  of  peg- 


208 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND   METHODS 


wood  or  ivory.  The  best  method  is  to 
employ  diamond  powder.  Take  a  little 
of  the  powder,  make  into  a  paste  with 
fine  oil,  on  the  end  of  a  copper  polisher 
the  surface  of  which  has  been  freshly  filed 
and  slightly  rounded.  The  marks  will 
rapidly  disappear  when  rubbed  with  this. 
The  surface  is  left  a  little  dull;  it  may  be 
rendered  bright  by  rubbing  with  the 
same  powder  mixed  with  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  oil,  and  applied  with  a  stick  of 
pegwood.  Watchmakers  will  do  well  to 
try  on  disused  dials  several  degrees  of 
fineness  of  the  diamond  powder. 

Cleaning  Pearls. — Pearls  turn  yellow 
in  the  course  of  time  by  absorbing  per- 
spiration on  account  of  being  worn  in  the 
hair,  at  the  throat,  and  on  the  arms. 
There  are  several  ways  of  rendering 
them  white  again. 

I. — The  best  process  is  said  to  be  to 
put  the  pearls  into  a  bag  with  wheat  bran 
and  to  heat  the  bag  over  a  coal  fire,  with 
constant  motion. 

II. — Another  method  is  to  bring  8 
parts  each  of  well-calcined,  finely  pow- 
dered lime  and  wood  charcoal,  which 
has  been  strained  through  a  gauze  sieve, 
to  a  boil  with  500  parts  of  pure  rain 
water,  suspend  the  pearls  over  the  steam 
of  the  boiling  water  until  they  are 
warmed  through,  and  then  boil  them  in 
the  liquid  for  5  minutes,  turning  fre- 
quently. Let  them  cool  in  the  liquid, 
take  them  out,  and  wash  off  well  with 
clean  water. 

III. — Place  the  pearls  in  a  piece  of  fine 
linen,  throw  salt  on  them,  and  tie  them 
up.  Next  rinse  the  tied-up  pearls  in 
lukewarm  water  until  all  the  salt  has 
been  extracted,  and  dry  them  at  an  ordi- 
nary temperature. 

IV. — The  pearls  may  also  be  boiled 
about  |  hour  in  cow's  milk  into  which  a 
little  cheese  or  soap  has  been  scraped; 
take  them  out,  rinse  off  in  fresh  water, 
and  dry  them  with  a  clean,  white  cloth. 

V. — Another  method  is  to  have  the 
pearls,  strung  on  a  silk  thread  or  wrapped 
up  in  thin  gauze,  mixed  in  a  loaf  of  bread 
01  barley  flour  and  to  have  the  loaf  baked 
well  in  an  oven,  but  not  too  brown. 
When  cool  remove  the  pearls. 

VI. — Hang  the  pearls  for  a  couple  of 
minutes  in  hot,  strong,  wine  vinegar  or 
highly  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  remove, 
and  rinse  them  in  water.  Do  not  leave 
them  too  long  in  the  acid,  otherwise  they 
will  be  injured  by  it. 

GLASS  CLEANING: 

Cleaning  Preparation  for  Glass  with 
Metal  Decorations. — Mix  1,000  parts  of 
denaturized  spirit  (96  per  cent)  with  150 


parts,  by  weight,  of  ammonia;  20  parts 
of  acetic  ether;  15  parts  of  ethylic  ether; 
200  parts  of  Vienna  lime;  950  parts  of 
bolus;  and  550  parts  of  oleine.  With 
this  mixture  both  glass  and  metal  can  be 
quickly  and  thoroughly  cleaned.  It  is 
particularly  recommended  for  show 
windows  ornamented  with  metal. 

Paste  for  Cleaning  Glass. — 

Prepared  chalk 6     pounds 

Powdered      French 

chalk 1^  pounds 

Phosphate  calcium. . .      2J  pounds 

Quillaia  bark 2J  pounds 

Carbonate  ammonia. .    18     ounces 

Rose  pink 6     ounces 

Mix  the  ingredients,  in  fine  powder, 
and  sift  through  muslin.  Then  mix 
with  soft  water  to  the  consistency  of 
cream,  and  apply  to  the  glass  by  means 
of  a  soft  rag  or  sponge;  allow  it  to  dry  on, 
wipe  off  with  a  cloth,  and  polish  with 
chamois. 

Cleaning  Optical  Lenses. — For  this 
purpose  a  German  contemporary  rec- 
ommends vegetable  pith.  The  medulla 
of  rushes,  elders,  or  sunflowers  is  cut  out, 
the  pieces  are  dried  and  pasted  singly 
alongside  of  one  another  upon  a  piece  of 
cork,  whereby  a  brush-like  apparatus  is 
obtained,  which  is  passed  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  lens.  For  very  small  lenses 
pointed  pieces  of  elder  pith  are  em- 
ployed. To  dip  dirty  and  greasy  lenses 
into  oil  of  turpentine  or  ether  and  rub 
them  with  a  linen  rag,  as  has  been  pro- 
posed, seems  hazardous,  because  the  Can- 
ada balsam  with  which  the  lenses  are 
cemented  might  dissolve. 

To  Remove  Glue  from  Glass. — If  glue 
has  simply  dried  upon  the  glass  hot 
water  ought  to  remove  it.  If,  however, 
the  spots  are  due  to  size  (the  gelatinous 
wash  used  by  painters)  when  dried  they 
become  very  refractory  and  recourse 
must  be  had  to  chemical  means  for  their 
removal.  The  commonest  size  being  a 
solution  of  gelatin,  alum,  and  rosin  dis- 
solved in  a  solution  of  soda  and  com- 
bined with  starch,  hot  solutions  of  caus- 
tic soda  or  of  potash  may  be  used.  If 
that  fails  to  remove  them,  try  diluted 
hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  or  any  of  the 
stronger  acids.  If  the  spots  still  remain 
some  abrasive  powder  (flour  of  emery) 
must  be  used  and  the  glass  repolished 
with  jewelers'  rouge  applied  by  means  of 
a  chamois  skin.  Owing  to  the  varied 
nature  of  sizes  used  the  above  are  only 
suggestions. 

Cleaning  Window  Panes. — Take  di- 
luted nitric  acid  about  as  strong  as  strong 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS   AND    METHODS 


209 


vinegar  and  pass  it  over  the  glass  pane, 
leave  it  to  act  a  minute  and  throw  on 
pulverized  whiting,  but  just  enough  to 
give  off  a  hissing  sound.  Now  rub  both 
with  the  hand  over  the  whole  pane  and 
polish  with  a  dry  rag.  Rinse  off  with 
clean  water  and  a  little  alcohol  and  polish 
dry  and  clear.  Repeat  the  process  on 
the  other  side.  The  nitric  acid  removes 
all  impurities  which  have  remained  on 
the  glass  at  the  factory,  and  even  with 
inferior  panes  a  good  appearance  is  ob- 
tained. 

To  Clean  Store  Windows.— For  clean- 
ing the  large  panes  of  glass  of  store  win- 
dows, and  also  ordinary  show  cases,  a 
semiliquid  paste  may  be  employed, 
made  of  calcined  magnesia  and  purified 
benzine.  The  glass  should  be  rubbed 
with  a  cotton  rag  until  it  is  brilliant. 

Cleaning  Lamp  Globes. — Pour  2  spoon- 
fuls of  a  slightly  heated  solution  of  potash 
into  the  globe,  moisten  the  whole  surface 
with  it,  and  rub  the  stains  with  a  fine 
linen  rag;  rinse  the  globe  with  clean 
water  and  carefully  dry  it  with  a  fine,  soft 
cloth. 

To  Clean  Mirrors. — Rub  the  mirror 
with  a  ball  of  soft  paper  slightly  damp- 
ened with  methylated  spirits,  then  with  a 
duster  on  which  a  little  whiting  has  been 
sprinkled,  and  finally  polish  with  clean 
paper  or  a  wash  leather.  This  treatment 
will  make  the  glass  beautifully  bright. 

To  Clean  Milk  Glass.— To  remove  oil 
spots  from  milk  glass  panes  and  lamp 
globes,  knead  burnt  magnesia  with  ben- 
zine to  a  plastic  mass,  which  must  be 
kept  in  a  tight-closing  bottle.  A  little  of 
this  substance  rubbed  on  the  spot  with  a 
linen  rag  will  make  it  disappear. 

To  Remove  Oil-Paint  Spots  from 
Glass. — If  the  window  panes  have  been 
bespattered  with  oil  paint  in  painting 
walls,  the  spots  are,  of  course,  easily  re- 
moved while  wet.  When  they  have 
become  dry  the  operation  is  more  diffi- 
cult and  alcohol  and  turpentine  in  equal 
parts,  or  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac  should  be 
used  to  soften  the  paint.  After  that  go 
over  it  with  chalk.  Polishing  with  salt 
will  also  remove  paint  spots.  The  salt 
grates  somewhat,  but  it  is  not  hard 
enough  to  cause  scratches  in  the  glass;  a 
subsequent  polishing  with  chalk  is  also 
advisable,  as  the  drying  of  the  salt  might 
injure  the  glass.  For  scratching  off  soft 
paint  spots  sheet  zinc  must  be  used,  as  it 
cannot  damage  the  glass  on  account  of  its 
softness.  In  the  case  of  silicate  paints 
(the  so-called  weather-proof  coatings)  the 


panes  must  be  especially  protected,  be- 
cause these  paints  destroy  the  polish  ot 
the  glass.  Rubbing  the  spots  with 
brown  soap  is  also  a  good  way  of  remov- 
ing the  spots,  but  care  must  be  taken  in 
rinsing  off  that  the  window  frames  are 
not  acted  upon. 

Removing  Silver  Stains. — The  follow- 
ing solution  will  remove  silver  stains 
from  the  hands,  and  also  from  woolen, 
linen,  or  cotton  goods: 

Mercuric  chloride. ...      1  part 
Ammonia  muriate. ...      1  part 

Water 8  parts 

The  compound  is  poisonous. 

MISCELLANEOUS  CLEANING  METH- 
ODS AND  PROCESSES: 

Universal  Cleaner. — 

Green  soap 20  to  25  parts 

Boiling  water 750  parts 

Liquid       ammonia, 

caustic 30  to  40  parts 

Acetic  ether 20  to  30  parts 

Mix. 

To  Clean  Playing  Cards.— Slightly 
soiled  playing  cards  may  be  made  clean 
by  rubbing  them  with  a  soft  rag  dipped 
in  a  solution  of  camphor.  Very  little  of 
the  latter  is  necessary. 

To  Remove  Vegetable  Growth  from 
Buildings. — To  remove  moss  and  lichen 
from  stone  and  masonry,  apply  water 
in  which  1  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid  has 
been  dissolved.  After  a  few  hours  the 
plants  can  be  washed  off  with  water. 

Solid  Cleansing  Compound. — The  basis 
of  most  of  the  solid  grease  eradicators 
is  benzine  and  the  simplest  form   is  a 
benzine  jelly  made  by  shaking  3  ounces 
of  tincture  of  quillaia  (soap  bark)  with 
enough   benzine  to  make  16  fluidounces. 
Benzine  may  also  be  solidified  by  the  use 
of  a  soap  with  addition  of  an  excess  of 
alkali.      Formulas    in    which    soaps    are 
used  in  this  way  follow: 
I. — Cocoanut-oil  soap.      2  av.  ounces 
Ammonia  water. .  .      3  fluidounces 
Solution   of   potas- 
sium       1^  fluidounces 

Water     enough    to 

make 12   fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  soap  with  the  aid  of  heat 
in  4  fluidounces  of  water,  add  the  am- 
monia and  potassa  and  the  remainder  of 
the  water. 

If  the  benzine  is  added  in  small  por- 
tions, and  thoroughly  agitated,  2£  fluid- 
ounces  of  the  above  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient tp  solidify  32  fluidounces  of  benzine. 


210 


CLEANING   PREPARATIONS— COFFEE 


II. — Castile  soap,  white.     3i  av.  ounces 

Water,  boiling 3J  fluidounces 

Water  of  ammonia     5    fluidrachms 
Benzine  enough  to 

make 16   fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water,  and 
when  cold,  add  the  other  ingredients. 

To  Clean  Oily  Bottles.— Use  2  heaped 
tablespoonfuls  (for  every  quart  of  capac- 
ity) of  fine  sawdust  or  wheat  bran,  and 
shake  well  to  cover  the  interior  surface 
thoroughly;  let  stand  a  few  minutes  and 
then  add  about  a  gill  of  cold  water.  If 
the  bottle  be  then  rotated  in  a  horizontal 
position,  it  will  usually  be  found  clean 
after  a  single  treatment.  In  the  case  of 
drying  oils,  especially  when  old,  the  bot- 
tles should  be  moistened  inside  with  a 
little  ether,  and  left  standing  a  few  hours 
before  the  introduction  of  sawdust. 
This  method  is  claimed  to  be  more  rapid 
and  convenient  than  the  customary  one 
of  using  strips  of  paper,  soap  solution, 
etc. 

Cork  Cleaner. — Wash  in  10  per  cent 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  then  im- 
merse in  a  solution  of  sodium  hypo- 
sulphite and  hydrochloric  acid.  Finally 
the  corks  are  washed  with  a  solution  of 
soda  and  pure  water.  Corks  containing 
oil  or  fat  cannot  be  cleaned  by  this 
method. 

To  Clean  Sponges. — Rinse  well  first  in 
very  weak,  warm,  caustic-soda  lye,  then 
with  clean  water,  and  finally  leave  the 
sponges  in  a  solution  of  bromine  in  water 
until  clean.  They  will  whiten  sooner  if 
exposed  to  the  sun  in  the  bromine  water. 
Then  repeat  the  rinsings  in  weak  lye 
and  clean  water,  using  the  latter  till  all 
smell  of  bromine  has  disappeared.  Dry 
quickly  and  in  the  sun  if  possible. 

CLEARING  BATHS: 

See  Photography. 

CLICHE  METALS: 
See  Alloys. 

CLOCK-DIAL  LETTERING: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

CLOCK-HAND  COLORING: 

See  Metals. 

CLOCK  OIL: 

See  Oil. 

CLOCK  REPAIRING: 

See  Watchmaking. 

CLOCKMAKERS'    CLEANING    PROC- 
ESSES. 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


CLOTH  TO  IRON,  GLUEING: 

See  Adhesives. 

CLOTHES  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth 
ods;  also,  Household  Formulas. 

CLOTHS  FOR  POLISHING: 

See  Polishes. 

CLOTH,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

CLOTHING,  CARE  OF: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

COACH  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

COALS,  TO  EAT  BURNING: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

COAL  OIL: 
See  Oil. 

COBALTIZING: 

See  Plating. 

COCOAS: 

See  Beverages. 

COCOA  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

COCOANUT  CAKE: 

See  Household  Formulas  and  Recipes. 

COCHINEAL  INSECT  REMEDY: 

See  Insecticides. 

COD-LIVER  OIL  AND  ITS  EMULSION: 
See  Oil,  Cod-Liver. 

COFFEE,  SUBSTITUTES  FOR. 

I. — Acorn. — From  acorns  deprived  of 
their  shells,  husked,  dried,  and  roasted. 

II. — Bean. — Horse  beans  roasted  along 
with  a  little  honey  or  sugar. 

III. — Beet  Root. — From  the  yellow 
beet  root,  sliced,  dried  in  a  kiln  or  oven, 
and  ground  with  a  little  coffee. 

IV.  — Dandelion.  —  From  dandelion 
roots,  sliced,  dried,  roasted,  and  ground 
with  a  little  caramel. 

All  the  above  are  roasted,  before  grind- 
ing them,  with  a  little  fat  or  lard.  Those 
which  are  larger  than  coffee  berries  are 
cut  into  small  slices  before  being  roasted. 
They  possess  none  of  the  exhilarating 
properties  or  medicinal  virtues  of  the 
genuine  coffee. 

V. — Chicory. — This  is  a  common  adul- 
terant. The  roasted  root  is  prepared  by 
cutting  the  full-grown  root  into  slices, 
and  exposing  it  to  heat  in  iron  cylinders, 
along  with  about  1A  per  cent  or  2  per 
cent  of  lard,  in  a  similar  way  to  that 
adopted  for  coffee.  When  ground  to 
powder  in  a  mill  it  constitutes  the  ebi- 


COFFEE— COLD   AND   COUGH    MIXTURES 


cory  coffee  so  generally  employed  both 
as  a  substitute  for  coffee  and  as  an 
adulterant.  The  addition  of  1  part  of 
good,  fresh,  roasted  chicory  to  10  or  12 
parts  of  coffee  forms  a  mixture  which 
yields  a  beverage  of  a  fuller  flavor,  and 
of  a  deeper  color  than  that  furnished  by 
an  equal  quantity  of  pure  or  unmixed 
coffee.  In  this  way  a  less  quantity  of 
coffee  may  be  used,  but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  article  substituted 
for  it  does  not  possess  in  any  degree  the 
peculiar  exciting,  soothing,  and  hunger- 
staying  properties  of  that  valuable  prod- 
uct. The  use,  however,  of  a  larger 
proportion  of  chicory  than  that  just 
named  imparts  to  the  beverage  an  in- 
sipid flavor,  intermediate  between  that 
•f  treacle  and  licorice;  while  the  con- 
tinual use  of  roasted  chicory,  or  highly 
chicorized  coffee,  seldom  fails  to  weaken 
the  powers  of  digestion  and  derange  the 
bowels. 

COFFEE  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

COFFEE  EXTRACTS: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

COFFEE   SYRUPS: 

See  Syrups. 

COFFEE    FOR    THE    SODA    FOUN- 
TAIN: 
See  Beverages. 

COIL  SPRING: 

See  Steel. 

COIN  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

COINS,   IMPRESSIONS   OF: 
See  Matrix  Mass. 

COIN  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

COLAS: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 


Cold  and  Cough  Mixtures 

Cough  Syrup. — The  simplest  form  of 
cough  syrup  of  good  keeping  quality  is 
syrup  of  wild  cherry  containing  am- 
monium chloride  in  the  dose  of  2i  grains 
to  each  teaspoonful.  Most  of  the  other 
compounds  contain  ingredients  that  are 
prone  to  undergo  fermentation. 

I. — Ipecacuanha  wine  1  fluidounce 
Spirit  of  anise.  ...  1  fluidrachrn 
Syrup 10  fluidounces 


Syrup  of  squill.. ..  8 

Tincture  of  Tolu.  4 
Distilled      water 

enough  to  make  30 

II. — Heroin 6 

Aromatic  sulphur- 
ic acid 1 

Concentrated  acid 

infusion  of  roses  4 

Distilled  water.  . .  5 

Glycerine 5 

Oxymel  of  squill..  10 


fluidounces 
fluidrachms 

fluidounces 
grains 

fluidounces 

fluidounces 
fluidounces 
fluidounces 
fluidounces 


III. — Glycerine 2    fluidounces 

Fluid     extract    of 

wild  cherry  ....      4    fluidounces 

Oxymel 10    fluidounces 

Syrup 10    fluidounces 

Cochineal,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Benzoic-Acid  Pastilles. — 

Benzoic  acid 105  parts 

Rhatany  extract ....    525  parts 

Tragacanth 35  parts 

Sugar 140  parts 

The  materials,  in  the  shape  of  pow- 
ders, are  mixed  well  and  sufficient  fruit 
paste  added  to  bring  the  mass  up  to  4,500 
parts.  Roll  out  and  divide  into  lozenges 
weighing  20  grains  each. 

Cough  Balsam  with  Iceland  Moss. — 
Solution  of  morphine 

acetate 12  parts 

Sulphuric  acid,  dilute  12  parts 
Cherry-laurel  water.  12  parts 
Orange-flower  water, 

triple 24  parts 

Syrup,  simple 128  parts 

Glycerine 48  parts 

Tincture  of  saffron. .  8  parts 
Decoction  of  Iceland 

moss 112  parts 

Mix.      Dose:  One  teaspoonful. 

Balsamic  Cough  Syrup.  — 

Balsam  of  Peru 2  drachms 

Tincture  of  Tolu  ....      4  drachms 
Camphorated  tincture 

of  opium 4  ounces 

Powdered  extract  lic- 
orice       1  ounce 

Syrup  squill 4  ounces 

Syrup    dextrine    (glu- 
cose)    sufficient    lo 

make 16  ounces 

Add  the  balsam  of  Peru  to  the  tinc- 
tures, and  in  a  mortar  rub  up  the  extract 
of  licorice  with  the  syrups.  Mix  to- 
gether and  direct  to  be  taken  in  tea- 
spoonful  doses. 

Whooping-Cough  Remedies. — The  fol- 
lowing mixture  is  a  spray  to  be  used 


COLD   AND    COUGH   MIXTURES— CONDIMENTS 


in  the  sick  room  in  cases  of  whooping 
cough: 

Thymol 1.0 

Tincture  of  eucalyptus.       30.0 
Tincture  of  benzoin  ....       30.0 

Alcohol 100.0 

Water  enough  to  make  1000.0 
Mix.      Pour  some  of  the  mixture  on  a 
cloth  and  hold  to  mouth  so  that  the  mix- 
ture is  inhaled,  thereby  giving  relief. 

Expectorant  Mixtures. — 
I. — Ammon.  chloride.      1  drachm 
Potass,  chlorate..   30  grains 

Paregoric 2  nuidrachms 

Syrup  of  ipecac. . .      2  fluidrachms 
Syrup  wild  cherry 

enough  to  make      2  fluidounces 
Dose:   One  teaspoonful. 

II. — Potass,  chlorate..        1    drachm 
Tincture  guaiac  . .       3£  drachms 
Tincture  rhubarb.       1  $  drachms 
Syrup  wild  cherry 

enough  to  make     3    fluidounces 

.    Dose:   One  teaspoonful. 

Eucalyptus  Bonbons  for  Coughs. — 

Eucalyptus  oil 5  parts 

Tartaric  acid 15  parts 

Extract  of  malt ....        24  parts 

Cacao 100  parts 

Peppermint  oil ....       1.4  parts 
Bonbon  mass 2,203  parts 

Mix  and  make  into  bonbons  weighing 
30  grains  each. 

COLD   CREAM: 

See  Cosmetics. 

COLIC  IN  CATTLE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

COLLODION. 

Turpentine 5  parts 

Ether  and  alcohol. ...    10  parts 

Collodion 94  parts 

Castor  oil 1  part 

Dissolve  the  turpentine  in  the  ether 
and  alcohol  mixture  (in  equal  parts)  and 
filter,  then  add  to  the  mixture  of  collo- 
dion and  castor  oil.  This  makes  a  good 
elastic  collodion. 

See  also  Court  Plaster,  Liquid. 

COLOGNE: 

See  Perfumes. 

COLOGNE  FOR  HEADACHES: 
See  Headaches. 

COLORS: 

See  Dyes  and  Pigments. 

COLORS,  FUSIBLE  ENAMEL: 
See  Enameling. 


COLORS  FOR  PAINTS: 

See  Paint. 

COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY: 

See  Photography. 

COLORS  FOR  SYRUPS: 

See  Syrups. 

CONCRETE: 

See  Stone,  Artificial. 


Condiments 

Chowchow.  — 

Curry  powder 4  ounces 

Mustard  powder 6  ounces 

Ginger 3  ounces 

Turmeric 2  ounces 

Cayenne 2  drachms 

Black  pepper  powder.     2  drachms 

Coriander 1  drachm 

Allspice 1  drachm 

Mace 30  grains 

Thyme 30  grains 

Savory 30  grains 

Celery  seed 2  drachms 

Cider  vinegar 2  gallons 

Mix  all  the  powders  with  the  vinegar, 
and  steep  the  mixture  over  a  very  gentle 
fire  for  3  hours.  The  pickles  are  to  be 
parboiled  with  salt,  and  drained,  and  the 
spiced  vinegar,  prepared  as  above,  is  to 
be  poured  over  them  while  it  is  still 
warm.  The  chowchow  keeps  best  in 
small  jars,  tightly  covered. 

Essence  of  Extract  of  Soup  Herbs. — 
Thyme,  4  ounces ;  winter  savory,  4  ounces ; 
sweet  marjoram,  4  ounces;  sweet  basil, 
4  ounces;  grated  lemon  peel,  1  ounce; 
eschalots,  2  ounces;  bruised  celery  seed, 

1  ounce;  alcohol  (50  per  cent),  64  ounces. 
Mix  the  vegetables,  properly  bruised,  add 
the  alcohol,  close  the  container  and  set 
aside  in  a  moderately  warm  place  to  digest 
for  15  days.     Filter  and  press  out.      Pre- 
serve in  4-ounce  bottles,  well  corked. 

Tomato  Bouillon  Extract. — Toma- 
toes, 1  quart;  arrowroot,  2  ounces;  ex- 
tract of  beef,  1  ounce;  bay  leaves,  1 
ounce;  cloves>  2  ounces;  red  pepper,  4 
drachms;  Worcestershire  sauce,  quantity 
sufficient  to  flavor.  Mix. 

Mock  Turtle  Extract.— Extract  of 
beef,  2  ounces;  concentrated  chicken, 

2  ounces;  clam  juice,  8  ounces;  tincture 
of    black    pepper,    1    ounce;    extract    of 
celery,  3  drachms;  extract  of  orange  peel, 
soluble,  1  drachm;  hot  water  enough  to 
make  2  quarts. 


CONDIMENTS 


RELISHES: 

Digestive  Relish. — 

I. — Two  ounces  Jamaica  ginger;  2 
ounces  black  peppercorns;  1  ounce  mus- 
tard seed;  1  ounce  coriander  fruit  (seed); 
1  ounce  pimento  (allspice);  J  ounce 
inace;  ^  ounce  cloves;  \  ounce  nutmegs; 
\  ounce  chili  pods;  3  drachms  cardamom 
seeds;  4  ounces  garlic;  4  ounces  escha- 
lots; 4  pints  malt  vinegar. 

Bruise  spices,  garlic,  etc.,  and  boil  in 
vinegar  for  15  minutes  and  strain.  To 
this  add  2£  pints  mushroom  ketchup; 

1  o  pints  India  soy. 

Again  simmer  for  15  minutes'  and 
strain  through  muslin. 

II. — One  pound  soy;  50  ounces  best 
vinegar;  4  ounces  ketchup;  4  ounces  gar- 
lic; 4  ounces  eschalots;  4  ounces  capsi- 
cum; \  ounce  cloves;  \  ounce  mace;  \ 
ounce  cinnamon;  1  drachm  cardamom 
seeds.  Boil  well  and  strain. 

Lincolnshire  Relish. — Two  ounces  gar- 
lic; 2  ounces  Jamaica  ginger;  3  ounces 
black  peppercorns;  f  ounce  cayenne  pep- 
per; |  ounce  ossein;  f  ounce  nutmeg; 

2  ounces    salt  ;     1  \    pints     India    soy. 
Enough  malt  vinegar  to  make  1  gallon. 
Bruise  spices,   garlic,   etc.,  and  simmer 
in  \  a  gallon  of  vinegar  for  20  minutes, 
strain  and  add  soy  and  sufficient  vinegar 
to  make  1  gallon,  then  boil  for  5  minutes. 
Keep  in  bulk  as  long  as  possible. 

Curry  Powder. — 

I. — Coriander  seed 6  drachms 

Turmeric 5  scruples 

Fresh  ginger 4£  drachms 

Cumin  seed. . 18  grains 

Black  pepper 54  grains 

Poppy  seed 94  grains 

Garlic 2  heads 

Cinnamon 1  scruple 

Cardamom 5  seeds 

Cloves 8  only 

Chillies 1  or  2  pods 

Grated  cocoanut. . 


II. — Coriander  seed \  pound 

Turmeric J  pound 

Cinnamon  seed 2    ounces 

Cayenne ....-....'..        \  ounce 

Mustard 1    ounce 

Ground  ginger 1    ounce 

Allspice \  ounce 

Fenugreek  seed 2    ounces 

TABLE  SAUC1 

jtershire  Sauce. — 

Pimento 2  drachms 

Clove 1  drachm 

Black  pepper 1  drachm 

Ginger 1  drachm 

Curry  powder 1  ounce 


Capsicum 1  drachm 

Mustard 2  ounces 

Shallots,  bruised 2  ounces 

Salt 2  ounces 

Brown  sugar 8  ounces 

Tamarinds 4  ounces 

Sherry  wine 1  pint 

Wine  vinegar 2  pints 

The  spices  must  be  freshly  bruised. 
The  ingredients  are  to  simmer  together 
with  the  vinegar  for  an  hour,  adding 
more  of  the  vinegar  as  it  is  lost  by  evap- 
oration; then  add  the  wine,  and  if  de- 
sired some  caramel  coloring.  Set  aside 
for  a  week,  strain,  and  bottle. 


Table  Sauce. — Brown  sugar,  16  parts; 
tamarinds,  16  parts;  onions,  4  parts; 
powdered  ginger,  4  parts;  salt,  4  parts; 
garlic,  2  parts;  cayenne,  2  parts;  soy,  2 
parts;  ripe  apples,  64  parts;  mustard 
powder,  2  parts;  curry  powder,  1  part; 
vinegar,  quantity  sufficient.  Pare  and 
core  the  apples,  boil  them  in  sufficient 
vinegar  with  the  tamarinds  and  raisins 
until  soft,  then  pulp  through  a  fine  sieve. 
Pound  the  onions  and  garlic  in  a  mortar 
and  add  the  pulp  to  that  of  the  apples. 
Then  add  the  other  ingredients  and  vin- 
egar, 60  parts;  heat  to  boiling,  cool,  and 
add  sherry  wine,  10  parts,  and  enough 
vinegar  to  make  the  sauce  just  pourable. 
If  a  sweet  sauce  is  desired  add  sufficient 
treacle  before  the  final  boiling. 

Epicure's  Sauce. — Eight  ounces  tam- 
arinds; 12  ounces  sultana  raisins;  2 
ounces  garlic;  4  ounces  eschalots;  4 
ounces  horse-radish  root;  2  ounces  black 
pepper  ;  \  ounce  chili  pods  ;  3  ounces 
raw  Jamaica  ginger;  \\  pounds  golden 
syrup;  1  pound  burnt  sugar  (caramel); 
1  ounce  powdered  cloves;  1  pint  India 
soy;  1  gallon  malt  vinegar.  Bruise  roots, 
spices,  etc.,  and  boil  in  vinegar  for  15 
minutes,  then  strain.  To  the  strained 
liquor  add  golden  syrup,  soy,  and  burnt 
sugar,  then  simmer  for  10  minutes. 

Piccalilli  Sauce.— One  drachm  chili 
pods;  1^  ounces  black  peppercorns; 
\  ounce  pimento;  f  ounce  garlic;  \  gal- 
lon malt  vinegar.  Bruise  spices  and 
garlic,  boil  in  the  vinegar  for  10  minutes, 
and  strain. 

One  ounce  ground  Jamaica  ginger; 
1  ounce  turmeric;  2  ounces  flower  of  mus- 
tard; 2  ounces  powdered  natal  arrowroot; 
8  ounces  strong  acetic  acid.  Rub  pow- 
ders in  a  mortar  with  acetic  acid  and 
add  to  above,  then  boil  for  5  minutes, 
or  until  it  thickens. 

FLAVORING  SPICES. 

I. — Five  ounces  powdered  cinnamon 
bark;  2£  ounces  powdered  cloves;  2£ 


CONDIMENTS 


ounces  powdered  nutmegs;  1J  ounces 
powdered  caraway  seeds;  1J  ounces 
powdered  coriander  seeds;  1  ounce  pow- 
dered Jamaica  ginger;  i  ounce  powdered 
allspice.  Let  all  be  dry  and  in  fine  pow- 
der. Mix  and  pass  through  a  sieve. 

II.  —  Pickling  Spice. — Ten  pounds 
small  Jamaica  ginger;  2  A  pounds  black 
peppercorns;  l£  pounds  white  pepper- 
corns; 1J  pounds  allspice;  f  pound  long 
pepper;  1J  pounds  mustard  seed;  £ 
pound  chili  pods.  Cut  up  ginger  and 
long  pepper  into  small  pieces,  and  mix 
all  the  other  ingredients  intimately. 

One  ounce  to  each  pint  of  boiling  vin- 
egar is  sufficient,  but  it  may  be  made 
stronger  if  desired  hot. 

Essence  of  Savory  Spices. — Two  and 
one-half  ounces  black  peppercorns;  1 
ounce  pimento;  f  ounce  nutmeg;  ^  ounce 
mace;  |  ounce  cloves;  \  ounce  cinnamon 
bark;  J  ounce  caraway  seeds;  20  grains 
cayenne  pepper;  15  ounces  spirit  of  wine; 
5  ounces  distilled  water.  Bruise  all  the 
spices  and  having  mixed  spirit  and  water, 
digest  in  mixture  14  days,  shaking  fre- 
quently, then  filter. 

MUSTARD : 

The  Prepared  Mustards  of  Commerce. 
— The  mustard,  i.  e.,  the  flower  or  pow- 
dered seed,  used  in  preparing  the  different 
condiments,  is  derived  from  three  varie- 
ties of  Brassica  (Cruciferoe) — Brassica 
alba  L,,  Brassica  nigra,  and  Brassica 
juncea.  The  first  yields  the  "white" 
seed  of  commerce,  which  produces  a  mild 
mustard;  the  second  the  "black"  seed, 
yielding  the  more  pungent  powder;  and 
the  latter  a  very  pungent  and  oily  mus- 
tard, much  employed  by  Russians.  The 
pungency  of  the  condiment  is  also  af- 
fected by  the  method  of  preparing  the 
paste,  excessive  heat  destroying  the 
sharpness  completely.  The  pungency 
is  further  controlled  and  tempered,  in 
the  cold  processes,  by  the  addition  of 
wheat  or  rye  flour,  which  also  has  the 
advantage  of  serving  as  a  binder  of  the 
mustard.  The  mustard  flour  is  pre- 
pared by  first  decorticating  the  seed, 
then  grinding  to  a  fine  powder,  the  ex- 
pression of  the  fixed  oil  from  which 
completes  the  process.  This  oil,  unlike 
the  volatile,  is  of  a  mild,  pleasant  taste, 
and  of  a  greenish  color,  which,  it  is  said, 
makes  it  valuable  in  the  sophistication 
and  imitation  of  "olive"  oils,  refined, 
cottonseed,  or  peanut  oil  being  thus  con- 
verted into  huile  merge  de  Lucca,  Flor- 
ence, or  some  other  noted  brand  of  olive 
oil.  It  is  also  extensively  used  for  illu- 
minating purposes,  especially  in  south- 
ern Russia. 


The  flavors,  other  than  that  of  the 
mustard  itself,  of  the  various  prepara- 
tions are  imparted  by  the  judicious  use 
of  spices — cinnamon,  nutmeg,  cloves, 
pimento,  etc. — aromatic  herbs,  such  as 
thyme,  sage,  chervil,  parsley,  mint, 
marjoram,  tarragon,  etc.,  and  finally 
chives,  onions,  shallots,  leeks,  garlic, 
etc. 

In  preparing  the  mustards  on  a  large 
scale,  the  mustard  flower  and  wheat 
or  rye  flour  are  mixed  and  ground  to  a 
smooth  paste  with  vinegar,  must  (un- 
fermented  grape  juice),  wine,  or  what- 
ever is  used  in  the  preparation,  a  mill 
similar  to  a  drug  or  paint  mill  being  used 
for  the  purpose.  This  dough  immedi- 
ately becomes  spongy,  and  in  this  condi- 
tion, technically  called  "cake,"  is  used 
as  the  basis  of  the  various  mustards  of 
commerce. 

Mustard  Cakes. — In  the  mixture,  the 
amount  cf  flour  used  depends  on  the 
pungency  of  the  mustard  flower,  and  the 
flavor  desired  to  be  imparted  to  the  fin- 
ished product.  The  cakes  are  broadly 
divided  into  the  yellow  and  the  brown. 
A  general  formula  for  the  yellow  cake  is: 

Yellow  mustard,  from  20  to  30  per 
cent;  salt,  from  1  to  3  per  cent;  spices, 
from  J  to  £  of  1  per  cent;  wheat  flour, 
from  8  to  12  per  cent. 

Vinegar,  must,  or  wine,  complete  the 
mixture. 

The  brown  cake  is  made  with  black 
mustard,  and  contains  about  the  follow- 
ing proportions: 

Black  mustard,  from  20  to  30  per 
cent;  salt,  from  1  to  3  per  cent;  spices, 
from  I  to  £  of  1  per  cent;  wheat  or  rye 
flour,  from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

The  variations  are  so  wide,  however, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  exact  pro- 
portions. In  the  manufacture  of  table 
mustards,  in  fact,  as  in  every  other  kind 
of  manufacture,  excellence  is  attained 
only  by  practice  and  the  exercise  of 
sound  judgment  and  taste  by  the  manu- 
facturer. 

Moutarde  des  Jesuittes. — Twelve  sar- 
dels  and  280  capers  are  crushed  into  a 
paste  and  stirred  into  3  pints  of  boiling 
wine  vinegar.  Add  4  ounces  of  brown 
cake  and  8  ounces  of  yellow  cake  and 
mix  well. 

Kirschner  Wine  Mustard. — Reduce  30 
quarts  of  freshly  expressed  grape  juice 
to  half  that  quantity,  by  boiling  over  a 
moderate  fire,  on  a  water  bath.  Dissolve 
in  the  boiling  liquid  5  pounds  of  sugar, 
and  pour  the  syrup  through  a  colander 
containing  2  or  3  large  horse-radishes  cut 


CONDIMENTS 


215 


into  very  thin  slices  and  laid  on  a  coarse 
towel  spread  over  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  the  colander.      To  the  colate  add  the 
following,  all  in  a  state  of  fine  powder: 
Cardamom  seeds  ....      2^  drachms 

Nutmeg 2 1  drachms 

Cloves 44  drachms 

Cinnamon 1     ounce 

Ginger 1     ounce 

Brown  mustard  cake.      6     pounds 
Yellow  mustard  cake.      9     pounds 
Grind     all    together    to    a     perfectly 
smooth  paste,  and  strain  several    times 
through  muslin. 

Duesseldorff  Mustard. —    . 

Brown  mustard  cake.    10  ounces 

Yellow  mustard  cake.    48  ounces 

Boiling  water 96  ounces 

Wine  vinegar 64  ounces 

Cinnamon 5  drachms 

Cloves 15  drachms 

Sugar 64  ounces 

Wine,  gofod  white  ....    64  ounces 
Mix  after  the  general  directions  given 
above. 

German  Table  Mustard. — 

Laurel  leaves 8  ounces 

Cinnamon 5  drachms 

Cardamom  seeds....      2  drachms 

Sugar. . 64  ounces 

Wine  vinegar 96  ounces 

Brown  cake 10  ounces 

Yellow  cake 48  ounces 

Mix  after  general  directions  as  given 
above. 

%    Krems  Mustard,  Sweet. — 

Yellow  cake 10  pounds 

Brown  cake 20  pounds 

Fresh  grape  juice  ....      6  pints 
Mix  and  boil  down  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency. 

Krems  Mustard,  Sour. — 

Brown  mustard  flour.  30  parts 
Yellow  mustard  flour.  10  parts 
Grape  juice,  fresh. ...  8  parts 

Mix  and  boil  down  to  a  paste  and  then 
stir  in  8  parts  of  wine  vinegar. 

Tarragon  Mustard. — 

Brown  mustard  flour.  40  parts 

Yellow  mustard  flour.  20  parts 

Vinegar 6  parts 

Tarragon  vinegar.  ...  6  parts 

Boil  the  mustard  in  the  vinegar  and 
add  the  tarragon  vinegar. 

Tarragon  Mustard,  Sharp. — This  is 
prepared  by  adding  to  every  100  pounds 
of  the  above  21  ounces  of  white  pepper, 
5  ounces  of  pimento,  and  2  J  ounces  of  cloves, 


mixing  thoroughly  by  grinding  together 
in  a  mill,  then  put  in  a  warm  spot  and  let 
stand  for  10  days  or  2  weeks.  Finally 
strain. 

Moutarde  aux  Epices. — 

Mustard  flour,  yellow.  10  pounds 

Mustard  flour,  brown.  40  pounds 

Tarragon 1  pound 

Basil,  herb 5  ounces 

Laurel  leaves 12  drachms 

White  pepper 3  ounces 

Cloves 12  drachms 

Mace 2  drachms 

Vinegar 1  gallon 

Mix  the  herbs  and  macerate  them  in 
the  vinegar  to  exhaustion,  then  add  to 
the  mustards,  and  grind  together.  Set 
aside  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  strain 
through  muslin. 

In  all  the  foregoing  formulas  where 
the  amount  of  salt  is  not  specified,  it  is  to 
be  added  according  to  the  taste  or  dis- 
cretion of  the  manufacturer. 

Mustard  Vinegar. — 

Celery,  chopped  fine.     32  parts 

Tarragon,  the  fresh 

herb 6  parts 

Cloves,  coarsely  pow- 
dered    6  parts 

Onions,  chopped  fine       6  parts 

Lemon  peel,  fresh, 

chopped  fine 3  parts 

White-wine  vinegar. .    575  parts 

White  wine 515  parts 

Mustard  seed, 

crushed 100  parts 

Mix  and  macerate  together  for  a  week 
or  10  days  in  a  warm  place,  then  strain 
off. 

Ravigotte  Mustard. — 

Parsley 2  parts 

Chervil 2  parts 

Chives 2  parts 

Cloves 1  part 

Garlic 1  part 

Thyme 1  part 

Tarragon 1  part 

Salt 8  parts 

Olive  oil 4  parts 

White- wine  vinegar. .  128  parts 
Mustard  flower,  sufficient. 
Cut  or  bruise  the  plants  and  spices, 
and  macerate  them  in  the  vinegar  for  15 
or  20  days.  Strain  the  liquid  through  a 
cloth  and  add  the  salt.  Rub  up  mustard 
with  the  olive  oil  in  a  vessel  set  in  ice, 
adding  a  little  of  the  spiced  vinegar  from 
time  to  time,  until  the  whole  is  incorpo- 
rated and  the  complete  mixture  makes 
384  parts. 


216 


CONDIMENTS— CONFECTIONERY 


CONDIMENTS,    TESTS    FOR    ADUL- 
TERATED: 

See  Foods. 

CONDITION    POWDERS    FOR    CAT- 
TLE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

CONDUCTIVITY  OF  ALUMINUM  AL- 
LOYS: 

See  Alloys. 


Confectionery 

Cream  Bonbons  for  Hoarseness. — 
Stir  into  500  parts  of  cream  500  parts  of 
white  sugar.  Put  in  a  pan  and  cook, 
with  continuous  stirring,  until  it  becomes 
brown  and  viscid.  Now  put  in  a  bak- 
ing tin  and  smooth  out,  as  neatly  as  pos- 
sible, to  the  thickness  of,  say,  twice  that 
of  the  back  of  a  table  knife  and  let  it 
harden.  Before  it  gets  completely  hard 
draw  lines  with  a  knife  across  the  sur- 
face in  such  manner  that  when  it  is  quite 
hard  it  will  break  along  them,  easily,  into 
bits  the  size  of  a  lozenge. 

Nut  Candy  Sticks.— Cook  to  320°  F. 
8  pounds  best  sugar  in  2  pints  water, 
with  4  pounds  glucose  added.  Pour  out 
on  an  oiled  slab  and  add  5  pounds  al- 
monds, previously  blanched,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  and  dried  in  the  drying  room. 
Mix  up  well  together  to  incorporate  the 
nuts  thoroughly  with  the  sugar.  When 
it  has  cooled  enough  to  be  handled,  form 
into  a  round  mass  on  the  slab  and  spin 
out  m  long,  thin  sticks. 

Fig  Squares. — Place  5  pounds  of 
sugar  and  5  pounds  of  glucose  in  a  cop- 
per pan,  with  water  enough  to  dissolve 
the  sugar.  Set  on  the  fire,  and  when  it 
starts  to  boil  add  5  pounds  of  ground 
figs.  Stir  and  cook  to  240°  on  the  ther- 
mometer. Set  off  the  fire,  and  then  add 
5  pounds  of  fine  cocoanuts;  mix  well  and 
pour  out  on  greased  marble,  roll  smooth, 
and  cut  like  caramels. 

Caramels. — Heat  10  pounds  sugar  and 
8  pounds  glucose  in  a  copper  kettle  until 
dissolved.  Add  cream  to  the  mixture, 
at  intervals,  until  2£  Quarts  are  used. 
Add  2J  pounds  caramel  butter  and  12 
ounces  paraffine  wax  to  the  mixture. 
Cook  to  a  rather  stiff  ball,  add  nuts,  pour 
out  between  iron  bars  and,  when  cool 
enough,  cut  into  strips.  For  the  white 
ones  flavor  with  vanilla,  and  add  2 
pounds  melted  chocolate  liquor  for  the 
chocolate  caramel  when  nearly  cooked. 

Candy  Orange  Drops.— It  is  compar- 


atively easy  to  make  a  hard  candy,  but 
to  put  the  material  into  "drop"  form 
apparently  requires  experience  and  a 
machine.  To  make  the  candy  itself, 
put,  say,  a  pint  of  water  into  a  suitable 
pan  or  kettle,  heat  to  boiling,  and  add 
gradually  to  it  2  pounds  or  more  of  sugar, 
stirring  well  so  as  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
burning  the  sugar.  Continue  boiling 
the  syrup  so  formed  until  a  little  of  it 
poured  on  a  cold  slab  forms  a  mass  of  the 
required  hardness.  If  the  candy  is  to  be 
of  orange  flavor,  a  little  fresh  oil  of  or- 
ange is  added  just  before  the  mass  is 
ready  to  set  and  the  taste  is  improved 
according  to  the  general  view  at  least 
by  adding,  also,  say,  2  drachms  of  citric 
acid  dissolved  in  a  very  little  water.  As 
a  coloring  an  infusion  of  safflower  or 
tincture  of  turmeric  is  used. 

To  make  such  a  mass  into  tablets,  it  is 
necessary  only  to  pour  out  on  a  well- 
greased  slab,  turning  the  edges  back  if 
inclined  to  run,  until  the  candy  is  firm, 
and  then  scoring  with  a  knife  so  that 
it  can  easily  be  broken  into  pieces  when 
cold.  To  make  "drops"  a  suitable 
mold  is  necessary. 

Experiment  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the 
boiling  in  making  candy  may  be  saved 
and  greater  certainty  of  a  good  result  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  a  chemical  thermom- 
eter. As  the  syrup  is  boiled  and  the 
water  evaporates  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  rises.  When  it  reaches  220°  F., 
the  sugar  is  then  in  a  condition  to  yield 
the  "thread"  form;  at  240°  "soft  ball" 
is  formed;  at  245°,  "hard  ball";  at  252°, 
"crack";  and  at  290°,  "hard  crack." 
By  simply  suspending  the  thermometer 
in  the  liquid  and  observing  it  from  time 
to  time,  one  may  know  exactly  when  to 
end  the  boiling. 

Gum  Drops. — Grind  25  pounds  of 
Arabian  or  Senegal  gum,  place  it  in  a 
copper  pan  or  in  a  steam  jacket  kettle, 
and  pour  3  gallons  of  boiling  water  over 
it;  stir  it  up  well.  Now  set  the  pan  with 
the  gum  into  another  pan  containing 
boiling  water  and  stir  the  gum  slowly 
until  dissolved,  then  strain  it  through  a 
No.  40  sieve.  Cook  19  pounds  of  sugar 
with  sufficient  water,  2  pounds  of  glu- 
cose, and  a  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar to  a  stiff  ball,  pour  it  over  the  gum, 
mix  well,  set  the  pan  on  the  kettle  with  the 
hot  water,  and  let  it  steam  for  1£  hours, 
taking  care  that  the  water  in  the  kettle 
does  not  run  dry;  then  open  the  door  of 
the  stove  and  cover  the  fire  with  ashes, 
and  let  the  gum  settle  for  nearly  an  hour, 
then  remove  the  scum  which  has  settled 
on  top,  flavor  and  run  out  with  the  fun- 


CONFECTIONERY 


nel  dropper  into  the  starch  impressions, 
and  place  the  trays  in  the  drying  room 
for  2  days,  or  until  dry;  then  take  the 
drops  out  of  the  starch,  clean  them  off 
well  and  place  them  in  crystal  pans,  one 
or  two  layers.  Cook  sugar  and  water 
to  34  J°  on  the  syrup  gauge  and  pour  over 
the  drops  lukewarm.  Let  stand  in  a 
moderately  warm  place  over  night,  then 
drain  the  syrup  off,  and  about  an  hour 
afterwards  knock  the  gum  drops  out  on  a 
clean  table,  pick  them  apart,  and  place 
on  trays  until  dry,  when  they  are  ready  for 
sale. 

A  Good  Summer  Taffy. — Place  in  a 
kettle  4  pounds  of  sugar,  3  pounds  of 
glucose,  and  1J  pints  of  water;  when  it 
boils  drop  in  a  piece  of  butter  half  the 
size  of  an  egg  and  about  2  ounces  of 
paraffine  wax.  Cook  to  262°,  pour  on  a 
slab,  and  when  cool  enough,  pull,  flavor, 
and  color  if  you  wish.  Pull  until  light, 
then  spin  out  on  the  table  in  strips  about  3 
inches  wide  and  cut  into  4-  or  4^-inch 
lengths.  Then  wrap  in  wax  paper  for 
the  counter.  This  taffy  keeps  long  with- 
out being  grained  by  the  heat. 

Chewing  Candy. — Place  20  pounds  of 
sugar  in  a  copper  pan,  add  20  pounds  of 
glucose,  and  enough  water  to  easily  dis- 
solve the  sugar.  Set  on  the  fire  or  cook 
in  the  steam  pan  in  2  quarts  of  water. 
Have  a  pound  of  egg  albumen  soaked  in 
2  quarts  of  water.  Beat  this  like  eggs 
into  a  very  stiff  froth,  add  gradually  the 
sugar  and  glucose;  when  well  beaten  up, 
add  5  pounds  of  powdered  sugar,  and 
beat  at  very  little  heat  either  in  the  steam 
beater  or  on  a  pan  of  boiling  water  until 
light,  and  does  not  stick  to  the  back  of 
the  hand,  flavor  with  vanilla,  and  put  in 
trays  dusted  with  fine  sugar.  When  cold 
it  may  be  cut,  or  else  it  may  be  stretched 
out  on  a  sugar-dusted  table,  cut,  and 
wrapped  in  wax  paper.  This  chewing 
candy  has  to  be  kept  in  a  very  dry  place, 
or  else  it  will  run  and  get  sticky. 

Montpelier  Cough  Drops. — 

Brown  sugar 10     pounds 

Tartaric  acid 2     ounces 

Cream  of  tartar £  ounce 

Water I|  quarts 

Anise-seed     flavoring, 

quantity  sufficient. 

Melt  the  sugar  in  the  water,  and  when 
at  a  sharp  boil  add  the  cream  of  tartar. 
Cover  the  pan  for  5  minutes.  Remove 
the  lid  and  let  the  sugar  boil  up  to  crack 
degree.  Turn  out  the  batch  on  an  oiled 
slab,  and  when  cool  enough  to  handle 
mold  in  the  acid  and  flavoring.  Pass  it 
through  the  acid  drop  rollers,  and  when 


the   drops  are  chipped   up,   and  before 
sifting,  rub  some  icing  with  them. 

Medicated  Cough  Drops. — 

Light-brown  sugar.  .  .    14     pounds 

Tartaric  acid 1^  ounces 

Cream  of  tartar |  ounce 

Water 2     quarts 

Anise-seed,  cayenne, 
clove,  and  pepper- 
mint flavoring,  a  few 
drops  of  each. 

Proceed  as  before  prescribed,  but 
when  sufficiently  cool  pass  the  batch 
through  the  acid  tablet  rollers  and  dust 
with  sugar. 

Horehound  Candy. — 

Dutch  crushed  sugar.    10     pounds 
Dried  horehound  leaves     2    ounces 

Cream  of  tartar £  ounce 

Water 2     quarts 

Anise-seed     flavoring, 

quantity  sufficient. 

Pour  the  water  on  the  leaves  and  let  it 
gently  simmer  till  reduced  to  3  pints;  then 
strain  the  infusion  through  muslin,  and 
add  the  liquid  to  the  sugar.  Put  the  pan 
containing  the  syrup  on  the  fire,  and 
when  at  a  sharp  boil  add  the  cream  of 
tartar.  Put  the  lid  on  the  pan  for  5  min- 
utes; then  remove  it,  and  let  the  sugar 
boil  to  stiff  boil  degree.  Take  the  pan 
off  the  fire  and  rub  portions  of  the 
sugar  against  the  side  until  it  produces  a 
creamy  appearance;  then  add  the  flavor- 
ing. Stir  all  well,  and  pour  into  square 
tin  frames,  previously  well  oiled. 

Menthol  Cough  Drops. — 

Gelatin 1     ounce 

Glycerine  (by  weight)      2^  ounces 
Orange-flower  water. .      2|  ounces 

Menthol 5     grains 

Rectified  spirits 1     drachm 

Soak  the  gelatin  in  the  water  for  2 
hours,  then  heat  on  a  water  bath  until 
dissolved,  and  add  1  \  ounces  of  glycerine. 
Dissolve  the  menthol  in  the  spirit,  mix 
with  the  remainder  of  the  glycerine,  add 
to  the  glyco-gelatin  mass,  and  pour  into 
an  oiled  tin  tray  (such  as  the  lid  of  a  bis- 
cuit box).  When  the  mass  is  cold  divide 
into  10  dozen  pastilles. 

Menthol  pastilles  are  said  to  be  an 
excellent  remedy  for  tickling  cough  as 
well  as  laryngitis.  They  should  be 
freshly  prepared,  and  cut  oblong,  so  that 
the  patient  may  take  half  of  one,  or  less, 
as  may  be  necessary. 

Violet  Flavor  for  Candy. —Violet  fla- 
vors, like  violet  perfumes,  are  very  com- 
plex mixtures,  and  their  imitation  is  a 


218 


CONFECTIONERY 


correspondingly  difficult  undertaking. 
The  basis  is  vanilla  (or  vanillin),  rose, 
and  orris,  with  a  very  little  of  some  pun- 
gent oil  to  bring  up  the  flavor.  The  fol- 
lowing will  give  a  basis  upon  which  a 
satisfactory  flavor  may  be  built: 

Oil  of  orris 1  drachm 

Oil  of  rose 1  drachm 

Vanillin    2  drachms 

Cumarin 30  grains 

Oil  of  clove 30  minims 

Alcohol 11  ounces 

Water 5  ounces 

Make  a  solution,  adding  the  water  last. 

CONFECTIONERY    COLORS. —The 

following  are  excellent  and  entirely 
harmless  coloring  agents  for  the  pur- 
poses named: 

Red. — Cochineal  syrup  prepared  as 
follows: 

Cochineal,    in   coarse 

powder 6  parts 

Potassium   carbonate     2  parts 

Distilled  water 15  parts 

Alcohol 12  parts 

Simple  syrup  enough 

to  make 500  parts 

Rub  up  the  potassium  carbonate  and 
the  cochineal  together,  adding  the  water 
and  alcohol,  little  by  little,  under  constant 
trituration.  Set  aside  over  night,  then 
add  the  syrup  and  liltei;. 

Pink.— 

Carmine 1  part 

Liquor  potassae 6  parts 

Rose    water,     enough 

to  make    48  parts 

Mix.  Should  the  color  be  too  high, 
dilute  with  water  until  the  requisite  tint 
is  acquired. 

Orange. — Tincture  of  red  sandal  wood, 
1  part;  ethereal  tincture  of  orlean,  quan- 
tity sufficient.  Add  the  tincture  of  or- 
lean to  the  sandalwood  tincture  until  the 
desired  shade  of  orange  is  obtained. 

A  red  added  to  any  of  the  yellows  gives 
an  orange  color. 

The  aniline  colors  made  by  the  "Ak- 
tiengesellschaft  fur  Anilin  -  Fabrika- 
tion,"  of  Berlin,  are  absolutely  non-toxic, 
and  can  be  used  for  the  purposes  recom- 
mended, i.  e.,  the  coloration  of  syrups, 
cakes,  candies,  etc.,  with  perfect  confi- 
dence in  their  innocuity. 

Pastille  Yellow.— 

Citron  yellow  II 7  parts 

Grape      sugar,      first 

quality 1  part 

White  dextrine 2  parts 


Sap -Blue  Paste.— 

Dark  blue 3  parts 

Grape  sugar 1  part 

Water 6  parts 

Sugar-Black  Paste.— 

Carbon  black 3  parts 

Grape  sugar 1  part 

Water 6  parts 

Cinnabar  Red.* — 

Scarlet 65  parts 

White  dextrine 30  parts 

Potato  flour 5  parts 

Bluish  Rose.*— 

Grenadine. 65  parts 

White  dextrine 30  parts 

Potato  flour 5  parts 

Yellowish  Rose. — 

Rosa  II 60.  parts 

Citron  yellow 5  parts 

White  dextrine 30  parts 

Potato  flour 5  parts 

Violet  — 

Red  violet 65  parts 

White  dextrine 30  parts 

Potato  flour 5  parts 

Carmine  Green. — 

Woodruff  (Waldmeis- 

ter)  green 55  parts 

Rosa  II 5  parts 

Dextrine 35  parts 

Potato  flour 5  parts 

To  the  colors  marked  with  an  asterisk 
(*)  add,  for  every  4  pounds,  4i  ounces,  a 
grain  and  a  half  each  of  potassium  iodide 
and  sodium  nitrate.  Colors  given  in 
form  of  powders  should  be  dissolved  in 
hot  water  for  use. 

Yellow. — Various  shades  of  yellow 
may  be  obtained  by  the  maceration  of 
Besiello  saffron,  or  turmeric,  or  grains 
d'Avignon  in  alcohol  until  a  strong  tinc- 
ture is  obtained.  Dilute  with  water 
until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  An 
aqueous  solution  of  quercitrine  also 
gives  an  excellent  yellow. 

Blue.— 

Indigo  carmine 1  part 

Water 2  parts 

Mix. 

Indigo  carmine  is  a  beautiful,  power- 
ful, and  harmless  agent.  It  may  usually 
be  bought  commercially,  but  if  it  can- 
not be  readily  obtained,  proceed  as  fol- 
lows: 

Into  a  capsule  put  30  grains  of  indigo 
in  powder,  place  on  a  water  bath,  and 
heat  to  dryness.  When  entirely  dry  put 


CONFECTIONERY— COPPER 


219 


into  a  large  porcelain  mortar  (the  sub- 
stance swells  enormously  under  subse- 
quent treatment — hence  the  necessity 
for  a  large,  or  comparatively  large,  mor- 
tar) and  cautiously  add,  drop  by  drop, 
120  grains,  by  weight,  of  sulphuric  acid, 
C.  P.,  stirring  continuously  during  the 
addition.  Cover  the  swollen  mass  close- 
ly, and  set  aside  for  24  hours.  Now 
add  3  fluidounces  of  distilled  water,  a 
few  drops  at  a  time,  rubbing  or  stirring 
continuously.  Transfer  the  liquid  thus 
obtained  to  a  tall,  narrow,  glass  cylinder 
or  beaker,  cover  and  let  stand  for  4  days, 
giving  the  liquid  an  occasional  stirring. 
Make  a  strong  solution  of  sodium  car- 
bonate or  bicarbonate,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  time  named  cautiously  neutralize  the 
liquid,  adding  the  carbonate  a  little  at  a 
time,  stirring  the  indigo  solution  and 
testing  it  after  each  addition,  as  the  least 
excess  of  alkali  will  cause  the  indigo  to 
separate  out,  and  fall  in  a  doughy  mass. 
Stop  when  the  test  shows  the  near  ap- 
proach of  neutrality,  as  the  slight  re- 
maining acidity  will  not  affect  the  taste 
or  the  properties  of  the  liquid.  Filter, 
and  evaporate  in  the  water  bath  to  dry- 
ness.  The  resultant  matter  is  sulphin- 
digotate  ftf  potassium,  or  the  "indigo 
carmine"  of  commerce. 

Tincture  of  indigo  may  also  be  used  as 
a  harmless  blue. 

Green. — The  addition  of  the  solution 
indigo  carmine  to  an  infusion  of  any  of 
the  matters  given  under  "yellow"  will  pro- 
duce a  green  color.  Tincture  of  crocus 
and  glycerine  in  equal  parts,  with  the 
addition  of  indigo-carmine  solution,  also 
gives  a  fine  green.  A  solution  of  com- 
mercial chlorophyll  gives  grass-green,  in 
shades  varying  according  to  the  concen- 
tration of  the  solution. 

Voice  and  Throat  Lozenges. — 

Catechu 191  grains 

Tannic  acid 273  grains 

Tartaric  acid 273  grains 

Capsicin 30  minims 

Black-currant  paste.        7  ounces 
Refined  sugar, 
Mucilage  of  acacia, 

of  each  a  sufficient 

quantity. 

Mix  to  produce  7  pounds  of  lozenges. 

CONSTIPATION  IN  BIRDS: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

COOKING  TABLE: 

See  Tables. 

COOLING  SCREEN: 

See  Refrigeration, 


Copper 

Annealing  Copper. — 

Copper  is  almost  universally  annealed 
in  muffles,  in  which  it  is  raised  to  the 
desired  temperature,  and  subsequently 
allowed  to  cool  either  in  the  air  or  in 
water.  A  muffle  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  a  reverberatory  f  urnr  ce.  It  is 
necessary  to  watch  the  copper  carefully, 
so  that  when  it  has  reached  the  right 
temperature  it  may  be  drawn  from  the 
muffle  and  allowed  to  cool.  This  is 
important,  for  if  the  copper  is  heated  too 
high,  or  is  left  in  the  muffle  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  of  annealing  too  long, 
it  is  burnt,  as  the  workmen  say.  Copper 
that  has  been  burnt  is  yellow,  coarsely 
granular,  and  exceedingly  brittle — even 
more  brittle  at  a  red  heat  than  when 
cold. 

In  the  case  of  coarse  wire  it  is  found 
that  only  the  surface  is  burnt,  while  the 
interior  is  damaged  less.  This  causes 
the  exterior  to  split  loose  from  the  in- 
terior when  bent  or  rolled,  thus  giving 
the  appearance  of  a  brittle  copper  tube 
with  a  copper  wire  snugly  fitted  into  it. 
Cracks  a  half  inch  in  depth  have  been 
observed  on  the  surface  of  an  ingot  on  its 
first  pass  through  the  rolls,  all  due  to 
this  exterior  burning.  It  is  apparent 
that  copper  that  has  been  thus  over- 
heated in  the  muffle  is  entirely  unfit  for 
rolling.  It  is  found  that  the  purer  forms 
of  copper  are  less  liable  to  be  harmed  by 
overheating  than  samples  containing 
even  a  small  amount  of  impurities. 
Even  the  ordinary  heating  in  a  muffle 
will  often  suffice  to  burn  in  this  manner 
the  surface  of  some  specimens  of  copper, 
rendering  them  unfit  for  further  working. 
Copper  that  has  been  thus  ruined  is  of 
use  only  to  be  refined  again. 

As  may  be  inferred  only  the  highest 
grades  of  refined  copper  are  used  for 
drawing  or  for  rolling.  This  is  not  be- 
cause the  lower  grades,  when  refined,  can- 
not stand  sufficiently  high  tests,  but  be- 
cause methods  of  working  are  not 
adequate  to  prevent  these  grades  of  cop- 
per from  experiencing  the  deterioration 
due  to  overheating. 

The  process  of  refining  copper  con- 
sists in  an  oxidizing  action  followed  by 
a  reducing  action  which,  since  it  is  per- 
formed by  the  aid  of  gases  generated  by 
stirring  the  melted  copper  with  a  pole,  is 
called  poling.  The  object  of  the  oxida- 
tion is  to  oxidize  and  either  volatilize  or 
turn  to  slag  all  the  impurities  contained 
in  the  copper.  This  procedure  is  ma- 
terially aided  by  the  fact  that  the  sub- 


220 


COPPER 


oxide  of  copper  is  freely  soluble  in 
metallic  copper  and  thus  penetrates  to 
all  parts  of  the  copper,  and  parting  with 
its  oxygen,  oxidizes  the  impurities. 
The  object  of  the  reducing  part  of  the 
refining  process  is  to  change  the  excess 
of  the  suboxide  of  copper  to  metallic 
copper.  Copper  containing  even  less 
than  1  per  cent  of  the  suboxide  of  copper 
shows  decreased  malleability  and  duc- 
tility, and  is  both  cold-short  and  red- 
short.  If  the  copper  to  be  refined  con- 
tains any  impurities,  such  as  arsenic  or 
antimony,  it  is  well  not  to  remove  too 
much  of  the  oxygen  in  the  refining  proc- 
ess. If  this  is  done,  overpoled  copper 
is  produced.  In  this  condition  it  is 
brittle,  granular,  of  a  shining  yellow 
color,  and  more  red-short  than  cold- 
short. When  the  refining  has  been  prop- 
erly done,  and  neither  too  much  nor  too 
little  oxygen  is  present,  the  copper  is  in 
the  condition  of  "  tough  pitch,"  and  is  in 
a  fit  state  to  be  worked. 

Copper  is  said  to  be  "  tough  pitch " 
when  it  requires  frequent  bending  to  break 
it,  and  when,  after  it  is  broken,  the  color 
is  pale  red,  the  fracture  has  a  silky  lus- 
ter, and  is  fibrous  like  a  tuft  of  silk.  On 
hammering  a  piece  to  a  thin  plate  it 
should  show  no  cracks  at  the  edge.  At 
tough  pitch  copper  offers  the  highest 
degree  of  malleability  and  ductility  of 
which  a  given  specimen  is  capable. 
This  is  the  condition  in  which  refined 
copper  is  (or  should  be)  placed  on  the 
market,  and  if  it  could  be  worked  with- 
out changing  this  tough  pitch,  any 
specimen  of  copper  that  could  be  brought 
to  this  condition  would  be  suitable  for 
rolling  or  drawing.  But  tough  pitch  is 
changed  if  oxygen  is  either  added  or 
taken  from  refined  copper. 

By  far  the  more  important  of  these  is 
the  removal  of  oxygen,  especially  from 
those  specimens  that  contain  more  than  a 
mere  trace  of  impurities.  This  is  shown 
by  the  absolutely  worthless  condition 
of  overpoled  copper.  The  addition  of 
carbon  also  plays  a  very  important  part 
in  the  production  of  overpoled  copper. 

That  the  addition  of  oxygen  to  refined 
copper  is  not  so  damaging  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  at  present  nearly  all  the  cop- 
per that  is  worked  is  considerably  oxi- 
dized at  some  stage  of  the  process,  and 
not  especially  to  its  detriment. 

Burnt  copper  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  copper  in  the  overpoled  condition. 
This  is  brought  about  by  the  action  of 
reducing  gases  in  the  muffle.  By  this 
means  the  small  amount  of  oxygen  nec- 
essary to  give  the  copper  its  tough  pitch 
is  removed.  This  oxygen  is  combined 


with  impurities  in  the  copper,  and  thus 
renders  them  inert.  For  example,  the 
oxide  of  arsenic  or  antimony  is  inca- 
pable of  combining  more  than  mechan- 
ically with  the  copper,  but  when  its  oxy- 
gen is  removed  the  arsenic  or  antimony 
is  left  free  to  combine  with  the  copper. 
This  forms  a  brittle  alloy,  and  one  that 
corresponds  almost  exactly  in  its  proper- 
ties with  overpoled  copper.  To  be  sure 
overpoled  copper  is  supposed  to  contain 
carbon,  but  that  this  is  not  the  essential 
ruling  principle  in  case  of  annealing  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  pure  copper  does 
not  undergo  this  change  under  condi- 
tions that  ruin  impure  copper,  and  also 
by  the  fact  that  the  same  state  may  be 
produced  by  annealing  in  pure  hydro- 
gen and  thus  removing  the  oxygen  that 
renders  the  arsenic  or  antimony  inert. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  deny  the  well- 
known  fact  that  carbon  does  combine 
with  copper  to  the  extent  of  0.2  per  cent 
and  cause  it  to  become  exceedingly 
brittle.  It  is  simply  claimed  that  this  is 
probably  not  what  occurs  in  the  pro- 
duction of  so-called  burnt  copper  during 
annealing.  The  amount  of  impurities 
capable  of  rendering  copper  easily  burnt 
is  exceedingly  small.  This  may  be  bet- 
ter appreciated  when  it  is  considered 
that  from  0.01  to  0.2  per  cent  expresses 
the  amount  of  oxygen  necessary  to  ren- 
der the  impurities  inert.  The  removal 
of  this  very  small  amount  of  oxygen, 
which  is  often  so  small  as  to  be  almost 
within  the  limits  of  the  errors  of  analysis, 
will  suffice  to  render  copper  overpoled 
and  ruin  it  for  any  use. 

There  are  methods  of  avoiding  the 
numerous  accidents  that  may  occur  in 
the  annealing  of  copper,  due  to  a  change 
of  pitch.  As  already  pointed  out,  the 
quality  of  refined  copper  is  lowered  if 
oxygen  be  either  added  to  or  taken  from 
it.  It  is  quite  apparent,  therefore,  that 
a  really  good  method  of  annealing  cop- 
per will  prevent  any  change  in  the  state 
of  oxidation.  It  is  necessary  to  prevent 
access  to  the  heated  copper  both  of  at- 
mospheric air,  which  would  oxidize  it, 
and  of  the  reducing  gases  used  in  heat- 
ing the  muffle,  which  would  take  oxygen 
away  from  it.  Obviously  the  only  way 
of  accomplishing  this  is  to  inclose  the 
copper  when  heated  and  till  cool  in  an 
atmosphere  that  can  neither  oxidize  nor 
deoxidize  copper.  By  so  doing  copper 
may  be  heated  to  the  melting  point  and 
allowed  to  cool  again  without  suffering 
as  regards  its  pitch.  There  are  com- 
paratively few  gases  that  can  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  but,  fortunately,  one  which 
is  exceedingly  cheap  and  universally 


COPPER 


prevalent  fulfills  all  requirements,  viz., 
steam.  In  order  to  apply  the  principles 
enunciated  it  is  necessary  only  to  anneal 
copper  in  the  ordinary  annealing  pots 
such  as  are  used  for  iron,  care  being 
taken  to  inclose  the  copper  while  heating 
and  while  cooling  in  an  atmosphere  of 
steam.  This  will  effectually  exclude  air 
and  prevent  the  ingress  of  gases  used 
in  heating  the  annealer.  Twenty-four 
hours  may  be  used  in  the  process,  as  in 
the  annealing  of  iron  wire,  with  no  detri- 
ment to  the  wire.  This  may  seem  in- 
credible to  those  manufacturers  who 
have  tried  to  anneal  copper  wire  after 
the  manner  of  annealing  iron  wire.  By 
this  method  perfectly  bright  annealed 
wire  may  be  produced.  Such  a  process 
of  annealing  copper  offers  many  advan- 
tages. It  allows  the  use  of  a  grade  of 
copper  that  has  hitherto  been  worked 
only  at  a  great  disadvantage,  owing  to  its 
tendency  to  get  out  of  pitch.  It  allows 
the  use  of  annealers  such  as  are  ordi- 
narily employed  for  annealing  iron,  and 
thus  cheapens  the  annealing  consider- 
ably as  compared  with  the  present  use  of 
muffles.  There  is  no  chance  of  produc- 
ing the  overpoled  condition  from  the 
action  of  reducing  gases  used  in  heating 
the  muffles.  There  is  no  chance  of  pro- 
ducing the  underpoled  condition  due  to 
the  absorption  of  suboxide  of  copper. 
None  of  the  metal  is  lost  as  scale,  and  the 
saving  that  is  thus  effected  amounts  to  a 
considerable  percentage  of  the  total 
value  of  the  copper.  The  expense  and 
time  of  cleaning  are  wholly  saved.  In- 
cidentally bright  annealed  copper  is 
produced  by  a  process  which  is  appli- 
cable to  copper  of  any  shape,  size,  or 
condition — a  product  that  has  hitherto 
been  obtained  only  by  processes  (mostly 
secret)  which  are  too  cumbersome  and 
too  expensive  for  extensive  use;  and,  as 
is  the  case  with  at  least  one  process,  with 
the  danger  of  producing  the  overpoled 
condition,  often  in  only  a  small  section 
of  the  wire,  but  thus  ruining  the  whole 
piece. 

COPPER  COLORING: 

Blacking  Copper.— To  give  a  copper 
article  a  black  covering,  clean  it  with 
emery  paper,  heat  gently  in  a  Bunsen  or 
a  spirit  flame,  immerse  for  10  seconds  in 
solution  of  copper  filings  in  dilute  nitric 
acid,  and  heat  again. 

Red  Coloring  of  Copper. — A  fine  red 
color  may  be  given  to  copper  by  gradu- 
ally heating  it  in  an  air  bath.  Prolonged 
heating  at  a  comparatively  low  temper- 
ature, or  rapid  heating  at  a  high  tem- 
perature, produces  the  same  result.  As 


soon  as  the  desired  color  is  attained 
the  metal  should  be  rapidly  cooled  by 
quenching  in  water.  The  metal  thus 
colored  may  be  varnished. 

To  Dye  Copper  Parts  Violet  and  Or- 
ange.— Polished  copper  acquires  an 
orange-like  color  leaning  to  gold,  when 
dipped  for  a  few  seconds  into  a  solution 
of  crystallized  copper  acetate.  A  hand- 
some violet  is  obtained  by  placing  the 
metal  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  solution  of 
antimony  chloride  and  rubbing  it  after- 
wards with  a  piece  of  wood  covered  with 
cotton.  During  this  operation  the  cop- 
per must  be  heated  to  a  degree  bearable 
to  the  hand.  A  crystalline  appearance 
is  produced  by  boiling  the  article  in 
copper  sulphate. 

Pickle  for  Copper.— Take  nitric  acid, 
100  parts;  kitchen  salt,  2  parts;  calcined 
soot,  2  parts;  or  nitric  acid,  10  parts;  sul- 
phuric acid,  10  parts;  hydrochloric  acid, 
1  part.  As  these  bleaching  baths  attack 
the  copper  quickly,  the  objects  must  be 
left  in  only  for  a  few  seconds,  washing 
them  afterwards  in  plenty  of  water,  and 
drying  in  sawdust,  bran,  or  spent  tan. 

Preparations  of  Copper  Water. — I. — 
Water,  1,000  parts;  oxalic  acid,  30  parts; 
spirit  of  wine,  100  parts;  essence  of  tur- 
pentine, 50  parts;  fine  tripoli,  100  parts. 

II. — Water,  1,000  parts;  oxalic  acid, 
30  parts;  alcohol,  50  parts;  essence  of 
turpentine,  40  parts;  fine  tripoli,  50 
parts. 

III. — Sulphuric  acid,  300  parts;  sul- 
phate of  alumina,  80  parts;  water,  520 
parts. 

Tempered  Copper. — Objects  made  of 
copper  may  be  satisfactorily  tempered 
by  subjecting  them  to  a  certain  degree 
of  heat  for  a  determined  period  of  time 
and  bestrewing  them  with  powdered 
sulphur  during  the  heating.  While  hot 
the  objects  are  plunged  into  a  bath  of 
blue  vitriol;  after  the  bath  they  may  be 
heated  again. 

COPPER  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

COPPER  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

COPPER  ETCHING: 

See  Etching. 

COPPER  IN  FOOD: 

See  Food. 

COPPER  LACQUERS: 

See  Lacquers. 


222 


COPPER— COPYING   PRINTED   PICTURES 


COPPER  PAPER: 

See  Paper,  Metallic. 

COPPER  PATINIZING  AND  PLATING : 
See  Plating. 

COPPER  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

COPPER,     SEPARATION     OF     GOLD 
FROM: 

See  Gold. 

COPPER  SOLDER: 

See  Solders. 

COPPER  VARNISHES: 
See  Varnishes. 

COPYING  PRINTED  PICTURES. 

The  so-called  "metallic"  paper  used 
for  steam-engine  indicator  cards  has  a 
smooth  surface,  chemically  prepared  so 
that  black  lines  can  be  drawn  upon  it 
with  pencils  made  of  brass,  copper,  sil- 
ver, aluminum,  or  any  of  the  softer 
metals.  When  used  on  the  indicator  it 
receives  the  faint  line  drawn  by  a  brass 
point  at  one  end  of  the  pencil  arm,  and 
its  special  advantage  over  ordinary  paper 
is  that  the  metallic  pencil  slides  over  its 
surface  with  very  little  friction,  and  keeps 
its  point  much  longer  than  a  graphite 
pencil. 

This  paper  can  be  used  as  a  transfer 
paper  for  copying  engravings  or  sketches, 
or  anything  printed  or  written  in  ink  or 
drawn  in  pencil. 

The  best  copies  can  be  obtained  by 
following  the  directions  below:  Lay 
the  metallic  transfer  paper,  face  up,  upon 
at  least  a  dozen  sheets  of  blank  paper, 
and  lay  the  print  face  down  upon  it.  On 
the  back  of  the  print  place  a  sheet  of 
heavy  paper,  or  thin  cardboard,  and  run 
the  rubbing  tool  over  this  protecting 
sheet.  In  this  manner  it  is  comparative- 
ly easy  to  prevent  slipping,  and  prints  8 
or  10  inches  on  a  side  may  be  copied 
satisfactorily. 

Line  drawings  printed  from  relief 
plates,  or  pictures  with  sharp  contrast 
of  black  and  white,  without  any  half- 
tones, give  the  best  copies.  Very  few 
half-tones  can  be  transferred  satisfac- 
torily; almost  all  give  streaked,  indis- 
tinct copies,  and  many  of  the  results  are 
worthless. 

The  transfer  taken  off  as  described  is 
a  reverse  of  the  original  print.  If  the 
question  of  right  and  left  is  not  impor- 
tant this  reversal  will  seldom  be  objec- 
tionable, for  it  is  easy  to  read  back- 
ward what  few  letters  generally  occur. 
However,  if  desired,  the  paper  may  be 
held  up  to  the  light  and  examined  from 
the  back,  or  placed  before  a  mirror  and 


viewed  by  means  of  its  reflected  image, 
when  the  true  relations  of  right  and  left 
will  be  seen.  Moreover,  if  sufficiently 
important,  an  exact  counterpart  of  the 
original  may  be  taken  from  the  reversed 
copy  by  laying  another  sheet  face  down- 
ward upon  it,  and  rubbing  on  the  back 
of  the  fresh  sheet  just  as  was  done  in 
making  the  reversed  copy.  The  im- 
pression thus  produced  will  be  fainter 
than  the  first,  but  almost  always  it  can 
be  made  dark  enough  to  show  a  distinct 
outline  which  may  afterwards  be  re- 
touched with  a  lead  pencil. 

For  indicator  cards  the  paper  is  pre- 
pared by  coating  one  surface  with  a  suit- 
able compound,  usually  zinc  oxide  mixed 
with  a  little  starch  and  enough  glue  to 
make  it  adhere.  After  drying  it  is 
passed  between  calendar  rolls  under  great 
pressure.  The  various  brands  manu- 
factured for  the  trade,  though  perhaps 
equally  good  for  indicator  diagrams,  are 
not  equally  well  suited  for  copying.  If 
paper  of  firmer  texture  could  be  prepared 
with  the  same  surface  finish,  probably 
much  larger  copies  could  be  produced. 

Other  kinds  of  paper,  notably  the 
heavy  plate  papers  used  for  some  of  the 
best  trade  catalogues,  possess  this  trans- 
fer property  to  a  slight  degree,  though 
they  will  not  receive  marks  from  a  me- 
tallic pencil.  The  latter  feature  would 
seem  to  recommend  them  for  transfer 
purposes,  making  them  less  likely  to  be- 
come soiled  by  contact  with  metallic 
objects,  but  so  far  no  kind  has  been 
found  which  will  remove  enough  ink 
to  give  copies  anywhere  near  as  dark  as 
the  indicator  paper. 

Fairly  good  transfers  can  be  made 
from  almost  any  common  printers'  ink, 
but  some  inks  copy  much  better  than 
others,  and  some  yield  only  the  faintest 
impressions.  The  length  of  time  since  a 
picture  was  printed  does  not  seem  to  de- 
termine its  copying  quality.  Some  very 
old  prints  can  be  copied  better  than  new 
ones;  in  fact,  it  was  by  accidental  trans- 
fer to  an  indicator  card  from  a  book 
nearly  a  hundred  years  old  that  the 
peculiar  property  of  this  "metallic" 
paper  was  discovered. 

Copying  Process  on  Wood. — If  wood 
surfaces  are  exposed  to  direct  sunlight 
the  wood  will  exhibit,  after  2  weeks 
action,  a  browning  of  dark  tone  in  the 
exposed  places.  Certain  parts  of  the 
surface  being  covered  up  during  the  en- 
tire exposure  to  the  sun,  they  retain  their 
original  shade  and  are  set  off  clearly  and 
sharply  against  the  parts  browned  by  the 
sunlight.  Based  on  this  property  of  the 


COPYING   PROCESSES— CORKS 


wood  is  a  sun-copying  process  on  wood. 
The  method  is  used  for  producing  tarsia 
in  imitation  on  wood.  A  pierced  stencil 
of  tin,  wood,  or  paper  is  laid  on  a  freshly 
planed  plate  of  wood,  pasting  it  on  in 
places  to  avoid  shifting,  and  put  into  a 
common  copying  frame.  To  prevent  the 
wood  from  warping  a  stretcher  is  em- 
ployed, whereupon  expose  to  the  sun  for 
from  8  to  14  days.  After  the  brown 
shade  has  appeared  the  design  obtained 
is  partly  fixed  by  polishing  or  by  a  coating 
of  varnish,  lacquer,  or  wax.  Best  suited 
for  such  works  are  the  pine  woods,  espe- 
cially the  5-year  fir  and  the  cembra  pine, 
which,  after  the  exposure,  show  a  yellow- 
ish brown  tone  of  handsome  golden  gloss, 
that  stands  out  boldly,  especially  after 
subsequent  polishing,  and  cannot  be 
replaced  by  any  staifi  or  by  pyrography. 
The  design  is  sharper  and  clearer  than 
that  produced  by  painting.  In  short, 
the  total  effect  is  pleasing. 

How  to  Reproduce  Old  Prints.— Pre- 
pare a  bath  as  follows:  Sulphuric  acid, 
3  to  5  parts  (according  to  the  antiquity  of 
print,  thickness  of  paper,  etc.);  alcohol, 
3  to  5  parts;  water,  100  parts.  In  this 
soak  the  print  from  5  to  15  minutes  (the 
time  depending  on  age,  etc.,  as  above), 
remove,  spread  face  downward  on  a 
glass  or  ebonite  plate,  and  wash  thor- 
oughly in  a  gentle  stream  of  running 
water.  If  the  paper  is  heavy,  reverse 
the  sides,  and  let  the  water  flow  over 
the  face  of  the  print.  Remove  care- 
fully and  place  on  a  heavy  sheet  of 
blotting  paper,  cover  with  another,  and 
press  out  every  drop  of  water  possible. 
Where  a  wringing  machine  is  convenient 
and  sufficiently  wide,  passing  the  blot- 
ters and  print  through  the  rollers  is  bet- 
ter than  mere  pressing  with  the  hands. 
The  print,  still  moist,  is  then  laid  face 
upward  on  a  heavy  glass  plate  (a  mar- 
ble slab  or  a  lithographers'  stone  an- 
swers equally  well),  and  smoothed  out. 
With  a  very  soft  sponge  go  over  the  sur- 
face with  a  thin  coating  of  gum-arabic 
water.  The  print  is  now  ready  for  ink- 
ing, which  is  done  exactly  as  in  litho- 
graphing, with  a  roller  and  printers'  or 
lithographers'  ink,  cut  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. Suitable  paper  is  then  laid  on 
and  rolled  with  a  dry  roller.  This  gives 
a  reverse  image  of  the  print,  which  is 
then  applied  to  a  zinc  plate  or  a  lithogra- 
phers' stone,  and  as  many  prints  as  de- 
sired pulled  off  in  the  usual  lithographing 
method.  When  carefully  done  and  the 
right  kind  of  paper  used,  it  is  said  that 
the  imitation  of  the  original  is  perfect  in 
every  detail. 


To  Copy  Old  Letters,  Manuscripts,  etc. 
— If  written  in  the  commercial  ink  of  the 
period  from  1860  to  1864,  which  was 
almost  universally  an  iron  and  tannin  or 
gallic-acid  ink,  the  following  process  may 
succeed:  Make  a  thin  solution  of  glucose, 
or  honey,  in  water,  and  with  this  wet  the 
paper  in  the  usually  observed  way  in 
copying  recent  documents  in  the  letter 
book,  put  in  the  press,  and  screw  down 
tightly.  Let  it  remain  in  the  press  some- 
what longer  than  in  copying  recent  docu- 
ments. When  removed,  before  attempt- 
ing to  separate  the  papers,  expose  to  the 
fumes  of  strong  water  of  ammonia,  copy 
side  downward. 

CORDAGE: 

See  also  Ropes. 

Strong  Twine. — An  extraordinarily 
strong  pack  thread  or  cord,  stronger  even 
than  the  so-called  "  Zuckerschnur,"  may 
be  obtained  by  laying  the  thread  of  fibers 
in  a  strong  solution  of  alum,  and  then 
carefully  drying  them. 

Preservation  of  Fishing  Nets. — The 
following  recipe  for  the  preservation  of 
fishing  nets  is  also  applicable  to  ropes, 
etc.,  in  contact  with  water.  Some  have 
been  subjected  to  long  test. 

For  40  parts  of  cord,  hemp,  or  cot- 
ton, 3  parts  of  kutch,  1  part  of  blue 
vitriol,  £  part  of  potassium  chromate, 
and  2i  parts  of  wood  tar  are  required. 
The  kutch  is  boiled  with  150  parts  of 
water  until  dissolved,  and  then  the  blue 
vitriol  is  added.  Next,  the  net  is  entered 
and  the  tar  added.  The  whole  should 
be  stirred  well,  and  the  cordage  must  boil 
5  to  8  minutes.  Now  take  out  the  net- 
ting, lay  it  in  another  vessel,  cover  up 
well,  and  leave  alone  for  12  hours.  After 
that  it  is  dried  well,  spread  out  in  a  clean 
place,  and  coated  with  linseed  oil.  Not 
before  6  hours  have  elapsed  should  it  be 
folded  together  and  put  into  the  water. 
The  treatment  with  linseed  oil  may  be 
omitted. 

CORDAGE  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricants. 

CORDAGE  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

CORDIALS: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

CORKS : 

Impervious  Corks. — Corks  which  have 
been  steeped  in  petrolatum  are  said  to  be 
an  excellent  substitute  for  glass  stoppers. 
Acid  in  no  way  affects  them  and  chemi- 
cal fumes  do  not  cause  decay  in  them, 
neither  do  they  become  fixed  by  a  blow 
or  long  disuse. 


CORKS— CORN    CURES 


Non-Porous  Corks. — For  benzine,  tur- 
pentine, and  varnish  cans,  immerse  the 
corks  in  hot  melted  paraffine.  Keep 
them  under  about  5  minutes;  hold  them 
down  with  a  piece  of  wire  screen  cut  to 
fit  the  dish  in  which  you  melt  the  paraf- 
fine. Whan  taken  out  lay  them  on  a 
screen  till  cool.  Cheap  corks  can  in  this 
way  be  made  gas-  and  air-tight,  and  can 
be  cut  and  bored  with  ease. 

Substitute  for  Cork. — Wood  pulp  or 
other  ligneous  material  may  be  treated 
to  imitate  cork.  For  the  success  of  the 
composition  it  is  necessary  that  the  con- 
stituents be  mingled  and  treated  under 
special  conditions.  The  volumetric  pro- 
portions in  which  these  constituents 
combine  with  the  best  results  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Wood  pulp,  3  parts;  cornstalk 
pith,  1  part;  gelatin,  1  part;  glycerine, 
1  part;  water,  4  parts;  20  per  cent  formic- 
aldehyde  solution,  1  part;  but  the  pro- 
portions may  be  varied.  After  disinte- 
grating the  ligneous  substances,  and 
while  these  are  in  a  moist  and  hot  condi- 
tion they  are  mingled  with  the  solution 
of  gelatin,  glycerine,  and  water.  The 
mass  is  stirred  thoroughly  so  as  to  obtain 
a  homogeneous  mixture.  The  excess  of 
moisture  is  removed.  As  a  last  opera- 
tion the  formic  aldehyde  is  introduced, 
and  the  mass  is  left  to  coagulate  in  this 
solution.  The  formic  aldehyde  renders 
the  product  insoluble  in  nearly  all  liquids. 
So  it  is  in  this  last  operation  that  it  is 
necessary  to  be  careful  in  producing  the 
composition  properly.  When  the  oper- 
ation is  terminated  the  substance  is  sub- 
mitted to  pressure  during  its  coagulation, 
either  by  molding  it  at  once  into  a  desired 
form,  or  into  a  mass  which  is  afterwards 
converted  into  the  finished  product. 

CORKS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

CORK  TO  METAL,  FASTENING: 
See  Adhesives,  under  Pastes. 

CORK  AS  A  PRESERVATIVE: 

See  Preserving. 

CORKS,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

CORN  CURES: 

I.  — Salicylic- Acid  Corn  Cure. — Extract 
cannabis  indica,  1  part,  by  measure ; 
salicylic  acid,  10  parts,  by  measure;  oil 
of  turpentine,  5  parts,  by  measure;  acetic 
acid,  glacial,  2  parts,  by  measure;  coca- 
ine, alkaloidal,  2  parts,  by  measure;  col- 
lodion, elastic,  sufficient  to  make  100 
parts.  Apply  a  thin  coating  every  night, 
putting  each  layer  directly  on  the  pre- 


ceding one.  After  a  few  applications, 
the  mass  drops  off,  bringing  the  indurated 
portion,  and  frequently  the  whole  of  the 
corn,  off  with  it. 

II. — Compound  Salicylated  Collodion 
Corn  Cure. — Salicylic  acid,  11  parts,  by 
weight;  extract  of  Indian  hemp,  2  parts, 
by  weight;  alcohol,  10  parts,  by  weight; 
flexible  collodion,  U.  S.  P.,  a  "sufficient 
quantity  to  make  100  parts,  by  weight. 

The  extract  is  dissolved  in  the  alcohol 
and  the  acid  in  about  50  parts,  by  weight, 
of  collodion,  the  solutions  mixed,  and 
the  liquid  made  up  to  the  required 
amount.  The  Indian  hemp  is  presum- 
ably intended  to  prevent  pain;  whether  it 
serves  this  or  any  other  useful  purpose 
seems  a  matter  of  doubt.  The  acid  is 
frequently  used  without  this  addition. 

III. — Extract  of  cannabis  indica,  90 
grains;  salicylic  acid,  1  ounce;  alcohol,  1 
ounce;  collodion  enough  to  make  10 
ounces.  Soften  the  extract  with  the 
alcohol,  then  add  the  collodion,  and 
lastly  the  acid. 

IV. — Resorcin,  1  part,  by  weight; 
salicylic  acid,  1  part,  by  weight;  lactic 
acid,  1  part,  by  weight;  collodion  elasti- 
cum,  10  parts,  by  weight.  Paint  the 
corn  daily  for  5  or  6  days  with  the  above 
solution  and  take  a  foot  bath  in  very  hot 
water.  The  corn  will  readily  come  off. 

Corn  Plaster. — Yellow  wax,  24  parts, 
by  weight;  Venice  turpentine,  3  parts, 
by  weight;  rosin,  2  parts,  by  weight; 
salicylic  acid,  2  parts,  by  weight;  balsam 
of  Peru,  2  parts,  by  weight;  lanolin,  4 
parts,  by  weight. 

Corn  Cure. — Melt  soap  plaster,  85 
parts,  by  weight,  and  yellow  wax,  5  parts 
by  weight,  in  a  vapor  bath,  and  stir  finely 
ground  salicylic  acid,  10  parts,  by  weight, 
into  it. 

Removal  of  Corns. — The  liquid  used 
by  chiropodists  with  pumice  stone  for  the 
removal  of  corns  and  callosities  is  usually 
nothing  more  than  a  solution  of  potassa 
or  concentrated  lye,  the  pumice  stone 
being  dipped  into  the  solution  by  the 
operator  just  before  using. 

Treatment  of  Bunions. — Wear  right 
and  left  stockings  and  shoes,  the  inner 
edges  of  the  sole  of  which  are  perfectly 
straight.  The  bunion  is  bathed  night 
and  morning  in  a  4  per  cent  solution  of 
carbolic  acid  for  a  few  minutes,  followed 
by  plain  water.  If,  after  several  weeks, 
the  bursa  is  still  distended  with  fluid,  it 
is  aspirated.  If  the  bunion  is  due  to 
flatfoot,  the  arch  of  the  foot  must  be 
restored  by  a  plate.  When  the  joints 
are  enlarged  because  of  gout  or  rheuma- 


CORN   CURES— COSMETICS 


tism,  the  constitutional  conditions  must 
be  treated.  In  other  cases,  osteotomy 
and  tenotomy  are  required. 

The  Treatment  of  Corns. — Any  corn 
may  be  speedily  and  permanently  cured. 
The  treatment  is  of  three  kinds — preven- 
tive, palliative,  and  curative. 

I. — The  preventive  treatment  lies  in 
adopting  such  measures  as  will  secure 
freedom  from  pressure  and  friction  for 
the  parts  most  liable  to  corns.  To  this 
end  a  well-fitting  shoe  is  essential.  The 
shoes  should  be  of. well-seasoned  leather, 
soft  and  elastic,  and  should  be  cut  to  a 
proper  model.  * 

II. — The  palliative  treatment  is  gen- 
erally carried  out  with  chemical  sub- 
stances. The  best  method,  is,  briefly, 
as  follows:  A  ring  of  glycerine  jelly  is 
painted  around  the  circumference  of  the 
corn,  to  form  a  raised  rampart.  A  piece 
of  salicylic  plaster  mull  is  then  cut  to  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  central  depression, 
and  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  corn. 
This  is  then  covered  with  a  layer  of  glyc- 
erine jelly,  and  before  it  sets  a  pad  of 
cotton  wool  is  applied  to  the  surface. 
This  process  is  repeated  as  often  as  is 
necessary,  until  the  horny  layer  separates 
and  is  cast  off. 

If  the  point  of  a  sharp,  thin-bladed 
knife  be  introduced  at  the  groove  which 
runs  around  the  margin  of  the  corn,  and 
be  made  to  penetrate  toward  its  central 
axis,  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  manual 
dexterity  the  horny  part  of  the  corn  can 
be  easily  made  to  separate  from  the  parts 
beneath. 

III. — Any  method  of  treatment  to  be 
curative  must  secure  the  removal  of  the 
entire  corn,  together  with  the  under- 
lying bursa.  It  is  mainly  in  connection 
with  the  latter  structure  that  complica- 
tions, which  alone  make  a  corn  a  matter 
of  serious  import,  are  likely  to  arise. 
Freeland  confidently  advises  the  full  and 
complete  excision  of  corns,  on  the  basis 
of  his  experience  in  upward  of  60  cases. 

Every  precaution  having  been  taken 
to  render  the  operation  aseptic,  a  spot  is 
selected  for  the  injection  of  the  anaesthetic 
solution.  The  skin  is  rendered  insen- 
sitive with  ethyl  chloride,  and  5  minims 
of  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  cocaine  is  in- 
jected into  the  subcutaneous  tissue  be- 
neath the  corn.  After  a  wait  of  a  few 
minutes  the  superficial  parts  of  the  site 
of  the  incision  are  rendered  insensitive 
with  ethyl  chloride.  Anaesthesia  is  now 
complete. 

Two  semielliptieal  incisions  meeting 
at  their  extremities  are  made  through 
the  skin  around  the  circumference  of  tne 


growth,  care  being  taken  that  they  pen- 
etrate well  into  the  subcutaneous  tissue. 
Seizing  the  parts  included  in  the  incision 
with  a  pair  of  dissecting  forceps,  a  wedge- 
shaped  piece  of  tissue — including  the 
corn,  a  layer  of  skin  and  subcutaneous 
tissue,  and  the  bursa  if  present — is  dis- 
sected out.  The  oozing  is  pretty  free, 
and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  torsion  a 
small  vessel;  but  the  hemorrhage  is 
never  severe.  The  edges  of  the  wound 
are  brought  together  by  one  or  two  fine 
sutures;  an  antiseptic  dressing  is  applied, 
and  the  wound  is  left  to  heal — primary 
union  in  a  few  days  being  the  rule.  The 
rapidity  of  the  healing  is  often  phenom- 
enal. There  is  produced  a  scar  tissue  at 
the  site  of  the  corn,  but  this  leads  to  no 
untoward  results. 

Cosmetics 

COLD  CREAM. 

I. — Oil  of  almonds  ....    425       parts 

Lanolin 185       parts 

White  wax 62       parts 

Spermaceti 62       parts 

Borax 4.5  parts 

Rose  water 300       parts 

Melt  together  the  first  four  ingredients, 
then  incorporate  the  solution  of  borax  in 
the  rose  water. 

II. — Tragacanth 125       parts 

Boric  acid 100       parts 

Glycerine 140       parts 

Expressed  oil  of  al- 
monds         50       parts 

Glyconine 50       parts 

Oil  of  lavender. ...  0.5  parts 

Water    enough     to 

make 1,000       parts 

Mix  the  tragacanth  and  the  boric 
acid  with  the  glycerine;  add  the  almond 
oil,  lavender  oil,  and  egg  glycerite,  which 
have  been  previously  well  incorporated, 
and,  lastly,  add  the  water  in  divided 
portions  until  a  clear  jelly  of  the  desired 
consistency  is  obtained. 

III. — Oil  of  almonds 26  ounces 

Castor  oil  (odorless).     6  ounces 
Lard  (benzoated) ...     8  ounces 

White  wax 8  ounces 

Rose  water  (in  win- 
ter  less,    in   sum- 
mer   more,     than 
quantity  named) ..    12  ounces 
Orange-flower  water     8  ounces 

Oil  of  rose 15  minims 

Extract  of  jasmine.  .      6  drachms 
Extract  of  cassia. ...      4  drachms 

Borax 2  ounces 

Glycerine 4  ounces 


COSMETICS 


Melt  the  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  wax,  and 
lard  together,  and  stir  in  the  castor  oil; 
make  a  solution  of  the  borax  in  the 
glycerine  and  rose  and  orange-flower 
waters;  add  this  solution,  a  little  at  a 
time,  to  the  melted  fat,  stirring  con- 
stantly to  insure  thorough  incorporation; 
finally  add  the  oil  of  rose  dissolved  in  the 
extracts,  and  beat  the  ointment  until 
cold. 

IV. — Spermaceti  (pure),  I  ounce; 
white  wax  (pure),  J  ounce;  almond  oil,  I 
pound;  butter  of  cocoa,  J  pound;  lano- 
lin, 2  ounces. 

Melt  and  stir  in  1  drachm  of  balsam 
of  Peru.  After  settling,  pour  off  the  clear 
portion  and  add  2  fluidrachms  of  orange- 
flower  water  and  stir  briskly  until  it 
concretes. 

Camphorated  Cold  Cream. — 
Oil    of    sweet   al- 
monds        8  fluidounces 

White  wax 1  ounce 

Spermaceti.. 1  ounce 

Camphor 1  ounce 

Rose  water 5  fluidounces 

Borax  (in  fine  pow- 
der)        4  drachms 

Oil  of  rose 10  drops 

Melt  the  wax  and  spermaceti,  add  the 
oil  of  sweet  almonds,  in  which  the  cam- 
phor has  been  dissolved  with  very  gentle 
heat;  then  gradually  add  the  rose  water, 
in  which  the  borax  has  previously  been 
dissolved,  beating  or  agitating  con- 
stantly with  a  wooden  spatula  until  cold. 
Lastly  add  the  oil  of  rose. 

Petrolatum  Cold  Cream.  — 

Petrolatum  (white)..  .      7     ounces 

Paraffine ^  ounce 

Lanolin 2    ounces 

Water 3    ounces 

Oil  of  rose 3     drops 

Alcohol 1     drachm 

A   small    quantity   of   borax   may   be 

added,  if  desirable,  and  the  perfume  may 

be  varied  to  suit  the  taste. 

LIP  SALVES: 

Pomades  for  the  Lips. — Lip  pomatum 
which  is  said  always  to  retain  a  hand- 
some red  color  and  never  to  grow  rancid 
is  prepared  as  follows: 

I.— Paraffine 80 . 0  parts 

Vaseline 80.0  parts 

Anchusine 0.5  parts 

Bergamot  oil 1.0  part 

Lemon  peel 1.0  part 

II. — Vaseline  Pomade. — 

Vaseline  oil,  white.  .  .  1,000  parts 
Wax,  white 300  parts 


can  .... 
Lemon  oil 


Geranium  oil,  Afri- 

40    parts 
20     parts 

III. — Rose  Pomade. — 

Almond  oil 1,000  parts 

Wax,  white 300  parts 

Alkannin 3  parts 

Geranium  oil 20  parts 

IV.— Yellow  Pomade.— 

Vaseline  oil,  white.  1,000  parts 

Wax,  white 200  parts 

Spermaceti 200  parts 

Saffron  surrogate.         10  parts 

Clove  oil 20  parts 

V.— White  Pomade.— 

Vaseline  oil,  white.  1,000  parts 

Wax,  white 300  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil, 

genuine 10  parts 

Lemon  oil 2  parts 

VI.  —  Paraffme 49 . 0    parts 

Vaseline 49.0     parts 

Oil  of  lemon 0 .  75  parts 

Oil  of  violet 0 .  75  parts 

Carmine,  quantity  sufficient. 

Lipol. — For  treating  sore,  rough,  or 
inflamed  lips,  apply  the  following  night 
and  morning,  rubbing  in  well  with  the 
finger  tips:  Camphor,  |  ounce;  men- 
thol, \  ounce;  eucalyptol,  1  drachm; 
petrolatum  (white),  1  pound;  paraffine, 
i  pound;  alkanet  root,  £  ounce;  oil  of 
bitter  almonds,  15  drops;  oil  of  cloves, 
10  drops;  oil  of  cassia,  5  drops.  Digest 
the  root  in  the  melted  paraffine  and  pe- 
trolatum, strain,  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients and  pour  into  lip  jars,  hot. 

MANICURE  PREPARATIONS: 
Powdered  Nail  Polishes.— 

I. — Tin  oxide 8     drachms 

Carmine \  drachm 

Rose  oil 6     drops 

Neroli  oil 5    drops 

II.— Cinnabar 1     drachm 

Infusorial  earth 8     drachms 

III. — Putty  powder  (fine) .      4     drachms 

Carmine 2     grains 

Oil  of  rose 1     drop 

IV.— White  castile  soap..  .      1     part 

Hot  water 16     parts 

Zinc  chloride  solu- 
tion, 10  per  cent, 
quantity  sufficient. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  and  to 
the  solution  add  the  zinc-chloride  solu- 
tion until  no  further  precipitation  oc- 
curs. Let  stand  over  night;  pour  off  the 
supernatant  fluid,  wash  the  precipitate 


COSMETICS 


well  with  water,  and  dry  at  the  ordinary 
temperature.  Carmine  may  be  added  if 
desired. 

Polishing  Pastes  for  the  Nails. — 

I. — Talcum 5  drachms 

Stannous  oxide 3  drachms 

Powdered  tragacanth      5  grains 

Glycerine 1  drachm 

Rose  water,  quantity 

sufficient. 
Solution  of  carmine 

sufficient  to  tint. 
Make  paste. 

For  softening  the  nails,  curing  hang- 
nails, etc.,  an  ointment  is  sometimes  used 
consisting  of  white  petrolatum,  8  parts; 
powdered  castile  soap,  1  part;  and  per- 
fume to  suit. 

II. — Eosine 10     grains 

White  wax \  drachm 

Spermaceti |  drachm 

Soft  paraffine 1     ounce 

Alcohol,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  cosine  in  as  little  alcohol  as 
will  suffice,  melt  the  other  ingredients  to- 
gether, add  the  sol  ution,  and  stir  until  cool. 

Nail-Cleaning  Washes.— 

I. — Tartaric  acid 1  drachm 

Tincture  of  myrrh  . .      1  drachm 

Cologne  water 2  drachms 

Water 3  ounces 

Dissolve  the  acid  in  the  water;  mix 
the  tincture  of  myrrh  and  cologne,  and 
add  to  the  acid  solution. 

Dip  the  nails  in  this  solution,  wipe, 
and  polish  with  chamois  skin. 

II. — Oxalic  acid 30  grains 

Rose  water 1  ounce 

Nail  Varnish.— 

Paraffine  wax 60  grains 

Chloroform 2  ounces 

Oil  of  rose 3  drops 

POMADES: 

I. — Beef-Marrow  Pomade. — 
Vaseline  oil,  yel- 
low   20,000  parts 

Ceresine,  yellow    3,000  parts 
Beef  marrow  .  .     2,000  parts 
Saffron     substi- 
tute    15  parts 

Lemon  oil 50  parts 

Bergamot  oil.  . .  20  parts 

Clove  oil 5  parts 

Lavender  oil. .  .  10  parts 

II.— China  Pomade.— 

Vaseline  oil, 

yellow 20,000  parts 

Ceresine,  yel- 
low    5,000  parts 


Brilliant, 

brown 12  parts 

Peru  balsam. . .  50  parts 

Lemon  oil. ....  5  parts 

Bergamot  oil . .  5  parts 

Clove  oil 5  parts 

Lavender  oil . .  5  parts 

III. — Crystalline  Honey  Pomade. — 
Nut  oil,  125  drachms;  spermaceti,  15 
drachms:  gamboge,  2  drachms;  vervain 
oil,  10  drops;  cinnamon  oil,  20  drops; 
bergamot  oil,  30  drops;  rose  oil,  3  drops. 
The  spermaceti  is  melted  in  the  nut  oil 
on  a  water  bath  and  digested  with  the 
gamboge  for  20  minutes;  it  is  next 
strained,  scented,  and  poured  into  cans 
which  are  standing  in  water.  The  cool- 
ing must  take  place  very  slowly.  In- 
stead of  gamboge,  butter  color  may  be 
used.  Any  desired  scent  mixture  may 
be  employed. 

IV.— Herb  Pomade.— 
Vaseline  oil,  yel- 
low   20,000  parts 

Ceresine,  yellow    5,000  parts 
Chlorophyll ...  20  parts 

Lemon  oil 


Clove  oil 

Geranium    oil, 

African 

Curled  mint  oil. 


50  parts 
20  parts 

12  parts 
4  parts 


V. — Rose  Pomade. — 
Vaseline    oil, 

white 20,000  parts 

Ceresine,  white    5,000  parts 

Alkannin.  ....  15  parts 
Geranium    oil, 

African 50  parts 

Palmarosa  oil.  30  parts 

Lemon  oil. ...  20  parts 

VI.— Strawberry  Pomade.— .When  the 
strawberry  season  is  on,  and  berries  are 
plenty  and  cheap,  the  following  is  timely: 
Strawberries,    ripe 

and  fresh 4  parts 

Lard,     sweet    and 

fresh 25  parts 

Tallow,  fresh 5  parts 

Alkanet  tincture, 
quantity  suffi- 
cient. 

Essential  oil,  quan- 
tity sufficient  to 
perfume. 

Melt  lard  and  tallow  together  on  the 
water  bath  at  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water.  Have  the  strawberries  arranged 
on  a  straining  cloth.  Add  the  alkanet 
tincture  to  the  melted  grease,  stir  in,  and 
then  pour  the  mixture  over  the  berries. 
Stir  the  strained  fats  until  the  mass  be- 


COSMETICS 


gins  to  set,  then  add  the  perfume  and 
stir  in.  A  little  artificial  essence  of 
strawberries  may  be  added.  The  odor 
usually  employed  is  rose,  about  1  drop  to 
every  2  pounds. 

VII.— Stick  Pomade.— 

Tallow 500  parts 

Ceresine 150  parts 

Wax,  yellow 50  parts 

Rosin,  light 200  parts 

Paraffine      oil 

(thick) 300  parts 

Oil  of  cassia 5  parts 

Oil  of  bergamot. .  5  parts 

Oil  of  clove 2  parts 

VIII.— Vaseline  Pomade.— Melt  250 
parts  of  freshly  rendered  lard  and  25 
parts  of  white  wax  at  moderate  heat  and 
mix  well  with  200  parts  of  vaseline. 
Add  15  parts  of  bergamot  oil,  3  parts  of 
lavender  oil,  2  parts  of  geranium  oil,  and 
2  parts  of  lemon  oil,  mixing  well. 

IX.— ^Witch-Hazel  Jelly.— 
Oil    of    sweet   al- 
monds     256  parts 

Extract  of  witch- 
hazel  fluid 10  parts 

Glycerine 32  parts 

Soft  soap 20  parts 

Tincture  of  musk,  quantity  suf- 
ficient to  perfume. 

Mix  in  a  large  mortar  the  glycerine 
and  soft  soap  and  stir  until  incorporated. 
Add  and  rub  in  the  witch-hazel,  and 
then  add  the  oil,  slowly,  letting  it  fall 
in  a  very  thin,  small  stream,  under  con- 
stant agitation;  add  the  perfume,  keep- 
ing up  the  agitation  until  complete  in- 
corporation is  attained.  Ten  drops  of 
musk  to  a  quart  of  jelly  is  sufficient. 
Any  other  perfume  may  be  used. 

Colors  for  Pomade. — Pomade  may  be 
colored  red  by  infusing  alkanet  in  the 
grease;  yellow  may  be  obtained  by  using 
annotto  in  the  same  way;  an  oil-soluble 
chlorophyll  will  give  a  green  color  by 
admixture. 

In  coloring  grease  by  means  of  alkanet 
or  annotto  it  is  best  to  tie  the  drug  up  in 
a  piece  of  coarse  cloth,  place  in  a  small 
portion  of  the  grease,  heat  gently,  squeez- 
ing well  with  a  rod  from  time  to  time; 
and  then  adding  this  strongly  colored 
grease  to  the  remainder.  This  proce- 
dure obviates  exposing  the  entire  mass 
to  heat,  and  neither  decantation  nor 
straining  is  needed. 

Brocq's  Pomade  for  Itching. — 

Acid  phenic 1  part 

Acid  salicylic 2  parts 


Acid  tartaric ...  3  parts 

Glycerole    of 

starch  . 60  to  100  parts 

Mix  and  make  a  pomade. 
White  Cosmetique. — 

Jasmine  pomade 2  ounces 

Tuberose  pomade..  .  .      2  ounces 

White  wax 2  ounces 

Refined  suet 4  ounces 

Rose  oil 15  minims 

Melt  the  wax  and  suet  over  a  water 
bath,  then  add  the  pomades,  and  finally 
the  otto. 

Glycerine  and  Cucumber  Jelly. — 

Gelatin 160  to  240  grains 

Boric  acid 240  grains 

Glycerine 6  fluidounces 

Water 10  fluidounces 

Perfume  to  suit.  The  perfume  must 
be  one  that  mixes  without  opalescence, 
otherwise  it  mars  the  beauty  of  the  prep- 
aration. Orange-flower  water  or  rose 
water  could  be  substituted  for  the  water 
if  desired,  or  another  perfume  consisting 
of 

Spirit  of  vanillin  (15 

grains  per  ounce).  2  fluidrachms 
Spirit    of    coumarin 
(15      grains      per 

ounce) 2  fluidrachms 

Spirit   of    bitter    al- 
monds (|) 8  minims 

to    the    quantities    given    above    would 
prove  agreeable. 

Cucumber  Pomade. — 

Cucumber  pomade.  . .      2     ounces 
Powdered  white  soap.        £  ounce 

Powdered  borax 2     drachms 

Cherry-laurel  water.  .      3     ounces 

Rectified  spirit 3     ounces 

Distilled  water  to  make  48  ounces 
Rub  the  pomade  with  the  soap  and 
borax  until  intimately  mixed,  then  add 
the  distilled  water  (which  may  be 
warmed  to  blood  heat),  ounce  by  ounce, 
to  form  a  smooth  and  uniform  cream. 
When  40  ounces  of  water  have  been  so 
incorporated,  dissolve  any  essential  oils 
desired  as  perfume  in  the  spirit,  and  add 
the  cherry-laurel  water,  making  up  to 
48  ounces  with  plain  water. 

ROUGES  AND  PAINTS: 

Grease  Paints. — Theatrical  face  paints 
are  sold  in  sticks,  and  there  are  many 
varieties  of  color.  Yellows  are  obtained 
with  ocher;  browns  with  burnt  umber; 
and  blue  is  made  with  ultramarine. 
These  colors  should  in  each  case  be  levi- 
gated finely  along  with  their  own  weight 


COSMETICS 


of  equal  parts  of  precipitated  chalk  and 
oxide  of  zinc  and  diluted  with  the  same  to 
the  tint  required,  then  made  into  sticks 
with  mutton  suet  (or  vaseline  or  paraf- 
fine,  equal  parts)  well  perfumed.  By 
blending  these  colors,  other  tints  may 
thus  be  obtained. 

White  Grease  Paints.— 
I. — Prepared  chalk  .  .      4    av.  ounces 

Zinc  oxide 4    av.  ounces 

Bismuth       subni- 

trate. 4    av.  ounces 

Asbestos  powder.      4    av.  ounces 
Sweet  almond  oil, 

about 2J  fluidounces 

Camphor 40    grains 

Oil  peppermint.  . .     3    fluidrachms 
Esobouquet       ex- 
tract       3    fluidrachms 

Sufficient  almond  oil  should  be  used 
to  form  a  mass  of  proper  consistence. 

II. — Zinc  oxide 8  parts 

Bismuth  subnitrate  .  .      8  parts 
Aluminum    oxychlor- 

ide 8  parts 

Almond   oil,  quantity  sufficient,  or 

5-6  parts. 
Perfume,  quantity  sufficient. 

Mix  the  zinc,  bismuth,  and  aluminum 
oxychloride  thoroughly;  make  into  a  paste 
with  the  oil .  Any  perfume  may  be  added, 
but  that  generally  used  is  composed  of  1 
drachm  of  essence  of  bouquet,  12  grains 
of  camphor,  and  12  minims  of  oil  of  pep- 
permint for  every  3|  ounces  of  paste. 

Bright  Red.— 

Zinc  oxide 10  parts 

Bismuth  subnitrate. ..    10  parts 
Aluminum    oxychlor- 
ide     10  parts 

Almond  oil,  quantity  sufficient. 

Mix  the  zinc,  bismuth,  and  aluminum 
salts,  and  to  every  4  ounces  of  the  mix- 
ture add  2J  grainj  of  cosine  dissolved  in 
a  drachm  of  essence  of  bouquet,  12  minims 
oil  of  peppermint,  and  12  grains  of  cam- 
phor. Make  the  whole  into  a  paste  with 
almond  oil. 

Red.— 

Cacao  butter 4  av.  ounces 

White  wax 4  av.  ounces 

Olive  oil 2  fluidounces 

Oil  of  rose 8  drops 

Oil  of  bergamot  .  .  3  drops 

Oil  of  neroli 2  drops 

Tincture  musk ...  2  drops 

Carmine 90  grains 

Ammonia  water  .  .  3  fluidrachms 


Deep,  or  Bordeaux,  Red. — 

Zinc  oxide 30  parts 

Bismuth  subnitrate. . .    30  parts 
Aluminum    oxychlor- 
ide     30  parts 

Carmine 1  part 

Ammonia  water 5  parts 

Essence  bouquet 3  parts 

Peppermint,    camphor,   etc.,    quan- 
tity sufficient. 

Mix  the  zinc,  bismuth,  and  aluminum 
salts.  Dissolve  the  carmine  in  the  am- 
monia and  add  solution  to  the  mixture. 
Add  24  grains  of  camphor,  and  24  minims 
of  oil  of  peppermint  dissolved  in  the 
essence  bouquet,  and  make  the  whole 
into  a  paste  with  oil  of  sweet  almonds. 

Vermilion. — 

Vermilion 18  parts 

Tincture  of  saffron. .  12  parts 
Orris  root,  powdered  30  parts 
Chalk,  precipitated. .  120  parts 

Zinc  oxide 120  parts 

Camphor 2  parts 

Essence  bouquet.  ...  9  parts 
Oil  of  peppermint.  .  .  2  parts 
Almond  oil,  quantity  sufficient. 

Mix  as  before. 

Pink.— 

Zinc  carbonate 250  parts 

Bismuth  subnitrate. .  250  parts 

Asbestos. 250  parts 

Expressed   oil   of  al- 
monds   100  parts 

Camphor 55  parts 

Oil  01  peppermint  .  .  55  parts 

Perfume 25  parts 

Eosine 1  part 

Dark  Red. — Like  the  preceding,  but 
colored  with  a  solution  of  carmine. 

Rouge. — 

Zinc  oxide 2£  ounces 

Bismuth  subnitrate. ..      2£  ounces 
Aluminum  plumbate.      2£  ounces 

Eosine 1     drachm 

Essence  bouquet 2     drachms 

Camphor 6     drachms 

Oil  of  peppermint.  ...  20     minims 
Almond  oil,  quantity  sufficient. 

Dissolve  the  cosine  in  the  essence 
bouquet,  and  mix  with  the  camphor  and 
peppermint;  add  the  powder  and  make 
into  a  paste  with  almond  oil. 

Black  Grease  Paints.— 

I. — Soot 2  av.  ounces 

Sweet  almond  oil .    2  fluidounces 

Cacao  butter 6  av.  ounces 

Perfume,  sufficient. 


230 


COSMETICS 


The  soot  should  be  derived  from 
burning  camphor  and  repeatedly  washed 
with  alcohol.  It  should  be  triturated  to 
a  smooth  mixture  with  the  oil;  then  add 
to  the  melted  cacao  butter;  add  the  per- 
fume, and  form  into  sticks. 

Brown  or  other  colors  may  be  obtained 
by  adding  appropriate  pigments,  such  as 
finely  levigated  burned  umber,  sienna, 
ocher,  jeweler's  rouge,  etc.,  to  the  fore- 
going base  instead  of  lampblack. 

II. — Best  lampblack 1  drachm 

Cacao  butter 3  drachms 

Olive  oil 3  drachms 

Oil  of  neroli 2  drops 

Melt  the  cacao  butter  and  oil,  add  the 
lampblack,  and  stir  constantly  as  the 
mixture  cools,  adding  the  perfume 
toward  the  end. 

III. — Lampblack 1  part 

Cacao  butter 6  parts 

Oil  neroli,  sufficient. 
Melt  the  cacao  butter  and  the  lamp- 
black, and  while  cooling  make  an  inti- 
mate mixture,  adding  the  perfume  toward 
the  last. 

IV. — Lampblack 1  part 

Expressed  oil  of   al- 
monds       1  part 

Oil  cocoanut 1  part 

Perfume,  sufficient. 
Beat  the  lampblack  into  a  stiff  paste 
with  glycerine.     Apply  with  a  sponge; 
if  necessary,  mix  a  little  water  with  it 
when  using. 

V. — Beat  the  finest  lampblack  into  a 
stiff  paste  with  glycerine  and  apply  with 
a  sponge;  if  necessary,  add  a  little  water 
to  the  mixture  when  using.  Or  you  can 
make  a  grease  paint  as  follows:  Drop 
black,  2  drachms;  almond  oil,  2  drachms; 
cocoanut  oil,  6  drachms;  oil  of  lemon,  5 
minims;  oil  of  neroli,  1  minim.  Mix. 

Fatty  Face  Powders. — These  have  a 
small  percentage  of  fat  mixed  with  them 
in  order  to  make  the  powder  adhere  to 
the  skin. 

Dissolve  1  drachm  anhydrous  lano- 
lin in  2  drachms  of  ether  in  a  mortar. 
Add  3  drachms  of  light  magnesia.  Mix 
well,  dry,  and  then  add  the  following: 
French  chalk,  2  ounces;  powdered 
starch,  1£  ounces;  boric  acid,  1  drachm; 
perfume,  a  sufficient  quantity.  A  good 
perfume  is  coumarin,  2  grains,  and  attar 
of  rose,  2  minims. 

Nose  Putty. — I. — Mix  1  ounce  wheat  flour 
with  2  drachms  of  powdered  tragacanth 
and  tint  with  carmine.  Take  as  much 
of  the  powder  as  necessary,  knead  into  a 


stiff  paste  with  a  little  water  and  apply 
to  the  nose,  having  previously  painted  it 
with  spirit  gum. 

II. — White  wax,  8  parts;  rosin,  white, 
8  parts;  mutton  suet,  4  parts;  color  to 
suit.  Melt  together. 

Rose  Powder. — As  a  base  take  200 
parts  of  powdered  iris  root,  add  600  parts 
of  rose  petals,  100  parts  of  sandal  wood, 
100  parts  of  patchouli,  3  parts  of  oil  of 
geranium,  and  2  parts  of  true  rose  oil. 

Rouge  Tablets. — There  are  two  dis- 
tinct classes  of  these  tablets:  those  in 
which  the  coloring  matter  is  carmine, 
and  those  in  which  the  aniline  colors  are 
used.  The  best  are  those  prepared  with 
carmine,  or  ammonium  carminate,  to 
speak  more  correctly.  The  following  is 
an  excellent  formula: 

Ammonium  carminate.  .  .    10  parts 

Talc,  in  powder 25  parts 

Dextrin 8  parts 

Simple  syrup,  sufficient. 
Perfume,  to  taste,  sufficient. 

Mix  the  talc  and  dextrin  and  add  the 
perfume,  preferably  in  the  shape  of  an 
essential  oil  (attar  of  rose,  synthetic  oil  of 
jasmine,  or  violet,  etc.),  using  6  to  8 
drops  to  every  4  ounces  of  other  in- 
gredients. Incorporate  the  ammonium 
carminate  and  add  just  enough  simple 
syrup  to  make  a  mass  easily  rolled  out. 
Cut  into  tablets  of  the  desired  size.  The 
ammonium  carminate  is  made  by  adding 
1  part  of  carmine  to  2|  parts  of  strong 
ammonia  water.  Mix  in  a  vial,  cork 
tightly,  and  set  aside  until  a  solution  is 
formed,  shaking  occasionally.  The  am- 
monium carminate  is  made  by  dissolving 
carmine  in  ammonia  water  to  saturation. 

Rouge  Palettes. — To  prepare  rouge 
palettes  rub  up  together: 

Carmine 9  parts 

French  chalk 50  parts 

Almond  oil 12  parts 

Add  enough  tragacanth  mucilage  to 
make  the  mass  adhere  and  spread  the 
whole  evenly  on  the  porcelain  palette. 

Liquid  Rouge. — 

I. — Carmine .  .      4  parts 

Stronger    ammonia 

water 4  parts 

Essence  of  rose  ....    16  parts 
Rose  water  to  make. 500  parts 

Mix.  A  very  delightful  violet  odor,  if 
this  is  preferred,  is  obtained  by  using 
ionone  in  place  of  rose  essence.  A  cheaper 
preparation  may  be  made  as  follows: 


COSMETICS 


II. — Eosine 1  part 

Distilled  water 20  parts 

Glycerine 5  parts 

Cologne  water 75  parts 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Mix. 

Rub  together  with  10  parts  of  almond 
oil  and  add  sufficient  mucilage  of  traga- 
canth  to  make  the  mass  adhere  to  the 
porcelain  palette. 

III. — Carmine .  .        1  part 

Stronger   ammonia 

water 1  part 

Attar  of  rose 4  parts 

Rose  water 125  parts 

Mix.  Any  other  color  may  be  used 
in  place  of  rose,  violet  (ionone),  for  in- 
stance, or  heliotrope.  A  cheaper  prep- 
aration may  be  made  by  substituting 
cosine  for  the  carmine,  as  follows: 

IV. — Eosine 1  part 

Distilled  water  ....      20  parts 

Glycerine 5  parts 

Cologne  water 75  parts 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Mix. 

Peach  Tint.— 
a. — Buffalo  cosine  ....        4  drachms 

Distilled  water 16  fluidounces 

Mix. 

b. — Pure     hydrochloric 

acid 2i  drachms 

Distilled  water 64    fluidounces 

Mix. 

Pour  a  into  6,  shake,  and  set  aside  for  a 
few  hours;  then  pour  off  the  clear  por- 
tion and  collect  the  precipitate  on  a 
filter.  Wash  with  the  same  amount  of 
6  and  immediately  throw  the  precipitate 
into  a  glass  measure,  stirring  in  with  a 
glass  rod  sufficient  of  b  to  measure  16 
ounces  in  all.  Pass  through  a  hair  sieve 
to  get  out  any  filtering  paper.  To  every 
16  ounces  add  8  ounces  of  glycerine. 

Theater  Rouge. — Base: 

Cornstarch 4  drachms 

Powdered    white    tal- 
cum        6  drachms 

Mix. 

a. — Carminoline 10  grains 

Base 6  drachms 

Water 4  drachms 

Dissolve  the  carminoline  in  the  water, 
mix  with  the  base  and  dry. 

6. — Geranium  red 10  grains 

Base 6  drachms 

Water 4  drachms 

Mix  as  above  and  dry. 


SKIN  FOODS. 

Wrinkles  on  the  face  yield  to  a  wash 
consisting  of  50  parts  milk  of  almonds 
(made  with  rose  water)  and  4  parts  alu- 
minum sulphate.  Use  morning  and  night. 

Rough  skin  is  to  be  washed  constantly 
in  Vichy  water.  Besides  this,  rough 
places  are  to  have  the  following  applica- 
tion twice  daily — either  a  few  drops  of: 

I. — Rose  water 100    parts 

Glycerine 25    parts 

Tannin £  part 

Mix.     Or  use: 

II. — Orange-flower  water  100  parts 

Glycerine 10  parts 

$orax 2  parts 

Mix.     Sig.:   Apply  twice  daily. 

"  Beauty  Cream." — This  formula  gives 
the  skin  a  beautiful,  smooth,  and  fresh 
appearance,  and,  at  the  same  time,  serves 
to  protect  and  preserve  it: 

Alum,  powdered 10  grams 

Whites  of 2  eggs 

Boric  acid 3  grams 

Tincture  of  benzoin  .  .    40  drops 

Olive  oil 40  drops 

Mucilage  of  acacia.  .  .     5  drops 
Rice  flour,  quantity  sufficient. 
Perfume,  quantity  sufficient. 

Mix  the  alum  and  the  white  of  eggs, 
without  any  addition  of  water  whatever, 
in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  dissolve  the  alum 
by  the  aid  of  very  gentle  heat  (derived 
from  a  lamp,  or  gaslight,  regulated  to  a 
very  small  flame),  and  constant,  even, 
stirring.  This  must  continue  until  the 
aqueous  content  of  the  albumen  is  com- 
pletely driven  off.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  avoid  coagulation  of  the  albumen 
(which  occurs  very  easily,  as  all  know). 
Let  the  mass  obtained  in  this  manner  get 
completely  cold,  then  throw  into  a  Wedg- 
wood mortar,  add  the  boric  acid,  tinc- 
ture of  benzoin,  oil,  mucilage  (instead 
of  which  a  solution  of  fine  gelatin  may 
be  used),  etc.,  and  rub  up  together, 
thickening  it  with  the  addition  of  suffi- 
cient rice  flour  to  give  the  desired  con- 
sistence, and  perfuming  at  will.  In- 
stead of  olive  oil  any  pure  fat,  or  fatty 
oil,  may  be  used,  even  vaseline  or  glyc- 
erine. 

Face  Bleach  or  Beautifier. — 

Syrupy  lactic  acid. ...    40  ounces 

Glycerine 80  ounces 

Distilled  water 5  gallons 

Mix.     Gradually  add 

Tincture  of  benzoin  . .      3  ounces 

Color  by  adding 


COSMETICS 


Carmine  No.  40 40    grains 

Glycerine 1     ounce 

Ammonia  solution.  ..        £  ounce 

Water  to 3     ounces 

Heat  this  to  drive  off  the  ammonia, 

and    mix    all.      Shake,    set    aside;    then 

filter,  and  add 

Solution  of  ionone..  ..      1     drachm 
Add   a   few  drachms    of    kaolin   and 
filter  until  bright. 

BLACKHEAD  REMEDIES. 

I. — Lactic  acid 1     drachm 

Boric  acid 1     drachm 

Ceresine 1     drachm 

Paraffine  oil 6     drachms 

Hydrous  wool  fat.  . .      1£  ounces 

Castor  oil 6    drachms 

II. — Unna  advises  hydrogen  dioxide 
in  the  treatment  of  blackheads,  his  pre- 
scription being: 

Hydrogen  dioxide  20  to  40  parts 
Hydrous  wool  fat . .      10  parts 

Petrolatum 30  parts 

III.— Thymol 1  part 

Boric  acid 2  parts 

Tincture   of  witch- 
hazel 18  parts 

Rose    water   suffi- 
cient to  make  .  . .   200  parts 
Mix.     Apply  to   the   face   night   and 
morning  with  a  sponge,  first  washing  the 
face  with  hot  water  and  castile  soap,  and 
drying  it  with  a  coarse  towel,  using  force 
enough  to  start  the  dried  secretions.     An 
excellent    plan  is  to  steam  the  face   by 
holding  it   over  a    basin   of   hot   water, 
keeping  the  head  covered  with  a  cloth. 

I V.  — Ichthyol 1  drachm 

Zinc  oxide 2  drachms 

Starch 2  drachms 

Petrolatum 3  drachms 

This  paste  should  be  applied  at  night. 
The  face  should  first  be  thoroughly 
steamed  or  washed  in  water  as  hot  as 
can  be  comfortably  borne.  All  pus- 
tules should  then  be  opened  and  black- 
heads emptied  with  as  little  violence  as 
possible.  After  careful  drying  the  paste 
should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  into  the 
affected  areas.  In  the  morning,  after 
removing  the  paste  with  a  bland  soap, 
bathe  with  cool  water  and  dry  with  little 
friction. 

HAND  CREAMS  AND  LOTIONS: 
Chapped  Skin.— 

1.— Glycerine 8  parts 

Bay  rum 4  parts 

Ammonia  water 4  parts 

Rose  water 4  parts 


Mix  the  bay  rum  and  glycerine,  add 
the  ammonia  water,  and  finally  the  rose 
water.  It  is  especially  efficacious  after 
shaving. 

II. — As  glycerine  is  bad  for  the  skin 
of  many  people,  here  is  a  recipe  which 
will  be  found  more  generally  satisfactory 
as  it  contains  less  glycerine:  Bay  rum, 
3  ounces;  glycerine,  1  ounce;  carbolic 
acid,  £  drachm  (30  drops).  Wash  the 
hands  well  and  apply  while  hands  are 
soft,  preferably  just  before  going  to  bed. 
Rub  in  thoroughly.  This  rarely  fails  to 
cure  the  worst  "chaps"  in  two  nights. 

III. — A  sure  remedy  for  chapped 
hands  consists  in  keeping  them  carefully 
dry  and  greasing  them  now  and  then  with 
an  anhydrous  fat  (not  cold  cream).  The 
best  substances  for  the  purpose  are  un- 
guentum  cereum  or  oleum  olivarum. 

If  the  skin  of  the  hands  is  already 
cracked  the  following  preparation  will 
heal  it: 

Finely  ground  zinc  oxide,  5.0  parts; 
bismuth  oxychloride,  2.0  parts;  with  fat 
oil,  12.0  parts;  next  add  glycerine,  5.0 
parts;  lanolin,  30.0  parts;  and  scent  with 
rose  water,  10.0  parts. 

IV. — Wax  salve  (olive  oil  7  parts,  and 
yellow  wax  3  parts),  or  pure  olive  oil. 

Hand-Cleaning  Paste. — Cleaning  pastes 
are  composed  of  soap  and  grit,  either 
with  or  without  some  free  alkali.  Any 
soap  may  be  used,  but  a  white  soap  is 
preferred.  Castile  soap  does  not  make 
as  firm  a  paste  as  soap  made  from  animal 
fats,  and  the  latter  also  lather  better. 
For  grit,  anything  may  be  used,  from 
powdered  pumice  to  fine  sand. 

A  good  paste  may  be  made  by  dissolv- 
ing soap  in  the  least  possible  quantity  of 
hot  water,  and  as  it  cools  and  sets  stirring 
in  the  grit.  A  good  formula  is: 

White  soap 2|  pounds 

Fine  sand 1     pound 

Water 5J  pints 

Lotion  for  the  Hands. — 

Boric  acid 1  drachm 

Glycerine 6  drachms 

Dissolve  by  heat  and  mix  with 

Lanolin 6  drachms 

Vaseline 1  ounce 

Add  any  perfume  desired.  The  bora- 
ted  glycerine  should  be  cooled  before 
mixing  it  with  the  lanolin. 

Cosmetic  Jelly.  — 

Tragacanth  (white  rib- 
bon)     60  grains 

Rose  water 14  ounces 

Macerate  for  two  days  and  strain 
forcibly  through  coarse  muslin  or  cheese 


COSMETICS 


233 


cloth.  Add  glycerine  and  alcohol,  of 
each  1  ounce.  Perfume  to  suit.  Use 
immediately  after  bathing,  rubbing  in 
well  until  dry. 

Perspiring  Hands.— I.— Take  rectified 
eau  de  cologne,  50  parts  (by  weight); 
belladonna  dye,  8  parts;  glycerine,  3 
parts;  rub  gently  twice  or  three  times  a 
day  with  half  a  tablespoonful  of  this 
mixture.  One  may  also  employ  chalk, 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  rice  starch,  hot 
and  cold  baths  of  the  hands  (as  hot  and 
as  cold  as  can  be  borne),  during  6  min- 
utes, followed  by  a  solution  of  4  parts  of 
tannin  in  32  of  glycerine. 

II. — Rub  the  hands  several  times  per 
day  with  the  following  mixture: 

By  weight 

Rose  water 125  parts 

Borax 10  parts 

Glycerine 8  parts 

Hand  Bleach.  —  Lanolin,  30  parts  ; 
glycerine,  20  parts  ;  borax,  10  parts  ; 
eucalyptol,  2  parts  ;  essential  oil  of  al- 
monds, 1  part.  After  rubbing  the  hands 
with  this  mixture,  cover  them  with  gloves 
during  the  night. 

For  the  removal  of  developing  stains, 
see  Photography. 

MASSAGE  CREAMS: 
Massage  Application. — 
White     potash     soap, 

shaved 20  parts 

Glycerine 30  parts 

Water.. 30  parts 

Alcohol  (90  per  cent) .  10  parts 
Dissolve  the  soap  by  heating  it  with 
the  glycerine  and  water,  mixed.  Add 
the  alcohol,  and  for  every  30  ounces  of 
the  solution  add  5  or  6  drops  of  the  mis- 
tura  oleoso  balsamica,  German  Phar- 
macopoeia. Filter  while  hot. 

Medicated  Massage  Balls. — They  are 
the  balls  of  paraffine  wax  molded  with 
a  smooth  or  rough  surface  with  menthol, 
camphor,  oil  of  wintergreen,  oil  of  pep- 
permint, etc.,  added  before  shaping.  Spe- 
cially useful  in  headaches,  neuralgias, 
and  rheumatic  affections,  and  many 
other  afflictions  of  the  skin  and  bones. 
The  method  of  using  them  is  to  roll  the 
ba|J  over  the  affected  part  by  the  aid  of 
the  palm  of  the  hand  with  pressure. 
Continue  until  relief  is  obtained  or  a 
sensation  of  warmth.  The  only  external 
method  for  the  treatment  of  all  kinds  of 
headaches  is  the  menthol  medicated  mas- 
sage ball.  This  may  be  made  with 
smooth  or  corrugated  surfaces.  Keep 
wrapped  in  foil  in  cool  places. 


Casein  Massage  Cream. — The  basis  of 
the  modern  massage  cream  is  casein. 
Casein  is  now  produced  very  cheaply  in 
the  powdered  form,  and  by  treatment 
with  glycerine  and  perfumes  it  is  possible 
to  turn  out  a  satisfactory  cream.  The 
following  formula  is  suggested: 

Skimmed  milk 1  gallon 

Water  of  ammonia. .      1  ounce 

Acetic  acid 1  ounce 

Oil  of  rose  geranium      1  drachm 
Oil  of  bitter  almond.      1  drachm 

Oil  of  anise 2  drachms 

Cold  cream  (see  below),  enough. 
Carmine  enough  to  color. 

Add  the  water  of  ammonia  to  the  milk 
and  let  it  stand  24  hours.  Then  add 
the  acetic  acid  and  let  it  stand  another  24 
hours.  Then  strain  through  cheese  cloth 
and  add  the  oils.  Work  this  thoroughly 
in  a  Wedgwood  mortar,  adding  enough 
carmine  to  color  it  a  delicate  pink.  To 
the  product  thus  obtained  add  an  equal 
amount  of  cold  cream  made  by  the  for- 
mula herewith  given: 

White  wax 4  ounces 

Spermaceti 4  ounces 

W7hite  petrolatum 12  ounces 

Rose  water 14  ounces 

Borax 80  grains 

Melt  the  wax,  spermaceti,  and  petro- 
latum together  over  a  water  bath;  dis- 
solve the  borax  in  the  rose  water  and  add 
to  the  melted  mass  at  one  time.  Agitate 
violently.  Presumably  the  borax  solu- 
tion should  be  of  the  same  temperature 
as  the  melted  mass. 

Massage  Skin  Foods. — 
This  preparation  is  used  in  massage  for 
removing  wrinkles: 

I. — White  wax $  ounce 

Spermaceti |  ounce 

Cocoanut  oil 1     ounce 

Lanolin 1     ounce 

Oil  of  sweet  almonds  2    ounces 

Melt  in  a  porcelain  dish,  remove  from 
the  fire,  and  add 

Orange-flower  water. ..    1     ounce 
Tincture  of  benzoin. ..    3     drops 

Beat  briskly  until  creamy. 

II. — Snow-white    cold 

cream 4  ounces 

Lanolin 4  ounces 

Oil  of  theobroma.  .  .  4  ounces 

White  petrolatum  oil  4  ounces 

Distilled  water 4  ounces 

In  hot  weather  add 

Spermaceti 1^  drachms 

White  wax %\  drachms 


COSMETICS 


In  winter  the  two  latter  are  left  out  and 
the  proportion  of  cocoa  butter  is  modi- 
fied. Prepared  and  perfumed  in  pro- 
portion same  as  cold  cream. 

III. — White  petrolatum  7    av.  ounces 
Paraffine  wax.  ...      |  ounce 

Lanolin 2    av.  ounces 

Water 3     fluidounces 

Oil  of  rose 3     drops 

Vanillin 2    grains 

Alcohol 1     fluidrachm 

Melt  the  paraffine,  add  the  lanolin  and 
petrolatum,  and  when  these  have  melted 
pour  the  mixture  into  a  warm  mortar, 
and,  with  constant  stirring,  incorporate 
the  water.  When  nearly  cold  add  the 
oil  and  vanillin,  dissolved  in  the  alcohol. 
Preparations  of  this  kind  should  be 
rubbed  into  the  skin  vigorously,  as  fric- 
tion assists  the  absorbed  fat  in  developing 
the  muscles,  and  also  imparts  softness 
and  fullness  to  the  skin. 

SKIN  BLEACHES,  BALMS.  LOTIONS. 
ETC.: 

See  also  Cleaning  Methods  and  Photog- 
raphy for  removal  of  stains  caused 
by  photographic  developers. 

Astringent  Wash  for  Flabby  Skin.— 
This  is  used  to  correct  coarse  pores,  and 
to  remedy  an  oily  or  flabby  skin.  Apply 
with  sponge  night  and  morning: 

Cucumber  juice 1 J  ounces 

Tincture  of  benzoin  . .        £  ounce 

Cologne 1     ounce 

Elder-flower  water ...  5  ounces 
Put  the  tincture  of  benzoin  in  an 
8-ounce  bottle,  add  the  other  ingredients, 
previously  mixed,  and  shake  slightly. 
There  will  be  some  precipitation  of  ben- 
zoin in  this  mixture,  but  it  will  settle  out, 
or  it  may  be  strained  out  through  cheese 
cloth. 

Bleaching  Skin  Salves. — A  skin-bleach- 
ing action,  due  to  the  presence  of  hydro- 
gen peroxide,  is  possessed  by  the  follow- 
ing mixtures: 

I. — Lanolin 30  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil.  ...    10  parts 
Mix   and   stir  with   this  salve  base  a 
solution  of 

Borax 1  part 

Glycerine 15  parts 

Hydrogen  peroxide. .    15  parts 
For  impure  skin  the  following  com- 
position is  recommended: 
II. — White  mercurial  oint- 
ment       5  grams 

Zinc  ointment 5  grams 

Lanolin 30  grams 

Bitter  almond  oil. ...    10  grams 


of 


And  gradually  stir  into  this  a  solution 


Borax 2  grams 

Glycerine 30  grams 

Rose  water 10  grams 

Concentrated    nitric 

acid 5  drops 

III. — Lanolin 30  grams 

Oil  sweet  almond. .  .    10  grams 

Borax 1  gram 

Glycerine 15  grams 

Solution    hydrogen 

peroxide 15  grams 

Mix  the  lanolin  and  oil,  then  incor- 
porate the  borax  previously  dissolved  in 
the   mixture   of  glycerine  and   peroxide 
solution. 
IV. — Ointment  ammoniac 

mercury 5  grams 

Ointment  zinc  oxide.     5  grams 

Lanolin 30  grams 

Oil  sweet  almond. .  .    10  grams 

Borax 2  grams 

Glycerine 30  grams 

Rose  water 10  grams 

Nitric  acid,  C.  P. .  . .  5  drops 
Prepare  in  a  similar  manner  as  the 
foregoing.  Rose  oil  in  either  ointment 
makes  a  good  perfume.  Both  ointments 
may,  of  course,  be  employed  as  a  general 
skin  bleach,  which,  in  fact,  is  their  real 
office — cosmetic  creams. 

Emollient  Skin  Balm. — 

Quince  seed £  ounce 

Water 7     ounces 

Glycerine 1£  ounces 

Alcohol 4j  ounces 

Salicylic  acid 6     grains 

Carbolic  acid 10     grains 

Oil  of  bay 10    drops 

Oil  of  cloves 5     drops 

Oil  of  orange  peel. ...    10     drops 
Oil  of  wintergreen. ...      8     drops 

Oil  of  rose 2     drops 

Digest  the  quince  seed  in  the  water  for 
24  hours,  and  then  press  through  a 
cloth;  dissolve  the  salicylic  acid  in  the 
alcohol;  add  the  carbolic  acid  to  the  glyc- 
erine; put  all  together,  shake  well,  and 
bottle. 

Skin  Lotion. — 

Zinc  sulphocarbo- 

late 30  grains 

Alcohol  (90  per  cent)      4    fluidraclfms 

Glycerine 2  fluidrachms 

Tincture  of  cochi- 
neal    1  fluidrachm 

Orange-flower 

water 14  fluidounces 

Rose  water  (triple) 
to  make 0  fluidounces 


COSMETICS 


Skin  Discoloration. — Discoloration  of 
khe  neck  may  be  removed  by  the  use  of 
acids,  the  simplest  of  which  is  that  in 
buttermilk,  but  if  the  action  of  this  is  too 
slow  try  4  ounces  of  lactic  acid,  2  of 
glycerine,  and  1  of  rose  water.  These 
will  mix  without  heating.  Apply  sev- 
eral times  daily  with  a  soft  linen  rag; 
pour  a  small  quantity  into  a  saucer  and 
dip  the  cloth  into  this.  If  the  skin  be- 
comes sore  use  less  of  the  remedy  and 
allay  the  redness  and^  smarting  with  a 
good  cold  cream.  It  is  always  an  acid 
that  removes  freckles  and  discolorations, 
by  burning  them  off.  It  is  well  to  be 
slow  in  its  use  until  you  find  how  severe 
its  action  is.  It  is  not  wise  to  try  for 
home  making  any  of  the  prescriptions 
which  include  corrosive  sublimate  or  any 
other  deadly  poison.  Peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen diluted  with  5  times  as  much  water, 
also  will  bleach  discolorations.  Do  not 
try  any  of  these  bleaches  on  a  skin  freshly 
sunburned.  For  that,  wash  in  hot  water, 
or  add  to  the  hot  water  application  enough 
witch-hazel  to  scent  the  water,  and  after 
that  has  dried  into  the  skin  it  will  be  soon 
enough  to  try  other  applications. 

Detergent  for  Skin  Stains. — Moritz 
Weiss  has  introduced  a  detergent  paste 
which  will  remove  stains  from  the  skin 
without  attacking  it,  is  non-poisonous, 
and  can  be  used  without  hot  water. 
Moisten  the  hands  with  a  little  cold  water, 
apply  a  small  quantity  of  the  paste  to 
the  stained  skin,  rub  the  hands  together 
for  a  few  minutes,  and  rinse  with  cold 
water.  The  preparation  is  a  mixture  of 
soft  soap  and  hard  tallow,  melted  to- 
gether over  the  fire  and  incorporated 
with  a  little  emery  powder,  flint,  glass, 
sand,  quartz,  pumice  stone,  etc.,  with 
a  little  essential  oil  to  mask  the  smell  of 
the  soap.  The  mixture  sets  to  a  mass 
like  putty,  but  does  not  dry  hard.  The 
approximate  proportions  of  the  ingre- 
dients are:  Soft  soap,  30  per  cent;  tal- 
low, 15  per  cent;  emery  powder,  55  per 
cent,  and  a  few  drops  of  essential  oil. 

If  an  extra  detergent  quality  is  de- 
sired, 4  ounces  of  sodium  carbonate  may 
be  added,  and  the  quantity  of  soap  may 
be  reduced.  Paste  thus  made  will  at- 
tack grease,  etc.,  more  readily,  but  it  is 
harder  on  the  skin. 

Removing  Inground  Dirt. — 

Egg  albumen 8  parts 

Boric  acid 1  part 

Glycerine  .  .  .; 32  parts 

Perfume  to  suit. 

Distilled  water  to  make.    50  parts 
Dissolve  the  boric  acid  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water;  mix  the  albumen  and 


glycerine  and  pass  through  a  silk  strain- 
er. Finally,  mix  the  two  fluids  and  add 
the  residue  of  water. 

Every  time  the  hands  are  washed,  dry 
on  a  towel,  and  then  moisten  them  lightly 
but  thoroughly  with  the  liquid,  and  dry 
on  a  soft  towel  without  rubbing.  At 
night,  on  retiring,  apply  the  mixture  and 
wipe  slightly  or  just  enough  to  take  up 
superfluous  liquid;  or,  better  still,  sleep 
in  a  pair  of  cotton  gloves. 

TOILET  CREAMS: 

Almond  Cold  Creams. — A  liquid  al- 
mond cream  may  be  made  by  the  ap- 
pended formula.  It  has  been  known  as 
milk  of  almond: 

I. — Sweet  almonds.. ..      5  ounces 
White  castile  soap.     2  drachms 

White  wax 2  drachms 

Spermaceti 2  drachms 

Oil    of    bitter    al- 
monds     10  minims 

Oil  of  bergamot. . .    20  minims 

Alcohol 6  fluidounces 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Beat  the  almonds  in  a  smooth  mortar 
until  as  much  divided  as  their  nature  will 
admit;  then  gradually  add  water  in  very 
small  quantities,  continuing  the  beating 
until  a  smooth  paste  is  obtained;  add  to 
this,  gradually,  one  pint  of  water,  stirring 
well  all  the  time.  Strain  the  resulting 
emulsion  without  pressure  through  a 
cotton  cloth  previously  well  washed  to 
remove  all  foreign  matter.  If  new,  the 
cloth  will  contain  starch,  etc.,  which 
must  be  removed.  Add,  through  the 
strainer,  enough  water  to  bring  the  meas- 
ure of  the  strained  liquid  to  1  pint. 
While  this  operation  is  going  on  let  the 
soap  be  shaved  into  thin  ribbons,  and 
melted,  with  enough  water  to  cover  it, 
over  a  very  gentle  fire  or  on  a  water  bath. 
When  fluid  add  the  wax  and  spermaceti 
in  large  pieces,  so  as  to  allow  them  to  melt 
slowly,  and  thereby  better  effect  union 
with  the  soap.  Stir  occasionally.  When 
all  is  melted  place  the  soapy  mixture  in 
a  mortar,  run  into  it  slowly  the  emulsion, 
blending  the  two  all  the  while  with  the 
pestle.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  add 
the  emulsion  faster  than  it  can  be  incor- 
porated with  the  soap.  Lastly  add  the 
alcohol  in  which  the  perfumes  have  been 
previously  dissolved,  in  the  same  man- 
ner, using  great  care. 

This  preparation  is  troublesome  to 
make  and  rather  expensive,  and  it  is 
perhaps  no  better  for  the  purpose  than 
glycerine.  The  mistake  is  often  made 
of  applying  the  latter  too  freely,  its 
"stickiness"  being  unpleasant,  and  it  is 


286 


COSMETICS 


best  to  dilute  it  largely  with  water.   Such 
a  lotion  may  be  made  by  mixing 

Glycerine 1  part 

Rose  water 9  parts 

Plain  water  may,  of  course,  be  used 
as  the  diluent,  but  a  slightly  perfumed 
preparation  is  generally  considered  more 
desirable.  The  perfume  may  easily  be 
obtained  by  dissolving  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  handkerchief  "extract"  or 
some  essential  oil  in  the  glycerine,  and 
then  mixing  with  plain  water. 

II. — White  wax J  ounce 

Spermaceti 2J  ounces 

Oil    of    sweet    al- 
monds       2£  ounces 

Melt,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  add 
Rose  water 1|  ounces 

Beat  until  creamy:  not  until  cold.  When 
the  cream  begins  to  thicken  add  a  few 
drops  of  oil  of  rose.  Only  the  finest 
almond  oil  should  be  used.  Be  careful 
in  weighing  the  wax  and  spermaceti. 
These  precautions  will  insure  a  good 
product. 

III. — White  wax 4  ounces 

Spermaceti 3  ounces 

Sweet   almond 

oil 6  fluidounces 

Glycerine 4  fluidounces 

Oil  of  rose  gera- 
nium     1  fluidrachm 

Tincture  of  ben- 
zoin     4  fluidrachms 

Melt  the  wax  and  spermaceti,  add 
the  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  then  beat  in  the 
glycerine,  tincture  of  benzoin,  and  oil 
of  rose  geranium.  When  all  are  incor- 
porated to  a  smooth,  creamy  mass,  pour 
into  molds. 

IV. — Sweet  almonds, 

blanched 5  ounces 

Castile     soap, 

white 120  grains 

White  wax 120  grains 

Spermaceti  ....    120  grains 
Oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds       10  drops 

Oil  of  bergamot     20  drops 

Alcohol ...        6  fluidounces 

Water,  sufficient. 

Make  an  emulsion  of  the  almonds 
with  water  so  as  to  obtain  16  fluidounces 
of  product,  straining  through  cotton 
which  has  previously  been  washed  to 
remove  starch.  Dissolve  the  soap  with 
the  aid  of  heat  in  the  necessary  amount 
of  water  to  form  a  liquid,  add  the  wax 
and  spermaceti,  continue  the  heat  until 
the  latter  is  melted,  transfer  to  a  mortar, 
and  incorporate  the  almond  emulsion 


slowly  with  constant  stirring  until  all  has 
been  added  and  a  smooth  cream  has 
been  formed.  Finally,  add  the  two  vola- 
tile oils. 

V. — Melt,  at  moderate  heat, 

By  weight. 

White  wax 100  parts 

Spermaceti 1,000  parts 

Then  stir  in 

By  weight. 

Almond  oil 500  parts 

Rose  water 260  parts 

And  scent  with 

By  weight. 

Bergamot  oil ....      10  parts 
Geranium  oil. ...        5  parts 

Lemon  oil 4  parts 

By  weight. 

VI.— Castor  oil 500  parts 

White  wax 100  parts 

Almond  oil 150  parts 

Melt  at  moderate  heat  and  scent  with 
By  weight. 

Geranium  oil 6  parts 

Lemon  oil 5  parts 

Bergamot  oil.  ...       10  parts 
By  weight. 

VII.— Almond  oil 400  parts 

Lanoline 200  parts 

White  wax 60  parts 

Spermaceti 60  parts 

Rose  water 300  parts 

By  weight. 

VIII.— White  wax 6  parts 

Tallow,    freshly 

tried  out 4  parts 

Spermaceti 2  parts 

Oil    of    sweet   al- 
monds         6  parts 

Melt  together  and  while  still  hot  add, 
with  constant  stirring,  1  part  of  sodium 
carbonate  dissolved  in  79  parts  of  hot 
water.  Stir  until  cold.  Perfume  to  the 
taste. 

IX.— Ointment  of 

rose  water. . .        1    ounce 
Oil    of    sweet 

almonds  ....        1    fluidounce 

Glycerine 1    fluidounce 

Boric  acid 100    grains 

Solution     of 

soda 2  J  fluidounces 

Mucilage  of 

quince  seed  .       4    fluidounces 
Water  enough  to 

make 40    fluidounces 

Oil  of  rose,  oil  of  bitter  almonds, 

of  each  sufficient  to  perfume. 

Heat  the  ointment,  oil,  and  solution  of 

soda  together,  stirring   constantly   until 

an  emulsion  or  saponaceous  mixture  is 


COSMETICS 


237 


formed.  Then  warm  together  the  glyc- 
erine, acid,  and  mucilage  and  about  30 
fluidounces  of  water;  mix  with  the  emul- 
sion, stir  until  cold,  and  add  the  re- 
mainder of  the  water.  Lastly,  add  the 
volatile  oils. 

The  rose-water  ointment  used  should 
be  the  "cold  cream"  of  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia. 

X.  —  Spermaceti. ...      2  ounces 

White  wax.  ...      2  ounces 
Sweet    almond 

oil 14  fluidounces 

Water,  distilled     7  fluidounces 

Borax,  powder  60  grains 

Coumarin £  grain 

Oil  of  bergamot  24  drops 

Oil  of  rose 6  drops 

Oil  of  bitter 

almonds ....      8  drops 
Tincture  of  am- 
bergris .....      5  drops 

Melt  the  spermaceti  and  wax,  add  the 
sweet  almond  oil,  incorporate  the  water 
in  which  the  borax  has  previously  been 
dissolved,  and  finally  add  the  oils  of  ber- 
gamot, rose,  and  bitter  almond. 

XI.  —  Honey 2    av.  ounces 

Castile    soap, 

white  powder     1     av.  ounce 
Oil     sweet    al- 
monds     26     fluidounces 

Oil     bitter    al- 
monds       1     fluidrachm 

Oil  bergamot. .        \  fluidrachm 
Oil  cloves  ....    15     drops 
Peru  balsam.. .      1     fluidrachm 
Liquor  potassa. 

Solution  carmine,  of  each  suffi- 
cient. 

Mix  the  honey  with  the  soap  in  a  mor- 
tar, and  add  enough  liquor  potassa 
(about  1  fluidrachm)  to  produce  a  nice 
cream.  Mix  the  volatile  oils  and  balsam 
with  the  sweet  almond  oil,  mix  this  with 
the  cream,  and  continue  the  trituration 
until  thoroughly  mixed.  Finally  add, 
if  desired,  enough  carmine  solution  to 
impart  a  rose  tint. 

XII.  —White  wax 800  parts 

Spermaceti 800  parts 

Sweet   almond 

oil 5,600  parts 

Distilled  water. .  2,800  parts 

Borax 50  parts 

Bergamot  oil .  .  .        20  parts 
Attar  of  rose. ...          5  parts 

Coumarin 0.1  part 

Add  for  each  pound  of  the  cream  5 

drops  of  etheric  oil   of  bitter  almonds, 

and  3  drops  tincture  of  ambra.      Proceed 

as  in  making  cold  cream. 


The  following  also  makes  a  fine  cream: 

XIII. — Spermaceti 3  parts 

White  wax 2  parts 

Oil     of     almonds, 

fresh 12  parts 

Rose  water,  double  1  part 
Glycerine,  pure.  .  .  1  part 
Melt  on  a  water  bath  the  spermaceti 
and  wax,  add  the  oil  (which  should  be 
fresh),  and  pour  the  whole  into  a  slightly 
warmed  mortar,  under  constant  and  lively 
stirring,  to  prevent  granulation.  Con- 
tinue the  trituration  until  the  mass  has 
a  white,  creamy  appearance,  and  is 
about  the  consistence  of  butter  at  ordi- 
nary temperature.  Add,  little  by  little, 
under  constant  stirring,  the  orange- 
flower  water  and  glycerine  mixed,  and 
finally  the  perfume  as  before.  Con- 
tinue the  stirring  for  15  or  20  minutes, 
then  immediately  put  into  containers. 

Chappine  Cream. — 

Quince  seed 2     drachms 

Glycerine \\  ounces 

Water 1^  ounces 

Lead  acetate 10     grains 

Flavoring,  sufficient. 
Macerate  the  quince  seed  in  water, 
strain,  add  the  glycerine  and  lead  ace- 
tate, previously  dissolved  in  sufficient 
water;  flavor  with  jockey  club  or  orange 
essence. 

Cucumber  Creams. — 

I. — White  wax 3  ounces 

Spermaceti 3  ounces 

Benzoinated  lard.  ...      8  ounces 

Cucumbers 3  ounces 

Melt  together  the  wax,  spermaceti,  and 
lard,  and  infuse  in  the  liquid  the  cucum- 
bers previously  grated.  Allow  to  cool, 
stirring  well;  let  stand  a  day,  remelt, 
strain  and  again  stir  the  "cream"  until 
cold. 

II. — Benzoinated  lard.  ...      5  ounces 

Suet 3  ounces 

Cucumber  juice 10  ounces 

Proceed  as  in  making  cold  cream. 

Glycerine  Creams. — 

I. — Oil      of     sweet     al- 
monds     100  parts 

White  wax 13  parts 

Glycerine,  pure 25  parts 

Add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  any 

suitable  perfume. 

Melt,  on  the  water  bath,  the  oil,  wax, 
and  glycerine  together,  remove  and  as 
the  mass  cools  down  add  the  perfume  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  make  a  creamy 
mass. 


238 


COSMETICS 


II. — Quince  seed 1  ounce 

Boric  acid 16  grains 

Starch 1  ounce 

Glycerine 16  ounces 

Carbolic  acid 30  minims 

Alcohol 12  ounces 

Oil  of  lavender 30  minims 

Oil  of  rose 10  drops 

Extract  of  white  rose  1  ounce 
Water  enough  to  make  64  ounces 
Dissolve  the  boric  acid  in  a  quart  of 
water  and  in  this  solution  macerate  the 
quince  seed  for  3  hours;  then  strain. 
Heat  together  the  starch  and  the  glycer- 
ine until  the  starch  granules  are  broken, 
and  mix  with  this  the  carbolic  acid. 
Dissolve  the  oils  and  the  extract  of  rose 
in  the  alcohol,  and  add  to  the  quince- 
seed  mucilage;  then  mix  all  together, 
strain,  and  add  water  enough  to  make 
the  product  weigh  64  ounces. 

III. — Glycerine 1  ounce 

Borax 2  drachms 

Boracic  acid 1  drachm 

Oil  rose  geranium  .  .    30  drops 
Oil  bitter  almond. .  .    15  drops 

Milk 1  gallon 

Heat  the  milk  until  it  curdles  and 
allow  it  to  stand  12  hours.  Strain  it 
through  cheese  cloth  and  allow  it  to 
stand  again  for  12  hours.  Mix  in  the 
salts  and  glycerine  and  triturate  in  a 
mortar,  finally  adding  the  odors  and 
coloring  if  wanted.  The  curdled  milk 
must  be  entirely  free  from  water  to  avoid 
separation.  If  the  milk  will  not  curdle 
fast  enough  the  addition  of  1  ounce  of 
water  ammonia  to  a  gallon  will  hasten  it. 
Take  a  gallon  of  milk,  add  1  ounce  am- 
monia water,  heat  (not  boil),  allow  to 
stand  24  hours,  and  no  trouble  will  be 
found  in  forming  a  good  base  for  the 
cream. 

IV. — This  is  offered  as  a  substitute 
for  cucumber  cream  for  toilet  uses. 
Melt  15  parts,  by  weight,  of  gelatin  in 
hot  water  containing  15  parts,  by  weight, 
of  boracic  acid  as  well  as  150  parts, 
by  weight,  of  glycerine;  the  total  amount 
of  water  used  should  not  exceed  300 
parts,  by  weight.  It  may  be  perfumed 
or  not. 

Lanolin  Creams. — 
I. — Anhydrous  lanolin.    650  parts 
Peach-kernel  oil.  .  .    200  parts 

Water 150  parts 

Perfume  with  about  15  drops  of 
ionone  or  20  drops  of  synthetic  ylang- 
ylang. 

II. — Lanolin 40  parts 

Olive  oil 15  parts 

Paraffine  ointment.  .    10  parts 


Aqua  naphse 10  parts 

Distilled  water 15  parts 

Glycerine 5  parts 

Boric  acid 4  parts 

Borax 4  parts 

Geranium  oil,  sufficient. 
Extract,     triple,     of    ylang-ylang, 

quantity  sufficient. 
III. — Anhydrous  lanolin.    650  drachms 

Almond  oil 200  drachms 

Water 150  drachms 

Oil  of  ylang-ylang .  5  drops 
Preparations  which  have  been  intro- 
duced years  ago  for  the  care  of  the  skin 
and  complexion  are  the  glycerine  gelees, 
which  have  the  advantage  over  lanolin 
that  they  go  further,  but  present  the 
drawback  of  not  being  so  quickly  ab- 
sorbed by  the  skin.  These  products  are 
filled  either  into  glasses  or  into  tubes. 
The  latter  way  is  preferable  and  is  more 
and  more  adopted,  owing  to  the  conven- 
ience of  handling. 

A  good  recipe  for  such  a  gelee  is  the 
following: 

Moisten  white  tragacanth  powder,  50 
parts,  with  glycerine,  200  parts,  and  spirit 
of  wine,  100  parts,  and  shake  with  a  suit- 
able amount  of  perfume;  then  quickly 
mix  and  shake  with  warm  distilled  waier, 
650  parts. 

A  transparent  slime  will  form  imme- 
diately which  can  be  drawn  off  at  once. 

Mucilage  Creams. — 

I.— Starch .30  parts 

Carrageen  mucilage.  480  parts 

Boric  acid 15  parts 

Glycerine 240  parts 

Cologne  water 240  parts 

Boil  the  starch  in  the  carrageen  muci- 
lage, add  the  boric  acid  and  the  glycer- 
ine.      Let    cool,    and   add  the    cologne 
water. 
II. — Linseed  mucilage. ..   240     parts 

Boric  acid 2     parts 

Salicylic  acid 1.3  parts 

Glycerine 60     parts 

Cologne  water 120     parts 

Rose  water 120     parts 

Instead  of  the  cologne  water  any  ex- 
tracts may  be  used.  Lilac  and  ylang- 
ylang  are  recommended. 

Witch-Hazel  Creams.— 

I. — Quince  seed 90  grains 

Boric  acid 8  grains 

Glycerine 4  fluidounces 

Alcohol 6  fiuidounces 

Carbolic  acid 6  drachms 

Cologne  water  ....  4  fluidounces 
Oil  lavender  flow- 
ers    40  drops 


COSMETICS 


239 


Glycerite  starch ...      4  av.  ounces 
Distilled  witch-hazel  extract  enough 

to  make  32  fluidounces 
Dissolve  the  boric  acid  in  16  ounces  of 
the  witch-hazel  extract,  macerate  the 
quince  seed  in  the  solution  for  3  hours, 
strain,  add  the  glycerine,  carbolic  acid, 
and  glycerite,  and  mix  well.  Mix  the 
alcohol,  cologne  water,  lavender  oil,  and 
mucilages,  incorporate  with  the  previous 
mixture,  and  add  enough  witch-hazel 
extract  to  bring  to  the  measure  of  32 
fluidounces. 

II. — Quince  seed 4  ounces 

Hot  water 16  ounces 

Glycerine 32  ounces 

Witch-hazel  water  .  .    128  ounces 

Boric  acid 6  ounces 

Rose  extract 2  ounces 

Violet  extract 1  ounce 

Macerate  the  quince  seed  in  the  hot 
water;  add  the  glycerine  and  witch-hazel, 
in  which  the  boric  acid  has  been  pre- 
viously dissolved;  let  the  mixture  stand 
for  2  "days,  stirring  occasionally;  strain 
and  add  the  perfume. 

Skin  Cream  for  Collapsible  Tubes.— 

I. — White  vaseline 6     ounces 

White  wax '.      1     ounce 

Spermaceti 5     drachms 

Subchloride  bismuth     6     drachms 

Attar  of  rose 6    minims 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds     1    minim 

Rectified  spirit \  ounce 

Melt  the  vaseline,  wax,  and  sperma- 
ceti together,  and  while  cooling  incor- 
porate the  subchloride  of  bismuth  (in 
warm  mortar).  Dissolve  the  oils  in  the 
alcohol,  and  add  to  the  fatty  mixture, 
stirring  all  until  uniform  and  cold.  In 
cold  weather  the  quantities  of  wax  and 
spermaceti  may  be  reduced. 

II. — Lanolin 1     ounce 

Almond  oil 1     ounce 

Oleate  of  zinc  (pow- 
der)          3    drachms 

Extract  of  white  rose       \\  drachms 

Glycerine 2    drachms 

Ro'se  water 2    drachms 

Face  Cream  Without  Grease. — 

Quince  seed 10  parts 

Boiling  water 1,000  parts 

Borax 5  parts 

Boric  acid 5  parts 

Glycerine 100  parts 

Alcohol,  94  per  cent.     125  parts 
Attar  of  rose,  quantity  sufficient  to 

perfume. 

Macerate  the  quince  seed  in  half  of 
the  boiling  water,  with  frequent  agita- 
tions, for  2  hours  and  30  minutes,  then 


strain  off.  In  the  residue  of  the  boiling 
water  dissolve  the  borax  and  boric  acid, 
add  the  glycerine  and  the  perfume,  the 
latter  dissolved  in  the  alcohol.  Now 
add,  little  by  little,  the  colate  of  quince 
seed,  under  constant  agitation,  which 
should  be  kept  up  for  5  minutes  after 
the  last  portion  of  the  colate  is  added. 

TOILET  MILKS: 
Cucumber  Milk. — 

Simple  cerate 2    pounds 

Powdered  borax 11  £  ounces 

Powdered  castile  soap  10     ounces 

Glycerine • .  .    26     ounces 

Alcohol 24     ounces 

Cucumber  juice 32    ounces 

Water  to 5     gallons 

lonone 1     drachm 

Jasmine \  drachm 

Neroli \  drachm 

Rhodinol 15     minims 

To  the  melted  cerate  in  a  hot  water 
bath  add  the  soap  and  stir  well,  keeping 
up  the  heat  until  perfectly  mixed.  Add 
8  ounces  of  borax  to  1  gallon  of  boiling 
water,  and  pour  gradually  into  the  hot 
melted  soap  and  cerate;  add  the  re- 
mainder of  the  borax  and  hot  water,  then 
the  heated  juice  and  glycerine,  and 
lastly  the  alcohol.  Shake  well  while 
cooling,  set  aside  for  48  hours,  and  siphon 
off  any  water  that  may  separate.  Snake 
well,  and  repeat  after  standing  again  if 
necessary;  then  perfume. 

Cucumber  Juice. — It  is  well  to  make 
a  large  quantity,  as  it  keeps  indefinitely. 
Washed  unpeeled  cucumbers  are  grated 
and  pressed:  the  juice  is  heated,  skimmed 
and  boiled  for  5  minutes,  then  cooled 
and  filtered.  Add  1  part  of  alcohol  to 
2  parts  of  juice,  let  stand  for  12  hours  or 
more,  and  filter  until  clear. 

Glycerine  Milk.— 

Glycerine 1,150  parts 

Starch,  powdered.  .      160  parts 

Distilled  water 400  parts 

Tincture  of  benzoin  20  parts 
Rub  up  80  parts  of  the  starch  with  the 
glycerine,  then  put  the  mixture  on  the 
steam  bath  and  heat,  under  continuous 
stirring,  until  it  forms  a  jellylike  mass. 
Remove  from  the  bath  and  stir  in  the 
remainder  of  the  starch.  Finally,  add 
the  water  and  tincture  and  stir  till  homo- 
geneous. 

Lanolin  Toilet  Milk.— 
White     castile     soap, 

powdered 22  grains 

Lanolin 1  ounce 

Tincture  benzoin  ....    12  drachms 
Water,  enough. 


240 


COSMETICS 


Dissolve  the  soap  in  2  fluidounces  of 
warm  water,  also  mix  the  lanolin  with 
2  fluidounces  of  warm  water;  then  in- 
corporate the  two  with  each  other, 
finally  adding  the  tincture.  The  latter 
may  be  replaced  by  90  grains  of  pow- 
dered borax. 

Jasmine  Milk. — To  25  parts  of  water 
add  gradually,  with  constant  stirring, 
1  part  of  zinc  white,  2  quarts  of  grain 
spirit,  and  0.15  to  0.25  part  of  glycerine; 
finally  stir  in  0.07  to  0.10  part  of  jasmine 
essence.  Filter  the  mixture  and  fill  into 
glass  bottles.  For  use  as  a  cosmetic, 
rub  on  the  raspberry  paste  on  retiring  at 
night,  and  in  the  morning  use  the  jas- 
mine milk  to  remove  the  paste  from  the 
skin.  The  two  work  together  in  their 
effect. 

SUNBURN    AND    FRECKLE    REME- 
DIES. 

I. — Apply  over  the  affected  skin  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  in  500, 
or,  if  the  patient  can  stand  it,  1  in  300, 
morning  and  evening,  and  for  the  night 
apply  emplastrum  hydrargyri  com- 
positum  to  the  spots.  In  the  morning 
remove  the  plaster  and  all  remnants  of 
it  by  rubbing  fresh  butter  or  cold  cream 
over  the  spots. 

For  redness  of  the  skin  apply  each 
other  day  zinc  oxide  ointment  or  oint- 
ment of  bismuth  subnitrate. 

II. — Besnier  recommends  removal  of 
the  mercurial  ointment  with  green  soap, 
and  the  use,  at  night,  of  an  ointment 
composed  of  vaseline  and  Vigo's  plaster 
(emplastrum  hydrargyri  compositum), 
in  equal  parts.  In  the  morning  wash  off 
with  soap  and  warm  water,  and  apply 
the  following: 

Vaseline,  white 20  parts 

Bismuth  carbonate. . .     5  parts 

Kaolin 5  parts 

Mix,  and  make  an  ointment. 

III. — Leloir  has  found  the  following 
of  service.  Clean  the  affected  part  with 
green  soap  or  with  alcohol,  and  then  ap- 
ply several  coats  of  the  following: 

Acid  chrysophanic  . .      15  parts 
Chloroform 100  parts 

Mix.    Apply  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil. 

When  the  application  dries  thoroughly, 
go  over  it  with  a  layer  of  traumaticine. 
This  application  will  loosen  itself  in 
several  uays,  when  the  process  should 
be  repeated. 

IV.— When  the  skin  is  only  slightly 
discolored  use  a  pomade  of  salicylic  acid, 
or  apply  the  following: 


Acid  chrysophanic, 

from 1  to  4  parts 

Acid  salicylic 1  to  2  parts 

Collodion 40  parts 

V. — When  there  is  need  for  a  more 
complicated  treatment,  the  following  is 
used: 

(a)  Corrosive  sublimate  1  part 

Orange-  flower 

water 7,500  parts 

Acid,  hydrochloric, 

dilute 500  parts 

(6)  Bitter  almonds.  .  .  .     4,500  parts 

Glycerine 2,500  parts 

Orange-flower 

water 25,000  parts 

Rub  up  to  an  emulsion  in  a  porcelain 
capsule.  Filter  and  add,  drop  by  drop, 
and  under  constant  stirring,  5  grams  of 
tincture  of  benzoin.  Finally  mix  the 
two  solutions,  adding  the  second  to  the 
first.  t 

This  preparation  is  applied  with  a 
sponge,  on  retiring,  to  the  affected  places, 
and  allowed  to  dry  on. 

VI. — According  to  Brocq  the  follow- 
ing should  be  penciled  over  the  affected 
spots: 

Fresh  pure  milk 50  parts 

Glycerine 30  parts 

Acid,     hydrochloric, 

concentrated 5  parts 

Ammonium  chlorate.      3  parts 

VII. — Other  external  remedies  that 
may  be  used  are  lactic  acid  diluted  with 
3  volumes  of  water,  applied  with  a  glass 
rod:  dilute  nitric  acid,  and,  finally,  per- 
oxide of  hydrogen,  which  last  is  a  very 
powerful  agent.  Should  it  cause  too 
much  inflammation,  the  latter  may  be 
assuaged  by  using  an  ointment  of  zinc 
oxide  or  bismuth  subnitrate — or  one  may 
use  the  following: 

Kaolin 4  parts 

Vaseline 10  parts 

Glycerine : .  4  parts 

Magnesium  carbonate  2  parts 

Zinc  oxide 2  parts 

Freckle  Remedies. — 

I. — Poppy  oil 1  part 

Lead  acetate 2  parts 

Tincture  benzoin. ...      1  part 
Tincture  quillaia.  ...      5  parts 
Spirit  nitrous  ether. . .      1  part 

Rose  water 95  parts 

Saponify  the  oil  with  the  lead  acetate; 
add  the  rose  water,  and  follow  with  the 
tinctures. 

II. — Chloral  hydrate 2  drachms 

Carbolic  acid 1  drachm 


COSMETICS 


Tincture  iodine 60  drops 

Glycerine 1  ounce 

Mix  and  dissolve.  Apply  with  a 
camel's-hair  pencil  at  night. 

III.— Distilled  vinegar.. .  660  parts 
Lemons,  cut  in 

small  pieces 135  parts 

Alcohol,  85  per 

cent 88  parts 

Lavender  oil 23  parts 

Water 88  parts 

Citron  oil 6  parts 

This  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  for  3 
or  4  days  in  the  sun  and  filtered.  Coat, 
by  means  of  a  sponge  before  retiring,  the 
places  of  the  skin  where  the  freckles  are 
and  allow  to  dry. 

Freckles  and  Liver  Spots, — Modern 
dermatological  methods  of  treating 
freckles  and  liver  spots  are  based  partly 
on  remedies  that  cause  desquamation 
and  those  that  depigmentate  (or  de- 
stroy or  neutralize  pigmentation).  Both 
methods  may  be  distinguished  in  respect 
to  their  effects  and  mode  of  using  into 
the  following:  The  active  ingredients  of 
the  desquamative  pastes  are  reductives 
which  promote  the  formation  of  epithe- 
lium and  hence  expedite  desquamation. 

There  are  many  such  methods,  and 
especially  to  be  mentioned  is  that  of 
Unna,  who  uses  resorcin  for  the  purpose. 
Lassar  makes  use  of  a  paste  of  naphthol 
and  sulphur. 

Sunburn  Remedies. — 
I. — Zinc  sulphocarbo- 

late 1  part 

Glycerine 20  parts 

Rose  water 70  parts 

Alcohol,     90     per 

cent 8  parts 

Cologne  water. ...      1  part 
Spirit  of  camphor.      1  part 

II.— Borax 4  parts 

Potassium  chlorate     2  parts 

Glycerine 10  parts 

Alcohol 4  parts 

Rose  water  to  make  90  parts 

III. — Citric  acid 2  drachms 

Ferrous     sulphate 

(cryst.) 18  grains 

Camphor 2  grains 

Elder-flower  water  3  fluidounces 

IV. — Potassium  carbon-      . 

ate 3  parts 

Sodium  chloride  . .      2  parts 
Orange-  flower 

water 15  parts 

Rose  water 65  parts 


V. — Boroglycerine,       50 

percent 1    part 

Ointment    of    rose 

water 9    parts 

VI. — Sodium      bicarbon- 
ate      1     part 

Ointment     of    rose 

water 7     parts 

VII. — Bicarbonate  of  soda  2    drachms 
Powdered  borax ...    1     drachm 
Compound  tincture 

of  lavender 1^  drachms 

Glycerine 1     ounce 

Rose  water 4    ounces 

Dissolve  the  soda  and  borax  in  the 
glycerine  and  rose  water,  and  add  the 
tincture.  Apply  with  a  small  piece  of 
sponge  2  or  3  times  a  day.  Then  gently 
dry  by  dabbing  with  a  soft  towel. 

VIII. — Quince  seeds 2  drachms 

Distilled  water..  . .    10  ounces 

Glycerine 2  ounces 

Alcohol,    94     per 

cent 1  ounce 

Rose  water 2  ounces 

Boil  the  seeds  in  the  water  for  10  min- 
utes, then  strain  off  the  liquid,  and  when 
cold  add  to  it  the  glycerine,  alcohol,  and 
rose  water. 

IX. — White  soft  soap.  ..      2^  drachms 

Glycerine 1£  drachms 

Almond  oil 11     drachms 

Well  mix  the  glycerine  and  soap  in  a 
mortar,  and  very  gradually  add  the  oil, 
stirring  constantly  until  perfectly  mixed. 

X. — Subnitrate  of  bis- 
muth       1£  drachms 

Powdered    French 

chalk 30     grains 

Glycerine 2    drachms 

Rose  water 1£  ounces 

Mix  the  powders,  and  rub  down  care- 
fully with  the  glycerine;  then  add  the 
rose  water.     Shake  the  bottle  before  use. 
XI. — Glycerine  cream  .  .      2  drachms 
Jordan  almonds  . .      4  drachms 

Rose  water 5  ounces 

Essential  oil  of  al- 
monds       3  drops 

Blanch  the  almonds,  and  then  dry  and 
beat  them  up  into  a  perfectly  smooth 
paste;  then  mix  in  the  glycerine  cream 
and  essential  oil.  Gradually  add  the 
rose  water,  stirring  well  after  each  addi- 
tion; then  strain  through  muslin. 

Tan  and  Freckle  Lotion. — 

Solution  A: 

Potassium  iodide,  iodine,  glycerine, 
and  infusion  rose. 

Dissolve  the  potassium  iodide  in  a 


COSMETICS 


small  quantity  of  the  infusion  and  a 
drachm  of  the  glycerine;  with  this  fluid 
moisten  the  iodine  in  a  glass  of  water 
and  rub  it  down,  gradually  adding  more 
liquid,  until  complete  solution  has  been 
obtained;  then  stir  in  the  remainder  of 
the  ingredients,  and  bottle  the  mixture. 

Solution  B: 

Sodium  thiosulphate  and  rose  water. 
With  a  small  camel's-hair  pencil  or  piece 
of  fine  sponge  apply  a  little  of  solution  A 
to  the  tanned  or  freckled  surface,  until  a 
slight  or  tolerably  uniform  brownish 
yellow  skin  has  been  produced.  At  the 
expiration  of  15  or  20  minutes  moisten 
a  piece  of  cambric,  lint,  or  soft  rag  with 
B  and  lay  it  upon  the  affected  part,  re- 
moving, squeezing  away  the  liquid, 
soaking  it  afresh,  and  again  applying 
until  the  iodine  stain  has  disappeared. 
Repeat  the  process  thrice  daily,  but 
diminish  the  frequency  of  application  if 
tenderness  be  produced. 

A  Cure  for  Tan. — Bichloride  of  mer- 
cury, in  coarse  powder,  10  grains;  dis- 
tilled water,  1  pint.  Agitate  the  two 
together  until  a  complete  solution  is 
obtained.  Add  £  ounce  of  glycerine. 
Apply  with  a  small  sponge  as  often  as 
agreeable.  This  is  not  strong  enough  to 
blister  and  skin  the  face  in  average  cases. 
It  may  be  increased  or  reduced  in  strength 
by  adding  to  or  taking  from  the  amount 
of  bichloride  of  mercury.  Do  not  for- 
get that  this  last  ingredient  is  a  powerful 
poison  and  should  be  kept  out  of  the 
reach  of  children  and  ignorant  persons. 

Improved  Carron  Oil. — Superior  to 
the  old  and  more  suitable.  A  desirable 
preparation  for  burns,  tan,  freckle,  sun- 
burn, scalds,  abrasions,  or  lung  affec- 
tions. Does  not  oxidize  so  quickly  or 
dry  up  so  rapidly  and  less  liable  to  ran- 
cidity. 

Linseed  oil 2  ounces 

Limewater 2  ounces 

Paraffine,  liquid 1  ounce 

Mix  the  linseed  oil  and  water,  and  add 
the  paraffine.  Shake  well  before  using. 

LIVER  SPOTS. 
I. — Corrosive  s  u  b  1  i  - 

mate 1  part 

White  sugar 190  parts 

White  of  egg 34  parts 

Lemon  juice 275  parts 

Water  to  make..  .  .  2,500  parts 

Mix  the  sublimate,  sugar,  and  albu- 
men intimately,  then  add  the  lemon 
juice  and  water.  Dissolve,  shake  well, 
and  after  standing  an  hour,  filter.  Ap- 


ply in  the  morning  after  the  usual  ablu- 
tions, and  let  dry  on  the  face. 

II. — Bichloride  of  mercury,  in  coarse 
powder,  8  grains;  witch-hazel,  2  ounces; 
rose  water,  2  ounces. 

Agitate  until  a  solution  is  obtained. 
Mop  over  the  affected  parts.  Keep  out 
of  the  way  of  ignorant  persons  and  chil- 
dren. 

TOILET  POWDERS: 

Almond  Powders  for  the  Toilet. — 
I.— Almond  meal ....  6,000  parts 

Bran  meal 3,000  parts 

Soap  powder 600  parts 

Bergarnot  oil 50  parts 

Lemon  oil 15  parts 

Clove  oil 15  parts 

Neroli  oil 6  parts 

II.— Almond  meal 7,000  parts 

Bran  meal 2,000  parts 

Violet  root 900  parts 

Borax 350  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil .  18  parts 
Palmarosa  oil..  ..  36  parts 
Bergamot  oil 10  parts 

III.— Almond  meal ....  3,000  parts 

Bran  meal 3,000  parts 

Wheat  flour 3,000  parts 

Sand 100  parts 

Lemon  oil 40  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil.        10  parts 

Bath  Powder. — 

Borax 4  ounces 

Salicylic  acid 1  drachm 

Extract  of  cassia 1  drachm 

Extract  of  jasmine.  ..      1  drachm 

Oil  of  lavender 20  minims 

Rub  the  oil  and  extracts  with  the  borax 
and  salicylic  acid  until  the  alcohol  has 
evaporated.  Use  a  heaping  teaspoonful 
to  the  body  bath. 

Brunette  or  Rachelle. — 

Base 9  pounds 

Powdered    Florentine 

orris 1  pound 

Perfume  the  same. 
Powdered       yellow 

ocher. . . .  (av.)  3  ounces  120  grains 

Carmine  No.  40 60  grains 

Rub  down  the  carmine  and  ocher  with 
alcohol  in  a  mortar,  and  spread  on  glass 
to  dry;  then  mix  and  sift. 

Violet  Poudre  de  Riz.— 

I. — Cornstarch 7  pounds 

Rice  flour 1  pound 

Powdered  talc 1  pound 

Powdered  orris  root. .  1  pound 

Extract  of  cassia 3  ounces 

Extract  of  jasmine. .  .  1  ounce 


COSMETICS 


II. — Cheaper. 

Potato  starch 8  pounds 

Powdered  talc 1  pound 

Powdered  orris 1  pound 

Extract  of  cassia. . .  3  ounces 


Barber's  Powder. — 

Cornstarch 

Precipitated  chalk. . 

Powdered  talc 

Oil  of  neroli 

Oil  of  cedrat 

Oil  of  orange 

Extract  of  jasmine.  . 


5  pounds 
3  pounds 
2  pounds 


1  drachm 

1  drachm 

2  drachms 
1  ounce 


Rose  Poudre  de  Riz. — 

I. — Cornstarch 9     pounds 

Powdered  talc 1     pound 

Oil  of  rose 1 J  drachms 

Extract  of  jasmine. ..  6     drachms 

II. — Potato  starch 9     pounds 

Powdered  talc 1     pound 

Oil  of  rose \  drachm 

Extract  of  jasmine. .  .  \  ounce 

Ideal  Cosmetic  Powder. — The  follow- 
ing combines  the  best  qualities  that  a 
powder  for  the  skin  should  have: 

Zinc,  white 50  parts 

Calcium    carbonate, 

precipitated 300  parts 

Steatite,  best  white. .  50  parts 
Starch,  wheat,  or  rice  100  parts 
Extract  white  rose, 

triple 3  parts 

Extract  jasmine,  tri- 
ple         3  parts 

Extract  orange  flow- 
er, triple 3  parts 

Extract  of  cassia,  tri- 
ple         3  parts 

Tincture  of  myrrh. .        1  part 
Powder  the  solids  and  mix  thoroughly 
by  repeated  siftings. 

Flesh  Face  Powder.— 

Base 9  pounds 

Powdered  Florentine 

orris 1  pound 

Carmine  No.  40 250  grains 

Extract  of  jasmine  .  .  100  minims 

Oil  of  neroli 20  minims 

Vanillin 5  grains 

Artificial  musk 30  grains 

White  heliotropin. .  .  30  grains 

Coumarin 1  grain 

Rub  the  carmine  with  a  portion  of  the 
base  and  alcohol  in  a  mortar,  mixing  the 
perfume  the  same  way  in  another  large 
mortar,  and  adding  the  orris.  Mix  and 
sift  all  until  specks  of  carmine  disappear 
on  rubbing. 


White  Face  Powder.— 

Base 9  pounds 

Powdered    Florentine 

orris 1  pound 

Perfume  the  same.     Mix  and  sift. 

Talcum  Powders. — Talc,  when  used 
as  a  toilet  powder  should  be  in  a  state  of 
very  fine  division.  Antiseptics  are  some- 
times added  in  small  proportion,  but 
these  are  presumably  of  little  or  no  value 
in  the  quantity  allowable,  and  may 
prove  irritating.  For  general  use,  at  all 
events,  the  talcum  alone  is  the  best  and 
the  safest.  As  a  perfume,  rose  oil  may 
be  employed,  but  on  account  of  its  cost, 
rose  geranium  oil  is  probably  more 
frequently  used.  A  satisfactory  propor- 
tion is  \  drachm  of  the  oil  to  a  pound 
of  the  powder.  In  order  that  the  per- 
fume may  be  thoroughly  disseminated 
throughout  the  powder,  the  oil  should 
be  triturated  first  with  a  small  portion  of 
it;  this  should  then  be  further  triturated 
with  a  larger  portion,  and,  if  the  quan- 
tity operated  on  be  large,  the  final  mix- 
ing may  be  effected  by  sifting.  Many 
odors  besides  that  of  rose  would  be  suit- 
able for  a  toilet  powder.  Ylang-ylang 
would  doubtless  prove  very  attractive, 
but  expensive. 

The  following  formulas  for  other  va- 
rieties of  the  powder  may  prove  useful: 

Violet  Talc.— 

I. — Powdered  talc 14     ounces 

Powdered  orris  root.      2     ounces 
Extract  of  cassia .... 
Extract  of  jasmine 

Rose  Talc.— 

II. — Powdered  talc 5     pounds 

Oil  of  rose \  drachm 

Extract  of  jasmine  .      4     ounces 

Tea-Rose  Talc.— 

III. — Powdered  talc 5     pounds 

Oil  of  rose 50     drops 

Oil  of  wintergreen  . .      4     drops 
Extract  of  jasmine..      2    ounces 

Bora  ted  Apple  Blossom. — 

IV. — Powdered  talc 22    pounds 

Magnesium  carbon- 
ate   ;•••:•      2t  pounds 

Powdered  boric  acid     1     pound 
Mix. 

Carnation  pink  blos- 
som (Schimmers)      2     ounces 
Extract  of  trefle  ....      2     drachms 
To  12  drachms  of  this  mixture  add: 

Neroli 1     drachm 

Vanillin \  drachm 

Alcohol  to 3    ounces 

Sufficient  for  25  pounds. 


::    f 


ounce 
ounce 


COSMETICS 


V.—  Talcum  

8 

ounces 

Starch  

8 

ounces 

Oil  of  neroli  

10 

drops 

Oil  of  ylang-ylang. 

5 

drops 

VI.—  Talcum  

12 

ounces 

Starch  

4 

ounces 

Orris  root  

2 

ounces 

Oil  of  bergamot.  .  .  . 

12 

drops 

VII.  —Talcum  

14 

ounces 

Starch  

2 

ounces 

%    Lanolin  

^ 

ounce 

Oil  of  rose  

10 

drops 

Oil  of  neroli  

5 

drops 

TOILET  VINEGARS: 
Pumillo  Toilet  Vinegar.— 

Alcohol,  80  per  cent  1,600  parts 
Vinegar,      10      per 

cent. . ..........      840  parts 

Oil  of  pinu  spumillo       44  parts 

Oil  of  lavender 4  parts 

Oil  of  lemon 2  parts 

Oil  of  bergamot ....          2  parts 
Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol,  add 
the  vinegar,  let  stand  for  a  week  and  filter. 

Vinaigre  Rouge. — 

Acetic  acid 24  parts 

Alum 3  parts 

Peru  balsam 1  part 

Carmine,  No.  40. ..        12  parts 
Ammonia  water ...          6  parts 
Rose     water,     dis- 
tilled       575  parts 

Alcohol 1,250  parts 

Dissolve  the  balsam  of  Peru  in  the 
alcohol,  and  the  alum  in  the  rose  water. 
Mix  the  two  solutions,  add  the  acetic 
acid,  and  let  stand  overnight.  Dis- 
solve the  carmine  in  the  ammonia  water 
and  add  to  mixture.  Shake  thoroughly, 
let  stand  for  a  few  minutes,  then  decant. 

TOILET  WATERS: 
"  Beauty  Water."— 

Fresh  egg  albumen. .   500  parts 

Alcohol. 125  parts 

Lemon  oil 2  parts 

Lavender  oil 2  parts 

Oil  of  thyme 2  parts 

Mix  the  ingredients  well  together. 
When  first  mixed  the  liquid  becomes 
flocculent,  but  after  standing  for  2  or  3 
days  clears  up — sometimes  becomes 
perfectly  clear,  and  may  be  decanted. 
It  forms  a  light,  amber-colored  liquid 
that  remains  clear  for  months. 

At  night,  before  retiring,  pour  about  a 
teaspoonful  of  the  water  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  and  rub  it  over  the  face  and  neck, 
letting  it  dry  on.  In  the  morning,  about 
an  hour  before  the  bath,  repeat  the  oper- 


ation, also  letting  the  liquid  dry  on  the 
skin.  The  regular  use  of  this  prepara- 
tion for  4  weeks  will  give  the  skin  an 
extraordinary  fineness,  clearness,  and 
freshness. 

Rottmanner's  Beauty  Water. — K  oiler 
says  that  this  preparation  consists  of  1 
part  of  camphor,  5  parts  of  milk  of  sul- 
phur, and  50  parts  of  rose  water. 

Birch  Waters.  —  Birch  water,  which 
has  many  cosmetic  applications,  espe- 
cially as  a  hair  wash,  or  an  ingredient  in 
hair  washes,  may  be  prepared  as  follows: 

I.— Alcohol,  96  per  cent  3,500  parts 

Water 700  parts 

Potash  soap 200  parts 

Glycerine 150  parts 

Oil  of  birch  buds. .  .  50  parts 
Essence  of  spring 

flowers 100  parts 

Chlorophyll,  quantity  sufficient  to 

color. 

Mix  the  water  with  700  parts  of  the 
alcohol,  and  in  the  mixture  dissolve  the 
soap.  Add  the  essence  of  spring  flowers 
and  birch  oil  to  the  remainder  of  the 
alcohol,  mix  well,  and  to  the  mixture  add, 
little  by  little,  and  with  constant  agitation, 
the  soap  mixture.  Finally,  add  the  glyc- 
erine, mix  thoroughly,  and  set  aside  for 
8  days,  filter  and  color  the  filtrate  with 
chlorophyll,  to  which  is  added  a  little 
tincture  of  saffron.  To  use,  add  an 
equal  volume  of  water  to.  produce  a 
lather. 

II.— Alcohol,    96    per 

cent 2,000  parts 

Water 500  parts 

Tincture    of    can- 

tharides 25  parts 

Salicylic  acid 25  parts 

Glycerine 100  parts 

Oil  of  birch  buds .        40  parts 
Bergamot  oil. ....        30  parts 

Geranium  oil 5  parts 

Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol,  add 
the  acid  and  tincture  of  cantharides; 
mix  the  water  and  glycerine  and  add, 
and,  finally,  color  as  before. 

III.— Alcohol 30,000  parts  . 

Birch  juice 3,000  parts 

Glycerine 1,000  parts 

Bergamot  oil. ...          90  parts 

Vanillin 10  parts 

Geranium  oil. ...          50  parts 
Water 14,000  parts 

IV.— Alcohol 40,000  parts 

Oil  of  birch 150  parts 

Bergamot  oil. ...        100  parts 
Lemon  oil 50  parts 


COTTON 


245 


Palmarosa  oil.  . .        100  parts 

Glycerine 2,000  parts 

Borax 150  parts 

Water 20,000  parts 

Violet  Ammonia  Water. — Most  prep- 
arations of  this  character  consist  of 
either  coarsely  powdered  ammonium 
carbonate,  with  or  without  the  addition 
of  ammonia  water,  or  of  a  coarsely  pow- 
dered mixture,  which  slowly  evolves  the 
odor  of  ammonia,  the  whole  being  per- 
fumed by  the  addition  of  volatile  oil, 
pomade  essences,  or  handkerchief  ex- 
tract. The  following  are  typical  for- 
mulas: 

I. — Moisten  coarsely  powdered  am- 
monium carbonate,  contained  in  a  suit- 
able bottle,  with  a  mixture  of  concen- 
trated tincture  of  orris  root,  2t  ounces; 
aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  1  drachm; 
violet  extract,  3  drachms. 

II. — Fill  suitable  bottles  with  coarsely 
powdered  ammonium  carbonate  and  add 
to  the  salt  as  much  of  the  following  solu- 
tion as  it  will  absorb:  Oil  of  orris,  5 
minims;  oil  of  lavender  flowers,  10 
minims;  violet  extract,  30  minims; 
stronger  water  of  ammonia,  2  fluid- 
ounces. 

III. — The  following  is  a  formula  for 
a  liquid  preparation:  Extract  violet,  8 
fluidrachms;  extract  cassia,  8  fluidrachms; 
spirit  of  rose,  4  fluidrachms;  tincture  of 
orris,  4  fluidrachms  ;  cologne  spirit,  1 
pint;  spirit  of  ammonia,  1  ounce.  Spirit 
of  ionone  may  be  used  instead  of  extract 
of  violet. 

Violet  Witch-Hazel.— 

Spirit  of  ionone $  drachm 

Rose  water 6     ounces 

Distilled     extract    o  f 

witch-hazel  enough 

to  make 16    ounces 


Cotton 

BLEACHING  OF  COTTON: 

I.— Bleaching  by  Steaming.— The 
singed  and  washed  cotton  goods  are 
passed  through  hydrochloric  acid  of  2° 
Be.  Leave  them  in  heaps  during  1 
hour,  wash,  pass  through  sodium  hvpo- 
chlorite  of  10°  Be.  diluted  with  10  times 
the  volume  of  water.  Let  the  pieces  lie 
in  heaps  for  1  hour,  wash,  pass  through 
caustic  soda  lye  of  38°  Be.  diluted  with  8 
times  its  volume  of  water,  steam,  put 
again  through  sodium  chloride,  wash, 
acidulate  slightly  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
wash  and  dry.  Should  the  whiteness 
not  be  sufficient,  repeat  the  operations. 


II. — Bleaching  with  Calcium  Sulphite. 
— The  cotton  goods  are  impregnated 
with  1  part,  by  weight,  of  water,  1  part 
of  caustic  lime,  and  £  part  of  bisulphite 
of  40°  Be.;  next  steamed  during  1-2 
hours  at  a  pressure  of  \  atmosphere, 
washed,  acidulated,  washed  and  dried. 
The  result  is  as  white  a  fabric  as  by  the 
old  method  with  caustic  lime,  soda,  and 
calcium  chloride.  The  bisulphite  may 
also  be  replaced  by  calcium  hydrosul- 

Ehite,    and,    instead    of    steaming,    the 
ibric  may  be  boiled  for  several  hours 
with  calcium  sulphite. 

III. — Bleaching  of  Vegetable  Fibers 
with  Hydrogen  Peroxide. — Pass  the  pieces 
through  a  solution  containing  caustic 
soda,  soap,  hydrogen  peroxide,  and  burnt 
magnesia.  The  pieces  are  piled  in  heaps 
on  carriages;  the  latter  are  shoved  into 
the  well-known  apparatus  of  Mather  & 
Platt  (kier),  and  the  liquid  is  pumped 
on  for  6  hours,  at  a  pressure  of  §  atmos- 
phere. Next  wash,  acidulate,  wash  and 
dry.  The  bleaching  may  also  be  done 
on  an  ordinary  reeling  vat.  For  5 
pieces  are  needed  about  1,000  parts,  by 
weight,  of  water;  10  parts,  by  weight,  of 
solid  caustic  soda;  1  part  of  burnt  mag- 
nesia; 30  parts,  by  weight,  of  hydrogen 
peroxide.  After  3-4  hours'  boiling, 
wash,  acidulate,  wash  and  dry.  The 
bleaching  may  also  be  performed  by 
passing  through  barium  peroxide,  then 
through  sulphuric  acid  or  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  next  through  soda  lye.  It  is 
practicable  also  to  commence  with  the 
latter  and  finally  give  a  treatment  with 
hydrogen  peroxide. 

The  whiteness  obtained  by  the  above 
process  is  handsomer  than  that  produced 
by  the  old  method  with  hypochlorites, 
and  the  fabric  is  weakened  to  a  less  ex- 
tent. 

TESTS  FOR  COTTON. 

I. — Cotton,  when  freed  from  extrane- 
ous matter  by  boiling  with  potash,  and 
afterwards  with  hydrochloric  acid,  yields 
pure  cellulose  or  absorbent  cotton,  which, 
according  to  the  U.  S.  P.,  is  soluble  in 
copper  ammonium  sulphate  solution. 
The  B.  P.  is  more  specific  and  states 
that  cotton  is  soluble  in  a  concentrated 
solution  of  copper  ammonium  sulphate. 
The  standard  test  solution  (B.  P.)  is 
made  by  dissolving  10  parts  of  copper 
sulphate  in  160  parts  of  distilled  water, 
and  cautiously  adding  solution  of  am- 
monia to  the  liquid  until  the  precipitate 
first  formed  is  nearly  dissolved.  The 
product  is  then  filtered  and  the  filtrate 
made  up  to  200  parts  with  distilled 


COTTON— COUGH  MIXTURES 


water.  The  concentrated  solution  is 
prepared  by  using  a  smaller  quantity 
of  distilled  water. 

II. — Schweitzer's  reagent  for  textile 
fibers  and  cellulose  is  made  by  dissolving 
10  parts  of  copper  sulphate  in  100  parts 
of  water  and  adding  a  solution  of  5  parts 
of  potassium  hydrate  in  50  parts  of  water; 
then  wash  the  precipitate  and  dissolve  in 
20  per  cent  ammonia  until  saturated. 
This  solution  dissolves  cotton,  linen,  and 
silk,  but  not  wool.  The  reagent  is  said 
to  be  especially  useful  in  microscopy,  as 
it  rapidly  dissolves  cellulose,  but  has  no 
action  on  lignin. 

III. — Jandrier's  Test  for  Cotton  in 
Woolen  Fabrics. — Wash  the  sample  of 
fabric  and  treat  with  sulphuric  acid 
(20  Be.)  for  half  an  hour  on  the  water 
bath.  To  100  to  200  parts  of  this  solu- 
tion add  1  part  resorcin,  and  overlay  on 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  free  from 
nitrous  products.  The  heat  developed 
is  sufficient  to  give  a  color  at  the  contact 
point  of  the  liquids,  but  intensity  of  color 
may  be  increased  by  slightly  heating.  If 
the  product  resulting  from  treating  the 
cotton  is  made  up  1  in  1,000,  resorcin 
will  give  an  orange  color;  alphanaphtol 
a  purple;  gallic  acid  a  green  gradually 
becoming  violet  down  in  the  acid;  hydro- 
quinone  or  pyrogallol  a  brown;  morphine 
or  codeine,  a  lavender;  thymol  or  menthol 
a  pink.  Cotton  may  be  detected  in 
colored  goods,  using  boneblack  to  de- 
colorize the  solution,  if  necessary. 

IV. — Overbeck's  test  for  cotton  in 
woolen  consists  in  soaking  the  fabric  in 
an  aqueous  solution  of  alloxantine  (1  in 
10),  and  after  drying  expose  to  ammonia 
vapor  and  rinse  in  water.  Woolen  ma- 
terial is  colored  crimson,  cotton  remains 
blue. 

V.— Liebermann's  Test.— Dye  the  fab- 
ric for  half  an  hour  in  fuchsine  solution 
rendered  light  yellow  by  caustic  soda 
solution  and  then  washed  with  water — 
silk  is  colored  dark  red;  wool,  light  red; 
flax,  pink;  and  cotton  remains  colorless. 

To  Distinguish  Cotton  from  Linen. — 
Take  a  sample  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
square  of  the  cloth  to  be  tested  and 
plunge  it  into  a  tepid  alcoholic  solution 
of  cyanine.  After  the  coloring  matter 
has  been  absorbed  by  the  fiber,  rinse  it 
in  water  and  then  plunge  into  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  If  it  is  of  cotton  the  sam- 
ple will  be  almost  completely  bleached, 
while  linen  preserves  the  blue  color  al- 
most unchanged.  If  the  sample  be  then 
plunged  in  ammonia,  the  blue  will  be 
strongly  reinforced. 


Aromatic  Cotton. — Aromatic  cotton  is 
produced  as  follows  :  Mix  camphor,  5 
parts;  pine-leaf  oil,  5  parts;  clove  oil, 
5  parts;  spirit  of  wine  (90  per  cent),  80 
parts;  and  distribute  evenly  on  cotton, 
500  parts,  by  means  of  an  atomizer.  The 
cotton  is  left  pressed  together  in  a  tightly 
closed  tin  vessel  for  a  few  days. 

Cotton  Degreasing. — Cotton  waste,  in 
a  greasy  condition,  is  placed  in  an  acid- 
proof  apparatus,  where  it  is  simulta- 
neously freed  from  grease,  etc.,  and  pre- 
pared for  bleaching  by  the  following 
process,  which  is  performed  without  the 
waste  being  removed  from  the  appara- 
tus: (1)  treatment  with  a  solvent,  such 
as  benzine;  (2)  steaming,  for  the  purpose 
of  vaporizing  and  expelling  from  the 
cotton  waste  the  solvent  still  remaining 
in  it  after  as  much  as  possible  of  this  has 
been  recovered  by  draining;  (3)  treatment 
with  a  mineral  acid;  (4)  boiling  with  an 
alkali  lye;  (5)  washing  with  water. 

COTTONSEED     HULLS     AS     STOCK 
FOOD. 

Cottonseed  hulls  or  other  material 
containing  fiber  difficult  of  digestion  are 
thoroughly  mixed  with  about  5  per  cent 
of  their  weight  of  hydrochloric  acid  (spe- 
cific gravity,  1.16),  and  heated  in  a 
closed  vessel,  provided  with  a  stirrer,  to 
a  temperature  of  212°  to  300°  F.  The 
amount  of  acid  to  be  added  depends  on 
the  material  employed  and  on  the  dura- 
tion of  the  heating.  By  heating  for  30 
minutes  the  above  percentage  of  acid  is 
required,  but  the  quantity  may  be  re- 
duced if  the  heating  is  prolonged.  After 
heating,  the  substance  is  ground  and  at 
the  same  time  mixed  with  some  basic 
substances  such  as  sodium  carbonate, 
chalk,  cottonseed  kernel  meal,  etc.,  to 
neutralize  the  acid.  During  the  heating, 
the  acid  vapors  coming  from  the  mixture 
may  be  led  into  a  second  quantity  of 
material  contained  in  a  separate  vessel, 
air  being  drawn  through  both  vessels  to 
facilitate  the  removal  of  the  acid  vapors. 

COTTONSEED  OIL: 
See  Oil. 

COTTONSEED  OIL  IN   FOOD,  TESTS 
FOR: 

See  Foods. 

COTTONSEED  OIL  IN  LARD,  DETEC- 
TION OF: 

See  Foods  and  Lard. 

COUGH  CANDY: 

See  Confectionery. 

COUGH  MIXTURES  FOR  CATTLE: 
See   Veterinary  Formulas. 


COURT   PLASTERS— CREAM 


247 


COUGH  MIXTURES  AND  REMEDIES: 
See  Cold  and  Cough  Mixtures. 


Court  Plasters 

(See  also  Plasters.) 

Liquid  Court  Plaster. — I. — If  soluble 
guncotton  is  dissolved  in  acetone  in  the 
proportion  of  about  1  part,  by  weight,  of 
the  former  to  35  or  40  parts,  by  volume, 
of  the  latter,  and  half  a  part  each  of 
castor  oil  and  glycerine  be  added,  a 
colorless,  elastic,  and  flexible  film  will 
form  on  the  skin  wherever  it  is  applied. 
Unlike  ordinary  collodion  it  will  not  be 
likely  to  dry  and  peel  off.  If  tinted  very 
slightly  with  alkanet  and  saffron  it  can 
be  made  to  assume  the  color  of  the  skin 
so  that  when  applied  it  is  scarcely  ob- 
servable. A  mixture  of  warm  solution 
of  sodium  silicate  and  casein,  about  9 
parts  of  the  former  to  1  part  of  the  latter, 
gelatinizes  and  forms  a  sort  of  liquid 
court  plaster. 

II. — In  order  to  make  liquid  court  plaster 
flexible,  collodion,  U.  S.  P.,  is  the  best 
liquid  that  can  possibly  be  recommended. 
It  may  be  made  by  weighing  successively 
into  a  tarred  bottle: 

Collodion 4  av.  ounces 

Canada  turpentine.  .    95  grains 
Castor  oil 57  grains 

Before  applying,  the  skin  should  be 
perfectly  dry;  each  application  or  layer 
should  be  permitted  to  harden.  Three 
or  four  coats  are  usually  sufficient. 

III.— Procure  an  ounce  bottle  and  fill 
it  three-fourths  full  of  flexible  collodion, 
and  fill  up  with  ether.  Apply  to  cuts, 
bruises,  etc.,  and  it  protects  them  and  will 
not  wash  off.  If  the  ether  evaporates, 
leaving  it  too  thick  for  use,  have  more 
ether  put  in  to  liquefy  it.  It  is  a  good 
thing  to  have  in  the  house  and  in  the  tool 
chest. 

COW  DISEASES   AND   THEIR   REM- 
EDIES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

CRAYONS: 
See  Pencils. 

CRAYONS  FOR  GRAINING  AND  MAR- 
BLING. 
Heat  4  parts  of  water  and  1  part  of 

white  wax  over  a  fire  until  the  wax  has 


completely  dissolved.  Stir  in  1  part  of 
purified  potash.  When  an  intimate 
combination  has  taken  place,  allow  to 
cool  and  add  a  proportionate  quantity 
of  gum  arabic.  With  this  mixture  the 
desired  colors  are  ground  thick  enough 
so  that  they  can  be  conveniently  rolled 
into  a  pencil  with  chalk.  The  desired 
shades  must  be  composed  on  the  grind- 
ing slab  as  they  are  wanted,  and  must 
not  be  simply  left  in  their  natural  tone. 
Use,  for  instance,  umber,  Vandyke 
brown,  and  white  lead  for  oak;  umber 
alone  would  be  too  dark  for  walnut  use. 
All  the  earth  colors  can  be  conveniently 
worked  up.  It  is  best  to  prepare  2  or  3 
crayons  of  each  set,  mixing  the  first  a 
little  lighter  by  the  addition  of  white  lead 
and  leaving  the  others  a  little  darker. 
The  pencils  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place 
and  are  more  suitable  for  graining  and 
marbling  than  brushes,  since  they  can  be 
used  with  either  oil  or  water. 

CRAYONS  FOR  WRITING  ON  GLASS: 

See  Etching,  and  Glass. 


Cream 

(See  also  Milk.) 

Whipped  Cream. — There  are  many 
ways  to  whip  cream.  The  following  is 
very  highly  indorsed:  Keep  the  cream 
on  ice  until  ready  to  whip.  Take  2 
earthen  vessels  about  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Into  1  bowl  put  1  pint  of  rich 
sweet  cream,  2  teaspoonfuls  powdered 
sugar,  and  5  drops  of  best  vanilla  ex- 
tract. Add  the  white  of  1  egg  and  beat 
with  large  egg  beater  or  use  whipping 
apparatus  until  2  inches  of  froth  has 
formed;  skim  off  the  froth  into  the  other 
vessel  and  so  proceed  whipping  and 
skimming  until  all  the  cream  in  the 
first  vessel  has  been  exhausted.  The 
whipped  cream  will  stand  up  all  day  and 
should  be  let  stand  in  the  vessel  on  ice. 

Special  machines  have  been  constructed 
for  whipping  cream,  but  most  dispensers 
prepare  it  with  an  ordinary  egg  beater. 
Genuine  whipped  cream  is  nothing  other 
than  pure  cream  into  which  air  has  been 
forced  by  the  action  of  the  different  ap- 
paratus manufactured  for  the  purpose; 
care  must,  however,  be  exercised  in 
order  that  butter  is  not  produced  in- 
stead of  whipped  cream.  To  avoid  this 
the  temperature  of  the  cream  must  be 
kept  at  a  low  degree  and  the  whipping 
must  not  be  too  violent  or  prolonged; 
hence  the  following  rules  must  be  ob- 
served in  order  to  produce  the  desired 
result: 


248 


CREAM— CRYSTAL   CEMENTS 


1.  Secure  pure  cream  and  as  fresh  as 
possible. 

2.  Surround   the   bowl   in   which   the 
cream   is   being   whipped   with   cracked 
ice,  and  perform  the  operation  in  a  cool 
place. 

3.  As  rapidly  as  the  whipped  cream 
arises,  skim  it  off  and  place  it  in  another 
bowl,  likewise  surrounded  with  ice. 

4.  Do  not  whip  the  cream  too  long  or 
too  violently. 

5.  The  downward  motion  of  the  beater 
should  be  more  forcible  than  the  upward, 
as  the  first  has  a  tendency  to  force  the  air 
into  the  cream,  while  the  second,  on  the 
contrary,  tends  to  expel  it. 

6.  A  little  powdered  sugar  should  be 
added  to  the  cream  after  it  is  whipped, 
in  order  to  sweeten  it. 

7.  Make    whipped    cream    in    small 
quantities  and  keep  it  on  ice. 

I. — Cummins's  Whipped  Cream. — 
Place  12  ounces  of  rich  cream  on  the  ice 
for  about  1  hour;  then  with  a  whipper 
beat  to  a  consistency  that  will  withstand 
its  own  weight. 

II.—  Eberle's  Whipped  Cream.— Take 
a  pint  of  fresh,  sweet  cream,  which  has 
been  chilled  by  being  placed  on  the  ice, 
add  to  it  a  heaping  tablespoonful  of  pow- 
dered sugar  and  2  ounces  of  a  solution 
of  gelatin  (a  spoonful  dissolved  in  2 
ounces  of  water),  whip  slowly  for  a 
minute  or  two  until  a  heavy  froth  gathers 
on  top.  Skim  off  the  dense  froth,  and 
put  in  container  for  counter  use;  con- 
tinue this  until  you  have  frothed  all  that 
is  possible. 

III.— Foy's  Whipped  Cream.— Use 
only  pure  cream;  have  it  ice  cold,  and  in 
a  convenient  dish  for  whipping  with  a 
wire  whipper.  A  clear,  easy,  quick,  and 
convenient  way  is  to  use  a  beater.  Fill 
about  one-half  full  of  cream,  and  beat 
vigorously  for  2  or  3  minutes;  a  little  pow- 
dered sugar  may  be  added  before  beat- 
ing. The  cream  may  be  left  in  the 
beater,  and  placed  on  ice. 

IV. — American  Soda  Fountain  Com- 
pany's Whipped  Cream. — Take  2  earthen 
bowls  and  2  tin  pans,  each  6  or  8  inches 
greater  in  diameter  than  the  bowls;  place 
a  bowl  in  each  pan,  surround  it  with 
broken  ice,  put  the  cream  to  be  whipped 
in  1  bowl,  and  whip  it  with  a  whipped 
cream  churn.  The  cream  should  be 
pure  and  rich,  and  neither  sugar  nor 
gelatin  should  be  added  to  it.  As  the 
whipped  cream  rises  and  fills  the  bowl, 
remove  the  churn,  and  skim  off  the 
whipped  cream  into  the  other  bowl. 

The  philosophy  of  the  process  is  that 


the  churn  drives  air  into  the  cream,  and 
blows  an  infinity  of  tiny  bubbles,  which 
forms  the  whipped  cream;  therefore,  in 
churning,  raise  the  dasher  gently  and 
slowly,  and  bring  it  down  quickly  and 
forcibly.  When  the  second  bowl  is  full 
of  whipped  cream,  pour  off  the  liquid 
cream,  which  has  settled  to  the  bottom, 
into  the  first  bowl,  and  whip  it  again. 
Keep  the  whipped  cream  on  ice. 

The  addition  of  an  even  teaspoonful 
of  salt  to  1  quart  of  sweet  cream,  before 
whipping,  will  make  it  whip  up  very 
readily  and  stiff,  and  stand  up  much 
longer  and  better. 

CRESOL  EMULSION. 

One  of  the  best  starting  points  for  the 
preparation  is  the  "creosote"  obtained 
from  blast  furnaces,  which  is  rich  in 
cresols  and  contains  comparatively  little 
phenols.  The  proportions  used  are: 
Creosote,  30  parts;  soft  soap,  10  parts; 
and  solution  of  soda  (10  per  cent),  30 
parts.  Boil  the  ingredients  together  for 
an  hour,  then  place  aside  to  settle.  The 
dark  fluid  is  afterwards  drained  from  any 
oily  portion  floating  upon  the  top. 

CREAM,  COLD: 

See  Cosmetics. 

CREAMS  FOR  THE  FACE  AND  SKIN  : 
See  Cosmetics. 


CREOSOTE  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

CROCKERY: 

See  Ceramics. 

CROCKERY   CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

CROCUS. 

The  substance  known  as  "crocus," 
which  is  so  exceedingly  useful  as  a  pol- 
ishing medium  for  steel,  etc.,  may  be 
very  generally  obtained  in  the  cinders 
produced  from  coal  containing  iron.  It 
will  be  easily  recognized  by  its  rusty 
color,  and  should  be  collected  and  re- 
duced to  a  powder  for  future  use.  Steel 
burnishers  may  be  brought  to  a  high 
state  of  polish  with  this  substance  by 
rubbing  them  upon  a  buff  made  of  sol- 
diers' belt  or  hard  wood.  After  this 
operation,  the  burnisher  should  be 
rubbed  on  a  second  buff  charged  with 
jewelers'  rouge. 

CRYSTAL  CEMENTS    FOR   REUNIT- 
ING BROKEN  PIECES: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Cements. 


CRYSTALLIZATION— DAMASKEENING 


CRYSTALLIZATION,  ORNAMENTAL: 

See  Gardens,  Chemical. 

CUCUMBER  ESSENCE: 
See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

CUCUMBER     JELLY,     JUICE,     AND 

MILK: 
See  Cosmetics. 

CURAgOA  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

CURTAINS,   COLORING   OF: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

CURRY  POWDER: 

See  Condiments. 


CUSTARD   POWDER: 

Corn  flour 7  pounds 

Arrowroot 8  pounds 

Oil  of  almond 20  drops 

Oil  of  nutmegs 10  drops 

Tincture  of  saffron  to  color. 
Mix  the  tincture  with  a  little  of  the 
mixed  flours;  then  add  the  essential  oils 
and  make  into  a  paste;  dry  this  until  it 
can  be  reduced  to  a  powder,  and  then 
mix  all  the  ingredients  by  sifting  several 
times  through  a  fine  hair  sieve. 


CUTLERY  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives. 

CYLINDER  OIL: 

See  Lubricants. 

CYMBAL  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 


Damaskeening 

Damaskeening,  practicea  from  most 
ancient  times,  consists  in  ornamentally 
inlaying  one  metal  with  another,  fol- 
lowed usually  by  polishing.  Generally 
gold  or  silver  is  employed  for  inlaying. 
The  article  to  be  decorated  by  damas- 
keening is  usually  of  iron  (steel)  or 
copper;  in  Oriental  (especially  Japan- 
ese) work,  also  frequently  of  bronze, 
which  has  been  blackened,  or,  at  least, 
darkened,  so  that  the  damaskeening  is 
effectively  set  off  from  the  ground.  If 
the  design  consists  of  lines,  the  grooves 
are  dug  out  with  the  graver  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  are  wider  at  the  bot- 


tom, so  as  to  hold  the  metal  forced  in. 
Next,  the  gold  or  silver  pieces  suitably 
formed  are  laid  on  top  and  hammered  in 
so  as  to  fill  up  the  opening.  Finally  the 
surface  is  gone  over  again,  so  that  the 
surface  of  the  inlay  is  perfectly  even  with 
the  rest.  If  the  inlays,  however,  are  not 
in  the  form  of  lines,  but  are  composed  of 
larger  pieces  of  certain  outlines,  they  are 
sometimes  allowed  to  project  beyond  the 
surface  of  the  metal  decorated.  At  times 
there  are  inlays  again  in  the  raised  por- 
tions of  another  metal;  thus,  Japanese 
bronze  articles  often  contain  figures  of 
raised  gold  inlaid  with  silver. 

Owing  to  the  high  value  which  dam- 
askeening imparts  to  articles  artistic- 
ally decorated,  many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  obtain  similar  effects 
in  a  cheaper  manner.  One  is  electro- 
etching,  described  further  on.  Another 
process  for  the  wholesale  manufacture 
of  objects  closely  resembling  damask- 
eened work  is  the  following:  By 
means  of  a  steel  punch,  on  which  the 
decorations  to  be  produced  project  in 
relief,  the  designs  are  stamped  by  means 
of  a  drop  hammer  or  a  stamping  press 
into  gold  plated  or  silver  plated  sheet 
metal  on  the  side  which  is  to  show  the 
damaskeening,  finally  grinding  off  the 
surface,  so  that  the  sunken  portions  are 
again  level.  Naturally,  the  stamped 
portion,  as  long  as  the  depth  of  the 
stamping  is  at  least  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  precious  metal  on  top,  will 
appear  inlaid. 

It  is  believed  that  much  of  the  early 
damaskeening  was  done  by  welding  to- 
gether iron  and  either  a  steel  or  an  im- 
pure or  alloyed  iron,  and  treating  the 
surface  with  a  corroding  acid  that  affect- 
ed the  steel  or  alloy  without  changing 
the  iron. 

The  variety  or  damaskeening  known 
as  koftgari  or  kuft-work,  practiced  in 
India,  was  produced  by  rough-etching  a 
metallic  surface  and  laying  on  gold-leaf, 
which  was  imbedded  so  that  it  adhered 
only  to  the  etched  parts  of  the  design. 

Damaskeening  by  Electrolysis. — Dam- 
askeening of  metallic  plates  may  be 
done  by  electrolysis.  A  copper  plate 
is  covered  with  an  isolating  layer  of 
feeble  thickness,  such  as  wax,  and  the 
desired  design  is  scratched  in  it  by  the 
use  of  a  pointed  tool.  The  plate  is  sus- 
pended in  a  bath  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
connecting  it  with  the  positive  pole  of  a 
battery,  while  a  second  copper  plate  is 
connected  with  the  negative  pole.  The 
current  etches  grooves  wherever  the  wax 
has  been  removed.  When  enough  has 


250       DAMASKEENING— DECALCOMANIA   PROCESSES 


beci  eaten  away,  remove  the  plate  from 
the  bath,  cleanse  it  with  a  little  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  remove  any  traces  of  oxide 
of  copper  which  might  appear  on  the 
lines  of  the  design;  then  wash  it  in  plenty 
of  water  and  place  it  in  a  bath  of  silver 
or  nickel,  connecting  it  now  with  the  neg- 
ative pole,  the  positive  pole  being  repre- 
sented by  a  leaf  of  platinum.  After  a 
certain  time  the  hollows  are  completely 
filled  with  a  deposit  of  silver  or  nickel, 
and  it  only  remains  to  polish  the  plate, 
which  has  the  appearance  of  a  piece 
damaskeened  by  hand. 

Damaskeening  on  Enamel  Dials. — 
Dip  the  dial  into  molten  yellow  wax, 
trace  on  the  dial  the  designs  desired, 
penetrating  down  to  the  enamel.  Dip 
the  dial  in  a  fluorhydric  acid  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  that  it  may  eat  to  the 
desired  depth.  Next,  wash  in  several 
waters,  remove  the  wax  bv  means  of 
turpentine,  i.  e.,  leave  the  piece  covered 
with  wax  immersed  in  essence  of  turpen- 
tine. By  filling  up  the  hollows  thus  ob- 
tained with  enamel  very  pretty  effects 
are  produced. 

DANDRUFF  CURE: 

See  Hair  Preparations. 


DECALCOMANIA  PROCESSES: 

See  also  Chromos,  Copying  Processes, 
and  Transfer  Processes. 

The  decalcomania  process  of  trans- 
ferring pictures  requires  that  the  print 
(usually  in  colors)* be  made  on  a  spe- 
cially prepared  paper.  Prints  made  on 
decalcomania  paper  may  be  transferred 
in  the  reverse  to  china  ware,  wood,  cellu- 
loid, metal,  or  any  hard  smooth  surface, 
and  being  varnished  after  transfer  (or 
burnt  in,  in  the  case  of  pottery)  acquire 
a  fair  degree  of  permanence.  The  origi- 
nal print  is  destroyed  by  the  transfer. 

Applying  Decalcomania  Pictures  on 
Ceramic'  Products  under  a  Glaze. — A 
biscuit-baked  object  is  first  coated  with 
a  mixture  of  alcohol,  shellac,  varnish, 
and  liquid  glue.  Then  the  prepared 
picture  print  is  transferred  on  to  this 
adhesive  layer  in  the  customary  manner. 
The  glaze,  however,  does  not  adhere  to 
this  coating  and  would,  therefore,  not 
cover  the  picture  when  fused  on.  To 
attain  this,  the  layer  bearing  the  transfer 
picture,  as  well  as  the  latter,  are  simul- 
taneously coated  with  a  dextrin  solution 
of  about  10  per  cent.  When  this  dex- 
trin coating  is  dry,  the  picture  is  glazed. 


The  mixing  proportions  of  the  two  so- 
lutions employed,  as  well  as  of  the  ad- 
hesive and  the  dextrin  solutions,  vary 
somewhat  according  to  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  porcelain,  its  porosity,  etc. 
The  following  may  serve  for  an  example: 
Dissolve  5  parts  of  shellac  or  equivalent 
gum  in  25  parts  of  spirit  and  emulsify 
this  liquid  with  20  parts  of  varnish  and 
8  parts  of  liquid  glue.  After  drying,  the 
glaze  is  put  on  and  the  ware  thus  pre- 
pared is  placed  in  the  grate  fire. 

The  process  described  is  especially 
adapted  for  film  pictures,  i.  e.,  for  such 
as  bear  the  picture  on  a  cohering  layer, 
usually  consisting  of  collodion.  It  can- 
not be  employed  outright  for  gum  pic- 
tures, i.  e.,  for  such  pictures  as  are 
composed  of  different  pressed  surfaces, 
consisting  mainly  of  gum  or  similar  ma- 
terial. If  this  process  is  to  be  adapted 
to  these  pictures  as  well,  the  ware,  which 
has  been  given  the  biscuit  baking,  is 
first  provided  with  a  crude  glaze  coat- 
ing, whereupon  the  details  of  the  proc- 
ess are  carried  out  as  described  above 
with  the  exception  that  there  is  another 
glaze  coating  between  the  adhesive  coat 
and  the  biscuit-baked  ware.  In  this  case 
the  article  is  also  immediately  placed  in 
the  grate  fire.  It  is  immaterial  which 
of  the  two  kinds  of  metachromatypes 
(transfer  pictures)  is  used,  in  every  case 
the  baking  in  the  muffle,  etc.,  is  dropped. 
The  transfer  pictures  may  also  be  pro- 
duced in  all  colors  for  the  grate  fire. 

Decalcomania  Paper. — Smooth  un- 
sized paper,  not  too  thick,  is  coated  with 
the  following  solutions: 

I. — Gelatin,  10  parts,  dissolved  in 
300  parts  warm  water.  This  solution  is 
applied  with  a  sponge.  The  paper 
should  be  dried  flat. 

II. — Starch,  50  parts;  gum  traga- 
canth,  dissolved  in  600  parts  of  water. 
(The  gum  tragacanth  is  soaked  in  300 
parts  of  water;  in  the  other  300  parts  the 
starch  is  boiled  to  a  paste;  the  two  are 
then  poured  together  and  boiled.)  The 
dried  paper  is  brushed  with  this  paste 
uniformly,  a  fairly  thick  coat  being  ap- 
plied. The  paper  is  then  allowed  to  dry 
again. 

III. — One  part  blood  albumen  is 
soaked  in  3  parts  water  for  24  hours.  A 
small  quantity  of  sal  ammoniac  is  added. 

The  paper,  after  having  been  coated 
with  these  three  solutions  and  dried,  is 
run  through  the  printing  press,  the  pic- 
tures, however,  being  printed  reversed 
so  that  it  may  appear  in  its  true  position 
when  transferred.  Any  colored  inks  may 
be  used. 


DECALCOMANIA   PROCESSES— DENTIFRICES        251 


IV. — A  transfer  paper,  known  as  "de- 
calque  rapide,"  invented  by  J.  B.  Dur- 
amy,  consists  of  a  paper  of  the  kind 
generally  used  for  making  pottery  trans- 
fers, but  coated  with  a  mixture  of  gum 
and  arrowroot  solutions  in  the  propor- 
tion of  2  J  parts  of  the  latter  to  100  of  the 
former.  The  coating  is  applied  in  the 
ordinary  manner,  but  the  paper  is  only 
semi-glazed.  Furthermore,  to  decorate 
pottery  ware  by  means  of  this  new  trans- 
fer paper,  there  is  no  need  to  immerse 
the  ware  in  a  bath  in  order  to  get  the 
paper  to  draw  off,  as  it  will  come  away 
when  moistened  with  a  damp  sponge, 
after  having  been  in  position  for  less  than 
5  minutes,  whereas  the  ordinary  papers 
require  a  much  longer  time. 

Picture  Transferrer. — A  very  weak 
solution  of  soft  soap  and  pearlashes  is 
used  to  transfer  recent  prints,  such  as 
illustrations  from  papers,  magazines, 
etc.,  to  unglazed  paper,  on  the  decalco- 
mania  principle.  Such  a  solution  is: 

I. — Soft  soap £  ounce 

Pearlash 2    drachms 

Distilled  water.  ...    16    fluidounces 

The  print  is  laid  upon  a  flat  surface, 
such  as  a  drawing  board,  and  moistened 
with  the  liquid.  The  paper  on  which 
the  reproduction  is  required  is  laid  over 
this,  and  then  a  sheet  of  thicker  paper 
placed  on  the  top,  and  the  whole  rubbed 
evenly  and  hard  with  a  blunt  instrument, 
such  as  the  bowl  of  a  spoon,  until  the 
desired  depth  of  color  in  the  transferrer 
is  obtained.  Another  and  more  artistic 
process  is  to  cover  the  print  with  a  trans- 
parent sheet  of  material  coated  with 
wax,  to  trace  out  the  pictures  wij;h  a  point 
and  to  take  rubbings  of  the  same  after 
powdering  with  plumbago. 

II. — Hard  soap 1  drachm 

Glycerine 30  grains 

Alcohol 4  nuidrachms 

Water »  . .  . .      1  fluidounce 

Dampen  the  printed  matter  with  the 
solution  by  sponging,  and  proceed  as 
with  I. 

DEHORNERS: 

See  Horn. 

DELTA  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

DEMON  BOWLS  OF  FIRE: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

DENTAL   CEMENTS: 
See  Cements, 


Dentifrices 

TOOTH  POWDERS: 

A  perfect  tooth  powder  that  will  clean 
the  teeth  and  mouth  with  thoroughness 
need  contain  but  few  ingredients  and  is 
easily  made.  For  the  base  there  is  noth- 
ing better  than  precipitated  chalk;  it 
possesses  all  the  detergent  and  polishing 
properties  necessary  for  the  thorough 
cleansing  of  the  teeth,  and  it  is  too 
soft  to  do  any  injury  to  soft  or  to  de- 
fective or  thinly  enameled  teeth.  This 
cannot  be  said  of  pumice,  cuttlebone, 
charcoal,  kieselguhr,  and  similar  abra- 
dants  that  are  used  in  tooth  powders. 
Their  use  is  reprehensible  in  a  tooth 
powder.  The  use  of  pumice  or  other 
active  abradant  is  well  enough  occasion- 
ally, by  persons  afflicted  with  a  growth 
of  tartar  on  the  teeth,  but  even  then  it  is 
best  applied  by  a  competent  dentist. 
Abrading  powders  have  much  to  answer 
for  in  hastening  the  day  of  the  toothless 
race. 

Next  in  value  comes  soap.  Powdered 
white  castilesoap  is  usually  an  ingredient 
of  tooth  powders.  There  is  nothing  so 
effective  for  removing  sordes  or  thick- 
ened mucus  from  the  gums  or  mouth. 
But  used  alone  or  in  too  large  propor- 
tions, the  taste  is  unpleasant.  Orris 
possesses  no  cleansing  properties,  but  is 
used  for  its  flavor  and  because  it  is  most 
effective  for  masking  the  taste  of  the 
soap.  Sugar  or  saccharine  may  be  used 
for  sweetening,  and  for  flavoring  almost 
anything  can  be  used.  Flavors  should, 
in  the  main,  be  used  singly,  though  mixed 
flavors  lack  the  clean  taste  of  simple 
flavors. 

The  most  popular  tooth  powder  sold  is  the 
white,  saponaceous,  wintergreen-flavored 
powder,  and  here  is  a  formula  for  this 
type: 

I. — Precipitated  chalk.  ..      1     pound 
White  castile  soap ...      1     ounce 

Florentine  orris 2    ounces 

Sugar  (or  saccharine, 

2  grains) ~  1     ounce 

Oil  of  wintergreen ...  £  ounce 
The  first  four  ingredients  should  be  in 
the  finest  possible  powder  and  well  dried. 
Triturate  the  oil  of  wintergreen  with  part 
of  the  chalk,  and  mix  this  with  the  bal- 
ance of  the  chalk.  Sift  each  ingredient 
separately  through  a  sieve  (No.  80  or 
finer),  and  mix  well  together,  afterwards 
sifting  the  mixture  5  or  6  times.  The 
finer  the  sieve  and  the  more  the  mixture 
is  sifted,  the  finer  and  lighter  the  powder 
will  be, 


DENTIFRICES 


This  powder  will  cost  about  15  cents  a 
pound. 

Pink,  rose-flavored  powder  of  the  Caswell 
and  Hazard,  Hudnut.  or  McMahan  type, 
once  so  popular  in  New  York.  It  was 
made  in  two  styles,  with  and  without 
soap. 
II. — Precipitated  chalk.  ..  1  pound 

Florentine  orris 2    ounces 

Sugar 1 J  ounces 

White  castile  soap.  ..      1     ounce 

No.  40  carmine 15     grains 

Oil  of  rose 12    drops 

Oil  of  cloves 4     drops 

Dissolve  the  carmine  in  an  ounce  of 
water  of  ammonia  and  triturate  this  with 
part  of  the  chalk  until  the  chalk  is  uni- 
formly dyed.  Then  spread  it  in  a  thin 
layer  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  allow  the 
ammonia  to  evaporate.  When  there  is 
no  ammoniacal  odor  left,  mix  this  dyed 
chalk  with  the  rest  of  the  chalk  and 
sift  the  whole  several  times  until  thor- 
oughly mixed.  Then  proceed  to  make 
up  the  powder  as  in  the  previous  formula, 
first  sifting  each  ingredient  separately 
and  then  together,  being  careful  thor- 
oughly to  triturate  the  oils  of  rose  and 
cloves  with  the  orris  after  it  is  sifted  and 
before  it  is  added  to  the  other  powders. 
The  oil  of  cloves  is  used  to  back  up  the 
oil  of  rose.  It  strengthens  and  accen- 
tuates the  rose  odor.  Be  careful  not  to 
get  a  drop  too  much,  or  it  will  predomi- 
nate over  the  rose. 

Violet  Tooth  Powder.— 

Precipitated  chalk. ...      1     pound 

Florentine  orris 4     ounces 

Castile  soap 1     ounce 

Sugar H  ounces 

Extract  of  violet f  ounce 

Evergreen  coloring,  R.   &  F.,  quan- 
tity sufficient. 

Proceed  as  in  the  second  formula,  dye- 
ing the  chalk  with  the  evergreen  coloring 
to  the  desired  shade  before  mixing. 
III. — Precipitated  chalk.      16    pounds 
Powdered  orris. ...        4     pounds 
Powdered  cuttlefish 

bone 2     pounds 

Ultramarine 9£  ounces 

Geranium  lake. ...    340     grains 

Jasmine 110     minims 

Oil  of  neroli 110     minims 

Oil    of     bitter     al- 
monds       35     minims 

Vanillin 50    grains 

Artificial        musk 

*  (Lautier's) 60    grains 

Saccharine 140    grains 

Rub  up  the  perfumes  with  2  ounces  of 
alcohol,  dissolve  the  saccharine  in  warm 


water,  add  all  to  the  orris,  and  set  aside 
to  dry.  Rub  the  colors  up  with  water 
and  some  chalk,  and  when  dry  pass  all 
through  a  mixer  and  sifter  twice  to  bring 
out  the  color. 

Camphorated  and  Carbolated  Powders. 
— A  camphorated  tooth  powder  may  be 
made  by  leaving  out  the  oil  of  winter- 
green  in  the  first  formula  and  adding  1£ 
ounces  of  powdered  camphor. 

Carbolated  tooth  powder  may  like- 
wise be  made  with  the  first  formula  by 
substituting  2  drachms  of  liquefied  car- 
bolic acid  for  the  oil  of  wintergreen. 
But  the  tooth  powder  gradually  loses  the 
odor  and  taste  of  the  acid.  It  is  not  of 
much  utility  anyway,  as  the  castile  soap 
In  the  powder  is  of  far  greater  antiseptic 
power  than  the  small  amount  of  carbolic 
acid  that  can  safely  be  combined  in  a 
tooth  powder.  Soap  is  one  of  the  best 
antiseptics. 

Alkaline  salts,  borax,  sodium  bicar- 
bonate, etc.,  are  superfluous  in  a  powder 
already  containing  soap.  The  only  use- 
ful purpose  they  might  serve  is  to  correct 
acidity  of  the  mouth,  and  that  end  can  be 
reached  much  better  by  rinsing  the 
mouth  with  a  solution  of  sodium  bicar- 
bonate. Acids  have  no  place  in  tooth 
powders,  the  French  Codex  to  the  con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

Peppermint  as.  a  Flavor. — In  France 
and  all  over  Europe  peppermint  is  the 
popular  flavor,  as  wintergreen  is  in  this 
country. 

English  apothecaries  use  sugar  of  milk 
and  heavy  calcined  magnesia  in  many  of 
their  tooth  powders.  Neither  has  any 
particular  virtue  as  a  tooth  cleanser,  but 
both  are  harmless.  Cane  sugar  is  pref- 
erable to  milk  sugar  as  a  sweetener,  and 
saccharine  is  more  efficient,  though  ob- 
jected to  by  some;  it  should  be  used 
in  the  proportion  of  2  to  5  grains  to 
the  pound  of  powder,  and  great  care 
taken  to  have  it  thoroughly  distributed 
throughout. 

An  antiseptic  tooth  powder,  containing 
the  antiseptic  ingredients  of  listerine,  is 
popular  in  some  localities. 
IV. — Precipitated  chalk  ..      1     pound 

Castile  soap 5     drachms 

Borax 3     drachms 

Thymol 20    grains 

Menthol 20    grains 

Eucalyptol 20    grains 

Oil  of  wintergreen  .  .    20     grains 

Alcohol £  ounce 

Dissolve  the  thymol  and  oils  in  the 
alcohol,  and  triturate  with  the  chalk,  and 
proceed  as  in  the  first  formula. 


DENTIFRICES 


One  fault  with  this  powder  is  the  dis- 
agreeable taste  of  the  thymol.  This 
may  be  omitted  and  the  oil  of  winter- 
green  increased  to  the  improvement  of 
the  taste,  but  with  some  loss  of  antisep- 
tic power. 

Antiseptic  Powder. — 

V» — Boric  acid 50  parts 

Salicylic  acid 50  parts 

Dragon's  blood.  .  .        20  parts 
Calcium     carbon- 
ate. .  .  . 1,000  parts 

Essence  spearmint.  12  parts 
Reduce  the  dragon's  blood  and  cal- 
cium carbonate  to  the  finest  powder, 
and  mix  the  ingredients  thoroughly. 
The  powder  should  be  used  twice  a  day, 
or  even  oftener,  in  bad  cases.  It  is  es- 
pecially recommended  in  cases  where 
tne  enamel  has  become  eroded  from  the 
effects  of  iron. 

Menthol  Tooth  Powder.  —  Menthol 
leaves  a  cool  and  pleasant  sensation  in 
the  mouth,  and  is  excellent  for  fetid 
breath.  It  may  be  added  to  most  for- 
mulas by  taking  an  equal  quantity  of  oil 
of  wintergreen  and  dissolving  in  alcohol. 

Menthol 1  part 

Salol 8  parts 

Soap,  grated  fine..  .  .    20  parts 
Calcium  carbonate..    20  parts 
Magnesia  carbonate  60  parts 
Essential  oil  of  mint.     2  parts 
Powder  finely  and   mix.     If  there  is 
much  tartar  on  the  teeth  it  will  be  well 
to  add  to  this  formula  from   10  to  20 
parts  of  pumice,  powdered  very  finely. 

Tooth  Powders  and  Pastes. — Although 
the  direct  object  of  these  is  to  keep  the 
teeth  clean  and  white,  they  also  prevent 
decay,  if  it  is  only  by  force  of  mere  clean- 
liness, and  in  this  way  (and  also  by  re- 
moving decomposing  particles  of  food) 
tend  to  keep  the  breath  sweet  and  whole- 
some. The  necessary  properties  of  a 
tooth  powder  are  cleansing  power  un- 
accompanied by  any  abrading  or  chemi- 
cal action  on  thle  teeth  themselves,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  antiseptic  power  to  enable 
it  to  deal  with  particles  of  stale  food,  and 
a  complete  absence  of  any  disagreeable 
taste  or  smell.  These  conditions  are 
easy  to  realize  in  practice,  and  there  is  a 
very  large  number  of  efficient  and  good 
powders,  as  well  as  not  a  few  which  are 
apt  to  injure  the  teeth  if  care  is  not  taken 
to  rinse  out  the  mouth  very  thoroughly 
after  using.  These  powders  include  some 
of  the  best  cleansers,  and  have  hence 
been  admitted  in  the  following  recipes, 
mostly  taken  from  English  collections. 


I. — Charcoal  and  sugar,  equal  weights. 
Mix  and  flavor  with  clove  oil. 

II. — Charcoal 156  parts 

Red  kino 156  parts 

Sugar 6  parts 

Flavor  with  peppermint  oil. 

III. — Charcoal 270  parts 

Sulphate       of 

quinine..  . .        1  part 

Magnesia 1  part 

Scent  to  liking. 

IV.— Charcoal SO  parts 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar   8  parts 

Yellow     c  i  n- 

chona  bark  4  parts 

Sugar 15  parts 

Scent  with  oil  of  cloves. 

V.— Sugar 120  parts 

Alum 10  parts 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar.    20  parts 

Cochineal. ...  3  parts 

VI. — Cream  of  tar- 
tar  1,000  parts 

Alum 190  parts 

Carbonate  of 

magnesia . .    375  parts 

Sugar 375  parts 

Cochineal 75  parts 

Essence  Cey- 
lon cinna- 
mon   90  parts 

Essence 

cloves 75  parts 

Essence  Eng- 
lish p  e  p- 
permint.  . .  45  parts 

VII.— Sugar 200  parts 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar... 400  parts 

Magnesia. .  .  .  400  parts 

Starch 400  parts 

Cinnamon.  .  .  32  parts 

Mace 11  parts 

Sulphate  of 

quinine..  . .  16  parts 

Carmine 17  parts 

Scent  with  oil  of  peppermint  and  oil  of 
rose. 

VIII. — Bleaching  pow- 
der    11  parts 

Red  coral. ...  12  parts 

IX. — Red  cinchona 

bark. 12  parts 

Magnesia. ...  50  parts 

Cochineal.. .  .  9  parts 

Alum 6  parts 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar   100  parts 


254 


DENTIFRICES 


English    pep- 
permint oil.       4  parts 
Cinnamon  oil       2  parts 

Grind  the  first  five  ingredients  sepa- 
rately, then  mix  the  alum  with  the  cochi- 
neal, and  then  add  to  it  the  cream  of  tar- 
tar and  the  bark.  In  the  meantime  the 
magnesia  is  mixed  with  the  essential  oils, 
and  finally  the  whole  mass  is  mixed 
through  a  very  fine  silk  sieve. 

X.— Whitewood 

charcoal . . .  250  parts 
Cinchona 

bark 125  parts 

Sugar 250  parts 

Peppermint 

oil 12  parts 

Cinnamon  oil  8  parts 


XI. — Precipitated 
chalk 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar  

Florence  or- 
ris root .... 

Sal  ammoniac 

Ambergris .  .  . 

Cinnamon.  . . 

Coriander 

Cloves 

Rosewood  . . . 


750  parts 
250  parts 

250  parts 
60  parts 
4  parts 
4  parts 
4  parts 
4  parts 
4  parts 


XII.— D  r  a  g  o  n  '  s 

blood 250  parts 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar   30  parts 

Florence  or- 
ris root.  ...  30  parts 

Cinnamon.  . .      16  parts 

Cloves 8  parts 

XIII.— Precipitated 

chalk 500  parts 

Dragon's 

blood 250  parts 

Red  sandal- 
wood 125  parts 

Alum 125  parts 

Orris  root. .  .  .  250  parts 

Cloves 15  parts 

Cinnamon.  .  .  15  parts 

Vanilla 8  parts 

Rosewood.  . .  15  parts 

Carmine  lake  250  parts 

Carmine 8  parts 

XIV.— Cream  of  tar- 
tar   150  parts 

Alum 25  parts 

Cochineal 12  parts 

Cloves 25  parts 

Cinnamon.  .  .  25  parts 

Rosewood ...  6  parts 
Scent  with  essence  of  rose. 


XV.— Coral 

Sugar 

Wood      char- 
coal  

Essence  of  ver- 


vain, 


XVI.— Precipitated 
chalk 

Orris  root. .  .  . 

Carmine 

Sugar 

Essence  of 
rose 

Essence  of  ne- 
roli 

XVII.— Cinchona 
bark 

Chalk 

Myrrh 

Orris  root..  .  . 

Cinnamon.  .  . 

Carbonate  of 
ammonia.  . 

Oil  of  cloves . 


20  parts 
20  parts 

6  parts 
1  part 

500  parts 
500  parts 
1  part 

1  part 

4  parts 
4  parts 

50  parts 
100  parts 

50  parts 
100  parts 

50  parts 

100  parts 

2  parts 


XVIII.— Gum  arabic. .  30  parts 

Cutch .  ..  80  parts 

Licorice  juice.  550  parts 

Cascarilla. ...  20  parts 

Mastic 20  parts 

Orris  root...  20  parts 
Oil  of  cloves. .  5  parts 
Oil  of  pepper- 
mint   15  parts 

Extract    of 

amber 5  parts 

Extract    of 

musk 5  parts 

XIX.— Chalk 200  parts 

Cuttlebone...  100  parts 

Orris  root..  .  .  100  parts 
Bergamot  oil.  .      2  parts 

Lemon  oil..  .  .  4  parts 

Neroli  oil ....  1  part 

Portugal  oil .  .  2  parts 

XX.— Borax 50  parts 

Chalk 100  parts 

Myrrh 25  parts 

Orris  root. ...  22  parts 

Cinnamon.  .  .  25  parts 

XXL— Wood      char- 
coal   30  parts 

White  honey.  30  parts 

Vanilla  sugar  30  parts 
Cinchona 

bark 16  parts 

Flavor  with  oil  of  peppermint. 

XXII.— Syrupof  33°B.  38  parts 

Cuttlebone.  .  .  200  parts 

Carmine  lake  30  parts 
English  oil  of 

peppermint  5  parts 


DENTIFRICES 


255 


XXIII.— Red  coral 50     parts 

Cinnamon.  .  .      12     parts 
Cochineal....        6     parts 

Alum 2J  parts 

Honey 125     parts 

Water 6    parts 

Triturate  the  cochineal  and  the  alum 
with  the  water.  Then,  after  allowing 
them  to  stand  for  24  hours,  put  in  the 
honey,  the  coral,  and  the  cinnamon. 
When  the  effervescence  has  ceased, 
which  happens  in  about  48  hours,  flavor 
with  essential  oils  to  taste. 

XXIV.— Well-skimmed 

honey 50  parts 

Syrup  of  pep- 
permint. . .  50  parts 

Orris  root. ...      12  parts 

Sal  ammoniac     12  parts 

Cream  of  tar- 
tar   12  parts 

Tine  t  u  r  e  of 

cinnamon..  3  parts 

Tincture  of 

cloves 3  parts 

Tincture  of 

vanilla  ....  3  parts 

Oil  of  cloves.         1  part 

XXV.— Cream  of  tar- 
tar   120  parts 

Pumice 120  parts 

Alum 30  parts 

Cochineal..  .  .  30  parts 

Bergamotoil.  3  p/arts 

Clove 3  parts 

Make  to  a  thick  paste  with  honey  or 
sugar. 

XXVI.— Honey 250  parts 

Precipit  a  t  e  d 

chalk 250  parts 

Orris  root. .  .  .  250  parts 
Tine  t  u  r  e  of 

opium 7  parts 

Tine  t  u  r  e  of 

myrrh 7  parts 

Oil  of  rose ...  2  parts 

Oil  of  cloves..  2  parts 

Oil  of  nutmeg  2  parts 

XXVII.— Florentine  or- 
ris          6  parts 

Magn  esi  u  m 

carbonate. .        2  parts 
Almond   soap     12  parts 
Calcium    car- 
bonate ....      60  parts 

Thymol 1  part 

Alcohol,  quantity  sufficient. 

Powder  the  solids  and  mix.      Dissolve 

the  thymol  in  as  little  alcohol  as  possible, 

and  add  perfume  in  a  mixture  in  equal 

parts  of  oil  of  peppermint,  oil  of  clove, 


oil  of  lemon,  and  oil  of  eucalyptus. 
About  1  minim  of  each  to  every  ounce  of 
powder  will  be  sufficient. 

XXVIII.— Myrrh,  10  parts;  sodium 
chloride,  10  parts;  soot,  5  parts;  soap, 
5  parts;  lime  carbonate,  500  parts. 

XXIX. — Camphor,  5  parts;  soap,  10 
parts;  saccharine,  0.25  parts;  thymol, 
0.5  parts;  lime  carbonate,  500  parts. 
Scent,  as  desired,  with  rose  oil,  sassafras 
oil,  wintergreen  oil,  or  peppermint  oil. 

XXX. — Powdered  camphor,  6  parts; 
myrrh,  15  parts;  powdered  Peruvian 
bark,  6  parts;  distilled  water,  12  parts; 
alcohol  of  80°  F.,  50  parts.  Macerate 
the  powders  in  the  alcohol  for  a  week  and 
then  filter. 

XXXI. — Soap,  1;  saccharine,  0.025; 
thymol,  0.05;  lime  carbonate,  50;  sassa- 
fras essence,  enough  to  perfume. 

XXXII. — Camphor,  0.5;  soap,  1;  sac- 
charine, 0.025;  calcium  carbonate,  50; 
oil  of  sassafras,  or  cassia,  or  of  gaul- 
theria,  enough  to  perfume. 

XXXIII. — Myrrh,  1;  sodium  chloride, 
1;  soap,  50;  lime  carbonate,  50;  rose  oil 
as  required. 

XXXIV. — Precipitated  calcium  car- 
bonate, 60  parts;  quinine  sulphate,  2 
parts;  saponine,  0.1  part;  saccharine, 
0.1  part;  carmine  as  required;  oil  of 
peppermint,  sufficient. 

XXXV.— Boracic  acid,  100  parts; 
powdered  starch,  50  parts;  quinine  hy- 
drochlorate,  10  parts;  saccharine,  1  part; 
vanillin  (dissolved  in  alcohol),  1.5  parts. 

Neutral  Tooth  Powder. — Potassium 
chlorate,  200  parts;  starch,  200  parts; 
carmine  lake,  40  parts;  saccharine  (in 
alcoholic  solution),  1  part;  vanillin  (dis- 
solved in  alcohol),  1  part. 

Tooth  Powder  for  Children. — 
Magnesia  carbonate. .    10  parts 

Medicinal  soap 10  parts 

Sepia  powder 80  parts 

Peppermint  oil,   quantity  sufficient 
to  flavor. 

Flavorings  for  Dentifrice. — 
I. — Sassafras  oil,  true. ...      1  drachm 

Pinus  pumilio  oil ....  20  minims 

Bitter  orange  oil 20  minims 

Wintergreen  oil 2  minims 

Anise  oil 4  minims 

Rose  geranium  oil ...  1  minim 

Alcohol 1  ounce 

Use  according  to  taste. 

II. — Oil     of     peppermint, 

English 4  parts 

Oil  of  aniseed 6  parts 


256 


DENTIFRICES 


Oil  of  clove 1  part 

Oil  of  cinnamon. ...        1  part 

Saffron 1  part 

Deodorized  alcohol.    350  parts 

Water 300  parts 

Or,  cassia,  4  parts,  and  vanilla,  J  part, 
may  be  substituted  for  the  saffron. 

LIQUID  DENTIFRICES  AND   TOOTH 

WASHES: 

A  French  Dentifrice. — I. — A  prepara- 
tion which  has  a  reputation  in  France  as 
a  liquid  dentifrice  is  composed  of  alco- 
hol, 96  per  cent,  1,000  parts;  Mitcham 
peppermint  oil,  30  parts;  aniseed  oil, 
5  parts;  oil  of  Acorus  calamus,  0.5  parts. 
Finely  powdered  cochineal  and  cream 
of  tartar,  5  parts  each,  are  used  to  tint 
the  solution.  The  mixed  ingredients 
are  set  aside  for  14  days  before  filtering. 

Sozodont. — 

II. — The  liquid  tooth  preparation 
"Sozodont"  is  said  to  contain:  Soap 
powder,  60  parts;  glycerine,  60  parts; 
alcohol,  360  parts;  water.  220  parts;  oils 
of  peppermint,  of  aniseed,  of  clover,  and 
of  cinnamon,  1  part  each;  oil  of  winter- 
green,  1-200  part. 

III. — Thymol 2  grains 

Benzoic  acid 24  grains 

Tincture  eucalyptus     2  drachms 
Alcohol     quantity     sufficient    to 

make  2  ounces. 

Mix.     Sig.:      A    teaspoonful    diluted 
with  half  a  wineglassf ul  of  water. 
IV. — Carbolic  acid,  pure     2    ounces 
Glycerine,  1,260°..      1     ounce 
Oil  wintergreen. . .      6     drachms 

Oil  cinnamon 3     drachms 

Powdered      cochi- 
neal         ^  drachm 

S.  V.  R 40     ounces 

Distilled  water 40    ounces 

Dissolve  the  acid  in  the  glycerine  with 
the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat  and  the  essential 
oils  in  the  spirit;  mix  together,  and  add 
the  water  and  cochineal;  then  let  the 
preparation  stand  for  a  week  and  filter. 
A  mixture  of  caramel  and  cochineal 
coloring,  N.  F.,  gives  an  agreeable  red 
color  for  saponaceous  tooth  washes.  It 
is  not  permanent,  however. 

Variations  of  this  formula  follow: 
V. — White  castile  soap.     1     ounce 
Tincture  of  asarum     2     drachms 
Oil  of  peppermint.        £  drachm 
Oil  of  wintergreen.        J  drachm 

Oil  of  cloves 5     drops 

Oil  of  cassia 5     drops 

Glycerine 4     ounces 

Alcohol 14    ounces 

Water 14     ounces 


VI. — White  castile  soap.  1|  ounces 

Oil  of  orange 10     minims 

Oil  of  cassia 5     minims 

Oil  of  wintergreen.  15     minims 

Glycerine 3     ounces 

Alcohol 8    ounces 

Water  enough  to  make  1  quart. 

VII. — White  castile  soap.     3     ounces 

Glycerine 5    ounces 

Water 20     ounces 

Alcohol 30     ounces 

Oil  of  peppermint .  1  drachm 
Oil  of  wintergreen.  1  drachm 
Oil  of  orange  peel .  1  drachm 

Oil  of  anise 1     drachm 

Oil  of  cassia 1     drachm 

Beat  up  the  soap  with  the  glycerine; 
dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol  and  add  to 
the  soap  and  glycerine.  Stir  well  until 
the  soap  is  completely  dissolved. 

VIII.  —  White  castile  soap.  1     ounce 

Orris  root 4    ounces 

Rose  leaves 4     ounces 

Oil  of  rose i  drachm 

Oil  of  neroli £  drachm 

Cochineal. ........        \  ounce 

Diluted  alcohol.  ..  2    quarts 

If  the  wash  is  intended  simply  as  an 
elixir  for  sweetening  the  breath,  the  fol- 
lowing preparation,  resembling  the  cele- 
brated eau  de  botot,  will  be  found  very 
desirable: 

IX. — Oil  of  peppermint.   30  minims 
Oil  of  spearmint . .    15  minims 

Oil  of  cloves 5  minims 

Oil    of    red    cedar 

wood 60  minims 

Tincture  of  myrrh.      1  ounce 

Alcohol 1  pint 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound 
the  oil  of  cedar  tops  with  the  oil  of  cedar 
wood.  The  former  has  an  odor  like  tur- 
pentine; the  latter  has  the  fragrance  of 
the  red  cedar  wood. 

For  a  cleansing  wash,  a  solution  of 
soap  is  to  be  recommended.  It  may  be 
made  after  the  following  formula : 

X. — White  castile  soap.      1     ounce 

Alcohol 6     ounces 

Glycerine 4    ounces 

Hot  water 6     ounces 

Oil  of  peppermint.  15  minims 
Oil  of  wintergreen  20  minims 

Oil  of  cloves 5     minims 

Extract  of  vanilla .         A  ounce 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  hot  water  and 

add  the  glycerine  and  extract  of  vanilla. 

Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol,  mix  the 

solutions,     and    after    24     hours     filter 

through  paper. 


DENTIFRICES 


257 


It  is  customary  to  color  such  prepara- 
tions. An  agreeable  brown-yellow  tint 
may  be  given  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  caramel.  A  red  color  may 
be  given  by  cochineal.  The  color  will 
fade,  but  will  be  found  reasonably  per- 
manent when  kept  from  strong  light. 

TOOTH  SOAPS  AND  PASTES: 
Tooth  Soaps.— 

I. — White  castile  soap  .  .   225  parts 
Precipitated  chalk  . .   225  parts 

Orris  root. 225  parts 

Oil  of  peppermint.  .        7  parts 

Oil  of  cloves 4  parts 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

II. — Castile  soap 100  drachms 

Precipitated  chalk.  .    100  drachms 
Powdered  orris  root.    100  drachms 

White  sugar 50  drachms 

Rose  water  . 50  drachms 

Oil  of  cloves 100  drops 

Oil  of  peppermint. .  .  3  drachms 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  water,  add  the 
rose  water,  then  rub  up  with  the  sugar 
with  which  the  oils  have  been  previously 
triturated,  the  orris  root  and  the  pre- 
cipitated chalk. 

III. — Potassium  chlorate,  20  drachms; 
powdered  white  soap,  10  drachms;  pre- 
cipitated chalk,  20  drachms;  peppermint 
oil,  15  drops;  clove  oil,  5  drops;  glycer- 
ine, sufficient  to  mass.  Use  with  a  soft 
brush. 

Saponaceous  Tooth  Pastes.— 

I. — Precipitated      car- 
bonate of  lime  . .  90       parts 

Soap  powder 30       parts 

Ossa    sepia,    pow- 
dered   15       parts 

Tincture  of  cocaine  45       parts 

Oil  of  peppermint.  6       parts 

Oil  of  ylang-ylang.  0.3  parts 

Glycerine 30       parts 

Rose  water  to  cause  liquefac- 
tion. Carmine  solution  to 
color. 

II. — Precipitated       car- 
bonate of  lime  .  .    150      parts 

Soap  powder 45      parts 

Arrowroot 45      parts 

Oil  of  eucalyptus  .        2       parts 
Oil  of  peppermint.        1       part 
Oil  of  geranium  . .        1       part 

Oil  of  cloves 0.25  parts 

Oil  of  aniseed. .  .  .        0.25  parts 

Glycerine 45       parts 

Chloroform  water  to  cause  lique- 
faction. Carmine  solution  to 
color. 


Cherry  Tooth  Paste.— 
III. — Clarified  honey  . .    100  drachms 
Precipitated  chalk  100  drachms 
Powdered       orris 

root 100  drachms 

Powdered       rose 

leaves 60  drops 

Oil  of  cloves 55  drops 

Oil  of  mace 55  drops 

Oil  of  geranium. .     55  drops 

Chinese  Tooth  Paste.— 

IV. — Powdered  pumice  100     drachms 

Starch 20     drachms 

Oil  of  peppermint     40     drops 
Carmine £  drachm 

Eucalyptus  Paste. —Forty  drachms 
precipitated  chalk,  11  drachms  soap 
powder,  11  drachms  wheaten  starch, 
|  drachm  carmine,  30  drops  oil  of  pep- 
permint, 30  drops  oil  of  geranium,  60 
drops  eucalyptus  oil,  2  drops  oil  of 
cloves,  12  drops  oil  of  anise  mixed  to- 
gether and  incorporated  to  a  paste,  with 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and 
spirit. 

Myrrh  Tooth  Paste. — 

Precipitated  chalk     8  ounces 

Orris 8  ounces 

White  castile  soap.     2  ounces 

Borax 2  ounces 

Myrrh 1  ounce 

Glycerine,  quantity  sufficient. 
Color  and  perfume  to  suit. 
A  thousand  grams  of  levigated  pow- 
dered oyster  shells  are  rubbed  up  with 
12  drachms  of  cochineal  to  a  homogene- 
ous powder.  To  this  is  added  1  drachm 
of  potassium  permanganate  and  1  drachm 
boric  acid  and  rubbed  well  up.  Foam  up 
200  drachms  castile  soap  and  5  drachms 
chemically  pure  glycerine  and  mix  it  with 
the  foregoing  mass,  adding  by  teaspoon- 
ful  150  grams  of  boiling  strained  honey. 
The  whole  mass  is  again  thoroughly 
rubbed  up,  adding  while  doing  so  200 
drops  honey.  Finally  the  mass  should 
be  put  into  a  mortar  and  pounded  for  an 
hour  and  then  kneaded  with  the  hands 
for  2  hours. 

Tooth  Paste  to  be  put  in  Collapsible 
Tubes. - 

Calcium       carbonate, 

levigated 100  parts 

Cuttlefish  bone,  in  fine 

powder 25  parts 

Castile  soap,  old  white, 

powdered 25  parts 

Tincture  of  carmine, 

ammoniated 4  parts 

Simple  syrup. 25  parts 


258 


DENTIFRICES 


Menthol 2  parts 

Alcohol 5  parts 

Attar  of  rose  or  other  perfume,  quan- 
tity sufficient. 

Rose  water  sufficient  to  make  a  paste. 
Beat  the  soap  with  a  little  rose  water, 
then  warm  until  softened,  add  syrup 
and  tincture  of  carmine.  Dissolve  the 
perfume  and  menthol  in  the  alcohol  and 
add  to  soap  mixture.  Add  the  solids 
and  incorporate  thoroughly.  Finally, 
work  to  a  proper  consistency  for  filling 
into  collapsible  tubes,  adding  water,  if 
necessary. 

MOUTH  WASHES. 

I.— Quillaia  bark 125  parts 

Glycerine 95  parts 

Alcohol 155  parts 

Macerate  for  4  days  and  add: 
Acid,     carbol. 

cryst 4      parts 

Ol.  geranii 0.6  parts 

Ol.  caryophyll  . .        0.6  parts 

Ol.  rosse 0.6  parts 

Ol.  cinnam 0.6  parts 

Tinct.  ratanhse.  .      45      parts 
Aqua  rosse 900      parts 

Macerate  again  for  4  days  and  filter. 
Thymol  ........      20      parts 

Peppermint  oil. .      10      parts 

Clove  oil 5      parts 

Sage  oil 5      parts 

Marjoram  oil. ..        3      parts 

Sassafras  oil 3      parts 

Wintergreen  oil.        0.5  parts 

Coumarin 0.5  parts 

Alcohol,  dil 1,000      parts 

A  teaspoonful  in  a  glass  of  water. 

II. — Tincture    orris    (1 

in  4) 1£  parts 

Lavender  water. . .        \  part 
Tinct.      cinnamon 

(1  in  8) 1     part 

Tinct.  yellow  cinch 

bark 1     part 

Eau  de  cologne 2     parts 

Orris  and  Rose. — 

III. — Orris  root 30  drachms 

Rose  leaves 8  drachms 

Soap  bark 8  drachms 

Cocnineal 3J  drachms 

Dil uted  alcohol.  .  475  drachms 

Oil  rose 30  drops 

Oil  neroli 40  drops 

Myrrh  Astringent. — 

IV. — Tincture  myrrh. .  125  drachms 

Tincture  benzoin.  50  drachms 

Tincture  cinchona  8  drachms 

Alcohol 225  drachms 

Oil  of  rose 30  drops 


Boro  tonic. — 

V. — Acid  boric 20  parts 

Oilwintergreen.  10  parts 

Glycerine 110  parts 

Alcohol 150  parts 

Distilled    water 

enough  to  make  600  parts 

Sweet  Salicyl.— 

VI. — Acid  salicylic. ..  4  parts 

Saccharine 1  part 

Sodium      bicar- 
bonate    1  part 

Alcohol 200  parts 

Foaming  Orange. — 

VII.— Castile  soap..  ..  29  drachms 

Oil  orange 10  drops 

Oil  cinnamon. .  .  5  drops 

Distilled  water..  30  drachms 

Alcohol 90  drachms 

Australian  Mint. — 

VIII.— Thymol 0.25  parts 

Acid  benzoic.  .  .  3        parts 
Tincture  eucalyp- 
tus   15        parts 

Alcohol 100        parts 

Oil  peppermint.  0.75  parts 

Fragrant  Dentine. — 

IX. — Soap  bark 125  parts 

Glycerine 95  parts 

Alcohol 155  parts 

Rose  water 450  parts 

Macerate  for  4  days  and  add: 
Carbolic    acid, 

cryst 4  parts 

Oil  geranium.  ..        0.6  parts 

Oil  cloves 0.6  parts 

Oil  rose 0.6  parts 

Oil  cinnamon..  .        0.6  parts 

Tincture  rhatany     45  parts 

Rose  water 450  parts 

Allow  to  stand  4  days;  then  filter. 

Aromantiseptic.  — 

X.— Thymol 20  parts 

Oil  peppermint.       10  parts 

Oil  cloves 5  parts 

Oil  sage 5  parts 

Oil  marjoram.. .         3  parts 

Oil  sassafras. ...         3  parts 

Oil  wintergreen.         0.5  parts 

Coumarin 0.5  parts 

Diluted  alcohol.  1,000  parts 

The  products  of  the  foregoing  formulas 
are  used  in  the  proportion  of  1  teaspoon- 
ful in  a  half  glassful  of  water. 

Foaming.  — 

XI. — Soap  bark,  powder  2  ounces 
Cocnineal  powder.  60  grains 
Glycerine 3  ounces 


DENTIFRICES— DEPILATORIES 


259 


Alcohol 10  ounces 

Water       sufficient 

to  make 32  ounces 

Mix  the  soap,  cochineal,  glycerine, 
alcohol,  and  water  together;  let  macerate 
for  several  days;  filter  and  flavor;  if 
same  produces  turbidity,  shake  up  the 
mixture  with  magnesium  carbonate,  and 
filter  through  paper. 

Odonter. — 

XII. — Soap  bark,  powder        2  ounces 
Cudbear,  powder.        4  drachms 

Glycerine 4  ounces 

Alcohol 14  ounces 

Water     sufficient 

to  make 32  ounces 

Mix,  and  let  macerate  with  frequent 
agitation,    for   several    days;   filter;   add 
flavor;  if  necessary  filter  again  through 
magnesium  carbonate  or  paper  pulp. 
Sweet  Anise.— 

XIII. — Soap  bark 2  ounces 

Aniseed 4  drachms 

Cloves 4  drachms 

Cinnamon 4  drachms 

Cochineal 60  grains 

Vanilla 60  grains 

Oil  of  peppermint.      1  drachm 

Alcohol 16  ounces 

Water  sufficient  to 

make 32  ounces 

Reduce  the  drugs  to  coarse  powder, 
dissolve  the  oil  of  peppermint  in  the 
alcohol,  add  equal  parts  of  water,  and 
macerate  therein  the  powders  for  5  to  6 
days,  with  frequent  agitation;  place  in 
percolator  and  percolate  until  32  fluid- 
ounces  have  been  obtained.  Let  stand  for 
a  week  and  filter  through  paper;  if  neces- 
sary to  make  it  perfectly  bright  and 
clear,  shake  up  with  some  magnesia, 
and  again  filter. 

Saponaceous. — 
XIV. — White  castile  soap     2  ounces 

Glycerine 2  ounces 

Alcohol 8  ounces 

Water 4  ounces 

Oil  peppermint.  . .    20  drops 
Oil  wintergreen. . .    30  drops 
Solution  of  carmine  N.  F.  suffi- 
cient to  color. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  alcohol  and 
water,  add  the  other  ingredients,  and 
filter. 

XV. — Crystallized    car- 
bolic acid 4        parts 

Eucalyptol 1        part 

Salol 2        parts 

Menthol 0.25  parts 

Thymol 0.1     part 

Alcohol 100        parts 

Dye  with  cochineal  (1£  per  cent). 


Jackson's  Mouth  Wash. — Fresh  lemon 
peel,  10  parts;  fresh  sweet  orange  peel, 
10  parts;  angelica  root,  10  parts;  guaia- 
cum  wood,  30  parts;  balsam  of  Tolu,  12 
parts;  benzoin,  12  parts;  Peruvian  bal- 
sam, 4  parts;  myrrh,  3  parts;  alcohol  (90 
per  cent),  500  parts. 

Tablets  for  Antiseptic  Mouth  Wash.— 
Heliotropine,  0.01  part;  saccharine, 
0.01  part;  salicylic  acid,  0.01  part;  men- 
thol, 1  part;  milk  sugar,  5  parts.  These 
tablets  may  be  dyed  green,  red,  or  blue, 
with  chlorophyll,  cosine,  and  indigo  car- 
mine, respectively. 


Depilatories 

Depilatory  Cream. — The  depilatory 
cream  largely  used  in  New  York  hospi- 
tals for  the  removal  of  hair  from  the  skin 
previous  to  operations: 

I. — Barium  sulphide.  ...      3  parts 

Starch 1  part 

Water,  sufficient  quantity. 

The  mixed  powders  are  to  be  made 
into  a  paste  with  water,  and  applied  in  a 
moderately  thick  layer  to  the  parts  to  be 
denuded  of  hair,  the  excess  of  the  latter 
having  been  previously  trimmed  off  with 
a  pair  of  scissors.  From  time  to  time  a 
small  part  of  the  surface  should  be  ex- 
amined, and  when  it  is  seen  that  the 
hair  can  be  removed,  the  mass  should 
be  washed  off.  The  barium  sulphide 
should  be  quite  fresh.  It  can  be  pre- 
pared by  making  barium  sulphate  and 
its  own  weight  of  charcoal  into  a  paste 
with  linseed  oil,  rolling  the  paste  into  the 
shape  of  a  sausage,  and  placing  it  upon  a 
bright  fire  to  incinerate.  When  it  has 
ceased  to  burn,  and  is  a  white  hot  mass, 
remove  from  the  fire,  cool,  and  powder. 

The  formula  is  given  with  some  re- 
serve, for  preparations  of  this  kind  are 
usually  unsafe  unless  used  with  great 
care.  It  should  be  removed  promptly 
when  the  skin  begins  to  burn. 

II. — Barium  sulphide 25  parts 

Soap 5  parts 

Talc 35  parts 

Starch 35  parts 

Benzaldehyde    s  u  f  - 

ficient  to  make..  .  120  parts 

Powder  the  solids  and  mix.  To  use, 
to  a  part  of  this  mixture  add  3  parts  of 
water,  at  the  time  of  its  application,  and 
with  a  camel's-hair  pencil  paint  the  mix- 
ture evenly  over  the  spot  to  be  freed  of 
hair.  Let  remain  in  contact  with  the 


£60 


DEPILATORIES— DIAMOND   TESTS 


skin  for  5  minutes,  then  wash  off  with  a 
sponge,  and  in  the  course  of  5  minutes 
longer  the  hair  will  come  off  on  slight 
friction  with  the  sponge. 

Strontium  sulphide  is  an  efficient  de- 
pilatory. A  convenient  form  of  applying 
it  is  as  follows: 

III. — Strontium  sulphide  .      2  parts 

Zinc  oxide 3  parts 

Powdered  starch  ...      3  parts 

Mix  well  and  keep  in  the  dry  state  un- 
til wanted  for  use,  taking  then  a  sufficient 
quantity,  forming  into  a  paste  with  warm 
water  and  applying  to  the  surface  to  be 
deprived  of  hair.  Allow  to  remain  from 
1  to  5  minutes,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  hair  and  skin;  it  is  not  advisable 
to  continue  the  application  longer  than 
the  last  named  period.  Remove  in  all 
cases  at  once  when  any  caustic  action  is 
felt.  After  the  removal  of  the  paste, 
scrape  the  skin  gently  but  firmly  with  a 
blunt-edged  blade  (a  paper  knife,  for  in- 
stance) until  the  loosened  hair  is  re- 
moved. Then  immediately  wash  the 
denuded  surface  well  with  warm  water, 
and  apply  cold  cream  or  some  similar 
emollient  as  a  dressing. 

By  weight 

IV.— Alcohol 12       parts 

Collodion 35        parts 

Iodine 0.75  parts 

Essence    of    turpen- 
tine    1.5    parts 

Castor  oil 2       parts 

Apply  with  a  brush  on  the  affected 
parts  for  3  or  4  days  in  thick  coats. 
When  the  collodion  plaster  thus  formed 
is  pulled  off,  the  hairs  adhere  to  its  inner 
surface. 

V. — Rosin  sticks  are  intended  for  the 
removal  of  hairs  and  are  made  from  colo- 
phony with  an  admixture  of  10  per  cent 
of  yellow  wax.  The  sticks  are  heated 
like  a  stick  of  sealing  wax  until  soft  or 
semi-liquid  (142°  F.),  and  lightly  applied 
on  the  place  from  which  the  hair  is  to  be 
removed,  and  the  mass  is  allowed  to  cool. 
These  rosin  sticks  are  said  to  give  good 
satisfaction. 

DEPTHINGS,   VERIFICATION  OF: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

DESILVERING: 

See  Plating. 


DETERGENTS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


DEVELOPERS  FOR  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
PURPOSES : 

See  Photography. 

DEXTRIN      PASTES      AND       MUCI- 
LAGES: 

See  Adhesives. 

DIAL   CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Jewelers'  Ce- 
ments. 

DIAL  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

DIAL   REPAIRING: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

DIAMALT: 

See  Milk. 

DIAMOND  TESTS: 

See  also  Gems  and  Jewelers'  For- 
mulas. 

To  Distinguish  Genuine  Diamonds. — 
If  characters  or  marks  of  any  kind  are 
drawn  with  an  aluminum  pencil  on  glass, 
porcelain,  or  any  substance  containing 
silex,  the  marks  cannot  be  erased  by 
rubbing,  however  energetic  the  friction, 
and  even  acids  will  not  cause  them  to  dis- 
appear entirely,  unless  the  surface  is  en- 
tirely freed  from  greasy  matter,  which 
can  be  accomplished  by  rubbing  with 
whiting  and  passing  a  moistened  cloth 
over  the  surface  at  the  time  of  writing. 
So,  in  order  to  distinguish  the  true  dia- 
mond from  the  false,  it  is  necessary  only 
to  wipe  the  stone  carefully  and  trace  a 
line  on  it  with  an  aluminum  pencil,  and 
then  rub  it  briskly  with  a  moistened  cloth. 
If  the  line  continues  visible,  the  stone  is 
surely  false.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  stone 
is  a  true  diamond,  the  line  will  disappear 
without  leaving  a  trace,  and  without  in- 
jury to  the  stone. 

The  common  test  for  recognizing  the 
diamond  is  the  file,  which  does  not  cut  it, 
though  it  readily  attacks  imitations. 
There  are  other  stones  not  affected  by 
the  file,  but  they  have  characteristics  of 
color  and  other  effects  by  which  they  are 
readily  distinguished. 

This  test  should  be  confirmed  by 
others.  From  the  following  the  reader 
can  select  the  most  convenient: 

A  piece  of  glass  on  which  the  edge  of  a 
diamond  is  drawn,  will  be  cut  without 
much  pressure;  a  slight  blow  is  suffi- 
cient to  separate  the  glass.  An  imita- 
tion may  scratch  the  glass,  but  this  will 
not  be  cut  as  with  the  diamond. 


DIAMOND  TESTS— DIGESTIVE  POWDERS 


261 


If  a  small  drop  of  water  is  placed  upon 
the  face  of  a  diamond  and  moved  about 
by  means  of  the  point  of  a  pin,  it  will 
preserve  its  globular  form,  provided  the 
stone  is  clean  and  dry.  If  the  attempt  is 
made  on  glass,  the  drop  will  spread. 

A  diamond  immersed  in  a  glass  of 
water  will  be  distinctly  visible,  and  will 
shine  clearly  through  the  liquid.  The 
imitation  stone  will  be  confounded  with 
the  water  and  will  be  nearly  invisible. 

By  looking  through  a  diamond  with  a 
glass  at  a  black  point  on  a  sheet  of  white 
paper,  a  single  distinct  point  will  be  seen. 
Several  points,  or  a  foggy  point  will  ap- 
pear if  the  stone  is  spurious. 

Hydrofluoric  acid  dissolves  all  imita- 
tions, but  has  no  effect  on  true  diamonds. 
This  acid  is  kept  in  gutta-percha  bot- 
tles. 

For  an  eye  practiced  in  comparisons 
it  is  not  difficult  to  discern  that  the  facets 
in  the  cut  of  a  true  diamond  are  not  as 
regular  as  are  those  of  the  imitation;  for 
in  cutting  and  polishing  the  real  stone  an 
effort  is  made  to  preserve  the  original  as 
much  as  possible,  preferring  some  slight 
irregularities  in  the  planes  and  edges  to 
the  loss  in  the  weight,  for  we  all  know 
that  diamonds  are  sold  by  weight.  In  an 
imitation,  however,  whether  of  paste  or 
another  less  valuable  stone,  there  is  al- 
ways an  abundance  of  cheap  material 
which  may  be  cut  away  and  thereby 
form  a  perfect-appearing  stone. 

Take  a  piece  of  a  fabric,  striped  red 
and  white,  and  draw  the  stone  to  be 
tested  over  the  colors.  If  it  is  an  imi- 
tation, the  colors  will  be  seen  through  it, 
while  a  diamond  will  not  allow  them  to 
be  seen. 

A  genuine  diamond,  rubbed  on  wood 
or  metal,  after  having  been  previously 
exposed  to  the  light  of  the  electric  arc, 
becomes  phosphorescent  in  darkness, 
which  does  not  occur  with  imitations. 

Heat  the  stone  to  be  tested,  after  giving 
it  a  coating  of  borax,  and  let  it  fall  into 
cold  water.  A  diamond  will  undergo 
the  test  without  the  slightest  damage; 
the  glass  will  be  broken  in  pieces. 

Finally,  try  with  the  fingers  to  crush 
an  imitation  and  a  genuine  diamond  be- 
tween two  coins,  and  you  will  soon  see 
the  difference. 

DIAMOND  CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Jewelers'  Ce- 
ments. 

DIARRHEA  IN  BIRDS: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

DIARRHEA  REMEDIES: 

See  Cholera  Remedies. 


Die  Venting. — Many  pressmen  have 
spent  hours  and  days  in  the  endeavor  to 
produce  sharp  and  full  impressions  on 
figured  patterns.  If  all  the  deep  recesses 
in  deep-figured  dies  are  vented  to  allow 
the  air  to  escape  when  the  blow  is 
struck,  it  will  do  much  to  obtain  perfect 
impressions,  and  requires  only  half  the 
force  that  is  necessary  in  unvented  dies. 
This  is  not  known  in  many  shops  and 
consequently  this  little  air  costs  much  in 
power  and  worry. 

DIGESTIVE    POWDERS  AND     TAB- 
LETS. 

I. — Sodium  bicarbonate.  93  parts 

Sodium  chlorate.  ...  4  parts 

Calcium  carbonate. .  3  parts 

Pepsin 5  parts 

Ammonium  carbon- 
ate   1  part 

II. — Sodium  bicarbonate.  120  parts 

Sodium  chlorate 5  parts 

Sal  physiologic  (see 

below) 4  parts 

Magnesium  carbon- 
ate      10  parts 

III. — Pepsin,   saccharated 

(U.S.  P.) 10  drachms 

Pancreatin 10  drachms 

Diastase 50  drachms 

Acid,  lactic 40  drops 

Sugar  of  milk 40  drachms 

IV. — Pancreatin 3  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate.  15  parts 
Milk  sugar 2  parts 

Sal  Physiologicum. — The  formula  for 

this    ingredient,    the    so-called  nutritive 
salt  (Nahrsalz),  is  as  follows: 

Calcium  phosphate.    40  parts 
Potassium  sulphate.      2  parts 
Sodium  phosphate. .    20  parts 
Sulphuric,  precipita- 
ted        5  parts 

Sodium  chlorate 60  parts 

Magnesium       phos- 
phate        5  parts 

Carlsbad  salts,  arti- 
ficial      60  parts 

Silicic  acid 10  parts 

Calcium  fluoride 2£  parts 

Digestive  Tablets.— 
Powdered  double  re- 
fined sugar 300  parts 

Subnitrate  bismuth  60  parts 

Saccharated  pepsin  45  parts 

Pancreatin 45  parts 

Mucilage 35  parts 

Ginger 30  parts 

Mix  and  divide  into  suitable  sizes, 


DIOGEN   DEVELOPER— DISINFECTANTS 


DIOGEN  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

DIP  FOR  BRASS: 

See  Plating  and  Brass. 

DIPS: 

See  Metals. 

DIPS  FOR  CATTLE: 

See  Disinfectants  and  Veterinary  For- 
mulas. 

DISH  WASHING: 

See  Household  Formulas 


Disinfectants 

Disinfecting  Fluids. — 

I. — Creosote 40  gallons 

Rosin,  powdered. . .      56  pounds 
Caustic  soda  lye,38° 

Tw 9  gallons 

Boiling  water 12  gallons 

Methylated  spirit. .        1  gallon 

Black  treacle 14  pounds 

Melt  the  rosin  and  add  the  creosote; 
run  in  the  lyes;  then  add  the  matter  and 
methylated  spirit  mixed  together,  and 
add  the  treacle;  boil  all  till  dissolved  and 
mix  well  together. 

II. — Hot  water 120  pounds 

Caustic  soda  lye,  38° 

B 120  pounds 

Rosin 300  pounds 

Creosote 450  pounds 

Boil  together  the  water,  lye,  and  rosin, 
till  dissolved;  turn  off  steam  and  stir  in 
the  creosote;  keep  on  steam  to  nearly 
boiling  all  the  time,  but  so  as  not  to  boil 
over,  until  thoroughly  incorporated. 

III. — Fresh  -  made      soap 

(hard  yellow)  ....      7  pounds 

Gas  tar. 21  pounds 

Water,  with  2  pounds 

soda 21  pounds 

Dissolve  soap  (cut  in  fine  shavings) 
in  the  gas  tar;  then  add  slowly  the  soda 
and  water  which  has  been  dissolved. 

IV.— Rosin 1  cwt. 

Caustic  soda  lye,  18° 

B 16     gallons 

Black  tar  oil i  gallon 

Nitro- naphthalene 
dissolved  in  boil- 
ing water  (about 

\  gallon) 2  pounds 

Melt  the  rosin,  add  the  caustic  lye; 
then  stir  in  the  tar  oil  and  add  the  nitro- 
naphthalene. 


V. — Camphor 1  ounce 

Carbolic     acid      (75 

per  cent) 12  ounces 

Aqua  ammonia 10  drachms 

Soft  salt  water 8  drachms 

To  be  diluted  when  required  for  use. 

VI. — Heavy  tar  oil .    10  gallons 

Caustic  soda  dis- 
solved in  5  gallons 
water  600°  F 30  pounds 

Mix  the  soda  lyes  with  the  oil,  and  heat 
the  mixture  gently  with  constant  stir- 
ring; add,  when  just  on  the  boil,  20 
pounds  of  refuse  fat  or  tallow  and  20 
pounds  of  soft  soap;  continue  the  heat 
until  thoroughly  saponified,  and  add 
water  gradually  to  make  up  40  gallons. 
Let  it  settle;  then  decant  the  clear  liquid. 

Disinfecting  Fluids  or  Weed-Killers.— 
I. — Cold  water,  20  gallons;  powdered 
rosin,  56  pounds;  creosote  oil,  40  gallons; 
sulphuric  acid,  \  gallon;  caustic  soda  lye, 
30°  B.,  9  gallons. 

Heat  water  and  dissolve  the  rosin; 
then  add  creosote  and  boil  to  a  brown 
mass  and  shut  off  steam;  next  run  in 
sulphuric  acid  and  then  the  lyes. 

II.— Water 40  gallons 

Powdered     black 

rosin 56  pounds 

Sulphuric  acid 2£  gallons 

Creosote 10  gallons 

Melted  pitch 24  pounds 

Pearlash    boiled    in 

10  gallons  water. .  56  pounds 

Boil  water  and  dissolve  rosin  and  acid; 
then  add  creosote  and  boil  well  again; 
add  pitch  and  run  in  pearlash  solution 
(boiling);  then  shut  off  steam. 

III.  (White).— Water,  40  gallons; 
turpentine,  2  gallons;  ammonia,  \  gal- 
lon; carbolic  crystals,  14  pounds;  caustic 
lyes,  2  gallons;  white  sugar,  60  pounds, 
dissolved  in  40  pounds  water. 

Heat  water  to  boiling,  and  add  first 
turpentine,  next  ammonia,  and  then  car- 
bolic crystals.  Stir  well  until  thoroughly 
dissolved,  and  add  lyes  and  sugar  solu- 
tion. 

DISINFECTING  POWDERS. 

I. — Sulphate  of  iron.  .  .  100  parts 

Sulphate  of  zinc.  .  .  50  parts 

Oak  bark,  powder.  40  parts 

Tar 5  parts 

Oil 5  parts 

II. — Mix  together  chloride  of  lime  and 
burnt  umber,  add  water,  and  set  on  plates. 


DISINFECTANTS 


Blue  Sanitary  Powder. — 

Powdered  alum 2     pounds 

Oil  of  eucalyptus.  ..    12    ounces 
Rectified    spirits    of 

tar 6     ounces 

Rectified     spirit     of 

turpentine 2     ounces 

Ultramarine      blue 

(common) f  ounces 

Common  salt 14     pounds 

Mix  alum  with  about  3  pounds  of  salt 
in  a  large  mortar,  gradually  add  oil  of 
eucalyptus  and  spirits,  then  put  in  the 
ultramarine  blue,  and  lastly  remaining 
salt,  mixing  all  well,  and  passing  through 
a  sieve. 

Carbolic  Powder.  (Strong). — Slaked 
lime  in  fine  powder,  1  cwt. ;  carbolic  acid, 
75  per  cent,  2  gallons. 

Color  with  aniline  dye  and  then  pass 
through  a  moderately  fine  sieve  and  put 
into  tins  or  casks  and  keep  air-tight. 

Pink  Carbolized  Sanitary  Powder.— 

Powdered  alum 6     ounces 

Powdered  green  cop- 
peras        5     pounds 

Powdered  red  lead. .      5     pounds 
Calvert's  No.  5  car- 
bolic acid..  ......    12£  pounds 

Spirit  of  turpentine.      1?  pounds 

Calais  sand 10     pounds 

Slaked  lime 60     pounds 

Mix  carbolic  acid  with  turpentine  and 
sand,  then  add  the  other  ingredients, 
lastly  the  slaked  lime  and,  after  mixing, 
pass  through  a  sieve.  It  is  advisable  to 
use  lime  that  has  been  slaked  some  time. 

Cuspidor  Powder. — Peat  rubble  is 
ground  to  a  powder,  and  100  parts  put 
into  a  mixing  machine,  which  can  be 
hermetically  sealed.  Then  15  parts  of 
blue  vitriol  are  added  either  very  finely 
pulverized  or  in  a  saturated  aqueous  so- 
lution. Next  are  added  2  parts  of  forma- 
lin, and  lastly  1  part  of  ground  cloves, 
orange  peel,  or  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
some  volatile  oil,  to  give  the  desired  per- 
fume. The  mixing  machine  is  then 
closed,  and  kept  at  work  until  the  con- 
stituents are  perfectly  mixed;  the  powder 
is  then  ready  to  be  put  up  for  the  market. 
Its  purpose  is  to  effect  a  rapid  absorption 
of  the  sputum,  with  simultaneous  de- 
struction of  any  microbes  present,  and  to 
prevent  decomposition  and  consequent 
unpleasant  odors. 

Deodorants  for  Water-Close ts.— 

I. — Ferric  chloride 4  parts 

Zinc  chloride 5  parts 

Aluminum  chloride.      5  parts 


Calcium  chloride.  ...  4  parts 

Magnesium  chloride.  3  parts 
Water     sufficient     to 

make 90  parts 

Dissolve,  and  add  to  each  gallon  10 
grains  thymol  and  \  ounce  oil  of  rose- 
mary, previously  dissolved  in  about  6 
quarts  of  alcohol,  and  filter. 

II. — Sulphuric      acid, 

fuming 90  parts 

Potassium  perman- 
ganate         45  parts 

Water 4,200  parts 

Dissolve  the  permanganate  in  the 
water,  and  add  under  the  acid.  This  is 
said  to  be  a  most  powerful  disinfectant, 
deodorizer,  and  germicide.  It  should 
not  be  used  where  there  are  metal  trim- 
mings. 

Formaldehyde  for  Disinfecting  Books, 
Papers,  etc. — The  property  of  formal- 
dehyde of  penetrating  all  kinds  of  paper, 
even  when  folded  together  in  several 
layers,  may  be  utilized  for  a  perfect  dis- 
infection of  books  and  letters,  especially 
at  a  temperature  of  86°  to  122°  F.  in  a 
closed  room.  The  degree  of  penetra- 
tion as  well  as  the  disinfecting  power  of 
the  formaldehyde  depend  upon  the 


24  hours  at  a  temperature  of  122°  F. 
when  70  cubic  centimeters  of  formo- 
chloral — 17.5  g.  of  gas — per  cubic  meter 
of  space  are  used.  Books  must  be  stood 
up  in  such  a  manner  that  the  gas  can 
enter  from  the  sides.  Bacilli  of  typhoid 
preserve  their  vitality  longer  upon  un- 
sized paper  and  on  filtering  paper  than 
on  other  varieties. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the   disinfecting   and    deodorizing 

Sower  of  formaldehyde  when  used  to 
isinfect  wooden  tierces.  While  some 
have  found  it  to  answer  well,  others 
have  got  variable  results,  or  failed  of 
success.  The  explanation  seems  to  be 
that  those  who  have  obtained  poor  re- 
sults have  not  allowed  time  for  the  dis- 
infectant to  penetrate  the  pores  of  the 
wood,  the  method  of  application  being 
wrong.  The  solution  is  thrown  into  the 
tierce,  which  is  then  steamed  out  at  once, 
whereby  the  aldehyde  is  volatilized  be- 
fore it  has  had  time  to  do  its  work.  If 
the  formal  and  the  steam,  instead  of 
being  used  in  succession,  were  used  to- 
gether, the  steam  would  carry  the  dis- 
infectant into  the  pores  of  the  wood. 
But  a  still  better  plan  is  to  give  the  alde- 
hyde more  time. 


264 


DISINFECTANTS 


Another  point  to  be  remembered  in  all 
cases  of  disinfection  by  formaldehyde  is 
that  a  mechanical  cleansing  must  pre- 
cede the  action  of  the  antiseptic.  If 
there  are  thick  deposits  of  organic  mat- 
ter which  can  be  easily  dislodged  with  a 
scrubbing  brush,  they  can  only  be  dis- 
infected by  the  use  of  large  quantities 
of  formaldehyde  used  during  a  long  period 
of  time. 

General  Disinfectants. — 

I. — Alum 10  ounces 

Sodium  carbonate  .  .    10  ounces 
Ammonium  chloride     2  ounces 

Zinc  chloride 1  ounce 

Sodium  chloride. ...      2  ounces 
Hydrochloric  acid,  quantity  suffi- 
cient. 

Water  to  make  1  gallon. 
Dissolve  the  alum  in  one  half  gallon 
of  boiling  water,  and  add  the  sodium 
carbonate;  then  add  hydrochloric  acid 
until  the  precipitate  formed  is  dissolved. 
Dissolve  the  other  salt  in  water  and  add 
to  the  previous  solution.  Finally  add 
enough  water  to  make  the  whole  measure 
1  gallon,  and  filter. 

In  use,  this  is  diluted  with  7  parts  of 
water. 

II. — For  the  Sick  Room. — In  using 
this  ventilate  frequently:  Guaiac,  10  parts; 
eucalyptol,  8  parts;  phenol,  6  parts;  men- 
thol, 4  parts;  thymol,  2  parts;  oil  of 
cloves,  1  part;  alcohol  of  90  per  cent, 
170  parts. 

Atomizer  Liquid  for  Sick  Rooms. — 

III.  —Eucalyptol 10^ 

Thyme  oil 5     parts 

Lemon  oil 5  J-    by 

La  vender  oil 5    weight. 

Spirit,  90  per  cent. .  .  110J 
To  a  pint  of  water  a  teaspoonful  for 
evaporation. 

Non-Poisonous  Sheep  Dips. — Paste. — 
I. — Creosote  (containing 
15   per  cent  to  20 
per    cent    of    car- 
bolic acid) 2  parts 

Stearine  or  Yorkshire 

grease 1  part 

Caustic    soda    lyes, 
specific       gravity, 

1340 1  part 

Black  rosin,  5  per  cent  to  10  per 

cent. 

Melt  the  rosin  and  add  grease  and  soda 
lyes,  and  then  add  creosote  cold. 

II. — Creosote 1  part 

Crude  hard  rosin  oil      1  part 
Put  rosin  oil  in  copper  and  heat  to 


about  220°  F.,  and  add  as  much  caustic 
soda  powder,  98  per  cent  strength,  as  the 
oil  will  take  up.  The  quantity  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  acetic  acid  in  the 
oil.  If  too  much  soda  is  added  it  will 
remain  at  the  bottom.  When  the  rosin 
oil  has  taken  up  the  soda  add  creosote, 
and  let  it  stand. 

Odorless  Disinfectants. — 

I. — Ferric  chloride 4  parts 

Zinc  chloride 5  parts 

Aluminum  chloride.  5  parts 

Calcium  chloride  ...  4  parts 

Manganese  chloride  3  parts 

Water 69  parts 

If  desired,  10  grains  thymol  and  2 
fluidrachms  oil  of  rosemary,  previously 
dissolved  in  about  12  fluidrachms  of  al- 
cohol, may  be  added  to  each  gallon. 

II. — Alum 10  parts 

Sodium  carbonate  .  .  10  parts 
Ammonium  chloride  2  parts 
Sodium  chloride.  ...  2  parts 

Zinc  chloride 1  part 

Hydrochloric  acid,  sufficient. 
Water 100  parts 

Dissolve  the  alum  in  about  50  parts 
boiling  water  and  add  the  sodium  car- 
bonate. The  resulting  precipitate  of 
aluminum  hydrate  dissolve  with  the  aid 
of  just  sufficient  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
add  the  other  ingredients  previously  dis- 
solved in  the  remainder  of  the  water. 

III. — Mercuric  chloride. ..      1  part 
Cupric  sulphate  ....    10  parts 

Zinc  sulphate 50  parts 

Sodium  chloride.  ...  65  parts 
Water  to  make  1,000  parts. 

Paris  Salts. — The  disinfectant  known 
by  this  name  is  a  mixture  made  from  the 
following  recipe: 

Zinc  sulphate 49  parts 

Ammonia  alum 49  parts 

Potash      permanga- 
nate       1  part 

Lime 1  part 

The  ingredients  are  fused  together, 
mixed  with  a  little  calcium  chloride, 
and  perfumed  with  thymol. 

Platt's  Chlorides.— 

I. — Aluminum  sulphate.  6  ounces 

Zinc  chloride. 1£  ounces 

Sodium  chloride. ...  2  ounces 
Calcium  chloride.  ..  3  ounces 
Water  enough  to  make  2  pints. 

II. — A  more  elaborate  formula  for  a 
preparation  said  to  resemble  the  proprie* 
tary  article  is  as  follows: 


DISINFECTANTS— DOSES 


265 


Zinc,  in  strips 4     ounces 

Lead  carbonate  ....      2     ounces 
Chlorinated  lime ...      1     ounce 
Magnesium  carbon- 
ate          £  ounce 

Aluminum  hydrate. .      1£  ounces 
Potassium  hydrate. .        Bounce 
Hydrochloric  acid  .  .    16    ounces 

Water 16    ounces 

Whiting,  enough. 

Dissolve  the  zinc  in  the  acid;  then  add 
the  other  salts  singly  in  the  order  named, 
letting  each  dissolve  before  the  next  is 
added.  When  all  are  dissolved  add  the 
water  to  the  solution,  and  after  a  couple 
of  hours  add  a  little  whiting  to  neutralize 
any  excess  of  acid;  then  filter. 

Zinc  chloride  ranks  very  low  among 
disinfectants,  and  the  use  of  such  solu- 
tions as  these,  by  giving  a  false  sense  of 
security  from  disease  germs,  may  be  the 
means  of  spreading  rather  than  of  check- 
ing the  spread  of  sickness. 

Disinfecting  Coating. — Carbolic  acid, 
2  parts;  manganese,  3  parts;  calcium 
chloride,  2  parts;  china  clay,  10  parts; 
infusorial  earth,  4  parts  ;  dextrin,  2 
parts;  and  water,  10  parts. 

DISTEMPER  IN  CATTLE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 


DIURETIC  BALL: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

DOG  APPLICATIONS: 

See  Insecticides. 

DOG   BISCUIT. 

The  waste  portions  of  meat  and  tallow, 
including  the  skin  and  fiber,  have  for 
years  been  imported  from  South  Ameri- 
can tallow  factories  in  the  form  of  blocks. 
Most  of  the  dog  bread  consists  principally 
of  these  remnants,  chopped  and  mixed 
with  flour.  They  contain  a  good  deal  of 
firm  fibrous  tissue,  and  a  large  percent- 
age of  fat,  but  are  lacking  in  nutritive 
salts,  which  must  be  added  to  make  good 
dog  bread,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  meat 
flour  made  from  the  waste  of  meat  ex- 
tract factories.  The  flesh  of  dead  ani- 
mals is  not  used  by  any  reputable  manu- 
facturers, for  the  reason  that  it  gives  a 
dark  color  to  the  dough,  has  an  unpleas- 
ant odor,  and  if  not  properly  sterilized 
would  be  injurious  to  dogs  as  a  steady 
diet. 

Wheat  flour,  containing  as  little  bran 
as  possible,  is  generally  used,  oats,  rye, 
or  Indian  meal  being  only  mixed  in  to 


make  special  varieties,  or,  as  in  the  case 
of  Indian  meal,  for  cheapness.  Rye 
flour  would  give  a  good  flavor,  but  it 
dries  slowly,  and  the  biscuits  would  have 
to  go  through  a  special  process  of  drying 
after  baking,  else  they  would  mold  and 
spoil.  Dog  bread  must  be  made  from 
good  wheat  flour,  of  a  medium  sort, 
mixed  with  15  or  16  per  cent  of  sweet,  dry 
chopped  meat,  well  baked  and  dried  like 
pilot  bread  or  crackers.  This  is  the  rule 
for  all  the  standard  dog  bread  on  the 
market.  There  are  admixtures  which 
affect  more  or  less  its  nutritive  value, 
such  as  salt,  vegetables,  chopped  bones, 
or  bone  meal,  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
other  nutritive  salts.  In  preparing  the 
dough  and  in  baking,  care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  it  light  and  porous. 

DOG  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REME- 
DIES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

DOG  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

DONARITE: 

See  Explosives. 

DOORS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

DOSES  FOR  ADULTS  AND  CHILDREN. 

The  usual  method  pursued  by  medical 
men  in  calculating  the  doses  of  medicine 
for  children  is  to  average  the  dose  in 
proportion  to  their  approximate  weight 
or  to  figure  out  a  dose  upon  the  assump- 
tion that  at  12  years  of  age  half  of  an 
adult  dose  will  be  about  right.  Calcu- 
lated on  this  basis  the  doses  for  those 
under  12  will  be  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  age  in  years  plus  12,  divided  into  the 
age.  By  this  rule  a  child  1  year  old 
should  get  1  plus  12,  or  13,  dividing  1, 
or  iV  of  an  adult  dose.  If  the  child  is 
2  years  old  it  should  get  2  plus  12,  or  14, 
dividing  2,  or  |  of  an  adult  dose.  A  child 
of  3  years  should  get  3  plus  12,  or  15, 
dividing  3,  or  -£•  of  an  adult  dose.  A  child 
of  4  should  get  4  plus  12,  or  16,  dividing 
4,  or  \  of  an  adult  dose. 

As  both  children  and  adults  vary 
materially  in  size  when  of  the  same  age 
the  calculation  by  approximate  weights 
is  the  more  accurate  way.  Taking  the 
weight  of  the  average  adult  as  150  pounds, 
then  a  boy,  man,  or  woman,  whatever 
the  age,  weighing  only  75  pounds  should 
receive  only  one-half  of  an  adult  dose, 
and  a  man  of  300  pounds,  provided  his 
weight  is  the  result  of  a  properly  propor- 
tioned body,  and  not  due  to  mere  adipose 


266 


DOSE    TABLE— DYES 


tissue,  should  be  double  that  of  the  aver- 
age adult.  If  the  weight  is  due  to  mere 
fat  or  to  some  diseased  condition  of  the 
body,  such  a  calculation  would  be  entire- 
ly wrong.  The  object  of  the  calculation 
is  to  get  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
amount  of  dilution  the  dose  undergoes  in 
the  blood  or  in  the  intestinal  contents  of 
the  patient.  Each  volume  of  blood  should 
receive  exactly  the  same  dose  in  order  to 
give  the  same  results,  other  conditions 
being  equal. 

DOSE     TABLE     FOR     VETERINARY 
PURPOSES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

DRAWINGS,  PRESERVATION  OF. 

Working  designs  and  sketches  are  eas- 
ily soiled  and  rendered  unsuitable  for 
further  use.  This  can  be  easily  avoided 
by  coating  them  with  collodion,  to  which 
24  per  cent  of  stearine  from  a  good  stearine 
candle  has  been  added.  Lay  the  drawing 
on  a  glass  plate  or  a  board,  and  pour  on 
the  collodion,  as  the  photographer  treats 
his  plates.  After  10  or  20  minutes  the 
design  will  be  dry  and  perfectly  white, 
possessing  a  dull  luster,  and  being  so  well 
protected  that  it  may  be  washed  off  with 
water  without  fear  of  spoiling  it. 

DRAWINGS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

DRIERS: 

See  Siccatives. 

DRILLING,  LUBRICANT  FOR: 

See  Lubricants. 

DRINKS  FOR  SUMMER  AND  WINTER : 
See  Beverages. 

DROPS,  TABLE  OF: 

See  Tables. 


DRYING  OILS: 
See  Oil. 

DRY  ROT: 

See  Rot. 

DUBBING  FOR  LEATHER: 

See  Lubricants. 


DUST-LAYING: 
See  Oil. 

DUST      PREVENTERS     AND 
CLOTHS: 

See  Household  Formulas. 


DUST 


Dyes 

In  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  dyers,  many  of  the  following  recipes 
describe  dyes  for  large  quantities  of 
goods,  but  to  make  them  equally  adapted 
for  the  use  of  private  families  they  are 
usually  given  in  even  quantities,  so  that 
it  is  an  easy  matter  to  ascertain  the  quan- 
tity of  materials  required  for  dyeing,  when 
once  the  weight  of  the  goods  is  known, 
the  quantity  of  materials  used  being  re- 
duced in  proportion  to  the  smaller  quan- 
tity of  goods. 

Employ  soft  water  for  all  dyeing  pur- 
poses, if  it  can  be  procured,  using  4  gal- 
lons water  to  1  pound  of  goods;  for  larger 
quantities  a  little  less  water  will  do.  Let 
all  the  implements  used  in  dyeing  be  kept 
perfectly  clean.  Prepare  the  goods  by 
scouring  well  with  soap  and  water,  wash- 
ing out  the  soap  well,  and  dipping  in  warm 
water,  before  immersion  in  the  dye  or 
mordant.  Goods  should  be  well  aired, 
rinsed,  and  properly  hung  up  after  dye- 
ing. Silks  and  fine  goods  should  be  ten- 
derly handled,  otherwise  injury  to  the 
fabric  will  result. 

Aniline  Black.— Water,  20  to  30  parts; 
chlorate  of  potassa,  1  part;  sal  ammo- 
niac, 1  part;  chloride  of  copper,  1  part; 
aniline  and  hydrochloric  acid,  each  1  part, 
previously  mixed  together.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  preparation  should  be  acid, 
and  the  more  acid  it  is  the  more  rapid 
will  be  the  production  of  the  blacks;  ii' 
too  much  so,  it  may  injure  the  fabric. 
The  fabric  or  yarn  is  dried  in  ageing 
rooms  at  a  low  temperature  for  24  hours, 
and  washed  afterwards. 

Black  on  Cotton. — For  40  pounds 
goods,  use  sumac,  30  pounds;  boil  f  of  an 
hour;  let  the  goods  steep  overnight,  and 
immerse  them  in  limewater,  40  minutes, 
remove,  and  allow  them  to  drip  f  of  an 
hour;  add  copperas,  4  pounds,  to  the  sumac 
liquor,  and  dip  1  hour  more;  next  work 
them  through  limewater  for  20  minutes; 
then  make  a  new  dye  of  logwood,  20 
pounds,  boil  2£  hours,  and  enter  the 
goods  3  hours;  then  add  bichromate  of 
potash,  1  pound,  to  the  new  dye,  and  dip 
1  hour  more.  Work  in  clean  cold  water 
and  dry  out  of  the  sun. 

Black  Straw  Hat  Varnish.— Best  al 
cohol,  4  ounces;  pulverized  black  seal- 
ing wax,  1  ounce.  Place  in  a  phial,  and 
put  the  phial  into  a  warm  place,  stirring 
or  shaking  occasionally  until  the  wax  is 
dissolved.  Apply  it  when  warm  before 
the  fire  or  in  the  sun.  This  makes  a. 
beautiful  gloss, 


DYES 


267 


Chrome  Black  for  Wool.  —  For  40 
pounds  of  goods,  use  blue  vitriol,  3 
pounds;  boil  a  short  time,  then  dip  the 
wool  or  fabric  f  of  an  hour,  airing  fre- 
quently. Take  out  the  goods,  and  make 
a  dye  with  logwood,  24  pounds;  boil  £ 
hour,  dip  f  of  an  hour,  air  the  goods,  and 
dip  |  of  an  hour  longer;  then  wash  in 
strong  soapsuds.  A  good  fast  color. 

Black  Dye  on  Wool,  for  Mixtures.— 
For  50  pounds  of  wool,  take  bichromate 
of  potash,  1  pound,  4  ounces;  ground 
argal,  15  ounces;  boil  together  and  put 
in  the  fabric,  stirring  well,  and  let  it  re- 
main in  the  dye  5  hours.  Take  it  out, 
rinse  slightly  in  clean  water,  then  make  a 
new  dye,  into  which  put  logwood,  1| 
pounds.  Boil  1|  hours,  adding  cham- 
ber lye,  5  pints.  Let  the  fabric  remain 
in  all  night,  and  wash  out  in  clean  water. 

Bismarck  Brown. — Mix  together  1 
pound  Bismarck,  5  gallons  water,  and 
f  pound  sulphuric  acid.  This  paste 
dissolves  easily  in  hot  water  and  may  be 
used  directly  for  dyeing.  A  liquid  dye 
may  be  prepared  by  making  the  bulk  of 
the  above  mixture  to  2  gallons  with  alco- 
hol. To  dye,  sour  with  sulphuric  acid; 
add  a  quantity  of  sulphate  of  soda,  im- 
merse the  wool,  and  add  the  color  by 
small  portions,  keeping  the  temperature 
under  212°  F.  Very  interesting  shades 
may  be  developed  by  combining  the  color 
with  indigo  paste  or  picric  acid. 

Chestnut  Brown  for  Straw  Bonnets. — 
For  25  hats,  use  ground  sanders,  1| 
pounds;  ground  curcuma,  2  pounds; 
powdered  gallnuts  or  sumac,  f  pound; 
rasped  logwood,  -fH)  pound.  Boil  to- 
gether witn  the  hats  in  a  large  kettle  (so 
as  not  to  crowd),  for  2  hours,  then  with- 
draw the  hats,  rinse,  and  let  them  re- 
main overnight  in  a  bath  of  nitrate  of 
4°  Be.,  when  they  are  washed.  A  darker 
brown  may  be  obtained  by  increasing  the 
quantity  of  sanders.  To  give  the  hats 
the  desired  luster,  they  are  brushed  with 
a  brush  of  couchgrass,  when  dry. 

Cinnamon  or  Brown  for  Cotton  and 
Silk. — Give  the  goods  as  much  color, 
from  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  2  ounces, 
to  water,  1  gallon,  as  they  will  take  up 
in  dipping  15  minutes;  then  turn  them 
through  hmewater.  This  will  make  a 
beautiful  sky  blue  of  much  durability. 
The  fabric  should  next  be  run  through  a 
solution  of  prussiate  of  potash,  1  ounce, 
to  water,  1  gallon. 

Brown  Dye  for  Cotton  or  Linen. — Give 
the  pieces  a  mixed  mordant  of  acetate  of 
alumina  and  acetate  of  iron,  and  then 


dye  them  in  a  bath  of  madder,  or  madder 
and  fustic.  When  the  acetate  of  alu- 
mina predominates,  the  dye  has  an 
amaranth  tint.  A  cinnamon  tint  is  ob- 
tained by  first  giving  a  mordant  of  alum, 
next  a  madder  bath,  then  a  bath  of  fustic, 
to  which  a  little  green  copperas  has  been 
added. 

Brown  for  Silk. — Dissolve  annatto, 
1  pound;  pearlash,  4  pounds,  in  boiling 
water,  and  pass  the  silk  through  it  for  2 
hours;  then  take  it  out,  squeeze  well, 
and  dry.  Next  give  it  a  mordant  of 
alum,  and  pass  through  a  bath  of  bra- 
zil wood,  and  afterwards  through  a  bath 
of  logwood,  to  which  a  little  green  cop- 
peras has  been  added;  wring  it  out  and 
dry;  afterwards  rinse  well. 

Brown  Dye  for  Wool. — This  may  be 
induced  by  a  decoction  of  oak  bark,  with 
variety  of  shade  according  to  the  quan- 
tity employed.  If  the  goods  be  first 
passed  through  a  mordant  of  alum  the 
color  will  be  brightened. 

Brown  for  Cotton. — Catechu  or  terra 
japonica  gives  cotton  a  brown  color; 
blue  vitriol  turns  it  to  the  bronze;  green 
copperas  darkens  it,  when  applied  as  a 
mordant  and  the  stuff  is  boiled  in  the 
bath.  Acetate  of  alumina  as  a  mordant 
brightens  it.  The  French  color  Car- 
melite is  given  with  catechu,  1  pound; 
verdigris,  4  ounces;  and  sal  ammoniac, 
5  ounces. 

Dark  Snuff  Brown  for  Wool.— For  50 
pounds  of  goods,  take  camwood,  10 
pounds,  boil  for  20  minutes,  then  dip  the 
goods  for  f  of  an  hour;  take  them  out, 
and  add  to  the  dye,  fustic,  25  pounds, 
boil  12  minutes,  and  dip  the  goods  f  of 
an  hour;  then  add  blue  vitriol,  10  ounces, 
copperas,  2  pounds,  8  ounces;  dip  again  40 
minutes.  Add  more  copperas  if  the 
shade  is  required  darker. 

Brown  for  Wool  and  Silk. — Infusion 
or  decoction  of  walnut  peels  dyes  wool 
and  silk  a  brown  color,  which  is  bright- 
ened by  alum.  Horse-chestnut  peels 
also  impart  a  brown  color;  a  mordant  of 
muriate  of  tin  turns  it  on  the  bronze,  and 
sugar  of  lead  the  reddish  brown. 

Alkali  Blue  and  Nicholson's  Blue. — 
Dissolve  1  pound  of  the  dye  in  10  gallons 
boiling  water,  and  add  this  by  small  por- 
tions to  the  dye  bath,  which  should  be 
rendered  alkaline  by  borax.  The  fabric 
should  be  well  worked  about  between 
each  addition  of  the  color.  The  tem- 
perature must  be  kept  under  212°  F. 
To  develop  the  color,  wash  with  water 


268 


DYES 


and    pass    through    a    bath    containing 
sulphuric  acid. 

Aniline  Blue. — To  100  pounds  of  fabric, 
dissolve  1J  pounds  aniline  blue  in  3 
quarts  hot  alcohol,  strain  through  a  filter, 
and  add  it  to  a  bath  of  130°  F.;  also  10 
pounds  Glauber's  salts,  and  5  pounds 
acetic  acid.  Immerse  the  goods  and 
handle  them  well  for  20  minutes.  Next 
heat  slowly  to  200°  F.;  then  add  5 
pounds  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  water. 
Let  the  whole  boil  20  minutes  longer; 
then  rinse  and  dry.  If  the  aniline  be 
added  in  2  or  3  proportions  during  the 
process  of  coloring,  it  will  facilitate  the 
evenness  of  the  color. 

Blue  on  Cotton. — For  40  pounds  of 

§pods,  use  copperas,  2  pounds;  boil  and 
ip  20  minutes;  dip  in  soapsuds,  and 
return  to  the  dye  3  or  4  times;  then 
make  a  new  bath  with  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash, £  pound;  oil  of  vitriol,  1£  pints; 
boil  £  hour,  rinse  out  and  dry. 

Sky  Blue  on  Cotton. — For  60  pounds 
of  goods,  blue  vitriol,  5  pounds.  Boil  a 
short  time,  then  enter  the  goods,  dip  3 
hours,  and  transfer  to  a  bath  of  strong 
limewater.  A  fine  brown  color  will  be 
imparted  to  the  goods  if  they  are  then 
put  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of 
potash. 

Blue  Dye  for  Hosiery. — One  hundred 
pounds  of  wool  are  colored  with  4  pounds 
Guatemala  or  3  pounds  Bengal  indigo, 
in  the  soda  or  wood  vat.  Then  boil  in 
a  kettle  a  few  minutes,  5  pounds  of  cud- 
bear or  8  pounds  of  archil  paste;  add  1 
pound  of  soda,  or,  better,  1  pail  of  urine; 
then  cool  the  dye  to  about  170°  F.  and 
enter  the  wool.  Handle  well  for  about 
20  minutes,  then  take  it  out,  cool,  rinse, 
and  dry.  It  makes  no  difference 
whether  the  cudbear  is  put  in  before  or 
after  the  indigo.  Three  ounces  of  ani- 
line purple  dissolved  in  alcohol,  \  pint, 
can  be  used  instead  of  the  cudbear. 
Wood  spirit  is  cheaper  than  alcohol,  and 
is  much  used  by  dyers  for  the  purpose  of 
dissolving  aniline  colors.  It  produces  a 
very  pretty  shade,  but  should  never  be 
used  on  mixed  goods  which  have  to  be 
bleached. 

Dark-Blue  Dye.— This  dye  is  suitable 
for  thibets  and  lastings.  Boil  100  pounds 
of  the  fabric  for  \\  hours  in  a  solution  of 
alum,  25  pounds;  tartar,  4  pounds;  mor- 
dant, 6  pounds;  extract  of  indigo,  6 
pounds;  cool  as  usual.  Boil  in  fresh 
water  from  8  to  10  pounds  of  logwood, 
in  a  bag  or  otherwise,  then  cool  the  dye 
to  170°  F.  Reel  the  fabric  quickly  at 


first,  then  let  it  boil  strongly  for  1  hour. 
This  is  a  very  good  imitation  of  indigo 
blue. 

Saxon  Blue. — For  100  pounds  thibet 
or  comb  yarn,  use  alum,  20  pounds; 
cream  of  tartar,  3  pounds;  mordant,  2 
pounds;  extract  of  indigo,  3  pounds;  or 
carmine,  1  pound,  makes  a  better  color. 
When  all  is  dissolved,  cool  the  kettle  to 
180°  F.;  enter  and  handle  quickly  at 
first,  then  let  the  fabric  boil  \  hour,  or 
until  even.  Long  boiling  dims  the  color. 
Zephyr  worsted  yarn  ought  to  be  pre- 
pared, first,  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution 
of  alum  and  sulphuric  acid;  the  indigo 
is  added  afterwards. 

Logwood  and  Indigo  Blue. — For  100 
pounds  of  cloth.  Color  the  cloth  first  by 
one  or  two  dips  in  the  vat  of  indigo  blue, 
and  rinse  it  well,  and  then  boil  it  in  a 
solution  of  20  pounds  of  alum,  2  pounds 
of  half-refined  tartar,  and  5  pounds  of 
mordant,  for  2  hours;  finally  take  it  out  and 
cool.  In  fresh  water  boil  10  pounds  of 
good  logwoodj  for  half  an  hour  in  a  bag 
or  otherwise;  cool  off  to  170°  F.  before 
entering.  Handle  well  over  a  reel,  let  it 
boil  for  half  an  hour;  then  take  it  out, 
cool  and  rinse.  This  is  a  very  firm 
blue. 

Blue  Purple  for  Silk.— For  40  pounds 
of  goods,  take  bichromate  of  potash,  8 
ounces;  alum,  1  pound;  dissolve  all  and 
bring  the  water  to  a  boil,  and  put  in  the 
goods;  boil  1  hour.  Then  empty  the 
dye,  and  make  a  hew  dye  with  logwood, 
8  pounds,  or  extract  of  logwood,  1  pound 
4  ounces,  and  boil  in  this  1  hour  longer. 
Grade  the  color  by  using  more  or  less 
logwood,  as  dark  or  light  color  is  wanted. 

Blue  Purple  for  Wool. — One  hundred 
pounds  of  wool  are  first  dipped  in  the 
blue  vat  to  a  light  shade,  then  boiled  in 
a  solution  of  15  pounds  of  alum  and  3 
pounds  of  half -refined  tartar,  for  li 
nours,  the  wool  taken  out,  cooled^  and 
let  stand  24  hours.  Then  boil  in  fresh 
water  8  pounds  of  powdered  cochineal 
for  a  few  minutes,  cool  the  kettle  to  170° 
F.  Handle  the  prepared  wool  in  this 
for  1  hour,  when  it  is  ready  to  cool,  rinse 
and  dry.  By  coloring  first  with  cochi- 
neal, as  aforesaid,  and  finishing  in  the 
blue  vat,  the  fast  purple  or  dahlia,  so 
much  admired  in  German  broadcloths, 
will  be  produced.  Tin  acids  must  not 
be  used  in  this  color. 

To  Make  Extract  of  Indigo  Blue.— 
Take  of  vitriol,  2  pounds,  and  stir  into  it 
finely  pulverized  indigo,  8  ounces,  stir- 
ring briskly  for  the  first  half  hour;  then 


DYES 


269 


cover  up,  and  stir  4  or  5  times  daily 
for  a  few  days.  Add  a  little  pulverized 
chalk,  stirring  it  up,  and  keep  adding  it 
as  long  as  it  foams;  it  will  neutralize  the 
acid.  Keep  it  closely  corked. 

Light  Silver  Drab. — For  50  pounds  of 
goods,  use  logwood,  |  pound;  alum,  about 
the  same  quantity;  boil  well,  enter  the 
goods,  and  dip  them  for  1  hour.  Grade 
the  color  to  any  desired  shade  by  using 
equal  parts  of  logwood  and  alum. 

GRAY  DYES: 

Slate  Dye  for  Silk. — For  a  small  quan- 
tity, take  a  pan  of  warm  water  and 
about  a  teacupful  of  logwood  liquor, 
pretty  strong,  and  a  piece  of  pearlash  the 
size  of  a  nut;  take  gray-colored  goods 
and  handle  a  little  in  this  liquid,  and  it  is 
finished.  If  too  much  logwood  is  used, 
the  color  will  be  too  dark. 

Slate  for  Straw  Hats. — First,  soak  in 
rather  strong  warm  suds  for  15  minutes 
to  remove  sizing  or  stiffening;  then  rinse 
in  warm  water  to  get  out  the  soap. 
Scald  cudbear,  1  ounce,  in  sufficient 
water  to  cover  the  hat;  work  it  in  this 
dye  at  180°  F.,  until  a  light  purple  is 
obtained.  Have  a  vessel  of  cold  water, 
blued  with  the  extract  of  indigo,  £  ounce, 
and  work  or  stir  the  bonnet  in  this  until 
the  tint  pleases.  Dry,  then  rinse  out 
with  cold  water,  and  dry  again  in  the 
shade.  If  the  purple  is  too  deep  in  shade 
the  final  slate  will  be  too  dark. 

Silver  Gray  for  Straw.— For  25  hats, 
select  the  whitest  hats  and  soften  them 
in  a  bath  of  crystallized  soda  to  which 
some  clean  limewater  has  been  added. 
Boil  for  2  hours  in  a  large  vessel,  using 
for  a  bath  a  decoction  of  the  follow- 
ing: Alum,  4  pounds;  tartaric  acid,  f 
pound;  some  ammoniacal  cochineal, 
and  carmine  of  indigo.  A  little  sulphuric 
acid  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  neu- 
tralize the  alkali  of  the  cochineal  dye.  If 
the  last-mentioned  ingredients  are  used, 
let  the  hats  remain  for  an  hour  longer  in 
the  boiling  bath,  then  rinse  in  slightly 
acidulated  water. 

Dark  Steel. — Mix  black  and  white 
wool  together  in  the  proportion  of  50 
pounds  of  black  wool  to  7$  pounds  of 
white.  For  large  or  small  quantities, 
keep  the  same  proportion,  mixing  care- 
fully and  thoroughly. 

GREEN  DYES: 

Aniline  Green  for  Silk.— Iodine  green 
or  night  green  dissolves  easily  in  warm 
water.  For  a  liquid  dye  1  pound  may  be 
dissolved  in  1  gallon  alcohol,  and  mixed 


with  2  gallons  water,  containing  1  ounce 
sulphuric  acid. 

Aniline  Green  for  Wool. — Prepare  two 
baths,  one  containing  the  dissolved  dye 
and  a  quantity  of  carbonate  of  soda  or 
borax.  In  this  the  wool  is  placed,  and 
the  temperature  raised  to  212°  F.  A 
grayish  green  is  produced,  which  must 
be  brightened  and  fixed  in  a  second  bath 
of  water  100°  F.,  to  which  some  acetic 
acid  has  been  added.  Cotton  requires 
preparation  by  sumac. 

Green  for  Cotton. — For  40  pounds  of 
goods,  use  fustic,  10  pounds;  blue  vitriol, 

10  ounces;  soft  soap,  2J  quarts;  and  log- 
wood chips,  1  pound  4    ounces.       Soak 
the  logwood  overnight  in  a  brass  vessel, 
and  put  it  on  the  fire  in  the  morning, 
adding  the  other  ingredients.         When 
quite  hot  it  is  ready  for  dyeing;  enter  the 
goods  at  once,  and  handle  well.    Differ- 
ent shades  may  be  obtained  by  letting 
part  of  the  goods  remain  longer  in  the 
dye. 

Green  for  Silk. — Boil  green  ebony  in 
water,  and  let  it  settle.  Take  the  clear 
liquor  as  hot  as  the  hands  can  bear,  and 
handle  the  goods  in  it  until  of  a  bright 
yellow.  Take  water  and  put  in  a  little 
sulphate  of  indigo;  handle  goods  in  this 
till  of  the  shade  desired.  The  ebony  may 
previously  be  boiled  in  a  bag  to  prevent 
it  from  sticking  to  the  silk. 

Green  for  Wool  and  Silk. — Take  equal 
quantities  of  yellow  oak  and  hickory 
bark,  make  a  strong  yellow  bath  by 
boiling,  and  shade  to  the  desired  tint  by 
adding  a  small  quantity  of  extract  of 
indigo. 

Green  Fustic  Dye. — For  50  pounds  of 
goods,  use  50  pounds  of  fustic  with  alum, 

11  pounds.     Soak    in    water    until    the 
strength  is  extracted,  put  in  the  goods 
until  of  a  good  yellow  color,  remove  the 
chips,  and  add  extract  of  indigo  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  until  the  color  is 
satisfactory. 

PURPLE  AND  VIOLET  DYES: 

Aniline  Violet  and  Purple. — Acidulate 
the  bath  by  sulphuric  acid,  or  use  sul- 
phate of  soda;  both  these  substances 
render  the  shade  bluish.  Dye  at  212°  F. 
To  give  a  fair  middle  shade  to  10  pounds 
of  wool,  a  quantity  of  solution  equal  to 
£  to  f  ounces  of  the  solid  dye  will  be  re- 
quired. The  color  of  the  dyed  fabric  is 
improved  by  washing  in  soap  and  water, 
and  then  passing  through  a  bath  soured 
by  sulphuric  acid. 

Purple,-— For  40  pounds  of  goods,  use 


270 


DYES 


alum,  3  pounds;  muriate  of  tin,  4  tea- 
cups; pulverized  cochineal,  1  pound; 
cream  of  tartar,  2  pounds.  Boil  the 
alum,  tin,  and  cream  tof  tartar,  for  20 
minutes,  add  the  cochineal  and  boil  5 
minutes;  immerse  the  goods  2  hours;  re- 
move and  enter  them  in  a  new  dye  com- 
posed of  brazil  wood,  3  pounds;  log- 
wood, 7  pounds;  alum,  4  pounds,  and 
muriate  of  tin,  8  cupfuls,  adding  a  little 
extract  of  indigo. 

Purple  for  Cotton. — Get  up  a  tub  of 
hot  logwood  liquor,  enter  3  pieces,  give 
them  5  ends,  and  hedge  out.  Enter 
them  in  a  clean  alum  tub,  give  them  5 
ends,  and  hedge  out.  Get  up  another 
tub  of  logwood  liquor,  enter,  give  them 
5  ends,  and  hedge  out;  renew  the  alum 
tub,  give  5  ends  in  that,  and  finish. 

Purple  for  Silk. — For  10  pounds  of 
goods,  enter  the  goods  in  a  blue  dye  bath, 
and  secure  a  light-blue  color,  dry,  and 
dip  in  a  warm  solution  containing  alum, 
2^  pounds.  Should  a  deeper  color  be 
required,  add  a  little  extract  of  indigo. 

Solferino  and  Magenta  for  Woolen, 
Silk,  or  Cotton. — For  1  pound  of  woolen 
goods,  magenta  shade,  96  grains,  apothe- 
caries' weight,  of  aniline  red,  will  be  re- 
quired. Dissolve  in  a  little  warm  alco- 
hol, using,  say,  6  fluidounces,  or  about  6 
gills  alcohol  per  ounce  of  aniline.  Many 
dyers  use  wood  spirits  because  of  its 
cheapness.  For  a  solferino  shade,  use 
64  grains  aniline  red,  and  dissolve  in  4 
ounces  alcohol,  to  each  1  pound  of  goods. 
Cold  water,  1  quart,  will  dissolve  these 
small  quantities  of  aniline  red,  but  the 
cleanest  and  quickest  way  will  be  found 
by  using  the  alcohol,  or  wood  spirits. 
Clean  the  cloth  and  goods  by  steeping 
at  a  gentle  heat  in  weak  soapsuds,  rinse 
in  several  masses  of  clean  water  and  lay 
aside  moist.  The  alcoholic  solution  of 
aniline  is  to  be  added  from  time  to  time 
to  the  warm  or  hot  dye  bath,  till  the  color 
on  the  goods  is  of  the  desired  shade. 
The  goods  are  to  be  removed  from  the 
dye  bath  before  each  addition  of  the 
alcoholic  solution,  and  the  bath  is  to  be 
well  stirred  before  the  goods  are  re- 
turned. The  alcoholic  solution  should 
be  first  dropped  into  a  little  water,  and 
well  mixed,  and  the  mixture  should  then 
be  strained  into  the  dye  bath.  If  the 
color  is  not  dark  enough  after  working 
from  20  to  30  minutes,  repeat  the  re- 
moval of  the  goods  from  the  bath,  and 
the  addition  of  the  solution,  and  the  re- 
immersion  of  the  goods  from  15  to  30 
minutes  more,  or  until  suited,  then  re- 
move from  the  bath  and  rinse  in  several 


masses  of  clean  water,  and  dry  in  the 
shade.  Use  about  4  gallons  water  for 
dye  bath  for  1  pound  of  goods;  less  water 
for  larger  quantities. 

Violet  for  Silk  or  Wool.— A  good  violet 
dye  may  be  given  by  passing  the  goods 
first  through  a  solution  of  verdigris,  then 
through  a  decoction  of  logwood,  and 
lastly  through  alum  water.  A  fast  violet 
may  be  given  by  dyeing  the  goods  crim- 
son with  cochineal,  without  alum  or 
tartar,  and  after  rinsing  passing  them 
through  the  indigo  vat.  Linens  or  cot- 
tons are  first  galled  with  18  per  cent  of 
gallnuts,  next  passed  through  a  mordant 
of  alum,  iron  liquor,  and  sulphate  of 
copper,  working  them  well,  then  worked 
in  a  madder  bath  made  with  an  equal 
weight  of  root,  and  lastly  brightened 
with  soap  or  soda. 

Violet  for  Straw  Bonnets. — Take  alum, 
4  pounds;  tartaric  acid,  1  pound;  chlor- 
ide of  tin,  1  pound.  Dissolve  and  boil, 
allowing  the  hats  to  remain  in  the  boiling 
solution  2  hours;  then  add  enough  decoc- 
tion of  logwood,  carmine,  and  indigo  to 
induce  the  desired  shade,  and  rinse  finally 
in  water  in  which  some  alum  has  been  dis- 
solved. 

Wine  Color. — For  50  pounds  of  goods, 
use  camwood,  10  pounds,  and  boil  20 
minutes;  dip  the  goods  £  hour,  boil  again, 
and  dip  40  minutes;  then  darken  with 
blue  vitriol,  15  ounces,  and  5  pounds  of 
copperas. 

Lilac  for  Silk. — For  5  pounds  of  silk, 
use  archil,  7t  pounds,  and  mix  well 
with  the  liquor.  Make  it  boil  \  hour, 
and  dip  the  silk  quickly;  then  let  it  cool, 
and  wash  in  river  water.  A  fine  half 
violet,  or  lilac,  more  or  less  full,  will  be 
obtained. 

RED,  CRIMSON,  AND  PINK  DYES: 

Aniline  Red. — Inclose  the  aniline  in 
a  small  muslin  bag.  Have  a  kettle  (tin 
or  brass)  filled  with  moderately  hot 
water  and  rub  the  substance  out.  Then 
immerse  the  goods  to  be  colored,  and  in 
a  short  time  they  are  done.  It  improves 
the  color  to  wring  the  goods  out  of  strong 
soapsuds  before  putting  them  in  the  dye. 
This  is  a  permanent  color  on  wocl  or 
silk. 

Red  Madder.— To  100  pounds  of  fabric, 
use  20  pounds  of  alum,  5  pounds  of  tar- 
tar, and  5  pounds  of  muriate  of  tin. 
When  these  are  dissolved,  enter  the 
goods  and  let  them  boil  for  2  hours,  then 
take  out,  let  cool,  and  lay  overnight. 
Into  fresh  water,  stir  75  pounds  of  good 


DYES 


271 


madder,  and  enter  the  fabric  at  120°  F. 
and  bring  it  up  to  200°  F.  in  the  course 
of  an  hour.  Handle  well  to  secure  even- 
ness, then  rinse  and  dry. 

Red  for  Wool. — For  40  pounds  of 
goods,  make  a  tolerably  thick  paste  of 
lac  dye  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  allow  it 
to  stand  for  a  day.  Then  take  tartar,  4 
pounds,  tin  liquor,  2  pounds  8  ounces, 
and  3  pounds  of  the  paste;  make  a  hot 
bath  with  sufficient  water,  and  enter 
the  goods  for  f  hour;  afterwards  care- 
fully rinse  and  dry. 

Crimson  for  Silk. — For  1  pound  of 
goods,  use  alum,  3  ounces;  dip  at  hand 
heat  1  hour;  take  out  and  drain,  while 
making  a  new  dye,  by  boiling  for  10 
minutes,  cochineal,  3  ounces;  bruised 
nutgalls,  2  ounces;  and  cream  of  tartar, 
i  ounce,  in  1  pail  of  water.  When  a 
little  cool  begin  to  dip,  raising  the  heat 
to  a  boil,  continuing  to  dip  1  hour. 
Wash  and  dry. 

Aniline  Scarlet. — For  every  40  pounds 
of  goods,  dissolve  5  pounds  white  vitriol 
(sulphate  of  zinc)  at  180°  F.,  place  the 
goods  in  this  bath  for  10  minutes,  then 
add  the  color,  prepared  by  boiling  for  a 
few  minutes,  1  pound  aniline  scarlet  in 
3  gallons  water,  stirring  the  same  con- 
tinually. This  solution  has  to  be  fil- 
tered before  being  added  to  the  bath. 
The  goods  remain  in  the  latter  for  15 
minutes,  when  they  have  become 
browned  and  must  be  boiled  for  another 
half  hour  in  the  same  bath  after  the  so- 
lution of  sal  ammoniac.  The  more  of 
this  is  added  the  deeper  will  be  the  shade. 

Scarlet  with  Cochineal. — For  50  pounds 
of  wool,  yarn,  or  cloth,  use  cream  of  tar- 
tar, 1  pound  9  ounces;  cochineal,  pul- 
verized, 12^  ounces;  muriate  of  tin  or 
scarlet  spirit,  8  pounds.  After  boiling 
the  dye,  enter  the  goods,  work  them  well 
for  15  minutes,  then  boil  them  It  hours, 
slowly  agitating  the  goods  while  boiling, 
wash  in  clean  water,  and  dry  out  of  the 
sun. 

Scarlet  with  Lac  Dye.— For  100 
pounds  of  flannel  or  yarn,  take  25 
pounds  of  ground  lac  dye,  15  pounds  of 
scarlet  spirit  (made  as  per  directions  be- 
low), 5  pounds  of  tartar,  1  pound  of  flav- 
ine,  or  according  to  shade,  1  pound  of  tin 
crystals,  5  pounds  of  muriatic  acid.  Boil 
all  for  15  minutes,  then  cool  the  dye  to 
170°  F.  Enter  the  goods,  and  handle 
them  quickly  at  first.  Let  boil  1  hour, 
and  rinse  while  yet  hot,  before  the  gum 
and  impurities  harden.  This  color 
stands  scouring  with  soap  better  than 


cochineal  scarlet.  A  small  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  may  be  added  to  dissolve 
the  gum. 

Muriate  of  Tin  or  Scarlet  Spirit. — 
Take  16  pounds  muriatic  acid,  22°  Be.; 

1  pound    feathered    tin,    and    water,    2 
pounds.     The  acid  should  be  put  in  a 
stoneware  pot,  and  the  tin  added,  and 
allowed  to  dissolve.      The  mixture  should 
be  kept  a  few  days  before  using.     The 
tin  is  feathered  or  granulated  by  melting 
in  a)  suitable  vessel,  and  pouring  it  from 
a  height  of  about  5  feet  into  a  pailful  of 
water.     This  is  a  most  powerful  agent 
in  certain   colors,   such   as   scarlets,   or- 
anges, pinks,  etc. 

Pink  for  Cotton. — For  40  pounds  of 
goods,  use  redwood,  20  pounds;  muriate 
of  tin,  2^  pounds.  Boil  the  redwood  1 
hour,  turn  off  into  a  large  vessel,  add  the 
muriate  of  tin,  and  put  in  the  goods. 
Let  it  stand  5  or  10  minutes,  and  a  good 
fast  pink  will  be  produced. 

Pink  for  Wool. — For  60  pounds  of 
goods,  take  alum,  5  pounds  12  ounces; 
boil  and  immerse  the  goods  50  minutes; 
then  add  to  the  dye  cochineal  well  pul- 
verized, 1  pound,  4  ounces;  cream  of 
tartar,  5  pounds;  boil  and  enter  the  goods 
while  boiling,  until  the  color  is  satisfac- 
tory. 

YELLOW,  ORANGE,  AND  BRONZE 
DYES: 

Aniline  Yellow.— This  color  is  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  and  for  dyers'  use  may 
be  used  directly  for  the  preparation  of 
the  bath  dye,  but  is  best  used  by  dis- 
solving 1  pound  of  dye  in  2  gallons  alco- 
hol. Temperature  of  bath  should  be 
under  200°  F.  The  color  is  much  im- 
proved and  brightened  by  a  trace  of  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Yellow  for  Cotton.— For  40  pounds 
goods,  use  sugar  of  lead,  3  pounds  8 
ounces;  dip  the  goods  2  hours.  Make  a 
new  dye  with  bichromate  of  potash,  2 
pounds;  dip  until  the  color  suits,  wring 
out  and  dry.  If  not  yellow  enough  re- 
peat the  operation. 

Yellow  for  Silk. — For  10  pounds  of 
goods,  use  sugar  of  lead,  7£  ounces;  alum, 

2  pounds.      Enter    the    goods,    and    let 
them   remain    12   hours;   remove   them, 
drain,  and  make  a  new  dye  with  fustic, 
10    pounds.     Immerse    until    the    color 
suits. 

Orange. — I. — For  50  pounds  of  goods, 
use  argal,  3  pounds;  muriate  of  tin,  1 
quart;  boil  and  dip  1  hour;  then  add  to 
the  dye,  fustic,  25  pounds;  madder,  2^ 


DYES 


quarts;  and  dip  again  40  minutes.  If 
preferred,  cochineal,  1  pound  4  ounces, 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  madder,  as  a 
better  color  is  induced  by  it; 

II. — For  40  pounds  of  goods,  use 
sugar  of  lead,  2  pounds,  and  boil  15 
minutes.  When  a  little  cool,  enter  the 
goods,  and  dip  for  2  hours,  wring  them 
out,  make  a  fresh  dye  with  bichromate 
of  potash,  4  pounds;  madder,  1  pound, 
and  immerse  until  the  desired  color  is 
secured.  The  shade  may  be  varied  by 
dipping  in  limewater. 

Bronze. — Sulphate  or  muriate  of  man- 
ganese dissolved  in  water  with  a  little 
tartaric  acid  imparts  a  beautiful  bronze 
tint.  The  stuff  after  being  put  through 
the  solution  must  be  turned  through  a 
weak  lye  of  potash,  and  afterwards 
through  another  of  chloride  of  lime,  to 
brighten  and  fix  it. 

Prussiate  of  copper  gives  a  bronze  or 
yellowish- brown  color  to  silk.  The  piece 
well  mordanted  with  blue  vitriol  may  be 
passed  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of 
potash. 

Mulberry  for  Silk. — For  5  pounds  of 
silk,  use  alum,  1  pound  4  ounces;  dip  50 
minutes,  wash  out,  and  make  a  dye  with 
brazil  wood,  5  ounces,  and  logwood,  1 J 
ounces,  bv  boiling  together.  Dip  in  this 
£  hour;  tnen  add  more  brazil  wood  and 
logwood,  equal  parts,  until  the  color 
suits. 

FEATHER  DYES. 

I. — Cut  some  white  curd  soap  in  small 
pieces,  pour  boiling  water  on  them,  and 
add  a  little  pearlash.  When  the  soap  is 
quite  dissolved,  and  the  mixture  cool 
enough  for  the  hand  to  bear,  plunge  the 
feathers  into  it,  and  draw  them  through 
the  hand  till  the  dirt  appears  squeezed 
out  of  them;  pass  them  through  a  clean 
lather  with  some  blue  in  it;  then  rinse 
them  in  cold  water  with  blue  to  give  them 
a  good  coior.  Beat  them  against  the 
hand  to  shake  off  the  water,  and  dry  by 
shaking  them  near  a  fire.  When  perfect- 
ly dry,  coil  each  fiber  separately  with  a 
blunt  knife  or  ivory  folder. 

II. — Black. — Immerse  for  2  or  3  days 
in  a  bath,  at  first  hot,  of  logwood,  8 
parts,  and  copperas  or  acetate  of  iron, 
1  part. 

III. — Blue. — Same  as  II,  but  with  the 
indigo  vat. 

IV. — Brown.  —  By  using  any  of  the 
brown  dyes  for  silk  or  woolen. 

V. — Crimson. — A  mordant  of  alum, 
followed  by  a  hot  bath  of  brazil  wood, 
afterwards  by  a  weak  dye  of  cudbear. 


VI. — Pink  or  Rose, — With  safflower 
or  lemon  juice. 

VII.— Plum.— With  the  red  dye,  fol- 
lowed by  an  alkaline  bath. 

VIII. — Red. — A  mordant  of  alum, 
followed  by  a  bath  of  brazil  wood. 

IX. — Yellow. — A  mordant  of  alum, 
followed  by  a  bath  of  turmeric  or  weld. 

X. — Green. — Take  of  verdigris  and 
verditer,  of  each  1  ounce;  gum  water, 
1  pint;  mix  them  well  and  dip  the  feath- 
ers, they  having  been  first  soaked  in  hot 
water,  into  the  said  mixture. 

XI. — Purple. — Use  lake  and  indigo. 

XII. — Carnation. —  Vermilion  and 
smalt. 

DYES  FOR  ARTIFICIAL  FLOWERS. 

The  French  employ  velvet,  fine  cam- 
bric, and  kid  for  the  petals,  and  taffeta 
for  the  leaves.  Very  recently  thin  plates 
of  bleached  whalebone  have  been  used 
for  some  portions  of  the  artificial  flowers. 

Colors  and  Stains. — I. — Blue. — Indigo 
dissolved  in  oil  of  vitriol,  and  the  acid 
partly  neutralized  with  salt  of  tartar  or 
whiting. 

II. — Green. — A  solution  of  distilled 
verdigris. 

III. — Lilac. — Liquid  archil. 

IV. — Red. — Carmine  dissolved  in  a 
solution  of  salt  of  tartar,  or  in  spirts  of 
hartshorn. 

V. — Violet. — Liquid  archil  mixed  with 
a  little  salt  of  tartar. 

VI. — Yellow. — Tincture  of  turmeric. 
The  colors  are  generally  applied  with 
the  fingers. 

DYES  FOR  FURS: 

I. — Brown. — Use  tincture  of  logwood. 

II. — Red. — Use  ground  brazil  wood, 
£  pound;  water,  if  quarts;  cochineal, 
|  ounce;  boil  the  brazil  wood  in  the 
water  1  hour;  strain  and  add  the  cochi- 
neal; boil  15  minutes. 

III. — Scarlet. — Boil  $  ounce  saffron 
in  \  pint  of  water,  and  pass  over  the 
work  before  applying  the  red. 

IV. — Blue. — Use  logwood,  7  ounces; 
blue  vitriol,  1  ounce;  water,  22  ounces; 
boil. 

V. — Purple. — Use  logwood,  11  ounces; 
alum,  6  ounces;  water,  29  ounces. 

VI. — Green. — Use  strong  vinegar,  1 
pints;  best  verdigris,   2  ounces,  groun 
fine;    sap    green,    J    ounce;    mix   all   to- 
gether and  boil. 


DYES 


273 


DYES  FOR  HATS. 

The  hats  should  be  at  first  strongly 
galled  by  boiling  a  long  time  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  galls  with  a  little  logwood  so  that 
the  dye  may  penetrate  into  their  sub- 
stance; after  which  a  proper  quantity  of 
vitriol  and  decoction  of  logwood,  with  a 
little  verdigris,  are  added,  and  the  hats 
kept  in  this  mixture  for  a  considerable 
time.  They  are  afterwards  put  into  a 
fresh  liquor  of  logwood,  galls,  vitriol, 
and  verdigris,  and,  when  the  hats  are 
costly,  or  of  a  hair  which  with  difficulty 
takes  the  dye,  the  same  process  is  re- 
peated a  third  time.  For  obtaining  the 
most  perfect  color,  the  hair  or  wool  is 
dyed  blue  before  it  is  formed  into  hats. 

The  ordinary  bath  for  dyeing  hats,  em- 
ployed by  London  manufacturers,  con- 
sists, for  12  dozen,  of  144  pounds  of 
logwood;  12  pounds  of  green  sulphate  of 
iron  or  copperas;  7J  pounds  verdigris. 
The  logwood  having  been  introduced 
into  the  copper  and  digested  for  some 
time,  the  copperas  and  verdigris  are 
added  in  successive  quantities,  and  in 
the  above  proportions,  along  with  every 
successive  2  or  3  dozen  of  hats  sus- 
pended upon  the  dripping  machine. 
Each  set  of  hats,  after  being  exposed  to 
the  bath  with  occasional  airings  during 
40  minutes,  is  taken  off  the  pegs,  and  laid 
out  upon  the  ground  to  be  more  com- 
pletely blackened  by  the  peroxydize- 
ment  of  the  iron  with  the  atmospheric 
oxygen.  In  3  or  4  hours  the  dyeing  is 
completed.  When  fully  dyed,  the  hats 
are  well  washed  in  running  water. 

Straw  hats  or  bonnets  may  be  dyed 
black  by  boiling  them  3  or  4  hours  in  a 
strong  liquor  of  logwood,  adding  a  little 
copperas  occasionally.  Let  the  bonnets 
remain  in  the  liquor  all  night;  then  take 
out  to  dry  in  the  air.  If  the  black  is  not 
satisfactory,  dye  again  after  drying. 
Rub  inside  and  out  with  a  sponge 
moistened  in  fine  oil;  then  block. 

I. — Red  Dye. — Boil  ground  brazil 
wood  in  a  lye  of  potash,  and  boil  your 
straw  hats  in  it. 

II.— Blue  Dye.— Take  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  potash  lye,  1  pound  of  litmus 
or  lacmus,  ground;  make  a  decoction 
and  then  put  in  the  straw,  and  boil  it. 

TO    DYE,    STIFFEN.    AND    BLEACH 

FELT  HATS. 

Felt  hats  are  dyed  by  repeated  im- 
mersion, drawing  and  dipping  in  a  hot 
watery  solution  of  logwood,  38  parts; 
green  vitriol,  3  parts;  verdigris,  2  parts; 
repeat  the  immersions  and  drawing  with 
exposure  to  the  air  13  or  14  times,  or 


until  the  color  suits,  each  step  in  the 
process  lasting  from  10  to  15  minutes. 
Aniline  colors  may  be  advantageously 
used  instead  of  the  above.  For  a  stiffen- 
ing, dissolve  borax,  10  parts;  carbonate 
of  potash,  3  parts,  in  hot  water;  then  add 
shellac,  50  parts,  and  boil  until  all  is  dis- 
solved; apply  with  a  sponge  or  a  brush, 
or  by  immersing  the  hat  when  it  is  cold, 
and  dip  at  once  in  very  dilute  sulphuric 
or  acetic  acid  to  neutralize  the  alkali  and 
fix  the  shellac.  Felt  hats  can  be  bleached 
by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  gas. 

LIQUID  DYE  COLORS. 

These  colors,  thickened  with  a  little 
gum,  may  be  used  as  inks  in  writing,  or 
as  colors  to  tint  maps,  foils,  artificial 
flowers,  etc.,  or  to  paint  on  velvet: 

I. — Blue. — Dilute  Saxon  blue  or  sul- 
phate of  indigo  with  water.  If  required 
for  delicate  work,  neutralize  with  chalk. 

II. — Purple. — Add  a  little  alum  to  a 
strained  decoction  of  logwood. 

III. — Green. — Dissolve  sa^  green  in 
water  and  add  a  little  alum. 

IV. — Yellow. — Dissolve  annatto  in  a 
weak  lye  of  subcarbonate  of  soda  or 
potash. 

V.— Golden  Color. —Steep  French 
berries  in  hot  water,  strain,  and  add  a 
little  gum  and  alum. 

VI. — Red. — Dissolve  carmine  in  am- 
monia, or  in  weak  carbonate  of  potash 
water,  or  infuse  powdered  cochineal  in 
water,  strain,  and  add  a  little  gum  in 
water. 

UNCLASSIFIED   DYERS'    RECIPES: 

To  Cleanse  Wool. — Make  a  hot  bath 
composed  of  water,  4  parts;  and  urine,  1 
part;  enter  the  wool,  teasing  and  opening 
it  out  to  admit  the  full  action  of  the 
liquid.  After  20  minutes'  immersion, 
remove  from  the  liquid  and  allow  it  to 
drain;  then  rinse  in  clean  running  water, 
and  spread  out  to  dry.  The  liquid  is 
good  for  subsequent  operations,  only 
keep  up  the  proportions,  and  use  no 
soap. 

To  Extract  Oil  Spots  from  Finished 
Goods. — Saturate  the  spot  with  benzine; 
then  place  two  pieces  of  very  soft  blotting 
paper  under  and  two  upon  it,  press  well 
with  a  hot  iron,  and  tne  grease  will  be 
absorbed. 

New  Mordant  for  Aniline  Colors. — Im- 
merse the  goods  for  some  hours  in  a  bath 
of  cold  water  in  which  chloride  or  acetate 
of  zinc  has  been  dissolved  until  the  solu- 
tion shows  2°  Be.  For  the  wool  the 


274 


BYES 


mordanting  bath  should  be  at  a  boiling 
heat,  and  the  goods  should  also  be  placed 
in  a  warm  bath  of  tannin,  90°  F.,  for  half 
an  hour.  In  dyeing,  a  hot  solution  of 
the  color  must  be  used  to  which  should 
be  added,  in  the  case  of  the  cotton,  some 
chloride  of  zinc,  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
wool,  a  certain  amount  of  tannin  solu- 
tion. 

To  Render  Aniline  Colors  Soluble  in 
Water. — A  solution  of  gelatin  in  acetic 
acid  of  almost  the  consistence  of  syrups 
is  first  made,  and  the  aniline  in  fine  is 
gradually  added,  stirring  all  the  time  so 
as  to  make  a  homogeneous  paste.  The 
mixture  is  then  to  be  heated  over  a  water 
bath  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water 
and  kept  at  that  heat  for  some  time. 

Limewater  for  Dyers*  Use. — Put  some 
lime,  1  pound,  and  strong  limewater,  1£ 
pounds,  into  a  pail  of  water;  rummage 
well  for  7  or  8  minutes.  Then  let  it 
rest  until  the  lime  is  precipitated  and  the 
water  clear;  add  this  quantity  to  a  tubful 
of  clear  water. 

To  Renew  Old  Silks.— Unravel  and 
put  them  in  a  tub,  cover  with  cold  water, 
and  let  them  remain  1  hour.  Dip  them 
up  and  down,  but  do  not  wring;  hang  up 
to  drain,  and  iron  while  very  damp. 

Fuller's  Purifier  for  Cloths.— Dry, 
pulverize,  and  sift  the  following  ingredi- 
ents: Fuller's  earth,  6  pounds;  French 
chalk,  4  ounces;  pipe  clay,  1  pound. 
Make  into  a  paste  with  rectified  oil  of 
turpentine,  1  ounce;  alcohol,  2  ounces; 
melted  oil  soap,  1^  pounds.  Compound 
the  mixture  into  cakes  of  any  desired  size, 
keeping  them  in  water,  or  small  wooden 
boxes. 

To  Fix  Dyes. — Dissolve  20  ounces  of 
gelatin  in  water,  and  add  3  ounces  of 
bichromate  of  potash.  This  is  done  in  a 
dark  room.  The  coloring  matter  is  then 
added  and  the  goods  submitted  thereto, 
after  which  they  are  exposed  to  the  action 
of  light.  The  pigment  thus  becomes  in- 
soluble in  water  and  the  color  is  fast. 

DYES  AND  DYESTUFFS. 

Prominent  among  natural  dyestuffs  is 
the  coloring  matter  obtained  from  log- 
wood and  known  as  "haematein."  The 
color-forming  substance  (or  chromogen), 
hsematoxylin,  exists  in  the  logwood 
partly  free  and  partly  as  a  glucoside. 
When  pure,  hsematoxylin  forms  nearly 
colorless  crystals,  but  on  oxidation,  es- 
pecially in  the  presence  of  an  alkali,  it 
is  converted  into  the  coloring  matter 
hsematein,  which  forms  colored  lakes 
with  metallic  bases,  yielding  violets, 


blues,  and  blacks  with  various  mordants. 
Logwood  comes  into  commerce  in  the 
form  of  logs,  chips,  and  extracts.  The 
chips  are  moistened  with  water  and  ex- 
posed in  heaps  so  as  to  induce  fermenta- 
tion, alkalies  and  oxidizing  agents  being 
added  to  promote  the  "curing"  or  oxida- 
tion. When  complete  and  the  chips  have 
assumed  a  deep  reddish-brown  color,  the 
decoction  is  made  which  is  employed  in 
dyeing.  The  extract  offers  convenience 
in  transportation,  storage,  and  use.  It  is 
now  usually  made  from  logwood  chips 
that  have  not  been  cured.  The  chips  are 
treated  in  an  extractor,  pressure  often 
being  used.  The  extract  is  sometimes 
adulterated  with  chestnut,  hemlock,  and 
quercitron  extracts,  and  with  glucose  or 
molasses. 

Fustic  is  the  heart-wood  of  certain 
species  of  trees  indigenous  to  the  West 
Indies  and  tropical  South  America.  It 
is  sold  as  chips  and  extract,  yields  a 
coloring  principle  which  forms  lemon- 
yellow  lakes  with  alumina  and  is  chiefly 
used  in  dyeing  wool.  Young  fustic  is 
the  heart-wood  of  a  sumac  native  to  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  which 
yields  an  orange-colored  lake  with  alum- 
ina and  tin  salts. 

Cutch,  or  catechu,  is  obtained  from 
the  wood  and  pods  of  the  Acacia  catechu, 
and  from  the  betel  nut,  both  native  in 
India.  Cutch  appears  in  commerce  in 
dark-brown  lumps,  which  form  a  dark- 
brown  solution  with  water.  It  contains 
catechu-tannic  acid,  as  tannin  arid 
catechin,  and  is  extensively  used  in 
weighting  black  silks,  as  a  mordant  for 
certain  basic  coal-tar  dyes,  as  a  brown 
dye  on  cotton,  and  for  calico  printing. 

Indigo,  which  is  obtained  from  the 
glucoside  indican  existing  in  the  indigo 
plant  and  in  woad,  is  one  of  the  oldest 
dyestuffs.  It  is  obtained  from  the  plant 
by  a  process  of  fermentation  and  oxida- 
tion. Indigo  appears  in  commerce  in 
dark-blue  cubical  cakes,  varying  very 
much  in  composition  as  they  often  con- 
tain indigo  red  and  indigo  brown,  be- 
sides moisture,  mineral  matters,  and 
glutinous  substances.  Consequently  the 
color  varies.  Powdered  indigo  dissolves 
in  concentrated  fuming  sulphuric  acid, 
forming  monosulphonic  and  disulphonic 
acids.  On  neutralizing  these  solutions 
with  sodium  carbonate  and  precipitating 
the  indigo  carmine  with  common  salt 
there  is  obtained  the  indigo  extract,  solu- 
ble indigo,  and  indigo  carmine  of  com- 
merce. True  indigo  carmine  is  the  so- 
dium salt  of  the  disulphonic  acid,  and 
when  sold  dry  it  is  called  "indigotme." 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  recent 


DYES 


275 


achievements  of  chemistry  is  the  synthetic 
production  of  indigo  on  a  commercial 
scale. 

Artificial  dyestuffs  assumed  preponder- 
ating importance  with  the  discovery  of 
the  lilac  color  mauve  by  Perkin  in  1856, 
and  fuchsine  or  magenta  by  Verguin  in 
1895,  for  with  each  succeeding  year  other 
colors  have  been  discovered,  until  at  the 
present  time  there  are  several  thousand 
artificial  organic  dyes  or  colors  on  the 
market.  Since  the  first  of  these  were 
prepared  from  aniline  or  its  derivatives 
the  colors  were  known  as  "aniline  dyes," 
but  as  a  large  number  are  now  prepared 
from  other  constituents  of  coal  tar  than 
aniline  they  are  better  called  "coal-tar 
dyestuffs."  There  are  many  schemes  of 
classification.  Benedikt-Knecht  divides 
them  into  I,  aniline  or  amine  dyes;  II, 
phenol  dyes;  III,  azo  dyes;  IV,  quino- 
line  and  acridine  derivatives;  V,  anthra- 
cene dyes;  and  VI,  artificial  indigo. 

Of  the  anthracene  dyes,  the  alizarine  is 
the  most  important,  since  this  is  the 
coloring  principle  of  the  madder.  The 
synthesis  of  alizarine  from  anthracene 
was  effected  by  Grabe  and  Liebermann 
in  1868.  This  discovery  produced  a 
complete  revolution  in  calico  printing, 
turkey-red  dyeing,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  madder  preparations.  Madder 
finds  to-day  only  a  very  limited  applica- 
tion in  the  dyeing  of  wool. 

In  textile  dyeing  and  printing,  sub- 
stances called  mordants  are  largely  used, 
either  to  fix  or  to  develop  the  color  on 
the  fiber.  Substances  of  mineral  origin, 
such  as  salts  of  aluminum,  chromium, 
iron,  copper,  antimony,  and  tin,  prin- 
cipally, and  many  others  to  a  less  extent 
and  of  organic  origin,  like  acetic,  oxalic, 
citric,  tartaric,  and  lactic  acid,  sulpho- 
nated  oils,  and  tannins  are  employed  as 
mordants. 

Iron  liquor,  known  as  black  liquor  or 
pyrolignite  of  iron,  is  made  by  dissolving 
scrap  iron  in  pyroligneous  acid.  It  is 
used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  silks  and 
cotton  and  in  calico  printing. 

Red  liquor  is  a  solution  of  aluminum 
acetate  in  acetic  acid,  and  is  produced 
by  acting  on  calcium  or  lead  acetate  solu- 
tions with  aluminum  sulphate  or  the 
double  alums,  the  supernatant  liquid 
forming  the  red  liquor.  The  red  liquor 
of  the  trade  is  often  the  sulpho-acetate  of 
alumina  resulting  when  the  quantity  of 
calcium  or  lead  acetate  is  insufficient  to 
completely  decompose  the  aluminum 
salt.  Ordinarily  the  solutions  have  a 
dark-brown  color  and  a  strong  pyro- 
ligneous odor.  It  is  called  red  liquor 
because  it  was  first  used  in  dyeing  reds. 


It   is    employed    as    a    mordant   by    the 
cotton  dyer  and  largely  by  the  printer. 

Non-Poisonous  Textile  and  Egg  Dyes 
for  Household  Use.  — The  preparation  of 
non-poisonous  colors  for  dyeing  fabrics 
and  eggs  at  home  constitutes  a  separate 
department  in  the  manufacture  of  dye- 
stuffs. 

Certain  classes  of  aniline  dyes  may  be 
properly  said  to  form  the  materials.  The 
essence  of  this  color  preparation  consists 
chiefly  in  diluting  or  weakening  the  coal- 
tar  dyes,  made  in  the  aniline  factories, 
and  bringing  them  down  to  a  certain 
desired  shade  by  the  addition  of  certain 
chemicals  suited  to  their  varying  charac- 
teristics, which,  though  weakening  the 
color,  act  at  the  same  time  as  the  so-called 
mordants. 

The  anilines  are  divided  with  refer- 
ence to  their  characteristic  reactions  into 
groups  of  basic,  acid,  moderately  acid, 
as  well  as  dyes  that  are  insoluble  in 
water. 

In  cases  where  combinations  of  one  or 
more  colors  are  needed,  only  dyes  of 
similar  reaction  can  be  combined,  that  is, 
basic  with  basic,  and  acid  with  acid. 

For  the  purpose  of  reducing  the 
original  intensity  of  the  colors,  and  also 
as  mordants,  dextrin,  Glauber's  salt, 
alum,  or  aluminum  sulphate  is  pressed 
into  service.  Where  Glauber's  salt  is 
used,  the  neutral  salt  is  exclusively  em- 
ployed, which  can  be  had  cheaply  and  in 
immense  quantities  in  the  chemical 
industry.  Since  it  is  customary  to  pack 
the  color  mixtures  in  two  paper  boxes, 
one  stuck  into  the  other,  and  moreover 
since  certain  coal-tar  dyes  are  only  used 
in  large  crystals,  it  is  only  reasonable  that 
the  mordants  should  be  calcined  and  not 
put  up  in  the  shape  of  crystallized  salts, 
particularly  since  these  latter  are  prone 
to  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  air,  and 
when  thus  wet  likely  to  form  a  compact 
mass  very  difficult  to  dissolve.  This  in- 
convenience often  occurs  with  the  large 
crystals  of  fuchsine  and  methyl  violet. 
Because  these  two  colors  are  mostly  used 
in  combination  with  dextrin  to  color 
eggs,  and  since  dextrin  is  also  very 
hygroscopic,  it  is  better  in  these  in- 
dividual cases  to  employ  calcined  Glau- 
ber's salt.  In  the  manufacture  of  egg 
colors  the  alkaline  coloring  coal-tar  dyes 
are  mostly  used,  and  they  are  to  be  found 
in  a  great  variety  of  shades. 

Of  the  non-poisonous  egg  dyes,  there 
are  some  ten  or  a  dozen  numbers,  new 
red,  carmine,  scarlet,  pink,  violet,  blue, 
yellow,  orange,  green,  brown,  black, 
heliotrope,  etc.,  which  when  mixed  will 


276 


DYES 


enable  the  operator  to  form  shades 
almost  without  number. 

The  manufacture  of  the  egg  dyes  as 
carried  on  in  the  factory  consists  in  a 
mechanical  mixing  of  basic  coal-tar  dye- 
stuffs,  also  some  direct  coloring  benzi- 
dine  dyestuffs,  with  dextrin  in  the  ratio 
of  about  1  part  of  aniline  dye  to  8  parts 
of  dextrin;  under  certain  circumstances, 
according  to  the  concentrated  state  of  the 
dyes,  the  reducing  quantity  of  the  dextrin 
may  be  greatly  increased.  As  reducing 
agents  for  these  colors  insoluble  sub- 
stances may  also  be  employed.  A  part 
also  of  the  egg  dyes  are  treated  with  the 
neutral  sulphate;  for  instance,  light 
brilliant  green,  because  of  its  rubbing  off, 
is  made  with  dextrin  and  Glauber's  salt 
in  the  proportion  of  1:3:3. 

For  the  dyeing  of  eggs  such  color  mix- 
tures are  preferably  employed  as  contain 
along  with  the  dye  proper  a  fixing  agent 
(dextrin)  as  well  as  a  medium  for  the 
superficial  mordanting  of  the  eggshell. 
The  colors  will  then  be  very  brilliant. 

Here  are  some  recipes: 


Color 

Blue.. 
Brown. 
Green  . 
Orange 
Red.  . 
Pink  .  . 
Violet. 
Yellow 


Dyestuff 


Parts 

by 

Weight 
.   3.5 


.  Marine  blue  B.  N. 

.VesuvinS 30.0 

.  Brilliant  green  O. .  .  13 . 5 

.Orange  II 9.0 

. Diamond fuchsine I.  3.5 

.  Eosin  A 4.5 

.  Methyl  violet  6  B .  .    3.6 
.Naphthol  yellowS.  13. 5 


Cit. 
Acid 

35.0 
37.5 
18.0 
18.0 
18.0 

18.0 
36.0 


Dex- 
trin 

60.0 
30.0 
67.5 
75.0 
75.0 
90.0 
75.0 
67.5 


Very  little  of  these  mixtures  suffices  for 
dyeing  five  eggs.  The  coloring  matter  is 
dissolved  in  600  parts  by  weight  of  boil- 
ing water,  while  the  eggs  to  be  dyed  are 
boiled  hard,  whereupon  they  are  placed 
in  the  dye  solution  until  they  seem  suffi- 
ciently colored.  The  dyes  should  be  put 
up  in  waxed  paper. 

Fast  Stamping  Color. — Rub  up  sepa- 
rately, 20  parts  of  cupric  sulphate  and  20 
parts  of  anilic  hydrochlorate,  then  mix 
carefully  together,  after  adding  10  parts 
of  dextrin.  The  mixture  is  next  ground 
with  5  parts  of  glycerine  and  sufficient 
water  until  a  thick,  uniform,  paste-like 
mass  results,  adapted  for  use  by  means 
of  stencil  and  bristle-brush.  Aniline 
black  is  formed  thereby  in  and  upon  the 
fiber,  which  is  not  destroyed  by  boiling. 

New  Mordanting  Process. — The  or- 
dinary method  of  mordanting  wool  with 
a  bichromate  and  a  reducing  agent  al- 
ways makes  the  fiber  more  or  less  tender, 
and  Amend  proposed  to  substitute  the 
use  of  a  solution  of  chromic  acid  contain- 
ing 1  to  2  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the 
wool,  at  9,  temperature  not  exceeding 


148°  F.,  and  to  treat  it  afterwards  with  a 
solution  of  sodium  bisulphite.  Accord- 
ing to  a  recent  French  patent,  better 
results  are  obtained  with  neutral  or  slight- 
ly basic  chromium  sulphocyanide.  This 
salt,  if  neutral  or  only  slightly  basic,  will 
mordant  wool  at  148°  F.  The  double 
sulphocyanide  of  chromium  and  ammo- 
nium, got  by  dissolving  chromic  oxide  in 
ammonium  sulphocyanide,  can  also  be 
used.  Nevertheless,  in  order  to  precipi- 
tate chromium  chromate  on  the  fiber, 
it  is  advisable  to  have  a  soluble  chromate 
and  a  nitrate  present,  as  well  as  a  soluble 
copper  salt  and  a  free  acid.  One  ex- 
ample of  the  process  is  as  follows:  Make 
the  bath  with  2  to  3  per  cent  of  ammonio- 
chromium  sulphocyanide,  one-half  of  1 
per  cent  sodium  bichromate,  one-third  of 
1  per  cent  sodium  nitrite,  one-third  of  1 
per  cent  sulphate  of  copper,  and  1.5  per 
cent  sulphuric  acid — percentages  based 
on  the  weight  of  the  wool.  Enter  cold 
and  slowly  heat  to  about  140°  to  150°  F. 
Then  work  for  half  an  hour,  lift  and  rinse. 
The  bath  does  not  exhaust  and  can  be 
reinforced  and  used  again. 

Process  for  Dyeing  in  Khaki  Colors. — 
Bichromate  of  potash  or  of  soda,  chloride 
of  manganese,  and  a  solution  of  acetate 
of  soda  or  formiate  of  soda  (15°  Be.)  are 
dissolved  successively  in  equal  quan- 
tities. 

The  solution  thus  composed  of  these 
three  salts  is  afterwards  diluted  at  will, 
according  to  the  color  desired,  con- 
stituting a  range  from  a  dark  brown  to  a 
light  olive  green  shade.  The  propor- 
tions of  the  three  salts  may  be  increased 
or  diminished,  in  order  to  obtain  shades 
more  or  less  bister. 

Cotton  freed  from  its  impurities  by  the 
usual  methods,  then  fulled  as  ordinarily, 
is  immersed  in  the  bath.  After  a  period, 
varying  according  to  the  results  desired, 
the  cotton,  threads,  or  fabrics  of  cotton, 
are  washed  thoroughly  and  plunged,  still 
wet,  into  an  alkaline  solution,  of  which 
the  concentration  ought  never  to  be  less 
than  14°  Be.  This  degree  of  concentra- 
tion is  necessary  to  take  hold  of  the  fiber 
when  the  cotton  comes  in  contact  with 
the  alkaline  bath,  and  by  the  contraction 
which  takes  place  the  oxides  of  chrome 
and  of  manganese  remain  fixed  in  the 
fibers. 

This  second  operation  is  followed  by 
washing  in  plenty  of  water,  and  then  the 
cotton  is  dried  in  the  open  air.  If  the 
color  is  judged  to  be  too  pale,  the  threads 
or  fabrics  are  immersed  again  in  the 
initial  bath,  left  the  necessary  time  for 
obtaining  the  desired  shade,  and  then 


BYES 


277 


washed,  but  without  passing  them  through 
an  alkaline  bath.  This  process  furnishes 
a  series  of  khaki  colors,  solid  to  light,  to 
fulling  and  to  chlorine. 

LAKES: 

Scarlet  Lake. — In  a  vat  holding  120 
gallons  provided  with  good  agitating  ap- 
paratus, dissolve  8  pounds  potash  alum 
in  10  gallons  hot  water  and  add  50 
gallons  cold  water.  Prepare  a  solution  of 

2  pounds  ammonia  soda  and  add  slowly 
to  the  alum  solution,  stirring  all  the  time. 
In  a  second  vessel  dissolve  5  pounds  of 
brilliant  scarlet  aniline,  by  first  making 
it  into  a  paste  with  cold  water  and  after- 
wards pouring  boiling  water  over  it;  now 
let  out  steam  into  the  vat  until  a  temper- 
ature   of    150°    to    165°  F.    is    obtained. 
Next  dissolve  10  pounds  barium  chloride 
in   10   gallons   hot  water  in  a   separate 
vessel,  add  this  very  slowly,  stir  at  least 

3  hours,  keeping  up  temperature  to  the 
same  figures.    Fill  up  vat  with  cold  water 
and  leave  the  preparation  for  the  night. 
Next  morning  the  liquor  (which  should 
be  of  a  bright  red  color)  is  drawn  off,  and 
cold  water  again  added.      Wash  by  de- 
cantation  3  times,  filter,  press  gently,  and 
make  into  pulp. 

It  is  very  important  to  precipitate  the 
aluminum  cold,  and  heat  up  before 
adding  the  dyestuff.  The  chemicals 
used  for  precipitating  must  be  added 
very  slowly  and  while  constantly  stirring. 
The  quantity  used  for  the  three  wash- 
ings is  required  each  time  to  be  double 
the  quantity  originally  used. 

I. — Madder  Lakes. — Prepare  from 
the  root  1  pound  best  madder,  alum 
water  (1  pound  alum  with  1£  gallons  of 
water),  saturated  solution  of  carbonate 
of  potash  (|  pound  carbonate  of  potash 
to  £  gallon  of  water). 

The  madder  root  is  inclosed  in  a  linen 
bag  of  fine  texture,  and  bruised  with  a 
pestle  in  a  large  mortar  with  2  gallons  of 
water  (free  from  lime)  added  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  until  all  the  coloring 
matter  is  extracted.  Make  this  liquor 
boil,  and  gradually  pour  into  the  boiling 
water  solution.  Add  the  carbonate  of 
potash  solution  gradually,  stirring  all  the 
time.  Let  the  mixture  stand  for  12  hours 
and  drop  and  dry  as  required. 

II. — Garancine  Process. — This  is  the 
method  usually  employed  in  preference 
to  that  from  the  root.  Garancine  is  pre- 
pared by  steeping  madder  root  in  sul- 
phate of  soda  and  washing. 

Garancine 2     pounds 

Alum   (dissolved  in  a 

little  water) 2     pounds 


Chloride  of  tin £  ounce 

Sufficient    carbonate    of    potash    or 

soda  to  precipitate  the  alum. 
Boil  the  garancine  in  4  gallons  of  pure 
water;  add  the  alum,  and  continue  boiling 
from  1  to  2  hours.  Allow  the  product  to 
partially  settle  and  filter  through  flannel 
before  cooling.  Add  to  the  filtrate  the 
chloride  of  tin,  and  sufficient  of  the  pot- 
ash or  soda  solution  to  precipitate  the 
alum;  filter  through  flannel  and  wash 
well.  The  first  filtrate  may  be  used  for 
lake  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  the 
garancine  originally  employed  may  also 
be  treated  as  above,  when  a  lake  slightly 
inferior  to  the  first  may  be  obtained. 

Maroon  Lake. — Take  of  a  mixture 
made  of: 


f  Sapan  wood ) 

-    j  .... 


|  Lima  wood   f  v  "      56  Parts 

Soda  crystals 42  parts 

Alum 56  parts 

Extract  the  color  from  the  woods  as  for 
rose  pink,  and  next  boil  the  soda  and 
alum  together  and  add  to  the  woods 
solution  cold.  This  must  be  washed 
clean  before  adding  to  the  wood  liquor. 

Carnation  Lake. — 

Water 42    gallons 

Cochineal 12     pounds 

Salts  of  tartar 1£  pounds 

Potash  alum f  pound 

Nitrous     acid,     nitro- 

muriate  of  tin 44     pounds 

Muriatic   acid,    nitro- 

muriate  of  tin 60     pounds 

Pure  block  tin,  nitro- 

muriate  of  tin 22     pounds 

Should  give  specific  gravity  1.310. 
Boil  the  water  with  close  steam,  taking 
care  that  no  iron  touches  it;  add  the 
cochineal  and  boil  for  not  more  than  five 
minutes;  then  turn  off  the  steam  and  add 
salts  of  tartar  and  afterwards  carefully 
add  the  alum.  If  it  should  not  rise,  put 
on  steam  until  it  does,  pass  through  a 
120-mesh  sieve  into  a  settling  vat,  and  let 
it  stand  for  48  hours  (not  for  precipita- 
tion). Add  gradually  nitromuriate  of 
tin  until  the  test  on  blotting  paper 
(given  below)  shows  that  the  separation 
is  complete.  Draw  off  clear  water  after 
it  has  settled,  and  filter.  To  test,  rub  a 
little  of  the  paste  on  blotting  paper,  then 
dry  on  steam  chest  or  on  the  hand,  and 
if  on  bending  it  cracks,  too  much  tin 
has  been  used. 

To  Test  the  Color  to  See  if  it  is  Pre- 
cipitating.— Put  a  drop  of  color  on  white 
blotting  paper,  and  if  the  color  spreads,  it 
is  not  precipitating.  If  there  is  a  color- 


278 


less  ring  around  the  spot  of  color  it 
shows  that  precipitation  is  taking  place; 
if  the  white  ring  is  too  strong,  too  much 
has  been  used. 

BLACK    LAKES    FOR   WALL-PAPER 

MANUFACTURE: 

Bluish-Black  Lake. —Boil  well  220 
parts  of  Domingo  logwood  in  1,000 
parts  of  water  to  which  2  parts  of  am- 
monia soda  have  been  added;  to  the  boil- 
ing logwood  add  next  25  parts  of  green 
vitriol  and  then  3.5  parts  of  sodium  bi- 
chromate. The  precipitated  logwood 
lake  is  washed  out  well  twice  and  then 
filtered. 

Black  Lake  Ai. — Logwood  extract, 
Sanford,  120  parts;  green  vitriol,  30 
parts;  acetic  acid,  7°  Be.,  10  parts;  sodium 
bichromate,  16  parts;  powdered  alum, 
20  parts.  The  logwood  extract  is  first 
dissolved  in  boiling  water  and  brought 
to  25°  Be.  by  the  addition  of  cold  water. 
Then  the  remaining  ingredients  are 
added  in  rotation,  the  salts  in  substance, 
finely  powdered,  with  constant  stirring. 
After  the  precipitation,  wash  twice  and 
filter. 

Aniline  Black  Lake. — In  the  precipi- 
tating vat  filled  with  200  parts  of  cold 
water  enter  with  constant  stirring  in  the 
order  mentioned  the  following  solutions 
kept  in  readiness:  Forty  parts  of  alum  dis- 
solved in  800  parts  of  water;  10  parts  of 
calcined  soda  dissolved  in  100  parts  of 
water;  30  .parts  of  azo  black  dissolved  in 
1,500  parts  of  water;  0.6  parts  of  "brilliant 
green"  dissolved  in  100  parts  of  water; 
0.24  parts  of  new  fuchsine  dissolved  in  60 
parts  of  water;  65  parts  of  barium 
chloride  dissolved  in  1,250  parts  of 
water.  Allow  to  settle  for  24  hours,  wash 
the  lake  three  times  and  filter  it. 

Carmine  Lake  for  Wall  Paper  and 
Colored  Papers. — Ammonia  soda  (98  per 
cent),  57.5  parts  by  weight;  spirits  (96 
per  cent),  40  parts  by  weight;  corallin 
(dark),  10  parts  by  weight;  corallin 
(pale),  5  parts  by  weight;  spirit  of  sal 
ammoniac  (16°  Be.),  8  parts  by  weight;  so- 
dium phosphate,  30  parts  by  weight;  stan- 
nic chloride,  5  parts  by  weight;  barium 
chloride,  75  parts  by  weight.  Dissolve 
the  corallin  in  the  spirit,  and  filter  the 
solution  carefully  into  eight  bottles,  each 
containing  1  part  of  the  above  quantity 
of  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  let  stand. 
The  soda  should  meanwhile  be  dissolved 
in  hot  water  and  the  solution  run  into 
the  stirring  vat,  in  which  there  is  cold 
water  to  the  height  of  17  inches.  Add 
the  sodium  phosphate,  which  has  been 
dissolved  in  a  copper  vessel,  then  the 


corallin  solution,  and  next  the  stannic 
chloride  diluted  with  3  pailfuls  of  cold 
water.  Lastly  the  barium  chloride  solu- 
tion is  added.  The  day  previous  barium 
chloride  is  dissolved  in  a  cask  in  as  little 
boiling  water  as  possible,  and  the  recep- 
tacle is  filled  entirely  with  cold  water. 
On  the  day  following,  allow  the  same  to 
run  in  slowly  during  a  period  of  three- 
fourths  of  an  hour,  stir  till  evening,  allow 
to  settle  for  2  days,  draw  off  and  filter. 

English  Pink.— 

Quercitron  bark. .  . .    200  parts 

Lime 10  parts 

Alum 10  parts 

Terra  alba 300  parts 

Whiting 200  parts 

Sugar  of  lead 7  parts 

Put  the  bark  into  a  tub,  slake  lime  in 
another  tub,  and  add  the  clear  limewater 
to  wash  the  bark;  repeat  this  3  times, 
letting  the  bark  stand  in  each  water  24 
hours.  Run  liquor  into  the  tub  below 
and  add  the  terra  alba  and  whiting; 
wash  well  in  the  top  tub  and  run  into 
liquor  below  through  a  hair  sieve,  stirring 
well. 

Dissolve  the  sugar  of  lead  in  warm 
water  and  pour  gently  into  the  tub,  stir- 
ring all  the  time;  then  dissolve  the  alum 
and  run  in  while  stirring;  press  slightly, 
drop,  and  dry  as  required. 

Dutch  Pink.— 

I. — Quercitron  bark..  .  200  parts 

Lime 20  parts 

Alum 20  parts 

Whiting 100  parts 

Terra  alba 200  parts 

White  sugar  of  lead  10  parts 

II. — Quercitron  bark. .  .    300  parts 

Lime 10  parts 

Alum 10  parts 

Terra  alba 400  parts 

Whiting 100  parts 

Sugar  of  lead 7  parts 

Put  the  bark  into  a  tub  with  cold 
water,  slake  28  pounds  of  lime,  and  add 
the  limewater  to  the  bark.  (This  draws 
all  the  color  out  of  the  wood.)  Dissolve 
alum  in  water  and  run  it  into  bark 
liquor.  The  alum  solution  must  be  just 
warm.  Dissolve  sugar  of  lead  and  add  it 
to  above,  and  afterwards  add  the  terra 
alba  and  whiting.  The  product  should 
now  be  in  a  pulp,  and  must  be  dropped 
and  dried  as  required. 

Rose  Pink.— I.— Light. 

Sapan  wood 100  parts 

Lima 100  parts 

Paris  white 200  parts 

Alum 210  parts 


DYES 


279 


II.— Deep. 

Sapan  wood 300  parts 

Lima 300  parts 

Terra  alba 400  parts 

Paris  white 120  parts 

Lime 12  parts 

Alum 200  parts 

III.— Sapan  wood 200  parts 

Alum 104  parts 

Whiting 124  parts 

Boil  the  woods  together  in  4  waters 
and  let  the  products  stand  until  cold; 
wash  in  the  whiting  and  terra  alba 
through  a  hair  sieve,  and  afterwards  run 
in  the  alum.  If  a  deep  color  is  required 
slake  12  pounds  lime  and  run  it  in  at  the 
last  through  a  hair  sieve.  Let  the  alum 
be  just  warm  or  it  will  show  in  the  pink. 

DYES,  COLORS,  ETC.,  FOR  TEXTILE 
GOODS: 

Aniline  Black. — This  black  is  pro- 
duced by  carefully  oxidizing  aniline  hy- 
drochloride.  The  exact  stage  of  oxida- 
tion must  be  carefully  regulated  or  the 
product  will  be  a  different  body  (qui- 
none).  There  are  several  suitable  oxi- 
dizing agents,  such  as  chromic  acid, 
potassic  bichromate,  ferrocyanide  of 
potassium,  etc.,  but  one  of  the  easiest  to 
manipulate  is  potassic  chlorate,  which 
by  reacting  on  copper  sulphate  pro- 
duces potassic  sulphate  and  copper 
chlorate.  This  is  easily  decomposed, 
its  solution  giving  off  gases  at  60°  F. 
which  consist  essentially  of  chloride  an- 
hydrate.  But  one  of  the  most  useful 
agents  for  the  production  of  aniline 
black  is  yanadate  of  ammonia,  1  part  of 
which  will  do  the  work  of  4,000  parts  of 
copper.  Many  other  salts  besides  cop- 
per may  be  .used  for  producing  aniline 
black,  but  the  following  method  is  one  of 
the  best  to  follow  in  making  this  dye: 

Aniline    hydrochlor- 

ide 40  parts 

Potassic  chlorate. ...      20  parts 

Copper  sulphate. ...      40  parts 

Chloride   of    ammo- 
nia (sal  ammoniac)    16  parts 

Warm  water  at  60° 

F 500  parts 

After  warming  a  few  minutes  the  mass 
froths  up.  The  vapor  should  not  be 
inhaled.  Then  set  aside,  and  *  if  the 
mass  is  not  totally  black  in  a  few  hours, 
again  heat  to  60°  F.,  and  expose  to  the  air 
for  a  few  days,  and  finally  wash  away 
all  the  soluble  salts  and  the  black  is  fit 
for  use. 

Aniline  Black  Substitutes. — I. — Make 
a  solution  of 


Aniline  (fluid  measure)  30  parts 
Toluidine  (by  weight).  10  parts 
Pure  hydrochloric  acid, 

B.  P.  (fluid  measure)   60  parts 
Soluble      gum      arabic 

(fluid  measure) 60  parts 

Dissolve  the  toluidine  in  the  aniline 
and  add  the  acid,  and  finally  the  mu- 
cilage. 
II. — Mix  together  at  gentle  heat: 

Starch  paste 13  quarts 

Potassic  chlorate  .  .  350  scruples 
Sulphate  of  copper.  300  scruples 

Sal  ammoniac 300  scruples 

Aniline  hydrochlor- 

ide 800  scruples 

Add  5  per  cent  of  alizarine  oil,  and 
then  steep  it  for  2  hours  in  the  dye  bath 
of  red  liquor  of  2£°  Tw.  Dye  in  a 
bath  made  up  of  $  ounce  of  rose  bengal 
and  1^  ounces  of  red  liquor  to  every  70 
ounces  of  cotton  fabric  dyed,  first  enter- 
ing the  fabric  at  112°  F.,  and  raising  it  to 
140°  F.,  working  for  1  hour,  or  until  the 
desirable  shade  is  obtained;  then  rinse 
and  dry. 

Blush  Pink  on  Cotton  Textile.— Rose 
bengal  or  fast  pink  will  give  this  shade. 
The  mordant  to  use  is  a  5  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  stannate  of  soda  and  another  5 
per  cent  solution  of  alum. 

Dissolve  in  a  vessel  (a)  8£  parts  of 
chloride  of  copper  in  30  parts  of  water, 
and  then  add  10  parts  chloride  of  sodium 
and  9£  parts  liquid  ammonia. 

In  a  second  vessel  dissolve  (6)  30  parts 
aniline  hydrochlorate  in  20  parts  of  water, 
and  add  20  parts  of  a  solution  of  gum 
arabic  prepared  by  dissolving  1  part  of 
gum  in  2  parts  of  water. 

Finally  mix  1  part  of  a  with  4  parts  of 
6;  expose  the  mixture  to  the  air  for  a  few 
days  to  develop  from  a  greenish  to  a 
black  color.  Dilute  for  use,  or  else  dry 
the  thick  compound  to  a  powder. 

If  new  liquor  is  used  as  the  mordant, 
mix  1  part  of  this  with  4  parts  of  water, 
and  after  working  the  fabric  for  1  to  2 
hours  in  the  cold  liquor,  wring  or 
squeeze  it  out  and  dry;  before  working 
it  in  the  dye  liquor,  thoroughly  wet  the 
fabric  by  rinsing  it  in  hot  water  at  a 
spring  boil;  then  cool  by  washing  in  the 
dye  bath  until  the  shade  desired  is  at- 
tained, and  again  rinse  and  dry. 

The  red  liquor  or  acetate  of  aluminum 
may  be  made  by  dissolving  13  ounces  of 
alum  in  69  ounces  of  water  and  mixing 
this  with  a  solution  made  by  dissolving 
7 \  ounces  of  acetate  of  lime,  also  dis- 
solved in  69  ounces  of  water.  Stir  well, 
allow  it  to  settle,  and  filter  or  decanter 


280 


DYEING 


off  the  clear  fluid  for  use,  and  use  this 
mixture  2*°  Tw. 

The  fabric  is  first  put  into  the  stannate 
of  soda  mordant  for  a  few  minutes,  then 
wrung  out  and  put  into  the  alum  mor- 
dant for  about  the  same  time;  then  it  is 
again  wrung  out  and  entered  in  the  dye 
bath  at  120°  F.  and  dyed  to  shade  de- 
sired, and  afterwards  rinsed  in  cold 
water  and  dried. 

The  dye  bath  is  made  of  £  ounce  of 
rose  bengal  per  gallon  of  water.  If 
fast  pink  is  the  dye  used,  the  mordant 
used  would  be  Turkey  red  oil  and  red 
liquor.  Use  8  ounces 'of  Turkey  red  oil 
per  gallon  of  water.  Put  the  fabric  into 
this,  then  wring  out  the  textile  and  work 
in  red  liquor  of  7°  Tw.  for  about  2  hours, 
then  wring  out  and  dye  in  a  separate 
bath  made  up  of  cosine,  or  fast  pink,  in 
water  in  which  a  little  alum  has  been  dis- 
solved. 

To  Dye  Woolen  Yarns,  etc.,  Various 
Shades  of  Magenta. — To  prepare  the  dye 
bath  dissolve  1  pound  of  roseine  in  15 
gallons  of  water.  For  a  concentrated 
solution  use  only  10  gallons  of  water, 
while  if  a  very  much  concentrated  color 
is  needed,  dissolve  the  dye  in  methylated 
spirit  of  wine,  and  dilute  this  spirituous 
tincture  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water. 

No  mordant  is  required  in  using  this 
color  in  dyeing  woolen  goods.  The  dye- 
ing operation  consists  simply  in  putting 
the  goods  into  the  dye  bath  at  190°  F. 
and  working  them  therein  until  the  de- 
sired shade  is  obtained,  then  rinsing  in 
cold  water  and  drying. 

If  the  water  used  in  preparing  the  dye 
is  at  all  alkaline,  make  use  of  the  acid 
roseine  dissolved  in  water  in  which  a 
little  sulphuric  acid  has  been  mixed,  and 
work,  gradually  raising  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  keep  up  the  temperature  for 
30  minutes,  or  according  to  the  shade 
desired.  Put  about  20  per  cent  sul- 
phate of  soda  into  the  dye  oath. 

Maroon  Dye  for  Woolens. — To  pre- 
pare the  dye  bath,  dissolve  about  1  pound 
of  maroon  dye  in  boiling  water,  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  methylated  spirit 
of  wine.  For  dark  shades  dissolve  in 
boiling  water,  only  slightly  acidulated 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  filter  before 
use.  No  mordant  is  required  with  this 
dye  when  dyeing  wool,  but  for  the  bright 
shade  a  little  curd  soap  may  be  dissolved 
in  the  dye  bath  before  proceeding  to  dye 
the  wool,  while  for  the  dark  shade  it  is 
best  to  put  in  a  little  acetate  of  soda.  To 
use  the  dye,  first  dye  in  a  weak  bath  and 
gradually  strengthen  it  until  the  desired 
shade  is  obtained,  at  the  same  time  grad- 


ually  increasing   the   temperature  until 
just  below  the  boiling  point. 

To  Dye  Woolens  with  Blue  de  Lyons. — 
Dissolve  8  ounces  of  blue  dye  in  1  gallon 
of  methylated  spirit,  which  has  been 
slightly  soured  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
boil  the  solution  over  a  water  bath  until 
it  is  perfectly  clear.  To  prepare  the  dye 
bath,  add  more  or  less  of  the  spirituous 
tincture  to  a  10-  or  15-gallon  dye  bath  of 
water,  which  has  been  slightly  soured 
with  sulphuric  acid. 

Rich  Orange  on  Woolen. — Dissolve  1 
pound  of  phosphine  in  15  gallons  of 
boiling  water,  and  stir  the  fluid  until  the 
acid  has  dissolved.  No  mordant  is  re- 
quired to  dye  wool.  First  work  the 
goods  about  in  a  weak  solution,  and 
finally  in  one  of  full  strength,  to  which 
a  little  acetate  of  soda  has  been  added. 
Keep  up  the  temperature  to  just  below 
the  boiling  point  while  working  the  goods 
in  the  dye  bath. 

DYEING  SILK  OR  COTTON  FABRICS 

WITH  ANILINE  DYES: 

Aniline  Blue  on  Cotton. — Prepare  a 
dye  bath  by  dissolving  1  pound  of  ani- 
line blue  (soluble  in  spirit)  in  10  gallons 
of  water,  and  set  it  aside  to  settle. 
Meanwhile  prepare  a  mordant  while 
boiling  35  ounces  of  sumac  (or  5£ 
ounces  tannic  acid  in  30  gallons  of  water) 
and  then  dissolve  therein  17  ounces  of 
curd  soap.  Boil  up  and  filter.  Put  the 
cotton  goods  in  the  hot  liquid  and  let 
them  remain  therein  for  12  hours.  Then 
wring  them  out  and  make  up  a  dye  bath 
of  2J°  Tw.  with  red  liquor.  Add  dye 
color  according  to  the  shade  desired. 
Put  in  the  goods  and  work  them  until  the 
color  is  correct,  keeping  the  temperature 
at  the  boiling  point. 

To  Dye  Silk  a  Delicate  Greenish  Yel- 
low.— Dissolved  ounces  of  citronine  in  1 
gallon  of  methylated  spirit  and  keep  the 
solution  hot  over  a  water  bath  until  per- 
fectly clear. 

To  prepare  silk  fabrics,  wash  them  in 
a  weak  soap  liquor  that  has  been  just 
sweetened  (i.  e.,  its  alkalinity  turned  to 
a  slight  sourness)  with  a  little  sulphuric 
acid.  Work  the  goods  until  dyed  to 
shade,  and  then  rinse  them  in  cold  water 
that  has  been  slightly  acidulated  with 
acetic,  tartaric,  or  citric  acid. 

To  Dye  Cotton  Dark  Brown.— Pre- 
pare a  mordant  bath  of  10  pounds  of 
catechu,  2  pounds  of  logwood  extract, 
and  J  pound  magenta  (roseine),  and 
bring  to  a  boil;  work  the  goods  therein 
for  3  hours  at  that  temperature;  then  put 


DYEING 


into  a  fresh  dye  bath  made  up  of  3 
pounds  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  2 
pounds  of  sal  soda,  and  dye  to  shade. 
These  proportions  are  for  a  dye  bath  to 
dye  100  pounds  of  cotton  goods  at  a  time. 

To  Dye  Silk  Peacock  Blue.—  Make  up 
a  dye  bath  by  putting  1  pint  of  sul- 
phuric acid  at  170°  Tw.,  and  10  ounces 
of  methylin  blue  crystal  dye  liquor  of 
120°  to  160°  Tw.,  with  a  dye  bath  that 
will  hold  80  pounds  of  goods.  Put  in 
the  silk  at  130°  F.,  and  raise  to  140°  F., 
and  work  up  to  shade  required. 

To  Dye  Felt  Goods.  —  Owing  to  this 
material  being  composed  of  animal  and 
vegetable  fiber  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  al- 
ways to  produce  evenness  of  shade.     The 
best  process  to  insure  success  is  to  steep 
well  the  felt  in  an  acid  bath  of  from  6° 
to  12°  \Be.,  and  then  wash  away  all  traces 
of  acid.       Some  dyers  make  the  fulling 
stork  the  medium  of  conveying  the  dye, 
while  others  partially  dye  before  fulling, 
or  else  dye  after  that  process. 

The   fulling   stock   for   72   ounces   of 
beaver  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
Black  lead  or  plum- 

bago .............    16  ounces 

Venetian  red  ........    48  ounces 

Indigo  extract  (fluid)  .      5  ounces 

Ordinary  Drab.  — 

Common  plumbago.  .    12  ounces 
Best  plumbago  ......    12  ounces 

Archil  extract  (fluid)..    15  ounces 
Indigo  extract  .......    10  ounces 

Mix  into  fluid  paste  with  water  and  add 
sulphuric  acid  at  30°  Tw.  For  the  dye 
liquor  make  a  boiling-hot  solution  of  the 
aniline  dye  and  allow  it  to  cool;  then  put 
into  an  earthenware  vessel  holding  water 
and  heat  to  83°  F.,  and  add  sufficient  dye 
liquor  to  give  the  quantity  of  felt  the  de- 
sired shade.  First  moisten  well  the  felted 
matter  (or  the  hair,  if  dyed  before  felting) 
with  water,  and  then  work  it  about  in 
the  above  dye  bath  at  140°  F.  To 
deepen  the  shade,  add  more  dye  liquor, 
lifting  out  the  material  to  be  dyed  before 
adding  the  fresh  dye  liquor,  so  that  it  can 
be  well  stirred  up  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  exhausted  bath. 

Brown  Shades.  —  Bismarck  brown  will 
ive  good  results,  particularly  if  the 
yed  goods  are  afterwards  steeped  or 
passed  through  a  weak  solution  (pale 
straw  color)  of  bichromate  of  potash. 
This  will  give  a  substantial  look  to  the 
color.  Any  of  the  aniline  colors  suitable 
for  cotton  or  wool,  or  those  suited  for 
mixed  cotton  and  wool  goods  may  be 
used. 


g 
d 


Blue. — Use  either  China  blue,  dense 
ferry  blue,  or  serge  blue,  first  making 
the  material  acid  before  dyeing. 

Green.  — Use  brilliant  green  and  have 
the  material  neutral,  i.  e.,  neither  acid  nor 
alkali;  or  else  steep  in  a  bath  of  sumac 
before  dyeing. 

Plum  Color. — Use  maroon  (neutral  or 
acid)  and  work  in  an  acid  bath  or  else 
sumac. 

Black. — Use  negrosin  in  an  acid  bath, 
or  else  mordant  in  two  salts  and  dye 
slightly  acid. 

Soluble  Blue,  Ball  Blue,  etc.— A  solu- 
ble blue  has  for  many  years  been  readily 
obtainable  in  commerce  which  is  similar 
in  appearance  to  Prussian  blue,  but,  un- 
like the  latter,  is  freely  soluble  in  water. 
This  blue  is  said  to  be  potassium  ferri- 
ferrocyanide. 

To  prepare  instead  of  buying  it  ready 
made,  gradually  add  to  a  boiling  solu- 
tion of  potassium  ferricyanide  (red  prus- 
siate  of  potash)  an  equivalent  quantity 
of  hot  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate,  boil- 
ing for  2  hours  and  washing  the  precip- 
itate on  a  filter  until  the  washings  assume 
a  dark-blue  color.  The  moist  precipitate 
can  at  once  be  dissolved  by  the  further 
addition  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water. 
About  64  parts  of  the  iron  salt  is  neces- 
sary to  convert  100  parts  of  the  potassium 
salt  into  the  blue  compound. 

If  the  blue  is  to  be  sent  out  in  the 
liquid  form,  it  is  desirable  that  the  solu- 
tion should  be  a  perfect  one.  To  attain 
that  end  the  water  employed  should  be 
free  from  mineral  substances,  and  it  is 
best  to  filter  the  solution  through  several 
thicknesses  of  fine  cotton  cloth  before 
bottling;  or  if  made  in  large  quantities 
this  method  may  be  modified  by  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  some  days  to  settle,  when 
the  top  portion  can  be  siphoned  off  for 
use,  the  bottom  only  requiring  filtration. 

The  ball  blue  sold  for  laundry  use 
consists  of  ultramarine.  Balls  or  tablets 
of  this  substance  are  formed  by  mixing 
it  with  glucose  or  glucose  and  dextrin, 
and  pressing  into  shape.  When  glucose 
alone  is  used,  the  product  has  a  tendency 
to  become  soft  on  keeping,  which  tend- 
ency may  be  counteracted  by  a  proper 
proportion  of  dextrin.  Bicarbonate  of 
sodium  is  added  as  a  filler  to  cheapen 
the  product,  the  quantity  used  and  the 
quality  of  the  ultramarine  employed 
being  both  regulated  by  the  price  at 
which  the  product  is  to  sell. 

New  Production  of  Indigo. — Forty 
parts  of  a  freshly  prepared  ammonium 
sulphide  solution  containing  10  per  cent 


DYEING— EGGS 


of  hydrogen  sulphide  are  made  to  flow 
quickly  and  with  constant  stirring  into 
a  heated  solution  of  20  parts  of  isatine 
apilide  in  60  parts  of  alcohol.  With 
spontaneous  heating  and  temporary 
green  and  blue  coloration,  an  immediate 
separation  of  indigo  in  small  crystalline 
needles  of  a  faint  copper  luster  takes 
place.  Boil  for  a  short  time,  whereupon 
the  indigo  is  filtered  off,  rewashed  with 
alcohol,  and  dried. 

To  Dye  Feathers. — A  prerequisite  to 
the  dyeing  of  feathers  appears  to  be  soft- 
ening them,  which  is  sometimes  accom- 
plished by  soaking  them  in  warm  water, 
and  sometimes  an  alkali,  such  as  ammo- 
nium or  sodium  carbonate,  is  added. 
This  latter  method  would  apparently  be 
preferable  on  account  of  the  removal  of 
any  greasy  matter  that  may  be  present. 

When  so  prepared  the  feathers  may  be 
dyed  by  immersion  in  any  dye  liquor. 
An  ol'd-time  recipe  for  black  is  immersion 
in  a  bath  of  ferric  nitrate  suitably  diluted 
with  water,  and  then  in  an  infusion  of 
equal  parts  of  logwood  and  quercitron. 
Doubtless  an  aniline  dye  would  prove 
equally  efficient  and  would  be  less  trou- 
blesome to  use. 

After  dyeing,  feathers  are  dipped  in  an 
emulsion  formed  by  agitating  any  bland 
fixed  oil  with  water  containing  a  little 
potassium  carbonate,  and  are  then  dried 
by  gently  swinging  them  in  warm  air. 
This  operation  gives  the  gloss. 

Curling  where  required  is  effected  by 
slightly  warming  the  feathers  before  a 
fire,  and  then  stroking  with  a  blunt  me- 
tallic edge,  as  the  back  of  a  knife.  A 
certain  amount  of  manual  dexterity  is 
necessary  to  carry  the  whole  process  to 
a  successful  ending. 

DYES  FOR  FOOD: 

See  Foods. 

DYES   FOR   LEATHER: 

See  Leather. 

DYE      STAINS,     THEIR      REMOVAL 

FROM  THE  SKIN: 
See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

DYNAMITE: 

See  Explosives. 

EARTHENWARE: 

See  Ceramics. 

EAU  DE  QUININE: 
See  Hair  Preparations. 


EBONY: 
See  Wood. 

EBONY  LACQUER: 

See  Lacquers. 

ECZEMA    DUSTING    POWDER    FOR 
CHILDREN. 

Starch,  French  chalk,  lycopodium,  of 
each,  40  parts;  bismuth  subnitrate,  2 
parts;  salicylic  acid,  2  parts;  menthol,  1 
part.  Apply  freely  to  the  affected  parts. 

Eggs 

The  age  of  eggs  may  be  approximately 
judged  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fact 
that  as  they  grow  old  their  density  de- 
creases through  evaporation  of  moisture. 
According  to  Siebel,  a  new-laid  egg 
placed  in  a  vessel  of  brine  made  in  the 
proportion  of  2  ounces  of  salt  to  1  pint  of 
water,  will  at  once  sink  to  the  bottom. 
An  egg  1  day  old  will  sink  below  the 
surface,  but  not  to  the  bottom,  while  one 
3  days  old  will  swim  just  immersed  in 
the  liquid.  If  more  than  3  days  old  the 
egg  will  float  on  the  surface,  the  amount 
of  shell  exposed  increasing  with  age;  and 
if  2  weeks  old,  only  a  little  of  the  shell 
will  dip  in  the  liquid. 

The  New  York  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tion studied  the  changes  in  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  eggs  on  keeping  and  found 
that  on  an  average  fresh  eggs  had  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.090;  after  they  were 
10  dayc  old,  of  1.072;  after  20  days,  of 
1.053;  and  after  30  days,  of  1.035.  The 
test  was  not  continued  further.  The 
changes  in  specific  gravity  correspond  to 
the  changes  in  water  content.  When 
eggs  arc  kept  they  continually  lose  water 
by  evaporation  through  the  pores  in  the 
shell.  After  10  days  the  average  loss 
was  found  to  be  1.60  per  cent  of  the 
total  water  present  in  the  egg  when  per- 
fectly fresh;  after  20  days,  3.16  per  cent; 
and  after  30  days,  5  per  cent.  The  aver- 
age temperature  of  the  room  where  the 
eggs  were  kept  was  63.8°  F.  The  evap- 
oration was  found  to  increase  somewhat 
with  increased  temperature.  None  of 
the  eggs  used  in  the  30-day  test  spoiled. 

Fresh  eggs  are  preserved  in  a  number 
of  ways  which  may,  for  convenience,  be 
grouped  under  two  general  classes:  (1) 
Use  of  low  temperature,  i.  e.,  cold  stor- 
age; and  (2)  excluding  the  air  by  coating, 
covering,  or  immersing  the  eggs,  some 
material  or  solution  being  used  which 
may  or  may  not  be  a  germicide.  The 
two  methods  are  often  combined.  The 


EGGS 


first  method  owes  its  value  to  the  fact 
that  microorganisms,  like  larger  forms 
of  plant  life,  will  not  grow  below  a  cer- 
tain temperature,  the  necessary  degree  of 
cold  varying  with  the  species.  So  far  as 
experiment  shows,  it  is  impossible  to  kill 
these  minute  plants,  popularly  called 
"bacteria"  or  "germs,"  by  any  degree  of 
cold;  and  so,  very  low  temperature  is 
unnecessary  for  preserving  eggs,  even  if 
it  were  not  undesirable  for  other  reasons, 
such  as  injury  by  freezing  and  in- 
creased cost.  According  to  a  report  of 
the  Canadian  commission  of  agriculture 
and  dairying: 

Eggs  are  sometimes  removed  from  the 
shells  and  stored  in  bulk,  usually  on  a 
commercial  scale,  in  cans  containing 
about  50  pounds  each.  The  tempera- 
ture recommended  is  about  30°  F.,  or  a 
little  below  freezing,  and  it  is  said  they 
will  keep  any  desired  length  of  time. 
They  must  be  used  soon  after  they  have 
been  removed  from  storage  and  have 
been  thawed. 

Water  glass  or  soluble  glass  is  the 
popular  name  for  potassium  silicate,  or 
sodium  silicate,  the  commercial  article 
often  being  a  mixture  of  the  two.  The 
commercial  water  glass  is  used  for  pre- 
serving eggs,  as  it  is  much  cheaper 
than  the  chemically  pure  article  which 
is  required  for  many  scientific  pur- 
poses. Water  glass  is  commonly  sold  in 
two  forms,  a  syrup-thick  liquid  of  about 
the  consistency  of  molasses,  and  a  pow- 
der. The  thick  syrup,  the  form  perhaps 
most  usually  seen,  is  sometimes  sold 
wholesale  as  low  as  If  cents  per  pound 
in  carboy  lots.  The  retail  price  varies, 
though  10  cents  per  pound,  according  to 
the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station, 
seems  to  be  the  price  commonly  asked. 
According  to  the  results  obtained  at  this 
station  a  solution  of  the  desired  strength 
for  preserving  eggs  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving 1  part  of  the  syrup-thick  water 
glass  in  10  parts,  by  measure,  of  water. 
If  the  water-glass  powder  is  used,  less  is 
required  for  a  given  quantity  of  water. 
Much  of  the  water  glass  offered  for  sale 
is  very  alkaline.  Such  material  should 
not  be  used,  as  the  eggs  preserved  in  it 
will  not  keep  well.  Only  pure  water 
should^be  used  in  making  the  solution, 
and  it  is  best  to  boil  it  and  cool  it  before 
mixing  with  the  water  glass. 

The  solution  should  be  carefully 
poured  over  the  eggs  packed  in  a  suit- 
able vessel,  which  must  be  clean  and 
sweet,  and  if  wooden  kegs  or  barrels  are 
used  they  should  be  thoroughly  scalded 
before  packing  the  eggs  in  them.  The 
packed  eggs  should  be  stored  in  a  cool 


place.  If  they  are  placed  where  it  is  too 
warm,  silicate  deposits  on  the  shell  and 
the  eggs  do  not  keep  well.  The  North 
Dakota  Experiment  Station  found  it  best 
not  to  wash  the  eggs  before  packing,  as 
this  removes  the  natural  mucilaginous 
coating  on  the  outside  of  the  shell.  The 
station  states  that  1  gallon  of  the  solution 
is  sufficient  for  50  dozen  eggs  if  they  are 
properly  packed. 

It  is,  perhaps,  too  much  to  expect  that 
eggs  packed  in  any  way  will  be  just  as 
satisfactory  for  table  use  as  the  fresh 
article.  The  opinion  seems  to  be,  how- 
ever, that  those  preserved  with  water 
glass  are  superior  to  most  of  those  pre- 
served otherwise.  The  shells  of  eggs 
preserved  in  water  glass  are  apt  to  crack 
in  boiling.  It  is  stated  that  this  may  be 
prevented  by  puncturing  the  blunt  end 
of  the  egg  with  a  pin  before  putting  it 
into  the  water. 

To  Discover  the  Age  of  Eggs.—  The 
most  reliable  method  of  arriving  at  the 
age  of  hens'  eggs  is  that  by  specific 
gravity.  Make  a  solution  of  cooking  salt 
(sodium  chloride)  in  rain  or  distilled 
water,  of  about  one  part  of  salt  to  two 
parts  of  water,  and  in  this  place  the  eggs 
to  be  tested.  A  perfectly  fresh  egg  (of 
from  1  to  36  hours  old)  will  sink  com- 
pletely, lying  horizontally  on  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel;  when  from  two  to  three 
days  old,  the  egg  also  sinks,  but  not  to  the, 
bottom,  remaining  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  with  a  slight  tendency 
of  the  large  end  to  rise.  In  eggs  of  four 
or  five  days  old  this  tendency  of  the  large 
end  to  rise  becomes  more  marked,  and  it 
increases  from  day  to  day,  until  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth  day  the  long  axis  of  the 
egg  (an  imaginary  line  drawn  through 
the  center  lengthwise)  will  stand  at  an 
angle  of  20°  from  the  perpendicular. 
This  angle  is  increased  daily,  until  at  the 
end  of  the  eighth  day  it  is  at  about  45°; 
on  the  fourteenth  day  it  is  60°;  on  the 
twenty-first  day  it  is  75°,  while  at  the  end 
of  4  weeks  the  egg  stands  perfectly  up- 
right in  the  liquid,  the  point  or  small 
end  downward. 

This  action  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  air  cavity  in  the  big  end  of  the  egg 
increases  in  size  and  capacity,  from  day 
to  day,  as  the  egg  grows  older.  An  ap- 
paratus (originally  devised  by  a  German 
poultry  fancier)  based  on  this  principle, 
and  by  means  of  which  the  age  of  an  egg 
maintained  at  ordinary  temperature  may 
be  told  approximately  to  within  a  day,  is 
made  by  placing  a  scale  of  degrees,  drawn 
from  0°  to  90°  (the  latter  representing 
the  perpendicular)  behind  the  vessel  con- 


284 


EGGS 


taining  the  solution,  and  observing  the 
angle  made  by  the  axis  of  the  egg  with 
the  perpendicular  line.  This  gives  the 
age  of  the  egg  with  great  accuracy. 

Weights  of  Eggs.— The  following 
table  shows  the  variation  in  weight  be- 
tween eggs  of  the  same  family  of  chickens 
and  of  the  comparative  value  of  the 
product  of  different  kinds  of  fowls: 


Common  hen, 
Common  hen, 
Common  hen, 
Italian  hen. . 

Houdan 

LaFlesche.  .  . 
Brahma.  .  . 


small 
mean 
large 


Weight  of 
Whole  Eggs,  Shell, 
Grains,     Grains. 
,      635 . 60 
.  .      738.35 
. .      802.36 
.      840 . 00 
. .     956.60 
926.50 


84.86 
92.58 
93.25 
92.50 
93.50 
94.25 


______   ______ 

1,025.50  114.86 


Net. 
550.54 
645.77 
709.11 
747.50 
853.10 
835.25 
910.64 


From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
Houdans  and  Brahmas  are  the  most 
profitable  producers,  as  far  as  food  value 
of  the  product  is  concerned  —  provided, 
of  course,  they  are  equally  prolific  with 
the  ordinary  fowl. 

Another  calculation  is  the  number  of 
eggs  to  the  pound,  of  the  various  weights. 
This  is  as  follows: 

Small  ordinary  eggs 

(635  grains)  .....  12.20  to  pound 
Large  ordinary  eggs 

(802  grains)  .....    9  .  25  to  pound 

Houdan  eggs  ......   8.0    to  pound 

Brahma,  mean  ----   7.4    to  pound 

Brahma,  large  .....  7.1  to  pound 

Dried  Yolk  of  Egg.  —  To  prepare  this, 
the  yolks  of  eggs,  separated  from  the 
whites,  are  thoroughly  mixed  with  £ 
their  weight  of  water.  The  resulting 
emulsion  is  strained  and  evaporated 
under  reduced  pressure  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  87°  to  122°  F.,  to  a  paste.  The 
latter  is  further  dried  over  quicklime  or 
a  similar  absorbent  of  moisture,  at  a 
temperature  of  77°  to  86°  F.,  and  ground 
to  a  fine  powder. 

Egg  Oil.— 

Yolks  of  eggs  (about 

250)  ............   5.0  parts 

Distilled  water  ......    0.3  parts 

Beat  this  together  and  heat  the  mass 
with  constant  stirring  in  a  dish  on  the 
water  bath  until  it  thickens  and  a  sample 
exhibits  oil  upon  pressing  between  the 
fingers.  Squeeze  out  between  hot  plates, 
mix  the  turbid  oil  obtained  with  0.05 
parts  of  dehydrated  Glauber's  salt,  shake 
repeatedly,  and  finally  allow  to  settle. 
Tne  oil,  which  must  be  decanted  clear 
from  the  sediment,  gives  a  yield  of  at 
least  0.5  parts  of  egg  oil, 


Artificial  Egg  Oil.— 

Yellow  beeswax 0.2  parts 

Cacao  oil 0.5  parts 

Melt  on  the  water  bath  and  gradually 
add  9  parts  of  olive  oil. 

Egg  Powder. — 

Sodium  bicarbonate. .      8  ounces 

Tartaric  acid 3  ounces 

Cream  tartar 5  ounces 

Turmeric,  powdered.      3  drachms 

Ground  rice 16  ounces 

Mix  and  pass  through  a  fine  sieve. 
One  teaspoonful  to  a  dessertspoonful 
(according  to  article  to  be  made),  to  be 
mixed  with  each  half  pound  of  flour. 

The  Preservation  of  Eggs. — The  spoil- 
ing of  eggs  is  due  to  the  entrance  of  air 
carrying  germs  through  the  shells. 
Normally  the  shell  has  a  surface  coating 
of  mucilaginous  matter,  which  prevents 
for  a  time  the  entrance  of  these  harmful 
organisms  into  the  egg.  But  if  this  coat- 
ing is  removed  or  softened  by  washing  or 
otherwise  the  keeping  quality  of  the  egg 
is  much  reduced.  These  facts  explain 
why  many  methods  of  preservation  have 
not  been  entirely  successful,  and  suggest 
that  the  methods  employed  should  be 
based  upon  the  idea  of  protecting  and 
rendering  more  effective  the  natural  coat- 
ing of  the  shell,  so  that  air  bearing  the 
germs  that  cause  decomposition  may  be 
completely  excluded. 

Eggs  are  often  packed  in  lime,  salt,  or 
other  products,  or  are  put  in  cold  storage 
for  winter  use,  but  such  eggs  are  very  far 
from  being  perfect  when  they  come  upon 
the  market.  German  authorities  declare 
that  water  glass  more  closely  conforms 
to  the  requirements  of  a  good  preserva- 
tive than  any  of  the  substances  com- 
monly employed.  A  10  per  cent  solution 
of  water  glass  is  said  to  preserve  eggs  so 
effectually  that  at  the  end  of  three  and 
one-half  months  eggs  still  appeared  to  be 
perfectly  fresh.  In  most  packed  eggs  the 
yolk  settles  to  one  side,  and  the  egg  is 
then  inferior  in  quality.  In  eggs  pre- 
served in  water  glass  the  yolk  retained 
its  normal  position  in  the  egg,  and  in 
taste  they  were  not  to  be  distinguished 
from  fresh,  unpacked  store  eggs. 

Of  twenty  methods  tested  in  Germany, 
the  three  which  proved  most  effective 
were  coating  the  eggs  with  vaseline,  pre- 
serving them  in  limewater,  and  preserving 
them  in  water  glass.  The  conclusion  was 
reached  that  the  last  is  preferable,  be- 
cause varnishing  the  eggs  with  vaseline 
takes  considerable  time,  and  treating 
them  with  limewater  is  likely  to  give  the 
eggs  a  limy  flavor* 


EGGS— EKTOGAN 


285 


Other  methods  follow: 

I. — Eggs  can  be  preserved  for  winter 
use  by  coating  them,  when  perfectly 
fresh,  with  paraffine.  As  the  spores  of 
fungi  get  into  eggs  almost  as  soon  as 
they  are  laid,  it  is  necessary  to  rub  every 
egg  with  chloroform  or  wrap  it  a  few 
minutes  in  a  chloroform  soaked  rag  be- 
fore dipping  it  into  the  melted  paraffine. 
If  only  a  trace  of  the  chloroform  enters  the 
shell  the  development  of  such  germs  as 
may  have  gained  access  to  freshly  laid 
eggs  is  prevented.  The  paraffine  coating 
excludes  all  future  contamination  from 
germ-laden  air,  and  with  no  fungi  grow- 
ing within,  they  retain  their  freshness  and 
natural  taste. 

II. — Preserving  with  Lime. — Dissolve 
in  each  gallon  of  water  12  ounces  of 
quicklime,  6  ounces  of  common  salt,  1 
drachm  of  soda,  |  drachm  saltpeter,  £ 
drachm  tartar,  and  1 J  drachms  of  borax. 
The  fluid  is  brought  into  a  barrel  and 
sufficient  quicklime  to  cover  the  bottom 
is  then  poured  in.  Upon  this  is  placed  a 
layer  of  eggs,  quicklime  is  again  thrown 
in  and  so  on  until  the  barrel  is  filled  so 
that  the  liquor  stands  about  10  inches 
deep  over  the  last  layer  of  eggs.  The 
barrel  is  then  covered  with  a  cloth,  upon 
which  is  scattered  some  lime. 

III. — Melt  4  ounces  of  clear  beeswax 
in  a  porcelain  dish  over  a  gentle  fire,  and 
stir  in  8  ounces  of  olive  oil.  Let  the 
solution  of  wax  in  oil  cool  somewhat,  then 
dip  the  fresh  eggs  one  by  one  into  it  so 
as  to  coat  every  part  of  the  shell.  A 
momentary  dip  is  sufficient,  all  excess  of 
the  mixture  being  wiped  off  with  a  cotton 
cloth.  The  oil  is  absorbed  in  the  shell, 
the  wax  hermetically  closing  all  the  pores. 

IV. — The  Reinhard  method  is  said  to 
cause  such  chemical  changes  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  eggshell  that  it  is  closed  up 
perfectly  air-tight  and  an  admittance  of 
air  is  entirely  excluded,  even  in  case  of 
long-continued  storing.  The  eggs  are 
for  a  short  time  exposed  to  the  direct 
action  of  sulphuric  acid,  whereby  the 
surface  of  the  eggshell,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  lime  carbonate,  is  transformed 
into  lime  sulphate.  The  dense  texture 
of  the  surface  thus  produced  forms  a 
complete  protection  against  the  access  of 
the  outside  air,  which  admits  of  storing 
the  egg  for  a  very  long  time,  without  the 
contents  of  the  egg  suffering  any  disad- 
vantageous changes  regarding  taste  and 
odor.  The  egg  does  not  require  any 
special  treatment  to  prevent  cracking  on 
boiling,  etc. 

Some  object  to  this  on  the  ground  that 
sulphuric  acid  is  a  dangerous  poison, 


that  might,  on  occasion,  penetrate  the 
shell. 

V. — Take  about  half  a  dozen  eggs  and 
place  them  in  a  netting  (not  so  many  as 
would  chill  the  water  below  the  boiling 
point,  even  for  an  instant),  into  a  boiling 
olution  of  boric  acid,  withdraw  imme- 
diately, and  pack.  Or  put  up,  in  oil, 
carrying  2  per  cent  or  3  per  cent  of  sali- 
cylic acid.  Eggs  treated  in  this  way  are 
said  to  taste,  after  six  months,  absolutely 
as  fresh  as  they  were  when  first  put  up. 
The  eggs  should  be  as  fresh  as  possible, 
and  should  be  thoroughly  clean  before 
dipping.  The  philosophy  of  the  process 
is  that  the  dipping  in  boiling  boric  acid 
solution  not  only  kills  all  bacteria  exist- 
ing on,  or  in,  the  shell  and  membrane, 
but  reinforces  these  latter  by  a  very  thin 
layer  of  coagulated  albumen;  while  the 
packing  in  salicylated  oil  prevents  the 
admission  of  fresh  germs  from  the  at- 
mosphere. Salicylic  acid  is  objected  to 
on  the  same  grounds  as  sulphuric  acid. 

VI. — Dissolve  sodium  silicate  in  boil- 
ing water,  to  about  the  consistency  of  a 
syrup  (or  about  1  part  of  the  silicate  tc 
3  parts  water).  The  eggs  should  be  as 
fresh  as  possible,  and  must  be  thoroughly 
clean.  They  should  be  immersed  in  the 
solution  in  such  manner  that  every  part 
of  each  egg  is  covered  with  the  liquid,  then 
removed  and  let  dry.  If  the  solution  is 
kept  at  or  near  the  boiling  temperature, 
the  preservative  effect  is  said  to  be  much 
more  certain  and  to  last  longer. 


EGG  CHOCOLATE: 

See  Beverages. 

EGG  DYES: 
See  Dyes. 

EGG  LEMONADE: 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonade. 

EGG  PHOSPHATE: 

See  Beverages. 

EGG-STAIN  REMOVER: 

See  Gleaning  Preparations  and  Meth« 
ods. 

EGGS,  TESTS  FOR: 

See  Foods. 

EIKONOGEN   DEVELOPER; 

See  Photography. 

EKTOGAN: 

See  Antiseptics. 


286 


ELECTROPLATING   AND   ELECTROTYPING 


ELAINE   SUBSTITUTE. 

A  substitute  for  elaine  for  woolen 
yarns  is  obtained  by  boiling  4  pounds 
carrageen  moss  in  25  gallons  water  for 
3  hours.  The  soda  is  then  put  in  and 
the  boiling  continued  for  another  half  hour; 
2  pounds  fleabane  seeds  are  gradually 
added,  and  a  little  water  to  make  up  for 
the  evaporation.  After  a  further  1£ 
hours  boiling,  the  extract  is  passed 
through  a  fine  sieve  and  well  mixed  with 
25  pounds  cottonseed  oil,  12£  pounds 
sweet  oil,  and  12|  pounds  ammonia 
solution  of  0.96  specific  gravity.  Next 
day  stir  in  25  pounds  saponified  elaine 
and  13  pounds  of  odorless  petroleum  of 
0.885  specific  gravity.  The  resulting 
emulsion  keeps  well,  dissolves  perfectly 
in  lukewarm  water,  and  answers  its  pur- 
pose excellently. 

ELECTRODEPOSITION  PROCESSES: 

See  Plating. 

ELECTROLYSIS  IN  BOILERS: 

See  Boiler  Compounds. 

Electroplating  and  Electro- 
typing 

(See  also  Plating.) 

PROCESS  OF  ELECTROPLATING. 

First,  clean  the  articles  to  be  plated. 
To  remove  grease,  warm  the  pieces  be- 
fore a  slow  fire  of  charcoal  or  coke,  or  in 
a  dull  red  stove.  Delicate  or  soldered 
articles  should  be  boiled  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash,  the  latter  being  dissolved 
in  10  times  its  weight  of  water. 

The  scouring  bath  is  composed  of  100 
parts  of  water  to  from  5  to  20  parts  of 
sulphuric  acid.  The  articles  may  be 
put  in  hot  and  should  be  left  in  the 
bath  till  the  surface  turns  to  an  ocher 
red  tint. 

The  articles,  after  having  been  cleansed 
of  grease  by  the  potash  solution,  must  be 
washed  in  water  and  rinsed  before  being 
scoured.  Copper  or  glass  tongs  must 
then  be  used  for  moving  the  articles,  as 
they  must  not  afterwards  be  handled. 
For  small  pieces,  suitable  earthenware 
or  porcelain  strainers  may  be  used. 

The  next  stage  is  the  spent  nitric  acid 
bath.  This  consists  of  nitric  acid  weak- 
ened by  previous  use.  The  articles  are 
left  in  until  the  red  color  disappears,  so 
that  after  rinsing  they  show  a  uniform 
metallic  tint.  The  rinsing  should  be 
thoroughly  carried  out. 

Having  been  well  shaken  and  drained, 
the  articles  are  next  subjected  to  the 


strong  nitric  acid  bath,  which  is  made  up 
as  follows: 

Nitric  acid  of  36°  Be. .  100  volumes 
Chloride     of     sodium 

(common  salt) 1  volume 

Calcined  soot  (lamp- 
black)        1  volume 

The  articles  must  be  immersed  in  this 
bath  for  only  a  few  seconds.  Avoid  over- 
heating or  using  too  cold  a  bath.  They 
are  next  rinsed  thoroughly  with  cold  water 
and  are  again  subjected  to  a  strong  nitric 
acid  bath  to  give  them  a  bright  or  dull 
appearance  as  required. 

To  produce  a  bright  finish,  plunge 
them  for  a  few  seconds  (moving  them 
about  rapidly  at,  the  same  time)  in  a  cold 
bath  of  the  following  composition: 

Nitric  acid 100  volumes 

Sulphuric  acid 100  volumes 

Chloride  of  sodium.. .      1  volume 
Again  rinse  thoroughly  in  cold  water. 
The  corresponding  bath  giving  a  dull 
or  matt  appearance  is  composed  of: 

Nitric  acid 200  volumes 

Sulphuric  acid 100  volumes 

Sea  salt 1  volume 

Sulphate  of  zinc.  .  .  1  to  5  volumes 

The  duration  of  immersion  in  this  bath 
varies  from  5  to  20  minutes,  according  to 
the  dullness  required.  Wash  with  plenty 
of  water.  The  articles  will  then  have  an 
unpleasant  appearance,  which  will  disap- 
pear on  plunging  them  for  a  moment  into 
the  brightening  bath  and  rinsing  quickly. 

The  pieces  are  next  treated  with  the 
nitrate  of  mercury  bath  for  a  few  seconds. 

Plain  water 10,000  parts 

Nitrate  of  mercury  10  parts 

Sulphuric  acid 20  parts 

It  is  necessary  to  stir  this  bath  before 
using  it.  For  large  articles  the  propor- 
tion of  mercury  should  be  greater.  An 
article  badly  cleaned  will  come  out  in 
various  shades  and  lacking  its  metallic 
brightness.  It  is  better  to  throw  a  spent 
bath  away  than  attempt  to  strengthen  it. 

The  various  pieces,  after  having  passed 
through  these  several  processes,  are  then 
ready  for  the  plating  bath. 

A  few  words  on  the  subject  of  gilding 
may  not  be  amiss.  Small  articles  are  gilded 
hot,  large  ones  cold.  The  cold  cyanide 
of  gold  and  potassium  bath  is  composed 
as  follows: 

Distilled  water 10,000  parts 

Pure  cyanide  of  po- 
tassium   .  .        200  parts 

Pure  gold 100  parts 

The  gold,  transformed  into  chloride, 
is  dissolved  in  2,000  parts  of  water  and 


ELECTROPLATING   AND   ELECTROTYPING 


287 


the  cyanide  in  8,000  parts.  The  two  so- 
lutions are  then  mixed  and  boiled  for 
half  an  hour. 

The  anode  must  be  entirely  submerged 
in  the  bath,  suspended  from  platinum 
wires  and  withdrawn  immediately  the 
bath  is  out  of  action. 

Hot  Gold  Bath.— Zinc,  tin,  lead, 
antimony  and  the  alloys  of  these  metals 
are  better  if  previously  covered  with 
copper. 

The  following  are  the  formulas  for  the 
other  metals  per  10,000  parts  of  distilled 
water: 

Crystallized  phosphate  of  soda,  600 
parts;  alloys  rich  in  copper  castings,  500 
parts. 

Bisulphide  of  soda,  100  parts;  alloys 
rich  in  copper,  125  parts. 

Pure  cyanide  of  potassium,  10  parts; 
alloys  rich  in  copper,  5  parts.  Pure  gold 
transformed  into  chloride,  10  parts;  alloys 
rich  in  copper,  10  parts. 

Dissolve  the  phosphate  of  soda  hot  in 
8,000  parts  water,  let  the  chloride  of  gold 
cool  in  1,000  parts  water;  mix  little  by 
little  the  second  solution  with  the  first; 
dissolve  the  cyanide  and  bisulphide  in 
1,000  parts  water  and  mix  this  last  solu- 
tion with  the  other  two.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  bath  may  vary  between  122° 
and  175°  F. 

Silvering. — For  amateurs  a  bath  of  10 
parts  silver  per  1,000  is  sufficient.  Dis- 
solve 150  parts  nitrate  of  silver,  equiva- 
lent to  100  parts  pure  silver,  in  10,000 
parts  of  water  and  add  250  parts  pure 
cyanide  of  potassium.  Stir  it  up  until 
completely  dissolved,  and  then  filter  the 
solution.  Silvering  is  generally  effected 
cold,  except  in  the  case  of  small  articles. 
Iron,  steel,  zinc,  lead,  and  tin  are  better 
if  previously  copper-plated  and  then 
silvered  hot.  The  cleaned  articles  are 
first  treated  in  a  nitrate  of  mercury  bath, 
being  kept  continually  in  motion. 

With  excess  of  current  the  pieces  be- 
come gray,  and  blacken.  In  the  cold 
bath  anodes  of  platinum  or  silver  should 
be  employed.  Old  baths  are,  in  this 
case,  preferable  to  new.  They  may,  if 
required,  be  artificially  aged  by  the  addi- 
tion of  1  or  2  parts  in  1,000  of  liquid  am- 
monia. 

If  the  anode  blackens,  the  bath  is  too 
weak.  If  it  becomes  white,  there  is  too 
much  current,  and  the  deposit,  being  too 
rapid,  does  not  adhere.  The  deposit  may 
be  taken  as  normal  and  regular  when  the 
anode  becomes  gray  during  the  passage 
of  the  current  and  white  again  when  it 
ceases  to  flow. 

The   nickel    vat    should    be   of   glass, 


porcelain,  or  earthenware,  or  a  case 
lined  with  impermeable  gum.  The  best 
nickel  bath  is  prepared  by  dissolving  to 
saturation,  in  hot  distilled  water,  nickel 
sulphate  and  ammonium,  free  from  ox- 
ides or  alkalies  and  alkaline  earthy  metals. 
The  proportion  of  salt  to  dissolve  is  1 
part,  by  weight,  to  10  of  water.  Filter 
after  cooling  and  the  bath  is  then  ready 
for  use. 

When  the  bath  is  ready  and  the  bat- 
tery- set  up,  the  wires  from  the  latter  are 
joined  by  binding  screws  to  two  metal  bars 
resting  on  the  edge  of  the  vat.  The  bar 
joined  to  the  positive  pole  of  the  battery 
supports,  through  the  intervention  of  a 
nickel-plated  copper  hook,  a  plate  of 
nickel,  constituting  the  soluble  anode, 
which  restores  to  the  bath  the  metal  de- 
posited on  the  cathode  by  the  electro- 
lytic action.  From  the  other  bar  are 
suspended  the  articles  to  be  plated. 
These  latter  should  be  well  polished  be- 
fore being  put  into  the  bath.  To  remove 
all  grease,  scrub  them  with  brushes  soaked 
in  a  hot  solution  of  whiting,  boiled  in 
water  and  carbonate  of  soda. 

Copper  and  its  alloys  are  cleaned  well 
in  a  few  seconds  by  immersion  in  a  bath 
composed  of  10  parts,  by  weight,  of  water, 
and  1  part  of  nitric  acid.  For  rough  ar- 
ticles, 2  parts  water,  1  nitric  acid,  and  1 
sulphuric  acid.  For  steel  and  polished 
castings,  100  parts  water  to  1  sulphuric 
acid.  The  articles  should  remain  in  the 
bath  until  the  whole  surface  is  of  a  uni- 
form gray  tint.  They  are  then  rubbed 
with  powdered  pumice  stone  till  the  solid 
metal  appears.  Iron  and  steel  castings 
are  left  in  the  bath  for  three  or  four 
hours  and  then  scrubbed  with  well-sifted 
sand. 

If  the  current  be  too  strong,  the  nickel 
is  deposited  gray  or  even  black.  An 
hour  or  so  is  time  enough  to  render  the 
coat  sufficiently  thick  and  in  a  condition 
to  stand  polishing.  When  the  articles 
are  removed  from  the  bath  they  are 
washed  in  water  and  dried  in  hot  saw- 
dust. 

To  polish  the  articles  they  should  be 
taken  in  one  hand  and  rubbed  rapidly 
backward  and  forward  on  a  strip  of  cloth 
soaked  in  polishing  powder  boiled  in 
water,  the  cloth  being  firmly  fixed  at  one 
end  and  held  in  the  other  hand.  The 
hollow  parts  are  polished  by  means  of 
cloth  pads  of  various  sizes  fixed  on  sticks. 
These  pads  must  be  dipped  in  the  pol- 
ishing paste  when  using  them.  The  arti- 
cles, when  well  brightened,  are  washed 
in  water  to  get  rid  of  the  paste  and  the 
wool  threads,  and  finally  dried  in  saw- 
dust. 


288 


ELECTROTYPING— EMBALMING   FLUIDS 


SOME  NOTES  ON  ELECTROTYPING, 
PLATING,  AND  GILDING. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  is  the  prep- 
aration of  the  mold.  The  substance 
originally  used  for  the  construction  of 
this  was  plaster  of  Paris.  This  sub- 
stance is,  however,  porous  and  must  be 
rendered  impermeable.  The  materials 
most  commonly  used  of  later  years  are 
stearine,  wax,  marine  glue,  gelatin, 
india  rubber,  and  fusible  alloys.  With 
hollow  molds  it  is  a  good  plan  to  arrange 
an  internal  skeleton  of  platinum,  for 
ultimate  connection  with  the  anodes,  in 
order  to  secure  a  good  electrical  contact 
with  all  parts  of  the  mold.  When  cov- 
ering several  pieces  at  once,  it  is  as  well  to 
connect  each  of  them  with  the  negative 
pole  by  an  iron  or  lead  wire  of  suitable 
dimensions. 

Having  prepared  the  molds  in  the 
usual  way — by  obtaining  an  impression 
in  the  material  when  soft,  and  allowing 
it  to  set — they  should  be  given  a  metallic 
coating  on  their  active  surfaces  of  pure 
powdered  plumbago  applied  witn  a 
polishing  brush. 

For  delicate  and  intricate  objects,  the 
wet  process  is  most  suitable.  It  consists 
in  painting  the  object  with  two  or  more 
coats  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  ultimately 
reducing  it  by  a  solution  of  phosphorus 
in  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

The  plating  baths  are  prepared  as 
follows: 

A  quantity  of  water  is  put  in  a  jar  and 
to  it  is  added  from  8  to  10  parts  in  100 
of  sulphuric  acid,  in  small  quantities, 
stirring  continually  in  order  to  dissipate 
the  heat  generated  by  the  admixture  of 
acid  and  water.  Sulphate  of  copper 
(bluestone)  is  then  dissolved  in  the 
acidulated  water  at  the  normal  tempera- 
ture until  it  will  take  up  no  more.  The 
solution  is  always  used  cold  and  must  be 
maintained  in  a  saturated  condition  by 
the  addition  of  copper  sulphate  crystals 
or  suitable  anodes. 

For  use  it  should  be  poured  into  vessels 
of  clay,  porcelain,  glass,  hard  brown 
earthenware,  or  india  rubber.  For 
large  baths  wood  may  be  used,  lined  on 
the  interior  with  an  impervious  coating 
of  acid-proof  cement,  india  rubber, 
marine  glue,  or  even  varnished  lead 
sheets. 

If  the  solution  be  too  weak  and  the 
current  on  the  other  hand  be  too  strong, 
the  resulting  deposit  will  be  of  a  black 
color.  If  too  concentrated  a  solution 
and  too  weak  a  current  be  employed,  a 
crystalline  deposit  is  obtained.  To  in- 
sure a  perfect  result,  a  happy  medium  in 
all  things  is  necessary. 


During  the  process  of  deposition,  the 
pieces  should  be  moved  about  in  the  bath 
as  much  as  possible  in  order  to  preserve 
the  homogeneity  of  the  liquid.  If  this 
be  not  attended  to,  stratification  and 
circulation  of  the  liquid  is  produced  by 
the  decomposition  of  the  anode,  and  is 
rendered  visible  by  the  appearance  of 
long,  vertical  lines  on  the  cathode. 

For  amateurs  and  others  performing 
small  and  occasional  experiments,  the 
following  simple  apparatus  will  be  ser- 
viceable. Place  the  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  in  an  earthenware  or  porcelain 
jar,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  porous  pot 
containing  amalgamated  zinc  and  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  about 
2  or  3  parts  in  100.  At  the  top  of  the 
zinc  a  brass  rod  is  fixed,  supporting  a 
circle  of  the  same  metal,  the  diameter  of 
which  is  between  that  of  the  containing 
vessel  and  the  porous  pot.  From  this 
metallic  circle  the  pieces  are  suspended 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  parts  to  be 
covered  are  turned  toward  the  porous 
pot.  Two  small  horsehair  bags  filled 
with  copper  sulphate  crystals  are  sus- 
pended in  the  solution  to  maintain  its 
saturation. 

ELM  TEA. 

Powdered    slippery 

elm  bark 2  teaspoonfuls 

(or    the    equiva- 
lent in  whole  bar) 

Boiling  water 1  cup 

Sugar,  enough. 
Lemon  juice,  enough. 
Pour  the  water  upon  the  bark.    When 
cool,  strain  and  flavor  with  lemon  juice 
and  add  sugar.     This  is  soothing  in  case 
of   inflammation   of   the   mucous    mem- 
brane. 

EMBALMING  FLUIDS. 

Success  in  the  use  of  any  embalming 
fluid  depends  largely  on  manipulation, 
an  important  part  of  the  process  being 
the  thorough  removal  of  fluid  from  the 
circulatory    system    before    undertaking 
the  injection  of  the  embalming  liquid. 
I. — Solution       zinc 
chloride  (U.  S. 

P.) 1  gallon 

Solution  sodium 
chloride  6 
ounces  to  pint.  6  pints 
Solution  mercury 
bichloride,  1 
ounce  to  pint .  .  4  pints 

Alcohol 4  pints 

Carbolic      acid 

(pure) 8  ounces 

Glycerine 24  fluidounces 


EMBALMING   FLUIDS— EMULSIFIERS 


289 


Mix  the  glycerine  and  carbolic  acid, 
then  all  the  other  ingredients,  when  a 
clear  solution  of  3  gallons  results,  which 
is  the  proper  amount  for  a  body  weigh- 
ing 150  pounds. 

II. — Arsenious  acid..  .100  parts 
Sodium  hydrate  .  50  parts 
Carbolic  acid  and  water,  of  each 

a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  arsenious  acid  and  the 
soda  in  140  parts  of  water  by  the  aid  of 
heat.  When  the  solution  is  cold,  drop 
carbolic  acid  into  it  until  it  becomes 
opalescent,  and  finally  add  water  until 
the  finished  product  measures  700  parts. 

III. — Salicylic  acid.  ...      4  drachms 

Boric  acid 5  drachms 

Potassium   c  a  r  - 

bonate 1  drachm 

Oil  of  cinnamon.      3  drachms 

Oil  of  cloves 3  drachms 

Glycerine 5  ounces 

Alcohol 12  ounces 

Hot  water.. .  ....    12  ounces 

Dissolve  the  first  3  ingredients  in  the 
water  and  glycerine,  the  oils  in  the 
alcohol,  and  mix  the  solutions. 

IV. — Thymol 15    grains 

Alcohol \  ounce 

Glycerine. 10    ounces 

Water 5    ounces 


500  parts 
750  parts 
350  parts 
120  parts 
90  parts 


V. — Cooking  salt 

Alum 

Arsenious  acid.. . 
Zinc  chloride.  .  .  . 
Mercury  chloride 
Forma  1  d  e  h  y  d  e 

solution,  40  per 

cent 6,000  parts 

Water,  up  to 24,000  parts 

VI. — Arsenious  acid ....    360    grains 
Mercuric  chloride.        1J  ounces 

Alcohol 9    ounces 

Sol.  ac.  carbolic,  5 

per  cent 120     ounces 

From  10  to  12  pints  are  injected  into 
the  carotid  artery — at  first  slowly  and 
afterwards  at  intervals  of  from  15  to  30 
minutes. 


EMERALD   (IMITATION): 

See  Gems,  Artificial. 

EMERY: 

Emery  Grinder.— Shellac,  melted  to- 
gether with  emery  and  fixed  to  a  short 
metal  rod,  forms  the  grinder  used  for 
opening  the  holes  in  enameled  watch  dials 


and  similar  work.  The  grinder  is  gen- 
erally rotated  with  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger, and  water  is  used  to  lubricate  its 
cutting  part,  which  soon  wears  away. 
The  grinder  is  reshaped  by  heating  the 
shellac  and  molding  the  mass  while  it  is 
in  a  plastic  condition. 

Preparing  Emery  for  Lapping.— To 
prepare  emery  for  lapping  screw-gages, 
plugs,  etc.,  fill  a  half-pint  bottle  with 
machine  oil  and  flour  emery,  7  parts  oil 
to  1  part  emery,  by  bulk.  Mix  thoroughly 
and  let  stand  for  20  minutes  to  settle. 
Take  the  bottle  and  pour  off  one-half  the 
contents  without  disturbing  the  settlings. 
The  portion  poured  off  contains  only  the 
finest  emery  and  will  never  scratch  the 
work. 

For  surface  lapping  put  some  flour 
emery  in  a  linen  bag  and  tie  up  closely 
with  a  string.  Dust  out  the  emery  by 
striking  the  bag  against  the  surface  plate; 
use  turpentine  for  rough  lapping  and  the 
dry  surface  plate  for  finishing. 

Removing  Glaze  from  Emery  Wheels. 
—If  the  wheel  is  not  altogether  too  hard, 
it  can  sometimes  be  remedied  by  reduc- 
ing the  face  of  the  wheel  to  about  \  inch, 
or  by  reducing  the  speed,  or  by  both. 
Emery  wheels  should  be  turned  off  so 
that  they  will  run  true  before  using.  A 
wheel  that  glazes  immediately  after  it 
has  been  turned  off,  can  sometimes  be 
corrected  by  loosening  the  nut,  and  al- 
lowing the  wheel  to  assume  a  slightly 
different  position,  when  it  is  again  tight- 
ened. 

Emery  Substitute.— For  making  arti- 
ficial emery,  1,634  parts  of  the  following 
substances  may  be  employed:  Seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty-nine  parts  of  bauxite,  700 
parts  of  coke,  and  96  parts  of  a  flux,  which 
may  be  a  carbonate  of  lime,  of  potash, 
or  of  soda,  preferably  carbonate  of  lime 
on  account  of  its  low  price.  These  ma- 
terials are  arranged  in  alternate  layers 
and  fused  in  an  oven  having  a  good 
draught.  They  are  said  to  yield  an  arti- 
ficial emery  similar  to  the  natural  emery 
of  Smyrna  and  Naxos,  and  at  low  cost. 

EMULSIFIERS : 

Rosin  Soap  as  an  Emulsifier.  — The 
soap  should  be  made  by  boiling  gently 
for  2  hours,  in  an  evaporating  dish,  a 
mixture  of  1,800  grains  rosin  and  300 
caustic  soda  with  20  fluidounces  water. 
Upon  cooling,  the  soap  separates  as  a 
yellow  mass,  which  is  drained  from  the 
liquid,  squeezed,  then  heated  on  a  water 
bath  until  it  is  dry  and  friable.  Fixed 
oils  may  be  emulsified  by  adding  1  ounce 


290 


EMULSIFIERS— ENAMELING 


to  a  solution  of  10  grains  soap  in  1  ounce 
water.  Volatile  oils  require  10  grains 
rosin  soap,  2£  ounces  water,  and  2 
drachms  oil.  Creosote  requires  double 
this  amount  of  soap.  Thymol  may  be 
rendered  miscible  with  water  by  dis- 
solving 18  grains  together  with  20  grains 
soap  in  3  fluidounces  alcohol,  then  add- 
ing enough  water  to  make  6  fluidounces. 
Of  course  many  other  substances  may  be 
emulsified  with  the  same  emulsifier. 

Yolk  of  Egg  as  an  Emulsifier.— The 
domestic  ointment  of  Unona,  consisting  of 
a  mixture  of  oil  and  yolk  of  egg,  is  mis- 
cible in  all  proportions  with  water.  It  is 
proposed  to  utilize  this  fact  by  substitu- 
ting a  diluted  ointment  for  the  gum 
emulsions  in  general  use,  the  following 
being  given  as  a  general  formula: 

Yolk  of  egg 10  parts 

Balsam  Peru 1  to     2  parts 

Zinc  oxide 5  to  10  parts 

Distilled  water 100  parts 

If  desired,  33  parts  of  vinegar  may  be 
substituted  for  the  same  amount  of  water, 
while  oil  of  cade,  oil  of  birch,  lianthral  or 
storax  may  be  substituted  for  the  balsam 
Peru,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  talc,  mag- 
nesium carbonate,  sulphur  of  bismuth 
subcarbonate,  may  be  introduced  in 
place  of  the  oxide  of  zinc.  A  further 
variation  in  the  character  of  the  liquid 
may  be  introduced  by  the  use  of  medi- 
cated or  perfumed  waters  instead  of  the 
plain  distilled  water.  Where  so  diluted, 
as  in  the  above  formula,  the  yolk  of  egg 
separates  out  after  long  standing,  but  the 
mixture  quickly  reemulsifies  upon  shaking. 
Tar  and  balsams  can  be  emulsified  by 
mixing  with  double  their  quantity  of  yolk 
of  egg,  then  diluting  by  the  addition  of 
small  quantities  of  water  or  milk. 

Emulgen. — This  emulsifying  agent  h 
the  foil  owing  composition:  Gluten,  5;gu 
acacia,  5;  gum  tragacanth,  20;  glycerine, 
20;  water,  50;  alcohol,  10.    This  mixture 
forms  a  clear  grayish  jelly. 

EMULSIONS  OF  PETROLEUM: 

See  Petroleum. 


Enameling 

(See  also  Ceramics,  Glazes,  Paints, 
Waterproofing,  and  Varnishes.) 

COMMERCIAL   ENAMELING. 

Commercial  enameling  includes:  (1) 
Hollow  ware  enameling  for  domestic  use; 
(2)  hollow  ware  enameling  for  chemical 


as 
gum 


use;  (3)  enameling  locomotive  and  other 
tubes;  (4)  enameling  drain  and  water 
pipes;  (5)  signboard  enameling. 

There  is  one  defect  to  which  all  enamel 
ware  is  subject,  and  that  is  chipping. 
This  may  be  caused  by  (1)  imperfect 
mixing  of  the  enamels;  (2)  imperfect  fus- 
ing; (3)  imperfect  pickling  of  the  iron; 
(4)  rough  usage.  With  ordinary  care  a 
well-enameled  article  has  been  known 
to  last  in  daily  use  for  10  or  12  years, 
whereas  defective  enameling,  say,  on  a 
sign  tablet — which  is  exempt  from  rough 
usage — may  not  have  a  life  exceeding 
a  few  months.  All  enameled  articles, 
such  as  hollow  ware  and  sign  tablets, 
first  receive  a  coating  of  a  composition 
chiefly  composed  of  glass  called  "gray," 
and  this  is  followed  by  a  deposit  of 
"white,"  any  additional  color  required 
being  laid  above  the  white.  In  the  mix- 
ing and  depositing  of  these  mixtures  lie 
the  secrets  of  successful  enameling.  The 
"gray"  has  to  be  fused  not  only  on  but 
also  into  the  metal  at  a  bright  red — al- 
most white — heat,  and  it  is  obvious  that 
its  constituents  must  be  arranged  and 
proportioned  to  expand  and  contract  in  a 
somewhat  uniform  manner  with  the  iron 
itself.  The  "white"  has  to  be  fused  on 
the  surface  of  the  gray,  but  the  gray 
being  much  harder  is  not  affected  by  the 
second  firing.  If  it  were  liquid  it  would 
become  mixed  with  the  white  and  de- 
stroy its  purity.  Frequently,  owing  to 
inferior  chemicals,  imperfect  mixing  or 
fusing,  a  second  coating  of  white  is  nec- 
essary, in  order  to  produce  a  surface  of 
the  necessary  purity  and  luster.  The 
difficulties  of  enameling  are  thus  easily 
understood.  Unless  the  metals  and 
chemicals  are  so  arranged  and  manip- 
ulated that  their  capacities  of  expansion 
and  contraction  are  approximately  the 
same,  inferior  work  will  be  produced. 
Oxide  of  iron  on  the  surface  of  the  plates, 
inferior  chemicals,  incorrect  mixings, 
insufficient  or  overheating  in  the  process 
of  fusing,  prevent  that  chemical  combi- 
nation which  is  essential  to  successful 
enameling.  The  coatings  will  be  laid 
on  and  not  combined,  with  the  result  that 
there  will  be  inequalities  in  expansion 
and  contraction  which  will  cause  the 
enamel  to  chip  off  immediately  if  sub- 
mitted to  anything  approaching  rough 
usage,  and  in  a  very  short  time  if  sub- 
mitted to  chemical  or  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric conditions. 

The  manufacture  of  sign  tablets  is  the 
simplest  form  to  which  this  important  art 
is  adapted.  Sign-tablet  enameling  is, 
however,  kept  as  great  a  secret  as  any 
other  type.  This  branch  of  the  industry 


ENAMELING 


391 


is  divided  up  as  follows:  (1)  Setting  the 
plates ;  (2)  scaling  and  pickling  the  plates ; 
(3)  mixing  the  enamel  constituents;  (4) 
melting  the  enamel  constituents;  (5)  grind- 
ing the  enamel  constituents;  (6)  applying 
the  enamel;  (7)  drying  the  enamel  coat- 
ings; (8)  fusing  the  enamel  01  the  ar- 
ticles; (9)  lettering — including  alphabet- 
ical and  other  drawing,  spacing,  and 
artistic  art  in  arrangement;  (10)  stencil 
cutting  on  paper  and  stencil  metal; 
(11)  brushing;  (12)  refusing.  Distinctive 
branches  of  this  work  have  distinctive 
experts,  the  arrangement  being  generally 
as  follows:  Nos.  1  and  2  may  or  may  not 
be  combined;  Nos.<  3  and  5  may  or  may 
not  be  combined;  Nos.  4,  7,  8,  and  12 
generally  combined;  No.  6  generally  the 
work  of  girls;  Nos.  9  and  10  generally  com- 
bined; No.  11  generally  the  work  of  girls 
and  boys.  The  twelve  processes,  there- 
fore, require  six  classes  of  trained  work- 
people, and  incompetence  or  carelessness 
at  any  section  can  only  result  in  imper- 
fect plates  or  "wasters." 

A  brief  description  of  these  processes 
will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  the 
more  detailed  and  technical  description  to 
follow,  and  is,  therefore,  not  out  of  place. 
Ordinary  iron  sheets  will  do  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  sign  tablets;  but  a  specially 
prepared  charcoal  plate  can  be  had  at  a 
slightly  increased  price.  The  latter  type 
is  the  best,  for  in  many  cases  the  scaling 
and  pickling  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be 
dispensed  with.  To  make  this  article, 
however,  as  complete  as  possible,  we 
shall  begin  from  the  lowest  rung  of  the 
manufacturing  ladder — i.  e.,  from  the 
first  steps  in  the  working  of  suitable  iron. 

I. — Setting. — The  plates  may  be  re- 
ceived in  sheets,  and  cut  to  the  required 
size  at  the  enameling  factory,  or,  what  is 
more  general,  received  in  sizes  according 
to  specification.  The  former  are  more 
liable  to  have  buckled  slightly  or  become 
dented,  and  have  to  be  restored  to  a 
smooth  and  uniform  surface  by  ham- 
mering on  a  flat  plate.  The  operation 
seems  simple,  but  an  inexperienced  oper- 
ator may  entirely  fail  to  produce  the  de- 
sired result,  and,  if  he  does  succeed,  it  is 
with  the  expenditure  of  a  great  amount  of 
time.  An  expert  setter  with  compara- 
tively few  and  well-directed  strokes  brings 
an  imperfect  plate  into  truth  and  in  readi- 
ness for  the  next  operation. 

II. — Scaling  and  Pickling. — The  an- 
nealing of  the  sheets  in  special  furnaces 
loosens  the  scale,  which  can  then  be 
easily  removed,  after  which  immersion 
for  some  time  in  diluted  sulphuric  or 
muriatic  acid  thoroughly  cleans  the  plate. 


Firing  to  a  red  heat  follows,  and  then  a 
generous  course  of  scrubbing,  and  the 
last  traces  of  acid  are  removed  by  dip- 
ping in  boiling  soda  solution.  Scouring 
with  sand  and  washing  in  clean  water 
may  follow,  and  the  metal  has  then  a  per- 
fect and  chemically  clean  surface. 

III.— Mixing  the  Enamel  Constitu- 
ents.— Ground,  foundation,  or  gray. — 
All  articles,  whether  hollow  ware  or 
plates,  are  operated  upon  in  a  very 
similar  manner.  Both  require  the  foun- 
dation coating  generally  called  "gray." 
The  gray  constituents  vary  considerably 
in  different  manufactures;  but  as  regards 
the  use  of  lead,  it  is  universally  con- 
ceded that  while  it  may  in  many  in- 
stances be  used  with  advantage  in  the 
enameling  of  sign  tablets,  etc.,  it  should 
under  no  circumstances  be  introduced 
into  the  coating  of  articles  for  culinary 
purposes,  or  in  which  acids  are  to  be 
used.  The  first  successful  commercial 
composition  of  this  covering  was:  Gullet 
(broken  glass),  carbonate  of  soda,  and 
boracic  acid.  This  composition  re- 
mained constant  for  many  years,  but 
ultimately  gave  place  to  the  following: 
Gullet,  red  lead,  borax,  niter.  The  borax 
and  red  lead  form  the  fluxes,  while  the 
niter  is  to  "  purify  "  the  mass.  Some  of 
the  later  mixings  consist  of  the  follow- 
ing: Silica  powder,  crystallized  or  cal- 
cium borax,  white  lead,  fused  together. 
This  would  be  called  a  frit,  and  with  it 
should  be  pulverized  powdered  silica, 
clay,  magnesia.  This  recipe  is  one  re- 
quiring a  very  high  temperature  for 
fusing:  Silica  powder,  borax,  fused  and 
ground  with  silica,  clay,  magnesia.  This 
requires  a  slightly  lower  temperature: 
Frit  of  silica  powder,  borax,  feldspar, 
fused  together,  and  then  ground  with 
,clay,  feldspar,  and  magnesia. 

The  approximate  quantities  of  each 
constituent  will  be  given  later,  but  it 
must  always  be  remembered  that  no 
hard-and-fast  line  can  be  laid  down. 
Chemicals  vary  in  purity,  the  furnaces 
vary  in  temperature,  the  pounding,  grind- 
ing, and  mixing  are  not  always  done 
alike,  and  each  of  these  exerts  a  certain 
influence  on  the  character  of  the  "melt." 
These  compositions  may  be  applied  to 
the  metal  either  in  the  form  of  a  powder 
or  of  a  liquid.  Some  few  years  ago  the 
powder  coating  was  in  general  use,  but 
at  the  present  time  the  liquid  form  is  in 
favor,  as  it  is  considered  easier  of  ap- 
plication, capable  of  giving  a  coating 
more  uniform  in  thickness  and  less  costly. 
In  using  the  powder  coating  the  plate  is 
rubbed  with  a  cloth  dipped  in  a  gum 


ENAMELING 


solution,  and  the  powder  then  carefully 
dusted  through  a  sieve  over  the  surface. 
In  this  condition  the  plate  is  submitted 
to  the  fusing  process.  In  using  the  liquid 
material  the  plate  surface  is  dipped  into 
or  has  the  liquid  mixing  carefully  poured 
over  it,  any  surplus  being  drained  off,  and 
any  parts  which  are  not  to  be  coated  being 
wiped  clean  by  a  cloth.  The  coating  is 
then  dried  in  suitable  stoves,  after  which 
it  is  ready  for  fusing  on  to  the  iron.  The 
gray  coating  should  be  fairly  uniform  and 
smooth,  free  from  holes  or  blisters,  and 
thoroughly  covering  every  part  of  the  iron 
which  is  to  be  subjected  to  any  outside 
influence.  Cooling  slowly  is  important. 
Rapid  cooling  frequently  causes  chipping 
of  the  coating,  and  in  any  case  it  will 
greatly  reduce  the  tenacity  of  the  con- 
nection existing  between  the  glaze  and 
the  metal. 

Generally  the  next  surface  is  a  white 
one,  and  it  depends  upon  the  class  of 
article,  the  character  of  the  enamels,  and 
the  efficiency  of  application,  whether 
one  coat  or  two  will  be  required.  Rough- 
ly speaking,  the  coating  is  composed  of  a 
glass  to  which  is  added  oxide  of  tin, 
oxide  of  lead,  or  some  other  suitable 
opaque  white  chemical.  The  mixture 
must  be  so  constituted  as  to  fuse  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  the  foundation 
covering.  If  its  temperature  of  fusion 
were  the  same  the  result  would  be  that 
the  gray  would  melt  on  the  iron  and 
become  incorporated  with  the  white, 
thus  loosening  the  attachment  of  the 
mass  to  the  iron  and  also  destroying  the 
purity  of  the  white  itself.  Bone  ash  is 
sometimes  used,  as  it  becomes  uniformly 
distributed  throughout  the  melt,  and  re- 
mains in  suspension  instead  of  settling. 
Bone  ash  and  oxide  of  lead  are,  however, 
in  much  less  demand  than  oxide  of  tin. 
The  lead  is  especially  falling  into  dis- 
favor, for  the  following  reasons:  Firstly, 
it  requires  special  and  laborious  treat- 
ment; secondly,  it  gives  a  yellowish- 
white  color;  thirdly,  it  cannot  resist  the 
action  of  acids.  The  following  is  a 
recipe  which  was  in  very  general  use  for 
some  years:  Glass  (cullet),  powdered 
flint,  lead,  soda  (crystals),  niter,  arsenic. 
Another  consists  of  the  folio  wing:  Borax, 
glass,  silica  powder,  oxide  of  tin,  niter, 
soda,  magnesia,  clay.  These  are  fused 
together,  and  when  being  ground  a 
mixture  of  Nos.  1,  3,  7,  and  boracic  acid 
is  added. 

Enamel  mixings  containing  glass  or 
china  are  now  generally  in  use,  although 
for  several  years  the  experience  of  man- 
ufacturers using  glass  was  not  satisfac- 
tory Improved  compositions  and  work- 


ing now  make  this  constituent  a  most 
useful,  and,  in  fact,  an  almost  essential 
element.  The  glass  should  be  white 
broken  glass,  and  as  uniform  in  char- 
acter as  possible,  as  colored  glass  worn  ^ 
impart  a  tinge  of  its  own  color  to  tlu 
mixing. 

The  following  are  two  distinct  glazes 
which  do  not  contain  glass  or  porcelain: 
Feldspar,  oxide  of  tin,  niter,  soda.  This 
is  free  from  any  poisonous  body  and  re- 
quires no  additions:  Silica  powder,  oxide 
of  tin,  borax,  soda,  niter,  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  or  magnesia. 

Alkalies. — Of  the  alkalies  which  are 
necessary  to  produce  complete  fusion  of 
and  combination  with  the  quartz,  soda 
is  chiefly  applied  in  enamel  manufac- 
tures, as  the  fusing  temperature  is  then 
lower. 

Bone  Ash. — This  material  will  not  add 
opacity,  but  only  semi-transparency  to 
the  enamel,  and  is  therefore  not  much 
used. 

Boracic  Acid. — Boracic  acid  is  some- 
times substituted  for  silicic  acid,  but 
generally  about  15  per  cent  of  the  former 
to  85  per  cent  of  the  latter  is  added. 
Borax  as  a  flux  is,  however,  much  more 
easily  used  and  is  therefore  largely  em- 
ployed in  enamel  factories. 

Borax. — Calcined  borax,  that  is,  borax 
from  which  a  large  proportion  of  the 
natural  moisture  has  been  eliminated,  is 
best  for  enamel  purposes.  It  is  a  flux 
that  melts  at  medium  heat,  and  enters 
into  the  formation  of  the  vitreous  basis. 
Borax  has  also  the  property  of  thorough- 
ly distributing  oxide  colors  in  the  enamels. 

Clay. — Only  a  fairly  pure  clay  can  be 
used  in  enamel  mixings,  and  the  varieties 
of  clay  available  are  therefore  limited. 
The  two  best  are  pipe — or  white — clay 
and  china  clay — kaolin.  The  latter  is 
purer  than  the  former,  and  in  addition  to 
acting  as  a  flux,  it  is  used  to  increase  the 
viscosity  of  mixings  and  therefore  the 
opacity.  It  is  used  in  much  the  same 
way  as  oxide  of  tin. 

Cryolite. — Ground  cryolite  is  a  white 
mineral,  easily  fusible,  and  sometimes 
used  in  enamel  mixings.  It  is  closely 
associated  with  aluminum. 

Cullet. — This  is  the  general  material 
used  as  a  basis.  Clear  glass  only  should 
be  introduced;  and  as  the  compositions 
of  glass  vary  greatly,  small  experimental 
frits  should  always  be  made  to  arrive  at 
the  correct  quantity  to  be  added. 

Feldspar. — The  introduction  of  feld- 
spar into  an  enamel  frit  increases  con- 
sistency. The  common  white  variety  is 


ENAMELING 


generally  used,  and  its  preliminary  treat- 
ment by  pounding  is  similar  to  that 
adopted  with  quartz. 

Fluor-Spar. — In  this  mineral  we  have 
another  flux,  which  fuses  at  a  red  heat. 

Fluxes. — These  are  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  the  temperature  of  fusion  of  a 
mixing — frit — some  being  better  adapted 
for  this  purpose  than  others.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  only  consideration,  for 
the  character  of  the  flux  depends  upon 
the  composition  or  chemical  changes  to 
which  the  ingredients  are  to  be  subjected. 
The  fluxes  are  borax,  clays,  cullet, 
porcelain,  feldspar,  gypsum,  and  fluor- 
spar. 

Glass. — Glass  is  composed  of  lime,  si- 
licic acid,  and  soda  or  potash.  The  use  of 
the  glass  is  to  form  the  hard,  crystal-like 
foundation.  % 

Gypsum. — This  mineral  is  sometimes 
used  in  conjunction  with  baryta  and 
fluor-spar. 

Lead. — Crystallized  carbonate  of  lead, 
or  "lead  white,"  is  frequently  used  in 
enamels  when  a  low  temperature  for 
fusion  is  required.  It  should  never  be 
used  on  articles  to  be  submitted  to  chem- 
ical action,  or  for  culinary  use.  Minium 
is  a  specially  prepared  oxide  of  lead,  and 
suitable  for  enameling  purposes,  but  is 
expensive. 

Lime. — Lime  is  in  the  form  of  carbon- 
ate of  calcium  when  used. 

Magnesium  Carbonate  is  used  only  in 
small  quantities  in  enamel  mixings.  It 
necessitates  a  higher  temperature  for 
fusion,  but  does  not  affect  the  color  to  the 
slightest  extent  if  pure. 

Manganese. — As  a  decolorant,  this 
mineral  is  very  powerful,  and  therefore 
only  small  quantities  must  be  used. 
Purity  of  the  mineral  is  essential — i.  e., 
it  should  contain  from  95  to  98  per  cent 
of  binoxide  of  manganese. 

Niter. — At  a  certain  temperature  niter 
shows  a  chemical  change,  which,  when 
affected  by  some  of  the  other  constitu- 
ents, assists  in  the  formation  of  the  vitre- 
ous base. 

Porcelain. — Broken  uncolored  porce- 
lain is  sometimes  used  in  enamel  man- 
ufacture. Its  composition:  Quartz, 
china  clay,  and  feldspar.  It  increases 
viscosity. 

Red  Lead. — This  decolorant  is  some- 
times called  purifier.  It  will,  however, 
interfere  with  certain  coloring  media, 
and  when  this  is  the  case  its  use  should 
at  once  be  discontinued. 

Silicic  Acid. — Quartz,  sand,  rock  crys- 


tal, and  flint  stone  are  all  forms  of  this 
acid  in  crystallized  form.  By  itself  it  is 
practically  infusible,  but  it  can  be  incor- 
porated with  other  materials  to  form 
mixings  requiring  varying  temperatures 
for  fusion. 

Soda. — The  soda  in  general  use  is  car- 
bonate of  soda — 58  per  cent — or  enamel- 
ing soda.  The  latter  is  specially  pre- 
pared, so  as  to  free  it  almost  entirely 
from  iron,  and  admit  of  the  production  of 
a  pure  white  enamel  when  such  is  re- 
quired. 

Tin  Oxide. — All  enamels  must  contain 
white  ingredients  to  produce  opacity, 
and  the  most  generally  used  is  oxide  of 
tin.  By  itself  it  cannot  be  fused,  but 
with  proper  manipulation  it  becomes 
diffused  throughout  the  enamel  mass. 
On  the  quantity  added  depends  the 
denseness  or  degree  of  opacity  imparted 
to  the  enamel. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  enamel 
constituents  are  divided  into  four  dis- 
tinct groups  :  I.  Fundamental  media. 
II.  Flux  media.  III.  Decolorant  media. 
IV.  Coloring  media.  We  have  briefly 
considered  the  three  first  named,  and  we 
will  now  proceed  to  No.  IV.  The  color- 
ing material  used  is  in  every  case  a 
metallic  oxide,  so  that,  so  far  as  this  goes, 
the  coloring  of  an  enamel  frit  is  easy 
enough.  Great  care  is,  however,  neces- 
sary, and  at  times  many  difficulties 
present  themselves,  which  can  only  be 
overcome  by  experience.  Coloring  ox- 
ides are  very  frequently  adulterated,  and 
certain  kinds  of  the  adulterants  are  in- 
jurious to  the  frit  and  to  the  finish  of  the 
color. 

Comparison  of  Hollow  Ware  and  Sign- 
Tablet  Enameling. — The  enameling  for 
sign  tablets  is  much  the  same  as  for 
hollow  ware;  the  mixings  are  practically 
alike,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  mixing  is 
applied  in  a  much  more  liquid  form  on 
the  latter.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that 
hollow  ware  in  everyday  use  receives 
rougher  usage  than  tablets.  By  handling, 
it  is  submitted  to  compression,  expansion, 
and  more  or  less  violence  due  to  falls, 
knocks,  etc.,  and  unless,  therefore,  the 
enamel  coating  follows  the  changes  of 
the  metal  due  to  these  causes,  the  con- 
nection between  the  two  will  become 
loosened  and  chipping  will  take  place. 

The  enamel,  therefore,  though  much 
alike  for  both  purposes,  should  be  so 
prepared  for  hollow  ware  that  it  will  be 
capable  of  withstanding  the  changes  to 
which  we  have  referred.  In  all  cases  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  thinner  the 
coat  of  the  enamel  the  better  it  will  be 


294 


ENAMELING 


distributed  over  the  iron,  and  the  greater 
will  be  its  adherence  to  the  iron.  Any 
article  heavily  enameled  is  always  liable 
to  chip,  especially  if  submitted  to  the 
slightest  bending  action,  and  therefore 
any  excess  of  material  added  to  a  plate 
means  that  it  will  always  be  readily 
liable  to  separate  from  the  plate.  In 
hollow-ware  enameling  the  preparation 
of  each  frit  generally  receives  somewhat 
more  attention  than  for  plate  enameling. 
The  grinding  is  more  effectively  carried 
out,  in  order  to  remove  almost  every 
possibility  of  roughness  on  any  part  of 
the  surface,  especially  the  inside  surface. 

The  iron  used  in  tablet  and  hollow- 
ware  manufacture  is  rolled  sheet  iron. 
It  is  supplied  in  a  variety  of  qualities. 
Charcoal  iron  is  purer  than  ordinary 
plate  iron,  more  ductile,  and  therefore 
capable  of  being  driven  out  to  various 
forms  and  depths  by  stamping  presses. 
The  surface  of  the  charcoal  iron  is  not  so 
liable  to  become  oxidized,  and  therefore 
can  be  more  readily  made  chemically 
clean  for  the  reception  of  the  enamels. 
Some  manufacturers  use  charcoal  plates 
for  tablet  work,  but  these  are  expensive; 
the  ordinary  plates,  carefully  pickled 
and  cleaned,  adapt  themselves  to  the 
work  satisfactorily. 

The  sheet  irons  generally  used  for  the 
enameling  purposes  referred  to  vary  in 
gauge.  The  finer  the  iron  the  greater 
must  be  the  care  used  in  coating  it  with 
enamel.  Thin  iron  will  rapidly  become 
hot  or  cool,  the  temperatures  changing 
much  more  quickly  than  that  of  the  mix- 
ing. Unless  care,  therefore,  is  used,  the 
result  of  fusing  will  be  that  the  enamel 
mass  will  not  have  become  thoroughly 
liquid,  and  its  adherence  to  the  iron  will 
be  imperfect. 

If,  however,  the  temperature  is  gradu- 
ally raised  to  the  maximum,  and  sym- 
pathetic combination  takes  place,  the 
dangers  of  rapid  cooling  are  avoided. 
Again,  the  iron,  in  losing  its  temperature 
more  rapidly  than  the  enamel,  will  con- 
tract, thus  loosening  its  contact  with  the 
glaze,  and  the  latter  will  either  then,  or 
after  a  short  period  of  usage,  chip  off. 
We  then  arrive  at  the  f  olloAving  hard-and- 
fast  rules:  (1)  In  all  classes  of  enameling, 
but  particularly  where  thin  iron  sheets 
are  used,  the  temperature  of  the  plate 
and  its  covering  must  be  raised  very 
gradually  and  very  uniformly.  (2)  In  all 
cases  a  plate  which  has  had  a  glaze  fused 
on  its  surface  must  be  cooled  very  gradu- 
ally and  very  uniformly.  The  importance 
of  these  rules  cannot  be  over-estimated, 
and  will,  therefore,  be  referred  to  in  a 
more  practical  way  later. 


In  enameling  factories  no  causes  are 
more  prolific  in  the  production  of  waste 
than  these,  and  in  many  cases  the  de- 
fects produced  are  erroneously  attributed 
to  something  else.  Cast  iron  is  much 
easier  io>  enamel  than  wrought  iron. 
This  is  due  to  the  granular  character  of 
its  composition.  It  retains  the  enamels 
in  its  small  microscopic  recesses,  and 
greater  uniformity  can  be  arrived  at  with 
greater  ease.  Cast-iron  enameled  sign 
tablets  and  hollow  ware  were  at  one 
time  made,  but  their  great  weight  made 
it  impossible  for  them  ever  to  come  into 
general  use. 

Wrought-iron  plates,  if  examined  mi- 
croscopically, will  show  that  they  are  of 
a  fibrous  structure,  the  fibers  running  in 
the  direction  in  which  they  have  been 
rolled.  The  enamels,  therefore,  will  be 
more  liable  to  flow  longitudinally  than 
transversely,  and  this  tendency  will  be 
more  accentuated  at  some  places  than  at 
others.  This,  however,  is  prevented  by 
giving  the  iron  sheets  what  might  be 
described  as  a  cast-iron  finish.  The 
sheets  to  be  enameled  should  be  thorough- 
ly scoured  in  all  directions  by  quartz  or 
flint  sand,  no  part  of  the  surface  being 
neglected.  This  thorough  scrubbing 
will  roughen  the  surface  sufficiently  to 
make  it  uniformly  retentive  of  enamel 
mixture,  and  in  no  cases  should  it  be 
omitted  or  carelessly  carried  out. 

Copper  Enameling.— On  a  clean  cop- 
per surface  the  enameling  process  is  easy. 
The  foundation  glaze  is  not  essential, 
and  when  required  the  most  beautiful  re- 
sults of  blended  colors  can  be  obtained 
by  very  little  additional  experience  to  or- 
dinary enameling. 

When  the  vase  or  other  article  has  been 
hammered  out  to  the  required  shape  in* 
copper,  it  is  passed  on  to  another  class  of 
artisans,  who  prepare  it  for  the  hands  of 
the  enameler.  The  design  or  designs 
are  sketched  carefully.  The  working 
appliances  consist  only  of  a  pointed  tool, 
two  or  three  small  punches  of  varying 
sizes,  and  a  hammer.  With  this  small 
equipment  the  operator  sets  to  work. 
The  spaces  between  each  dividing  line 
are  gradually  lowered  by  hammering, 
and  when  this  has  been  uniformly  com- 
pleted, each  little  recess  is  ready  to  re- 
ceive its  allotment  of  enamel.  More 
accurate  work  even  than  this  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  introduction  of  flat  wire. 
This  wire  is  soldered  or  fixed  on  the  vase, 
and  forms  the  outline  for  the  entire 
design.  It  may  be  of  brass,  copper,  or 
gold,  but  is  fixed  and  buWt  round  every 
item  of  the  whole  design  with  the  most 


ENAMELING 


laborious  care.  It  stands  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  design  on  the  copper  articles, 
but  the  little  recesses  formed  by  it  are 
then  gradually  filled  up  by  enamel  in 
successive  fusings.  The  whole  surface 
of  the  article  is  now  ground  perfectly 
smooth  and  polished  until  its  luster  is 
raised  to  the  highest  point  possible,  and 
when  this  stage  has  been  reached  the 
article  is  ready  for  the  market. 

From  the  Sheet  to  the  Sign  Tablet.— 
The  plates  are  generally  in  lengths  of  6 
feet  by  2  feet,  6  feet  by  3  feet,  etc.,  the 
gauge  generally  being  from  14  to  22,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  and  class  of  plates  to 
be  enameled.  These  must  be  cut,  but 
some  enamelers  prefer  to  order  their 
plates  in  specified  sizes,  which  does  away 
with  the  necessity  of  cutting  at  the  enam- 
eling factory.  In  order,  however,  to 
make  this  article  complete,  we  will  as- 
sume that  a  stock  of  large  plates  is  kept 
on  hand,  the  sizes  being  6  feet  by  3  feet 
and  6  feet  by  2  feet.  An  order  for  sign 
tablets  is  given;  particulars,  say  as  fol- 
lows: Length,  2  feet  by  12  inches,  white 
letters  on  blue  ground;  lettering,  The 
Engineer,  33  Norfolk  Street;  block  letters, 
no  border  line,  2  holes.  For  ordinary 
purposes  these  particulars  would  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  enameler. 

Stage  I. — Cutting  the  plate  is  the  first 
operation.  The  plates  6  feet  by  2  feet 
would  first  be  cut  down  the  center  in  a 
circular  cutting  machine,  thus  forming 
two  strips,  6  feet  by  12  inches.  Each 
strip  would  then  be  cut  into  three  lengths 
of  2  feet  each.  If  a  guillotine  had  to  be 
used  instead  of  a  circular  cutter,  the  plate 
would  be  first  cut  transversely  at  dis- 
tances of  2  feet,  thus  forming  three 
square  pieces  of  2  feet  by  2  feet.  These 
would  then  be  subdivided  longitudinally 
into  two  lengths  each,  the  pieces  being 
then  2  feet  by  12  inches.  Each  sheet 
would  thus  be  cut  into  six  plates. 

Stage  II. — The  cut  plates  should  next 
have  any  roughness  removed  from  the 
edges,  then  punched  with  two  holes — 
one  at  each  end,  followed  by  leveling  or 
setting.  This  is  done  by  hammering 
carefully  on  a  true  flat  surface. 

Stage  III.— The  plates  should  then  be 
taken  and  dipped  into  a  hydrochloric 
acid  bath  made  up  of  equal  quantities  of 
the  acid  and  water.  The  plates  are  then 
raised  to  a  red  heat  in  the  stoves,  and  on 
removal  it  will  be  found  that  the  scale — • 
iron  oxide — has  become  loosened,  and 
will  readily  fall  off,  leaving  a  clean  me- 
tallic surface.  A  second  course  of  clean- 
ing then  follows  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid — 1  part  acid  to  20  parts  water.  In 


this  bath  the  iron  may  be  kept  for  about 
12  hours.  In  some  cases  a  much 
stronger  bath  is  used,  and  the  plates  are 
left  in  only  a  very  short  time.  The  bath 
is  constructed  of  hard  wood  coated  inside 
with  suitable  varnish. 

In  mixing  the  sulphuric  acid  bath  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  acid 
should  be  slowly  poured  into  the  water 
under  continuous  stirring.  Following 
the  bath,  the  metal  is  rinsed  in  water, 
after  which  it  is  thoroughly  scoured  with 
fine  flinty  sand.  Rinsing  again  follows, 
but  in  boiling  water,  and  then  the  metal 
is  allowed  to  dry.  The  enameling  proc- 
ess should  immediately  follow  the  dry- 
ing, for  if  kept  for  any  length  of  time  the 
surface  of  the  metal  again  becomes  oxi- 
dized. In  hollow-ware  enameling  the 
hydrochloric  acid  bath  may  be  omitted. 

Stage  IV. — The  plates  are  now  ready 
for  the  reception  of  the  foundation  or 
gray  coating.  If  powder  is  used  the 
plate  is  wiped  over  with  a  gum  solution, 
and  then  the  powder  is  carefully  and  uni- 
formly dusted  through  a  fine  sieve  over 
the  surface.  The  plate  is  then  reversed 
and  the  operation  repeated  on  the  other 
side.  If  a  liquid  "gray"  is  to  be  used  it 
should  have  a  consistency  of  cream,  and 
be  poured  or  brushed  with  equal  care 
over  the  two  surfaces  in  succession,  after 
the  plate  has  been  heated  to  be  only  just 
bearable  to  the  touch.  The  plates  are 
then  put  on  rests,  or  petits,  in  a  drying 
stove  heated  to  about  160°  F.,  and  when 
thoroughly  dry  they  are  ready  for  the 
fusing  operation.  The  petits,  with  the 
plates,  are  placed  on  a  long  fork  fixed 
on  a  wagon,  which  can  be  moved  back- 
ward and  forward  on  rails;  the  door  of 
the  fusing  oven  is  then  raised  and  the 
wagon  moved  forward.  The  fork  en- 
ters the  oven  just  above  fire  clay  brick 
supports  arranged  to  receive  the  petits. 
The  fork  is  then  withdrawn  and  the 
door  closed.  The  stove  has  a  cherry- 
red,  almost  white,  heat  and  in  a  few  min- 
utes the  enamel  coating  has  been  uni- 
formly melted,  and  the  plates  are  ready 
to  be  removed  on  the  petits  and  fork  in 
the  same  manner  as  they  were  inserted. 
Rapid  cooling  must  now  be  carefully 
avoided,  otherwise  the  enamel  and  the 
iron  will  be  liable  to  separate,  and  chip- 
ping will  result.  The  temperature  of 
fusion  should  be  about  2,192°  F.*  When 
all  the  plates  have  been  thus  prepared 
they  are  carefully  examined  and  defec- 
tive ones  laid  aside,  the  others  being  now 
ready  for  the  next  operation.  , 

*  Melting  a  piece  of  copper  will  approximately 
represent  this  temperature. 


296 


ENAMELING 


Stage  V. — The  coating  of  the  plate 
with  white  is  the  next  stage.  The  tem- 
perature of  fusion  of  the  white  glaze  is 
lower  than  that  of  the  gray,  so  that  the 
plate  will  remain  a  shorter  time  in  the 
stove,  or  be  submitted  to  a  somewhat 
lower  temperature.  The  latter  system 
is  to  be  strongly  recommended  in  order 
to  prevent  any  possibility  of  fusion  of  the 
ground  mass.  The  white  should  be 
made  as  liquid  as  possible  consistent 
with  good  results.  The  advantages  of 
thin  coatings  have  already  been  explained, 
but  if  the  mixing  is  too  thin  the  ground 
coating  will  not  only  be  irregularly  cov- 
ered, but,  in  fusion,  bubbles  will  be  pro- 
duced, owing  to  the  steam  escaping,  and 
these  are  fatal  to  the  sale  of  any  kind  of 
enameled  ware.  When  the  plate  has  been 
thoroughly  dried  and  fusion  has  taken 
place,  slow  and  steady  cooling  is  abso- 
lutely essential.  Special  muffles  are 
frequently  built  for  this  purpose,  and 
their  use  is  the  means  of  preventing  a 
large  number  of  wasters.  Before  put- 
ting on  the  glaze,  care  must  be  taken  to 
remove  the  gray  from  any  part  which  is 
not  to  be  coated.  The  temperature  of 
fusion  should  be  about  1,890°  F.,*  and 
the  time  taken  is  about  5  minutes. 

Stage  VI. — The  stencil  must  be  cut 
with  perfect  exactitude.  The  letters 
should  be  as  clear  as  possible,  propor- 
tioned, and  spaced  to  obtain  the  best 
effects  as  regards  boldness  and  appear- 
ance. Stencils  may  be  cut  either  from 
paper  or  from  specially  prepared  soft 
metal,  called  stencil  metal.  The  former 
are  satisfactory  enough  when  only  a  few 
plates  are  required  from  one  stencil,  but 
when  large  quantities  are  required,  say, 
60  upward,  metal  stencils  should  be  used. 
The  paper  should  be  thick,  tough,  and 
strong,  and  is  prepared  in  the  following 
manner:  Shellac  is  dissolved  in  methy- 
lated spirits  to  the  ordinary  liquid  gum 
form,  and  this  is  spread  over  both  sides 
of  the  paper  with  a  brush.  When  thor- 
oughly dry  a  second  protective  coating  is 
added,  and  the  paper  is  then  ready  for 
stencil  work.  ^The  stencil  cutter's  outfit 
consists  of  suitable  knives,  steel  rule, 
scales  of  various  fractions  to  an  inch,  a 
large  sheet  of  glass  on  which  the  cutting 
is  done,  and  alphabets  and  numerals  of 
various  characters  and  types.  For  or- 
dinary lettering  one  stencil  is  enough, 
but  for  more  intricate  designs  2,  3,  and 
even  4  stencils  may  be  required.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  plates  referred  to  in  the 
paragraph  preceding  Stage  I,  only  1 


*  Melting  a  piece  of  brass  will  represent  this  tem- 
perature. 


stencil  would  be  necessary.  The  paper 
before  preparation  would  be  measured 
out  to  the  exact  size  of  the  plate,  and  the 
letters  would  be  drawn  in.  The  cutting 
would  then  be  done,  and  the  result 
shown  at  Fig.  1  would  be  obtained,  the 


THK  ENCilNRER 

33  NORFOLK  S3 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


black  parts  being  cut  out.  The  lines  or 
corners  of  each  letter  or  figure  should  be 
perfectly  clear  and  clean,  for  any  flaw  in 
the  stencil  will  be  reproduced  on  the 
plate. 

Stage  VII. — The  next  stage  is  the  ap- 
plication of  the  blue  enamel.  The  opera- 
tion is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the 
white,  but  when  the  coating  has  been 
applied  and  dried,  the  lettering  must  be 
brushed  out  before  it  is  fused.  The 
coating  is  generally  applied  by  a  badger 
brush  after  a  little  gum  water  has  been 
added;  the  effect  of  this  is  to  make  the 
blue  more  compact. 

Stage  VIII. — The  next  operation  is 
brushing;  the  stencil  is  carefully  placed 
over  the  plate,  and  held  in  position,  and 
with  a  small  hand  brush  with  hard 
bristles  the  stencil  is  brushed  over.  This 
brushing  removes  all  the  blue  coating, 
which  shows  the  lettering  and  leaves  the 
rest  of  the  white  intact.  When  this  has 
been  done,  the  stencil  is  removed  and  the 
connecting  ribs  of  the  lettering — some  of 
which  are  marked  X  in  Fig.  2 — are  then 
removed  by  hand,  the  instrument  gen- 
erally being  a  pointed  stick  of  box  or 
other  similar  wood. 

Stage  IX. — Fusing  follows  as  in  the 
case  of  the  white  glaze,  and  the  plate  is 
complete.  One  coat  of  blue  should  be 
sufficient,  but  if  any  defects  are  apparent 
a  second  layer  is  necessary. 

The  white  and  blue  glazes  are  applied 
only  on  the  front  side  of  the  plate,  the 
back  side  being  left  coated  with  gray 
only. 

From  the  Sheet  to  the  Hollow  Ware.— 
In  hollow-ware  enameling,  the  iron  is 
received  in  squares,  circles,  or  oblongs, 
of  the  size  required  for  the  ware  to  be 
turned  out.  It  is  soft  and  ductile,  and 
by  means  of  suitable  punches  and  dies  it 
is  driven  in  a  stamping  press  to  the  neces- 
sary shape.  For  shallow  articles  only 
one  operation  is  necessary,  but  for  deeper 
articles  from  2  to  6  operations  may  be 


ENAMELING 


29? 


required,  annealing  in  a  specially  con- 
structed furnace  taking  place  between 
each.  Following  the  "drawing"  opera- 
tions comes  that  of  trimming;  this  may 
be  done  in  a  press  or  spinning  lathe,  the 
object  being  to  trim  the  edges  and  re- 
move all  roughness.  The  articles  are 
now  ready  for  enameling.  For  explana- 
tion, let  us  suppose  they  are  tumblers,  to 
be  white  inside,  and  blue  outside.  The 
gray  is  first  laid  on,  then  the  white,  and 
lastly  the  blue — that  is,  after  the  pickling 
and  cleaning  operations  have  been  per- 
formed. The  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  blue,  and  white  must  be  clear, 
otherwise  the  appearance  of  the  article 
will  not  be  satisfactory.  The  process  of 
enameling  is  exactly  the  same  as  for 
sign-plate  enameling,  but  more  care 
must  be  exercised  in  order  to  obtain  a 
smoother  surface.  While  the  liquid 
enamels  are  being  applied,  circular 
articles  should  be  steadily  rotated  in 
order  to  let  the  coating  flow  uniformly 
and  prevent  thick  and  thin  places.  The 
enameling  of  "whole  drawn"  ironware 
presents  no  difficulty  to  the  ordinary 
enameler,  but  with  articles  which  are 
seamed  or  riveted,  special  care  and  ex- 
perience is  necessary. 

Seamed  or  riveted  parts  are,  of  course, 
thicker  than  the  ordinary  plate,  will  ex- 
pand and  contract  differently,  will  take 
longer  to  heat  and  longer  to  cool,  and  the 
conclusion,  therefore,  that  must  be  ar- 
rived at  is  that  the  thickness  should  be 
reduced  as  much  as  possible,  and  the 
joints  be  made  as  smooth  as  possible. 
Unless  special  precautions  are  taken, 
cracks  will  be  seen  on  articles  of  this 
kind  running  in  straight  lines  from  the 
rivets  or  seams.  To  avoid  these,  the 
enamel  liquid  must  be  reduced  to  the 
greatest  stage  of  liquidity,  the  heat  must 
be  raised  slowly,  and  in  cooling  the 
articles  should  pass  through,  say,  2  or  3 
muffles,  each  one  having  a  lower  temper- 
ature than  the  preceding  one.  It  is  now 
generally  conceded  that  the  slower  and 
more  uniform  the  cooling  process,  the 
greater  will  be  the  durability  of  the 
enamel.  Feldspar  is  an  almost  abso- 
lutely necessary  addition  to  the  gray  in 
successful  hollow-ware  enameling,  and 
the  compositions  of  both  gray  and  white 
should  be  such  as  to  demand  a  high 
temperature  for  fusion.  The  utensils 
with  the  gray  coating  should  first  be 
raised  to  almost  a  red  heat  in  a  muffle, 
and  then  placed  in  a  furnace  raised  to  a 
white  heat.  The  white  should  be  treated 
similarly,  and  in  this  way  the  time  taken 
for  complete  fusion  at  the  last  stage  will 
be  about  4  minutes, 


The  outside  enamel  on  utensils  is  less 
viscous  than  the  inside  enamel,  and 
should  also  be  applied  as  thinly  as  pos- 
sible. 

Stoves  and  Furnaces. — Fritting  and 
Fusing. — The  best  results  are  obtained 
in  enameling  when  the  thoroughly  ground 
and  mixed  constituents  are  fused  to- 
gether, reground,  and  then  applied  to 
the  metal  surface.  In  cheap  enamels  the 
gray  is  sometimes  applied  without  being 
previously  melted,  but  it  lacks  the  dura- 
bility which  is  obtained  by  thorough 
fusion  and  regrinding.  In  smelting  en- 
amel one  of  two  kinds  of  furnaces  may 
be  used,  viz.,  tank  or  crucible.  The 
former  is  better  adapted  to  the  melting 
of  considerable  quantities  of  ordinary 
enamel,  while  the  .latter  is  more  suitable 
for  smaller  quantities  or  for  finer  enamels 
as  the  mixture  is  protected  from  the 
direct  action  of  the  flames  by  covers  on 
the  crucibles.  The  number  of  tanks  and 
crucibles  in  connection  with  each  furnace 
depends  upon  the  heating  capacity  of 
the  furnace  and  upon  the  out-turn  re- 
quired. They  are  so  arranged  that  all  or 
any  of  them  can  be  used  or  put  out  of  use 
readily  by  means  of  valves  and  dampers. 
Generally,  they  are  arranged  in  groups  of 
from  6  to  12,  placed  in  a  straight  or 
circular  line,  but  the  object  aimed  at  is 
complete  combustion  of  the  fuel,  and  the 
utilization  of  the  heat  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent. One  arrangement  is  to  have  the 
flame  pass  along  the  bottom  and  sides  of 
the  tank  and  then  over  the  top  to  the 
chimney. 

The  general  system  in  use  is,  however, 
the  crucible  system.  The  crucibles  are 
made  from  the  best  fire  clay,  and  the 
most  satisfactory  are  sold  under  the  name 
of  "Hessian  crucibles."  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  the  use  of  the  crucibles  is  that 
of  cost.  They  are  expensive,  and  in 
many  factories  the  life  of  the  crucible  is 
very  short,  in  some  cases  not  extending 
beyond  one  period  of  fusion.  When  this, 
however,  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception, the  results  are  due  to  care- 
lessness. Sudden  heating  or  cooling 
of  the  crucible  will  cause  it  to  crack  or 
fall  to  pieces,  but  for  this  there  is  no 
excuse.  Running  the  molten  material 
quickly  out  of  the  crucible  and  replacing 
it  hurriedly  with  a  fresh  cold  mixing  is 
liable — in  fact,  almost  certain — to  pro- 
duce fracture,  not  only  causing  the  de- 
struction of  the  crucible,  but  also  the  loss 
of  the  mixing.  New  crucibles  should 
be  thoroughly  dried  in  a  gentle  heat  for 
some  days  and  then  gradually  raised 
to  the  requisite  temperature  which  they 


298 


ENAMELING 


must  sustain  for  the  purposes  of  fusion. 
Sometimes  unglazed  porcelain  crucibles 
specially  prepared  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  china  clay  are  used.  These  are, 
however,  expensive  and  require  special 
attention  during  the  first  melt.  The  life 
of  all  crucibles  can  be  lengthened  by: 
(1)  Gradually  heating  them  before  put- 
ting them  into  the  fire;  (2)  never  replac- 
ing a  frit  with  a  cold  mass  for  the  suc- 
ceeding one;  it  should  first  be  heated  in  a 
stove  and  then  introduced  into  the  cru- 
cible; (3)  carefully  protecting  the  hot 
crucibles  from  cold  draughts  or  rapid 
cooling. 

Melting  and  Melting  Furnaces. — The 
arrangement  of  the  melting  furnace  must 
be  such  as  to  protect  the  whole  of  the 
crucible  from  chills.  The  usual  pit 
furnaces,  with  slight  modifications,  are 
suitable  for  this  purpose.  The  crucible 
shown  at  b  in  Fig.  3  is  of  the  type  already 


Fig.  3 

described;  at  the  top  it  is  fitted  with  a 
lid,  a,  hinged  at  the  middle,  and  at  the 
bottom  it  is  pierced  by  a  2-inch  conical 
hole.*  The  hole,  while  melting  is  going 
on,  is  plugged  up  with  a  specially  pre- 
pared stopper.  The  crucible  stands  on 

*  Two  inches  for  gray,  one  inch  for  glaze ;  the 
hole  should  be  wider  at  the  top 


a  tubular  fireproof  support,  c,  which 
allows  the  molten  mass  to  be  easily  run 
off  into  a  tub  of  water,  which  is  placed  in 
the  chamber,  d.  The  fuel  is  thrown  in 
from  the  top,  and  the  supply  must  be 
kept  uniform.  From  4  to  6  of  these  fur- 
naces are  connected  with  the  same  chim- 
ney; but  before  passing  to  the  chimney 
the  hot  gases  are  in  some  cases  used  for 
heating  purposes  in  connection  with  the 
drying  stove.  The  plug  used  may  be 
either  a  permanent  iron  one  coated  with 
a  very  hard  enamel  or  made  from  a 
composition  of  quartz  pow^der  and  water. 
An  uncovered  iron  plug  would  be  un- 
suitable owing  to  the  action  of  the  iron 
on  the  ingredients  of  the  mixing. 

In  some  cases  only  a  very  small  hole  is 
made  in  the  crucible  and  no  stopper  used, 
the  fusion  of  the  mixing  automatically 
closing  up  the  hole.  In  some  other  fac- 
tories no  hole  is  made  in  the  crucible,  and 
when  fusion  is  complete  the  crucible  is 
removed  and  the  mixing  poured  out.  The 
two  latter  systems  are  bad;  in  the  first 
there  is  always  some  waste  of  material 
through  leakage,  and  in  the  latter  the 
operation  of  removing  the  crucible  is 
clumsy  and  difficult,  while  the  exposure 
to  the  colder  atmosphere  frequently  causes 
rupture. 

The  plug  used  should  be  connected  with 
a  rod,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  which  passes 
through  a  slot  in  one-half  of  the  hinged 
lid,  a.  .  When  fusion  is  complete  this  half 
is  turned  over,  and  the  plug  pulled  up, 
thus  allowing  the  molten  mass  to  fall 
through  into  the  vat  of  water  placed  un- 
derneath. The  mixing  in  the  crucibles, 
as  it  becomes  molten,  settles  down,  and 
more  material  can  then  be  added  until 
the  crucible  is  nearly  full.  If  the  mixing 
is  correctly  composed,  and  has  been  thor- 
oughly fused,  it  should  flow  freely  from 
the  crucible  when  the  plug  is  withdrawn. 
Fusing  generally  requires  only  to  be  done 
once,  but  for  fine  enamels  the  operation 
may  be  repeated.  The  running  off  into 
the  water  is  necessary  in  order  to  make 
the  mass  brittle  and  easy  to. grind.  If 
this  was  not  done  it  would  again  form 
into  hard  flinty  lumps  and  require  much 
time  and  labor  to  reduce  to  a  powder. 

A  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  the 
loss  in  weight  of  the  dried  material  at 
each  operation.  The  weighings  should 
be  made  at  the  following  points:  (1) 
Before  and  after  melting;  (2)  after 
crushing. 

The  time  required  for  melting  varies 
greatly,  but  from  6  to  9  hours  may  be 
considered  as  the  extreme  limits.  Gas 
is  much  used  for  raising  the  necessary 
heat  for  melting.  The  generator  may  be 


ENAMELING 


S99 


olaced  in  any  convenient  position,  but 
a  very  good  system  is  to  have  it  in  the 
center  of  a  battery  of  muffles,  any  or  all 
of  which  can  be  brought  into  use.  When 
quartz  stoppers  are  used  there  is  con- 
siderable trouble  in  their  preparation, 
and  as  each  new  batch  of  material  re- 
quires a  fresh  stopper,  wrought-iron 
stoppers  have  been  introduced  in  many 
factories.  These  are  coated  with  an 
enamel  requiring  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture of  fusion  than  the  fundamental  sub- 
stance, and  this  coating  prevents  the  iron 
having  any  injurious  action  on  the  frit. 

Fusing. — For  fusing  the  enamel  muffle 
furnaces  are  used;  these  furnaces  are 
simple  in  construction,  being  designed 
specially  for:  (1)  Minimum  consumption 
of  fuel;  (2)  maximum  heat  in  the  muffle; 
(3)  protection  of  the  inside  of  the  muffle 
from  dust,  draughts,  etc. 

The  muffle  furnaces  may  be  of  any 
size,  but  in  order  to  economize  fuel,  it  is 
obvious  that  they  should  be  no  larger 
than  is  necessary  for  the  class  and 
quantity  of  work  being  turned  out.  For 
sign-plate  enameling  the  interior  of  the 
muffle  may  be  as  much  as  10  feet  by  5 
feet  wide  by  3  feet  in  height,  but  a  furnace 
of  this  kind  would  be  absolutely  ruinous 
for  a  concern  where  only  about  a  dozen 
small  hollow-ware  articles  were  enameled 
at  a  time.  The  best  system  is  to  have 
2  or  3  muffle  furnaces  of  different  dimen- 
sions, as  in  this  way  all  or  any  one  of 
them  can  be  brought  into  use  as  the 
character  and  number  of  the  articles 
may  require.  The  temperature  through- 
out the  muffle  is  not  uniform,  the  end 
next  to  the  furnace  being  hotter  than 
that  next  to  the  door.  In  plate  enamel- 
ing it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
plates  should  be  turned  so  that  uniform 
fusion  of  the  enamel  may  take  place.  In 
the  working  of  hollow  ware  the  articles 
should  be  first  placed  at  the  front  of  the 


muffle  and  then  moved  toward  the  back. 
The  front  of  the  furnace  is  closed  in  by  a 
vertically  sliding  door  or  lid,  and  in  this 
an  aperture  is  cut,  through  which  the 
process  of  fusion  can  be  inspected.  All 
openings  to  the  muffle  should  be  used  as 
little  as  possible;  otherwise  cold  air  is 
admitted,  and  the  inside  temperature 
rapidly  lowered. 


SECTION   ON  A.  B. 


Fig.   4 


Fig.  4  shows  a  simple  arrangement  of 
a  muffle  furnace;  a  is  the  furnace  itself, 
with  an  opening,  e,  through  which  the 
fuel  is  fed;  b  is  the  muffle;  c  shows  the 
firebars,  and  d  the  cinder  box;  /  is  a  rest 
or  plate  on  which  is  placed  the  articles  to 
be  enameled.  The  plate  or  petits  on 
which  the  articles  rest  while  being  put 
into  the  muffle  should  be  almost  red  hot, 
as  the  whole  heat  of  the  muffle  in  this 
way  begins  to  act  immediately  on  the 
enamel  coating.  The  articles  inside  the 
muffles  can  be  moved  about  when  neces- 
sary, either  by  a  hook  or  a  pair  of  tongs, 
but  care  must  be  taken  that  every  part 
of  the  vessel  or  plate  is  submitted  to  the 
same  amount  of  heat. 

In  Figs.  5,  6,  and  7  are  given  drawings 
of  an  arrangement  of  furnaces,  etc., 
connected  with  an  enameling  factory  at 


Fig.  5 


300 


ENAMELING 


present  working.  The  stoves  shown  in 
Fig.  5  are  drying  stoves  fired  from  the 
end  by  charcoal,  and  having  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  160°  F.  Fig.  6  shows  the 
arrangement  of  the  flues  for  the  passage 
of  the  gases  round  the  fusing  oven.  The 
section  through  the  line  A  B,  Fig.  5,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7,  and  the  section  through 


SECTION    THROUGH    FUSING   OVEN 
Fig.  6 


SECTION    ON   A.    B. 
Fig.  7 


DRAUGHT 

SECTION   THROUGH    FRIT   KILNS 
Fig.  8 

the  frit  kilns,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  are 
sufficiently  explanatory.  The  frit  kilns 
and  the  fusing  oven  flues  both  lead  to  the 
brick  chimney,  but  the  stoves  are  con- 
nected to  a  wrought-iron  chimney  shown 
in  Fig.  6.  Another  arrangement  would 
have  been  to  so  arrange  the  stoves  that 
the  gases  from  the  frit  kilns  could  have 
been  utilized  for  heating  purposes. 

Fuel. — The  consumption  of  fuel  in  an 
enameling   factory   is   the   most   serious 


item  of  the  expenditure.  Ill-constructed 
or  badly  proportioned  stoves  may  rep- 
resent any  loss  of  coal  from  a  quarter  to 
one  ton  per  day,  and  as  great  and  uniform 
temperatures  must  be  maintained,  fuel 
of  low  quality  and  price  is  not  desirable. 
In  the  melting  stoves  either  arranged  as 
tank  or  crucible  furnaces,  the  character 
of  the  coal  must  not  be  neglected,  as 
light  dust,  iron  oxide,  or  injurious  gases 
will  enter  into  the  crucibles  through  any 
opening,  especially  if  the  draught  is  not 
very  great.  Almost  any  of  the  various 
kinds  of  fuel  may  be  used,  provided  that 
the  system  of  combustion  is  specially 
arranged  for  in  the  construction  of  the 
furnaces.  Charcoal  is  one  of  the  best 
fuels  available,  its  calorific  value  being 
so  great;  but  its  cost  is  in  some  places 
almost  prohibitive.  Wood  burns  too 
quickly,  and  is  therefore  expensive,  and 
necessitates  incessant  firing. 

For  practical  purposes  we  are  thus 
often  left  to  a  selection  of  some  type  of 
coal.  A  coal  with  comparatively  little 
heating  power  at  a  cheap  price  will  be 
found  more  expensive  in  the  end  than 
one  costing  more,  but  capable  of  more 
rapid  combustion  and  possessing  more 
heat  yielding  gases.  Cheap  and  hard 
coals  give  the  fireman  an  amount  of  labor 
which  is  excessive.  The  proper  main- 
tenance of  the  temperature  of  the  stove 
is  almost  impossible.  Anthracite  is  ex- 
cellent in  every  way,  as  it  consists  of 
nearly  pure  carbon,  giving  off  a  high  de- 
gree of  heat  without  smoke.  Its  use,  of 
course,  necessitates  the  use  of  a  blower, 
but  to  this  there  can  be  no  objection. 
Any  coal  which  will  burn  freely  and  clean, 
giving  off  no  excessive  smoke,  and  capa- 
ble of  almost  complete  combustion,  will 
give  satisfaction  in  enameling;  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  consump- 
tion of  fuel  is  so  large  that  both  price  and 
quality  must  be  carefully  considered. 
Experimental  tests  must  be  made  from 
time  to  time.  A  cheap,  common  coal 
will  never  give  good  results,  and  a  good 
expensive  coal  will  make  the  cost  of 
manufacture  so  great  that  the  prices  of 
the  enameled  articles  will  render  them 
unsalable.  Any  ordinary  small  factory 
will  use  from  2  to  4  tons  per  day  of  coal, 
and  it  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  financial 
success  of  a  concern  lies  to  a  very  great 
extent  at  the  mouth  of  the  furnace.  Coke 
is  a  good  medium  for  obtaining  the 
necessary  heat  required  in  enameling  if 
it  can  be  got  at  a  reasonable  price.  With 
a  good  draught  a  uniform  temperature 
can  be  easily  kept  up,  and  the  use  of 
this  by-product  is,  therefore,  to  be  rec- 
ommended. 


ENAMELING 


301 


With  good  coal  and  a  furnace  con- 
structed to  utilize  the  heat  given  off  to 
the  fullest  extent,  there  may  still  be  un- 
necessary waste.  The  arrangement  of 
the  bars  should  only  be  made  by  those 
who  fully  understand  the  character  of 
the  coal  and  the  objects  in  view.  The 
fireman  in  charge  should  be  thoroughly 
experienced  and  reliable,  as  much  waste 
is  frequently  traced  to  imperfect  feeding 
of  the  fuel. 

Each  charge  of  articles  should  be  as 
large  as  possible,  as  fusing  will  take  place 
equally  as  well  on  many  articles  as  on 
few.  The  charges  should  follow  one 
another  as  rapidly  as  can  be  conveniently 
carried  out;  and  where  this  is  not  done 
there  is  a  lack  of  organization  which 
should  be  immediately  remedied. 

Mills. — Any  hard  substances  must  first 
be  broken  up  and  pounded  in  a  pounding 
or  stamping  mill,  or  in  any  other  suitable 
manner,  thus  reducing  the  lumps  to  a 
granular  condition.  When  this  has  been 
done,  the  coarse  is  separated  from  the 
fine  parts  and  the  former  again  operated 
on.  The  next  process  is  roller  grinding 
for  reducing  the  hard  fritted  granular 
particles  to  a  fine  powder.  These  mills 
vary  in  construction,  but  a  satisfactory 
type  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  Motion  is  con- 


GRINDING    MILL 
Fig.  9 

veyed  by  a  belt  to  the  driving  pulley,  and 
this  is  transmitted  from  the  pinion  to  the 
large  bevel,  which  is  connected  by  a 
shaft  to  the  ground  plate.  As  this  revolves 
the  material  causes  the  mill  wheels  to 
revolve,  and  in  this  way  the  material  is 
reduced  to  a  powder.  The  rollers  are  of 
reduced  diameter  on  the  inner  side  to 
prevent  slippage,  and  when  all  the  parts 
are  made  of  iron,  the  metal  must  be 
close  grained  and  of  very  hard  structure, 
so  as  to  reduce  the  amount  removed  by 
wear  to  a  minimum.  When  the  mate- 
rials are  ground  wet,  the  powder  should 
be  carefully  protected  from,  (lust  and 


thoroughly  dried  before  passing  to   the 
next  operation. 

The  glazing  or  enamel  mills  are  shown 
in    Fig.    10.     These    mills    consist   of   a 


GLAZING   MILL 
Fig.  10 

strong  iron  frame  securely  bolted  to  a 
stone  foundation.  In  the  sketch  shown 
the  framing  carries  2  mills,  but  3  or  4 
can  be  arranged  for.  A  common  ar- 
rangement for  small  factories  consists  of 
2  large  mills,  and  1  smaller  mill,  driven 
from  the  same  shaft.  One  of  the  mills  is 
used  for  foundation  or  gray  mixings,  the 
second  for  white,  and  the  smallest  one  for 
colored  mixings.  In  these  mills  it  is 
essential  that  the  construction  is  such  as 
to  prevent  any  iron  fitting  coming  into 
contact  with  the  mixing,  for,  as  has 
already  been  explained,  the  iron  will 
cause  discoloration.  The  ground  plate 
is  composed  of  quartz  and  is  immovable. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  wooden  casing — as 
shown  at  a — and  bound  together  by  iron 
hoops.  The  millstones  are  heavy,  rec- 
tangular blocks  of  quartz,  called  "French 
burr  stone,"  and  into  the  center  the  spin- 
dle, 6,  is  led.  The  powdered  material 
mixed  with  about  three  times  its  bulk  of 
water  is  poured  into  the  vats,  a,  and  the 
grinding  stones  are  then  set  in  motion. 
When  a  condition  ready  for  enameling 
has  been  reached  the  mixture  is  run  off 
through  the  valves,  c.  Each  mill  can  be 
thrown  out  of  gear  when  required,  by 
means  of  a  clutch  box,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  working  of  the  others. 
The  grinding  stones  wear  rapidly  and 
require  to  be  refaced  from  time  to  time. 
To  avoid  stoppage  of  the  work,  therefore, 
it  is  advisable  to  always  have  a  spare  set 
in  readiness  to  replace  those  removed  for 
refacing.  The  composition  of  the  stones 
should  not  be  neglected,  for,  in  many 
cases,  faults  in  the  enamel  have  been 
traced  to  the  wearing  away  of  stones 
containing  earthy  or  metallic  matter. 


302 


ENAMELING 


Enamel  Mixing. — All  constituents  of 
which  an  enamel  glaze  is  composed  must 
be  intimately  mixed  together.  This  can 
only  be  done  by  reducing  each  to  a  fine 
powder  and  thoroughly  stirring  them  up 
together.  This  part  of  the  work  is  often 
carried  out  in  a  very  superficial  manner, 
one  material  showing  much  larger  lumps 
than  another.  Under  circumstances  such 
as  these  it  is  absurd  to  imagine  that  in 
fusion  equal  distribution  will  take  place. 
What  really  happens  is  that  some  parts 
of  the  mass  are  insufficiently  supplied 
with  certain  properties  while  others  have 
too  much.  A  mixture  of  this  class  can 
produce  only  unsatisfactory  results  in 
every  respect,  for  the  variations  referred 
to  will  produce  variations  in  the  com- 
pleteness of  fusion  in  the  viscous  charac- 
ter of  the  mass,  and  in  the  color. 

The  mixing  can  be  done  by  thoroughly 
stirring  the  various  ingredients  together, 
and  a  much  better  and  cheaper  system  is 
mixing  in  rotating  barrels  or  churns. 
These  are  mounted  on  axles  which  rest 
in  bearings,  one  axle  being  long  enough 
to  carry  a  pulley.  From  the  driving  shaft 
a  belt  is  led  to  the  cask,  which  then  rotates 
at  a  speed  of  from  40  to  60  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  in  about  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  the  operation  is  complete.  The 
cask  should  not  exceed  the  5-gallon  size, 
and  should  at  no  time  be  more  than  two- 
thirds  full.  Two  casks  of  this  kind  give 
better  results  than  one  twice  the  size. 
The  materials  are  shot  into  the  cask  in 
their  correct  proportions  through  a  large 
bung  hole,  which  is  then  closed  over  by  a 
close-fitting  lid. 

Mixings. — For  gray  or  fundamental 
coatings: 

I. — Almost  any  kind  of 

glass 49      per  cent 

Oxide  of  lead 47      per  cent 

Fused  borax 4      per  cent 

II. — Glass  (any  kind)..  61  percent 

Red  lead 22  per  cent 

Borax 16  per  cent 

Niter 1  per  cent 

III. — Quartz 67.5  per  cent 

Borax 29.5  per  cent 

Soda  (enameling) .      3      per  cent 
The  above  is  specially  adapted  for  iron 
pipes. 

IV. — Frit  of  silica  pow- 
der     60      per  cent 

Borax 33      per  cent 

White  lead 7      percent 

Fused  and  then  ground  with  — 
Three-tenths  weight  of  silica  frit. 
Clay,  three-tenths  weight  of  silica  frit. 
Magnesia,  one-sixth  weight  of  white  lead. 


V. — Silica 65      per  cent 

Borax 14      per  cent 

Oxide  of  lead 4      percent 

Clay 15      per  cent 

Magnesia 2      per  cent 

No.  V  gives  a  fair  average  of  several 
mixings  which  are  in  use,  but  it  can  be 
varied  slightly  to  suit  different  conditions 
of  work. 

Defects  in  the  Gray  or  Ground  Coat- 
ing.— Chipping  is  the  most  disastrous. 
This  may  be  prevented  by  the  addition 
of  some  bitter  salt,  say  from  3  to  4  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  frit. 

The  addition  of  magnesia  when  it  has 
been  omitted  from  the  frit  may  also  act 
as  a  preventive,  but  it  should  only  be 
added  in  very  small  quantities,  not  ex- 
ceeding 2.5  per  cent,  otherwise  the 
temperature  required  for  fusion  will  be 
very  great. 

Coating  and  Fusion. — Difficulties  of 
either  may  generally  be  done  away  with 
by  reducing  the  magnesia  used  in  the 
frit  to  a  minimum. 

A  soft  surface  is  always  the  outcome 
of  a  mixing  which  can  be  fused  at  a  low 
temperature.  It  is  due  to  too  much  lead 
or  an  insufficiency  of  clay  or  silica 
powder. 

A  hard  surface  is  due  to  the  quantity 
of  lead  in  the  mixing  being  too  small. 
Increase  the  quantity  and  introduce 
potash.,  say  about  2.5  per  cent. 

The  gray  or  fundamental  mixing 
should  be  kept  together  in  a  condition 
only  just  sufficiently  liquid  to  allow  of 
being  poured  out.  When  required  to  be 
applied  to  the  plate,  the  water  necessary 
to  lower  it  to  the  consistency  of  thick 
cream  can  then  be  added  gradually, 
energetic  stirring  of  the  mass  taking 
place  simultaneously  in  order  to  obtain 
uniform  distribution. 

The  time  required  for  fusion  may 
vary  from  15  minutes  to  25  minutes,  but 
should  never  exceed  the  latter.  If  it 
does,  it  shows  that  the  mixing  is  too 
viscous,  and  the  remedy  would  be  the 
addition  and  thorough  intermixture  of 
calcined  borax  or  boracic  acid.  Should 
this  fail,  then  remelting  or  a  new  frit  is 
necessary. 

A  highly  glazed  surface  on  leaving  the 
muffle  shows  that  the  composition  is  too 
fluid  and  requires  the  addition  of  clay, 
glass,  silica  powder  or  other  substance 
to  increase  the  viscosity. 

As  has  been  already  explained,  the 
glaze  is  much  more  important  than  the 
fundamental  coating.  Discoloration  or 
slight  flaws  which  could  be  tolerated  in 
the  latter  would  be  fatal  to  the  former. 


ENAMELING 


In  glazes,  oxide  of  lead  need  not  be 
used.  It  should  never  be  used  in  a  coat- 
ing for  vessels  which  are  to  contain  acids 
or  be  used  as  cooking  utensils.  It  may 
be  used  in  sign-tablet  production. 

For  pipes  the  following  glaze  gives 
good  results: 

I.— Feldspar 33        percent 

Borax 22.5     percent 

Quartz... 16.5     percent 

Oxide  of  tin..  ..  15        percent 

Soda. . 8        percent 

Fluorspar 3.75  per  cent 

Saltpeter 2.25  percent 

For  sign  tablets  the  following  gives 
fair  results,  although  some  of  the  suc- 
ceeding ones  are  in  more  general  use: 

II.— Gullet 20        per  cent 

Powdered  flint. .  15        per  cent 

Lead 52        per  cent 

Soda 4.5     percent 

Arsenic 4.5     per  cent 

Niter 4        per  cent 

III.— Frit      of      silica 

powder 30        per  cent 

Oxide  of  tin.  ...  18        percent 

Borax 17        per  cent 

Soda 8.6     per  cent 

Niter 7.5     percent 

White  lead 5.5     per  cent 

Carbonate       o  f 

ammonia  ....  5.5    per  cent 

Magnesia 4        per  cent 

Silica  powder.  .  .  4        per  cent 
The  following  are  useful  for  culinary 
utensils,  as  they  do  not  contain  lead: 
IV.— Frit      of      silica 

powder 26        percent 

Oxide  of  tin ....  21        per  cent 

Borax 20        per  cent 

Soda 10.25  per  cent 

Niter 7        per  cent 

Carbonate       o  f 

ammonia  ....  5        per  cent 

Magnesia 3.25  per  cent 

This  should  be  ground  up  with  the 
following: 

Silica  powder.  .  .  4.25  per  cent 

Oxide  of  tin.  .  .  .  2.25  per  cent 

Soda 0.5     per  cent 

Magnesia 0.5     per  cent 

V. — Feldspar 41  per  cent 

Borax 35  per  cent 

Oxide  of  tin.  ...    17  percent 

Niter 7  per  cent 

VI.— Borax 30  per  cent 

Feldspar 22  per  cent 

Silicate  powder.  17.5  percent  • 

Oxide  of  tin.  ...  15  percent 

Soda 13.5  percent 

Niter 2  per  cent 


Borax  will  assist  fusion.  Quartz  mix- 
ings require  more  soda  than  feldspar 
mixings. 

VII. — Borax 28  per  cent 

Oxide  of  tin ....  19.5  per  cent 
Gullet  (powdered 

white  glass)  . .  18  per  cent 

Silica  powder.  .  .  17.5  per  cent 

Niter 9.5  per  cent 

Magnesia 5  per  cent 

Clay 2.5  per  cent 

VIII.— Borax 26.75  per  cent 

Gullet 19        per  cent 

Silica  powder.  .  .  18.5    per  cent 

Oxide  of  tin.  ...  19        percent 

Niter 9.25  per  cent 

Magnesia 4.5     per  cent 

Soda 3        per  cent 

To  No.  VII  must  be  added — while 
being  ground — the  following  percentages 
of  the  weight  of  the  frit: 

Silica  powder.  .  .    18        per  cent 

Borax 9        per  cent 

Magnesia 5.25  percent 

Boracic  acid..  .  .      1.5     percent 
To  No.  VIII  should  be  similarly  added 
the  following  percentages  of  the  frit: 

Silica  powder.  .  .      1.75  per  cent 

Magnesia 1.75  per  cent 

Soda 1        per  cent 

This  mixing  is  one  which  is  used  in 
the  production  of  some  of  the  best  types 
of  hollow  ware  for  culinary  purposes. 
The  glaze  should  be  kept  in  tubs  mixed 
with  water  until  used,  and  it  should  be 
carefully  protected  from  dust. 

Defects  in  the  Glaze  or  White.— A  bad 
white  may  be  due  to  its  being  insuffi- 
ciently opaque.  More  oxide  of  tin  is 
required.  Cracks  may  be  prevented  by 
the  addition  of  carbonate  of  ammonia. 
Insufficient  luster  can  be  avoided  by 
adding  to  the  quantity  of  soda  and  re- 
ducing the  borax.  If  the  gray  shows 
through  the  white  it  proves  that  the 
temperature  of  fusion  is  too  high  or  the 
viscosity  of  the  mixing  is  too  great.  If 
the  coating  is  not  uniformly  spread  it 
may  be  due  to  the  glaze  being  too  thin; 
add  magnesia.  If  the  glaze  separates 
from  the  gray  add  some  bitter  salt. 
Viscosity  will  be  increased  by  reduc- 
ing the  quantity  of  borax.  Immunity 
against  chemical  reaction  is  procured  by 
increasing  the  quantity  of  borax.  An 
improved  luster  will  be  obtained  by  add- 
ing native  carbonate  of  soda.  The 
greater  the  quantity  of  silicic  acid  the 
greater  must  be  the  temperature  for 
fusion.  To  reduce  the  temperature  add 
borax.  Clay  will  increase  the  difficulty 


304 


ENAMELING 


of  fusion.  Oxide  of  lead  will  make  a  frit 
more  easily  fusible.  A  purer  white  can 
be  obtained  by  adding  a  small  quantity 
of  smalt. 

Water.— The  character  of  the  water 
used  in  the  mixing  of  enamels  is  too  fre- 
quently taken  for  granted,  for  unsuitable 
water  may  render  a  mixing  almost  entire- 
ly useless.  Clean  water,  and  with  little 
or  no  sulphur  present,  is  essential.  For 
very  fine  enamels  it  is  advisable  to  use 
carefully  filtered  water  which  has  shown, 
after  analysis,  that  it  is  free  from  any 
matter  which  is  injurious  to  any  of  the 
enamel  constituents. 

How  to  Tell  the  Character  of  Enamel. 
— In  the  case  of  sign  tablets  the  charac- 
teristics looked  to  are  appearance  and 
the  adherence  of  the  coatings  to  the  iron. 
For  the  latter  the  tests  are  simple.  The 
plate  if  slightly  bent  should  not  crack  the 
coating.  An  enamel  plate  placed  in 
boiling  water  for  some  time  and  then 
plunged  into  very  cold  water  should  not 
show  any  cracks,  however  small,  even 
after  repeated  treatment  of  this  kind. 

Culinary  utensils,  and  those  to  hold 
chemicals,  should  not  only  look  well,  but 
should  be  capable  of  resisting  the  action 
of  acids.  Lead  should  never  enter  into 
the  composition  of  enamels  of  this  class, 
as  they  then  become  easily  acted  upon, 
and  in  the  case  of  chipping  present  a 
menace  to  health.  The  presence  of  lead 
is  easily  detected.  Destroy  the  outside 
coating  of  the  enamel  at  some  spot  by  the 
application  of  strong  nitric  acid.  Wash 
the  part  and  apply  a  drop  of  ammonium 
sulphide.  If  lead  is  present,  the  part 
will  become  almost  black,  but  remains 
unchanged  in  color  if  it  is  absent. 

Another  simple  test  is  to  switch  up  an 
egg  in  a  vessel  and  allow  it  to  stand  for 
about  24  hours.  When  poured  out  and 
rinsed  with  water  a  dark  stain  will  re- 
main if  lead  is  present  in  the  enamel. 
To  test  the  power  of  chemical  resistance 
is  equally  simple.  Boil  diluted  vinegar 
in  the  vessel  for  several  minutes,  and  if 
a  sediment  is  formed  and  the  luster  and 
smoothness  of  the  glaze  destroyed  or 
partially  destroyed,  it  follows  that  it  is 
incapable  of  resisting  the  attacks  of  acids 
for  any  length  of  time.  There  are  sev- 
eral other  tests  adopted,  but  those  given 
present  little  difficulty  in  carrying  out, 
and  give  reliable  results. 

Wasters  and  Seconds:  Repairing  Old 
Articles. — In  all  enameling  there  must 
be  certain  articles  turned  out  which  are 
defective,  but  the  percentage  should  never 
be  very  great.  The  causes  which  most 


frequently  tend  to  the  production  of 
wasters  are  new  mixings  and  a  tempera- 
ture of  fusion  which  is  either  too  high  or 
too  low.  There  are  two  ways  of  dis- 
posing of  defective  articles,  viz.:  (1) 
Chipping  off  the  bad  spots,  patching 
them  up  and  selling  them  as  "seconds"; 
(2)  throwing  the  articles  into  the  waste 
heap.  The  best  firms  adopt  the  latter 
course,  because  the  recoating  and  firing 
of  defective  parts  practically  means  a 
repetition  of  the  whole  process,  thus  add- 
ing greatly  to  the  cost,  while  the  selling 
price  is  reduced.  Overheating  in  fusion 
is  generally  shown  by  blisters  or  by  the 
enamel  being  too  thin  in  various  places. 
Chipping  may  be  also  due  to  this  cause, 
the  excessive  heat  having  practically 
fused  the  fundamental  coating. 

At  this  stage  the  defects  may  be 
remedied  by  breaking  off  the  faulty  parts, 
patching  them  up,  and  then  recoating 
the  whole.  With  sign  tablets  there  is  no 
objection  to  doing  so,  but  with  hollow 
ware  the  fact  remains  that  the  article  is 
faulty,  no  matter  how  carefully  defects 
may  be  hidden.  As  white  is  the  most 
general  coating  used,  and  shows  up  the 
defects  more  than  the  colored  coatings, 
the  greatest  care  is  necessary  at  every 
stage  of  the  manufacture.  While  glow- 
ing on  the  article,  it  should  appear 
uniformly  yellow,  but  on  cooling  it  should 
revert  to  a  pure  white  shade.  On  ex- 
amining different  makes  of  white  coated 
articles,  it  will  be  found  that  some  are 
more  opaque  than  others.  The  former 
are  less  durable  than  the  latter,  because 
they  contain  a  large  percentage  of  oxide 
of  tin,  which  reduces  the  elasticity.  To 
ensure  hardness  the  mixing  must  be 
very  liquid,  and  this  cannot  be  arrived 
at  when  a  large  quantity  of  oxide  of  tin 
is  introduced. 

Old  utensils  which  have  become 
broken  or  chipped  can  be  repaired, 
although,  except  in  the  case  of  large 
articles,  this  is  rarely  done.  The  opera- 
tions necessary  are:  (1)  The  defective 
parts  chipped  off;  (2)  submitted  to  a  red 
neat  for  a  few  moments;  (3)  coated  with 
gray  on  the  exposed  iron;  (4)  fused;  (5) 
coated  with  the  glaze  on  the  gray;  (6) 
fused. 

To  Repair  Enameled  Signs. — 

Copal 5  parts 

Damar 5  parts 

Venice  turpentine  ...  4  parts 
Powder  the  rosins,  mix  with  the  tur- 
pentine and  add  enough  alcohol  to  form 
a  thick  liquid.  To  this  add  finely 
powdered  zinc  white  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  yield  a  plastic  mass.  Coloring 


ENAMELING 


305 


matter    may,    of    course,    be    added    if 
desired. 

The  mass  after  application  is  polished 
when  it  has  become  sufficiently  hard. 

Enamel  for  Copper  Cooking  Vessels. — 
White  fluorspar  is  ground  to  a  fine 
powder  and  strongly  calcined  with  an 
equal  volume  of  unburnt  gypsum,  at  a 
light  glowing  heat,  stirring  diligently. 
Grind  the  mixture  to  a  paste  with  water, 
paint  the  vessel  with  it,  using  a  brush, 
or  pour  in  the  paste  like  a  glaze  and  dry 
the  same.  Increase  the  heat  gradually 
and  bring  the  vessels  with  the  glass 
substance  quickly  into  strong  heat,  under 
a  suitable  covering  or  a  mantle  of  burnt 
clay.  The  substance  soon  forms  a  white 
opaque  enamel,  which  ahderes  firmly  to 
the  copper.  It  can  stand  pretty  hard 
knocks  without  cracking,  is  adapted  for 
cooking  purposes  and  not  attacked  by 
acid  matters.  If  the  glassy  substance  is 
desired  to  cling  well  and  firmly  to  the 
copper,  a  sudden  and  severe  heat  must 
be  observed. 

To  Pickle  Black  Iron-Plate  Scrap 
Before  Enameling. — The  black  iron- 
plate  scraps  are  first  dipped  clean  in  a 
mixture  of  about  1  part  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  20  to  22  parts  of  water  heated 
to  30°  to  40°  C.  (86°  to  104°  F.),  and 
sharp  quartz  sand  is  then  used  for  scour- 
ing. They  are  then  plunged  for  a  few 
seconds  in  boiling  water,  taken  out,  and 
allowed  to  dry.  Rinsing  with  cold  water 
and  allowing  to  dry  thus  may  cause 
rust.  The  grains  of  quartz  cut  grooves 
in  the  fibers  of  the  iron;  this  helps  the 
grounding  to  adhere  well.  With  many 
kinds  of  plate  it  is  advisable  to  anneal 
after  pickling,  shutting  off  the  air;  by 
this  means  the  plates  will  be  thoroughly 
clean  and  free  from  oxidation.  Much 
practice  is  required. — The  Engineer. 

ENAMELED  IRON  RECIPES. 

The  first  thing  is  to  produce  a  flux  to 
fuse  at  a  moderate  heat,  which,  by  flow- 
ing upon  the  plate,  forms  a  uniform  sur- 
face for  the  white  or  colored  enamels  to 
work  upon. 

Flux  for  Enameled  Iron. — 

White  lead 10  parts 

Ball  clay 1  part 

Flint  glass 10  parts 

Whiting 1  part 

The  plates  may  then  be  coated  with 
any  of  the  following  mixtures,  which 
may  either  be  spread  on  as  a  powder 
with  a  little  gum,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
flux,  or  the  colors  may  be  mixed  with  oil 
and  the  plates  dipped  therein  when 


coated;  the  plate  requires  heating  suffi- 
ciently to  run  the  enamels  bright. 

Soft  Enamels  for  Iron,  White.— 

Flint  glass 16     parts 

,         Oxide  of  tin 1^  parts 

Niter if  parts 

Red  lead 4     parts 

Flint  or  china  clay ...  1     part 

Black.— 

Red  oxide  of  iron.  ...  \\  parts 

Carbonate  of  cobalt. .  1  \  parts 

Red  lead 6     parts 

Borax 2     parts 

Lynn  sand 2     parts 

Yellow  Coral.— 

Chromate  of  lead.  ...  1     part 

Red  lead 2|  parts 

Flint 1     part 

Borax '. \  part 

Canary. — 

Oxide  of  uranium  ...  1     part 

Red  lead 4  \  parts 

Flint if  parts 

Flint  glass 1     part 

Turquoise. — 

Red  lead 40     parts 

Flint  glass 12     parts 

Borax 16     parts 

Flint 12     parts 

Enamel  white 14     parts 

Oxide  of  copper 7     parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt \  part 

Red  Brown. — 

Calcined    sulphate  of 

iron 1     part 

Flux  No.  8  (see  page  307)  3     parts 

Mazarine  Blue. — 

Oxide  of  cobalt 10     parts 

Paris  white 9     parts 

Sulphate  barytes 1     part 

Fire  the  above  at  an  intense  heat  and 
for  use  take 

Above  stain 1     part 

Flux  No.  8  (see  page  307)  3     parts 

Sky  Blue.— 

Flint  glass 30     parts 

White  lead 10     parts 

Pearlash 2     parts 

Common  salt 2     parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 4     parts 

Enamel,  white 4     parts 

Chrome  Green. — 

Borax 10     parts 

Oxide  of  chrome 4*  parts 

White  lead 9     parts 

Flint  glass 9     parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 2     parts 

Oxide  of  tin 1    part 


306 


ENAMELING 


Coral  Red.— 

Bichromate  potash  . .  1     part 

Red  lead 4&  parts 

Sugar  of  lead if  parts 

Flint 1$  parts 

Flint  glass 1    part 

Enamel  White.— Soft : 

Red  lead 80  parts 

Opal  glass 50  parts 

Flint 50  parts 

Borax 24  parts 

Arsenic 8  parts 

Niter 6  parts 

Enamel  White.— 

Red  lead 10    parts 

Flint. ... 6    parts 

Boracic  acid 4     parts 

Niter 1     part 

Soda  crystals 1     part 

Where  the  enameled  work  is  intended 
to  be  exposed  to  the  weather  do  not  use 
flux  No.  8,  but  substitute  the  following: 

White  lead 1     part 

Ground  flint  glass 1     part 

All  the  enamels  should,  after  being 
mixed,  be  melted  in  crucibles,  poured 
out  when  in  liquid,  and  powdered  or 
ground  for  use. 

FUSIBLE  ENAMEL  COLORS. 

The  following  colors  are  fusible  by 
heat,  and  are  all  suitable  for  the  decora- 
tion of  china  and  glass.  In  the  follow- 
ing collection  of  recipes  certain  terms 
are  employed  which  may  not  be  quite 
understood  by  persons  who  are  not  con- 
nected with  either  the  glass  or  poVcelain 
industries,  such  as  "glost  fire"  and  "run 
down,"  and  in  such  cases  reference 
must  be  made  to  the  following  defini- 
tions: 

"Run  down."  Sufficient  heat  to  melt 
into  liquid. 

"Glost  fire."     Ordinary  glaze  heat. 

"Grind  only."  No  calcination  re- 
quired. 

"Hard  fire."  Highest  heat  attain- 
able. 

"Frit."  The  ingredients  partly  com- 
posing a  glaze,  wliich  require  calcina- 
tion. 

"Stone."    Always  best  Cornwall  stone. 

"Paris  white."  Superior  quality  of 
whiting. 

"Parts."  Always  so  many  parts  by 
weight,  unless  otherwise  stated. 

"D.  L.  Zinc."  Particular  brand  not 
essential.  Any  good  quality  oxide  of 
zinc  will  do. 


Ruby   and   Maroon.  —  Preparation   of 
silver  : 

Nitric  acid  ..........      1    ounce 

Water  ..............      1    ounce 

Dissolve  the  silver  till  saturated,  then 
put  a  plate  of  copper  in  the  solution  to 
precipitate  the  silver  in  a  metallic  state. 
Wash  well  with  water  to  remove  the  ace- 
tate of  copper. 

Flux  for  Above.  —  Six  dwts.  white  lead 
to  1  ounce  prepared  silver. 

Tin  Solution.  —  Put  the  acid  (aqua 
regia)  in  a  bottle,  add  tin  in  small  quan- 
tities until  it  becomes  a  dark-red  color; 
let  it  stand  about  4  days  before  use. 
When  the  acid  becomes  saturated  it  will 
turn  red  at  the  bottom  of  the  bottle,  then 
shake  it  up  and  add  more  tin;  let  it  stand 
and  it  will  become  clear. 

Aqua  Regia.  — 

Nitric  acid  .....  .....      2    parts 

Muriatic  acid  ........      1    part 

Dissolve  grain  gold  in  the  aqua  regia 
so  as  to  make  a  saturated  solution. 
Take  a  basin  and  fill  it  3  parts  full  of 
water;  drop  the  solution  of  gold  into  it 
till  it  becomes  an  amber  color.  Into  this 
solution  of  gold  gradually  drop  the  solu- 
tion of  tin,  until  the  precipitate  is  com- 
plete. Wash  the  precipitate  until  the 
water  becomes  tasteless,  then  dry  slowly 
and  flux  as  follows: 


Flux  No.   i.— 

Borax  ..............     3 

Red  lead  ............      3 

Flint  ...............      2 

Run  down. 

Rose  Mixture.  — 

Purple  of  Cassius  ----      1 

Flux  No.  1  ..........      6 

Prepared  silver  ......      3 

Flint  glass  ..........      2 

Grind. 

Purple  Mixture.  — 

Purple  of  Cassius  ....  1 
Flux  No.  8  (see  page  307)  2 
Flint  glass  .....  .....  2 

Grind. 

Ruby.— 

Purple  mixture  ......      2 

Rose  mixture  ........      1 

Grind. 

Maroon.  — 

Rose  mixture  ........      1     part 

Purple  mixture  ......     £    parts 

Grind, 


parts 
parts 
parts 


ounce 
ounces 
dwts. 
ounces 


ounce 

ounces 

ounces 


parts 
parts 


ENAMELING 


307 


Black — Extra  quality. — 

Red  oxide  of  iron  ....    12  parts 
Carbonate  of  cobalt .  .    12  parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 1  part 

Black  flux  A  (see  next 

formula) 80  parts 

Glost  fire. 

Black  Flux  A.— 

Red  lead 3    parts 

Calcined  borax \  part 

Lynn  sand 1     part 

Run  down. 

Black  No.  2.— 

Oxide  of  copper 1     part 

Carbonate  of  cobalt. .        \  part 
Flux  No.  8   (see  next 
column) 4     parts 

Grind  only. 

Enamel  White. — 

Arsenic 2$  parts 

Niter \\  parts 

Borax 4     parts 

Flint 16    parts 

Glass 16     parts 

Red  lead 32    parts 

Glost  fire. 

Turquoise.  — China : 

Calcined  copper 5  parts 

Whiting 5  parts 

Phosphate  of  soda 8  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 16  parts 

Soda  crystals 4  parts 

Magnesia 2  parts 

Red  lead 8  parts 

Flux  T  (see  next  for- 
mula)      52  parts 

Glost  fire. 

Flux  T.— 

Borax 2  parts 

Sand 1  part 

Run  down. 

Orange. — 

Orange  U.  G 1  part 

Flux  No.  8  (see  next 

column) 3  parts 

Grind  only. 

Blue  Green. — 

Flint  glass 8    parts 

Enamel  white 25     parts 

Borax 8     parts 

Red  lead 24    parts 

Flint 6     parts 

Oxide  of  copper 2J  parts 

Glost  heat. 

Coral  Red.— 

Chromate  of  potash. .      1     part 
Sugar  of  lead Imparts 


Dissolve  in  hot  water,  then  dry.  Take 
1  part  of  above,  3  parts  flux  for  coral. 
Grind. 

Flux  for  Coral. — 

Red  lead 4|  parts 

Flint H  parts 

Flint  glass \\  parts 

Run  down. 

Turquoise. — 

Oxide  of  copper 5  parts 

Borax 10  parts 

Flint 12  parts 

Enamel  white 14  parts 

Red  lead 40  parts 

Glost  fire. 

Flux  No.  8. — 

Red  lead 6    parts 

Borax 4    parts 

Flint 2    parts 

Run  down. 

Russian  Green. — 

Malachite  green 10    parts 

Enamel  yellow 5     parts 

Majolica  white 5    parts 

Flux  No.  8   (see  pre- 
vious formula) 2    parts 

Grind  only. 

Amber. — 

Oxide  of  uranium  ...      1     part 
Coral  flux 8    parts 

Grind  only. 

Gordon  Green. — 

Yellow  U.  G 5    parts 

Flux  No.  8  (see  above)   15     parts 
Malachite  green 10    parts 

Grind  only. 

Celadon. — 

Enamel  light  blue  ...  1  part 

Malachite  green 1  part 

Flux  No.  8  (see  above)  15  parts 

Grind  only. 


Red  Brown. — 

Sulphate  of  iron,  fired     1     part 
Flux  No.  8  (see  above)     3    parts 

Grind  only. 

Matt  Blue.— 

Flux  No.  8  (see  above)   10£  parts 

Oxide  of  zinc 5     parts 

Oxide  of  cobalt 4    parts 

Glost  fire,  then  take 

Of  above  base 1     part 

Flux  No.  8  (see  above)     \\  parts 

Grind  only. 


308 


ENAMELING 


PREPARATION  OF  ENAMELS. 

The  base  of  enamel  is  glass,  colored 
different  shades  by  the  addition  of  me- 
tallic oxides  mixed  and  melted  with  it. 

The  oxide  of  cobalt  produces  blue; 
red  is  obtained  by  the  Cassius  process. 
The  purple  of  Cassius,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  of  colors,  is  used  al- 
most exclusively  in  enameling  and  min- 
iature painting;  it  is  produced  by  adding 
to  a  solution  of  gold  chloride  a  solution 
of  tin  chloride  mixed  with  ferric  chloride 
until  a  green  color  appears.  The  oxide 
of  iron  and  of  copper  also  produces  red, 
but  of  a  less  rich  tone;  chrome  produces 
green,  and  manganese  violet;  black  is 
produced  by  the  mixture  of  these  ox- 
ides. Antimony  and  arsenic  also  enter 
into  the  composition  of  enamels. 

Enamels  are  of  two  classes — opaque 
and  transparent.  The  opacity  is  caused 
by  the  presence  of  tin. 

When  the  mingled  glass  and  oxides 
have  been  put  in  the  crucible,  this  is 
placed  in  the  furnace,  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature of  1,832°  or  2,200°  F.  When 
the  mixture  becomes  fused,  it  is  stirred 
with  a  metal  rod.  Two  or  three  hours 
are  necessary  for  the  operation.  The 
enamel  is  then  poured  into  water,  which 
divides  it  into  grains,  or  formed  into 
cakes  or  masses,  which  are  left  to  cool. 

For  applying  enamels  to  metals,  gold, 
silver,  or  copper,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce 
tnem  to  powder,  which  is  effected  in  an 
agate  mortar  with  the  aid  of  a  pestle  of 
the  same  material.  During  the  opera- 
tion the  enamel  ought  to  be  soaked  in 
water. 

For  dissolving  the  impurities  which 
may  have  been  formed  during  the  work, 
a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  are  poured  in 
immediately  afterwards,  well  mixed,  and 
then  got  rid  of  by  repeated  washing  with 
filtered  water.  This  should  be  carefully 
done,  stirring  the  enamel  powder  with  a, 
glass  rod,  in  order  to  keep  the  particles  in 
suspension. 

The  powder  is  allowed  to  repose  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  after  making 
sure  by  the  taste  of  the  water  that  it  does 
not  contain  any  trace  of  acid;  only  then 
is  the  enamel  ready  for  use. 

For  enameling  a  jewel  or  other  object 
it  is  necessary,  first  to  heat  it  strongly,  in 
order  to  burn  off  any  fatty  matter,  and 
afterwards  to  cleanse  it  in  a  solution  of 
nitric  acid  diluted  with  boiling  water. 
After  rinsing  with  pure  water  and  wip- 
ing with  a  very  clean  cloth,  it  is  heated 
slightly  and  is  then  ready  to  receive  the 
enamel. 

Enamels  are  applied  with  a  steel  tool 
in  the  form  of  a  spatula;  water  is  the 


vehicle.  When  the  layers  of  enamel  have 
been  applied,  the  contained  water  is 
removed  by  means  of  a  fine  linen  rag, 
pressing  slightly  on  the  parts  that  have 
received  the  enamel.  The  tissue  ab- 
sorbs the  water,  and  nothing  remains  on 
the  object  except  the  enamel  powder. 
It  is  placed  before  the  fire  to  remove  every 
trace  of  moisture.  Thus  prepared  and 
put  on  a  fire-clap  slab,  it  is  ready  for  its 
passage  to  the  heat  which  fixes  the 
enamel.  This  operation  is  conducted  in 
a  furnace,  with  a  current  of  air  whose 
temperature  is  about  1,832°  F.  In  this 
operation  the  fire-chamber  ought  not  to 
contain  any  gas. 

Enamels  are  fused  at  a  temperature  of 
1,292°  to  1,472°  F.  Great  attention  is 
needed,  for  experience  alone  is  the  guide, 
and  the  duration  of  the  process  is  quite 
short.  On  coming  from  the  fire,  the 
molecules  composing  the  enamel  powder 
have  been  fused  together  and  present  to 
the  eye  a  vitreous  surface  covering  the 
metal  and  adhering  to  it  perfectly.  Un- 
der the  action  of  the  heat  the  metallic 
oxides  contained  in  the  enamel  have  met 
the  oxide  of  the  metal  and  formed  one 
body  with  it,  thus  adhering  completely. 

JEWELERS'  ENAMELS. 

Melt  together: 

Transparent  Red. — Cassius  gold  pur- 
ple, 65  parts,  by  weight;  crystal  glass,  30 
parts,  by  weight;  borax,  4  parts,  by  weight. 

Transparent  Blue. — Crystal  glass,  34 
parts,  by  weight;  borax,  6  parts,  by 
weight;  cobalt  oxide,  4  parts,  by  weight. 

Dark  Blue. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  borax,  6  parts,  by  weight;  co- 
balt oxide,  4  parts,  by  weight;  bone  black, 
4  parts,  by  weight;  arsenic  acid,  2  parts, 
by  weight. 

Transparent  Green. — Crystal  glass,  80 
parts,  by  weight;  cupric  oxide,  4  parts, 
by  weight;  borax,  2  parts,  by  weight. 

Dark  Green. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts, 
by  weight;  borax,  8  parts,  by  weight; 
cupric  oxide,  4  parts,  by  weight;  bone 
black,  4  parts  by  weight;  arsenic  acid,  2 
pares,  by  weight. 

Black. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  borax,  8  parts,  by  weight;  cupric 
oxide,  4  parts,  by  weight;  ferric  oxide,  3 
parts,  by  weight;  cobalt  oxide,  4  parts, 
by  weignt;  manganic  oxide,  4  parts,  by 
weight. 

White. — I. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  stannic  oxide,  6  parts,  by  weight; 
borax,  6  parts,  by  weignt;  arsenic  acid, 
2  parts,  by  weight. 

II. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts,  by  weight; 
sodium  antimonate,  10  parts,  by  weight. 


ENAMELING— ENGRAVINGS 


309 


The  finely  pulverized  colored  enamel  is 
applied  with  a  brush  and  lavender  oil  on 
the  white  enamel  already  fused  in  and 
then  only  heated  until  it  melts.  For 
certain  purposes,  the  color  compositions 
may  also  be  fused  in  without  a  white 

f round.      The  glass  used  for  white,  No. 
,  must  be  free  from  lead,  otherwise  the 
enamel  will  be  unsightly. 

Various  Enamels  for  Precious  Metals  : 
White.— Crystal  glass,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  oxide  of  tin,  6  parts,  by  weight; 
borax,  6  parts,  by  weight;  dioxide  of 
arsenic,  2.  parts,  by  weight,  or  silicious 
sand,  50  parts,  by  weight;  powder,  con- 
sisting of  15  of  tin  per  100  of  lead^lOO 
parts,  by  weight;  carbonate  of  potassium, 
40  parts,  by  weight.  Fuse  the  whole 
with  a  quantity  of  manganese.  To  take 
away  the  accidental  coloring,  pour  it 
into  water,  and  after  having  pulverized 
it,  melt  again  3  or  4  times. 

Opaque  Blue. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts, 
by  weight;  borax,  6  parts,  by  weight; 
cobalt  oxide,  4  parts,  by  weight;  calcined 
bone,  4  parts,  by  weight;  dioxide  of  ar- 
senic, 2  parts,  by  weight. 

Transparent  Green. — Crystal  glass,  30 
parts,  by  weight;  blue  verditer,  4  parts, 
by  weight;  borax,  2  parts,  by  weight. 

Opaque  Green. — Crystal  glass,  30 
parts,  by  weight;  borax,  8  parts,  by 
weight;  blue  verditer,  4  parts,  by  weight; 
calcined  bone,  4  parts,  by  weight;  dioxide 
of  arsenic,  2  parts,  by  weight. 

Black. — I. — Crystal  glass,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  borax,  8  parts,  by  weight;  oxide 
of  copper,  4  parts,  by  weight;  oxide  of 
iron,  3  parts,  by  weight;  oxide  of  cobalt, 
4  parts,  by  weight;'  oxide  of  manganese, 
4  parts,  by  weight. 

II. — Take  £  part,  by  weight,  of  silver; 
2 A  parts  of  copper;  3£  parts  of  lead,  and 
2 \  parts  of  muriate  of  ammonia.  Melt 
together  and  pour  into  a  crucible  with 
twice  as  much  pulverized  sulphur;  the 
crucible  is  then  to  be  immediately  covered 
that  the  sulphur  may  not  take  fire,  and 
the  mixture  is  to  be  calcined  over  a  smelt- 
ing fire  until  the  superfluous  sulphur  is 
burned  away.  The  compound  is  then 
to  be  coarsely  pounded,  and,  with  a  solu- 
tion of  muriate  of  ammonia,  to  be  formed 
into  a  paste  which  is  to  be  placed  upon 
the  article  it  is  designed  to  enamel.  The 
article  must  then  be  held  over  a  spirit 
lamp  till  the  compound  upon  it  melts 
and  flows.  After  this  it  may  be  smoothed 
and  polished  up  in  safety. 

See  also  Varnishes  and  Ceramics  for 
other  enamel  formulas. 


ENAMEL  COLORS,  QUICK  DRYING: 

See  Varnishes. 

ENAMEL  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

ENAMELING  ALLOYS: 
See  Alloys. 

ENGINES  (GASOLINE),  ANTI-FREEZ- 
ING SOLUTION  FOR: 

See  Freezing  Preventives. 

ENGRAVING  SPOON  HANDLES. 

After  the  first  monogram  has  been  en- 
graved, rub  it  with  a  mixture  of  3  parts 
of  beeswax,  3  of  tallow,  1  of  Canada  bal- 
sam, and  1  of  olive  oil.  Remove  any 
superfluous  quantity,  then  moisten  a 
piece  of  paper  with  the  tongue,  and 
press  it  evenly  upon  the  engraving.  Lay 
a  dry  piece  of  paper  over  it,  hold  both 
firmly  with  thumb  and  forefinger  of  left 
hand,  and  rub  over  the  surface  with  a 
polishing  tool  of  steel  or  bone.  The  wet 
paper  is  thereby  pressed  into  the  engrav- 
ing, and,  with  care,  a  clear  impression 
is  made.  Remove  the  paper  carefully, 
place  it  in  the  same  position  on  another 
handle,  and  a  clear  impression  will  be 
left.  The  same  paper  can  be  used  2 
dozen  times  or  more. 

ENGRAVING  ON  STEEL: 

See  Steel. 

Engravings :    Their    Preser- 
vation 

(See  also  Pictures,  Prints,  and  Litho- 
graphs.) 

Cleaning  of  Copperplate  Engravings. 
— Wash  the  sheet  on  both  sides  by 
means  of  a  soft  sponge  or  brush  witn 
water  to  which  40  parts  of  ammonium 
carbonate  has  been  added  per  1,000 
parts  of  water,  and  rinse  the  paper  each 
time  with  clear  water.  Next  moisten  with 
water  in  which  a  little  wine  vinegar  has 
been  admixed,  rinse  the  sheet  again  with 
water  containing  a  little  chloride  of  lime, 
and  dry  in  the  air,  preferably  in  the  sun. 
The  paper  will  become  perfectly  clear 
without  the  print  being  injured. 

Restoration  of  Old  Prints. — Old  en- 
gravings, woodcuts,  or  printed  sheets 
that  have  turned  yellow  may  be  ren- 
dered white  by  first  washing  carefully  in 
water  containing  a  little  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  and  then  dipping  for  a  minute  in 
javelle  water.  To  prepare  the  latter, 
put  4  pounds  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  a 
pan,  pour  over  it  1  gallon  of  boiling 
water;  boil  for  15  minutes,  then  stir  in  1 


310 


ENGRAVINGS— ESSENCES   AND  EXTRACTS 


pound  of  chloride  of  lime.  When  cold, 
pour  off  the  clear  liquid,  and  keep  in  a 
jug  ready  for  use. 

Surprising  results  are  obtained  from 
the  use  of  hydrogen  peroxide  in  the 
restoration  of  old  copper  or  steel  engrav- 
ings or  lithographs  which  have  become 
soiled  or  yellow,  and  this  without  the 
least  injury  to  the  picture.  The  cellulose 
which  makes  the  substance  of  the  paper 
resists  the  action  of  ozone,  and  the  black 
carbon  color  of  these  prints  is  inde- 
structible. 

To  remove  grease  or  other  spots  of 
dirt  before  bleaching,  the  engravings  are 
treated  with  benzine.  This  is  done  by 
laying  each  one  out  flat  in  a  shallow  ves- 
sel and  pouring  the  benzine  over  it.  As 
benzine  evaporates  very  rapidly,  the 
vessel  must  be  kept  well  covered,  and 
since  its  vapors  are  also  exceedingly  in- 
flammable, no  fire  or  smoking  should  be 
allowed  in  the  room.  The  picture  is 
left  for  several  hours,  then  lifted  out 
and  dried  in  the  air,  and  finally  brushed 
several  times  with  a  soft  brush.  The 
dust  which  was  kept  upon  the  paper  by 
the  grease  now  lies  more  loosely  upon  it 
and  can  easily  be  removed  by  brushing. 

In  many  cases  the  above  treatment  is 
sufficient  to  improve  the  appearance  of 
the  picture.  In  the  case  of  very  old  or 
badly  soiled  engravings,  it  is  followed 
by  a  second,  consisting  in  the  immersion 
of  the  picture  in  a  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate  or  a  very  dilute  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  it  being  left  as  before  for 
several  hours.  After  the  liquid  has  been 
poured  off,  the  picture  must  be  repeated- 
ly rinsed  in  clear  water,  to  remove  any 
remnant  of  the  soda. 

By  these  means  the  paper  is  so  far 
cleansed  that  only  spots  of  mold  or 
other  discolorations  remain.  These  may 
be  removed  by  hydrogen  peroxide,  in  a 
fairly  strong  solution.  The  commercial 
peroxide  may  be  diluted  with  2  parts 
water. 

The  picture  is  laid  in  a  shallow  vessel, 
the  peroxide  poured  over  it,  and  the 
vessel  placed  in  a  strong  light.  Very 
soon  the  discolorations  will  pale. 

To  Reduce  Engravings. — Plaster  casts, 
as  we  know,  can  be  perceptibly  reduced 
in  size  by  treatment  with  water  or 
alcohol,  and  if  this  is  properly  done,  the 
reduction  is  so  even  that  the  cast  loses 
nothing  of  its  clear  outline,  but  some- 
times even  gains  in  this  respect  by  con- 
traction. If  it  is  desired  to  reduce  an 
engraved  plate,  make  a  plaster  cast  of  it, 
treat  this  with  water  or  alcohol,  and  fill 
the  new  cast  with  some  easily  fusible 


metal.  This  model,  which  will  be  con- 
siderably smaller  than  the  original,  is 
to  be  made  again  in  plaster,  and  again 
treated,  until  the  desired  size  is  reached. 
In  this  way  anything  of  the  kind,  even 
medallions,  can  be  reproduced  on  a 
smaller  scale. 

ENLARGEMENTS: 
See  Photography. 

ENVELOPE  GUM: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Mucilages. 

EPIZOOTY: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

Essences  and  Extracts  of 
Fruits 

Preservation  of  Fruit  Juices. — The 
juices  of  pulpy  fruits,  when  frech,  con- 
tain an  active  principle  known  as  pectin, 
which  is  the  coagulating  substance  that 
forms  the  basis  of  fruit  jellies.  This  it 
is  which  prevents  the  juice  of  berries 
and  similar  fruits  from  passing  through 
filtering  media.  Pectin  may  be  precipi- 
tated by  the  addition  of  alcohol,  or  by 
fermentation.  The  latter  is  the  best,  as 
the  addition  of  alcohol  to  the  fresh  juices 
destroys  their  aroma  and  injures  the 
taste.  The  induction  of  a  light  fermen- 
tation is  far  the  better  method,  not  only 
preserving,  when  carefully  conducted, 
the  taste  and  aroma  of  the  fruit,  but  yield- 
ing far  more  juice.  The  fruit  is  crushed 
and  the  juice  subsequently  carefully  but 
strongly  pressed  out.  Sometimes  the 
crushed  fruit  is  allowed  to  stand  awhile, 
and  to  proceed  to  a  light  fermentation 
before  pressure  is  applied;  but  while  a 
greater  amount  of  juice  is  thus  obtained, 
the  aroma  and  flavor  of  the  product  are 
very  sensibly  injured  by  the  procedure. 

To  the  juice  thus  obtained,  add  from 
1  to  2  per  cent  of  sugar,  and  put  away  in 
a  cool  place  (where  the  temperature  will 
not  rise  over  70°  or  75°  F.).  Fermenta- 
tion soon  begins,  and  will  proceed  for  a 
few  days.  As  soon  as  the  development 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  ceases,  the  juice 
begins  to  clear  itself,  from  the  surface 
downward,  and  in  a  short  time  all  solid 
matter  will  lie  in  a  mass  at  the  bottom, 
leaving  the  liquid  bright  and  clear. 
Draw  off  the  latter  with  a  siphon,  very 
carefully,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  sedi- 
mentary matter.  Fermentation  should 
be  induced  in  closed  vessels  only,  as 
when  conducted  in  open  containers  a 
fungoid  growth  is  apt  to  form  on  the 
surface,  sometimes  causing  putrefactive, 
and  at  others,  an  acetic,  fermentation,  in 
either  event  spoiling  the  juice  for  sub- 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


311 


sequent  use,  except  as  a  vinegar.  The 
vessels,  to  effect  the  end  desired,  should 
be  filled  only  two-thirds  or  three-fourths 
full,  and  then  carefully  closed  with  a 
tight-fitting  cork,  through  which  is  passed 
a  tube  of  glass,  bent  at  the  upper  end, 
the  short  end  of  which  passes  below  the 
surface  of  a  vessel  filled  with  water.  As 
soon  as  fermentation  commences  the 
carbonic  acid  developed  thereby  escapes 
through  the  tube  into  the  water,  whence 
it  passes  off  into  the  atmosphere.  When 
bubbles  no  longer  pass  off  from  the  tube 
the  operation  should  be  interrupted,  and 
decantation  or  siphoning,  with  subse- 
quent filtration,  commenced. 

By  proceeding  in  this  manner  all  the 
aroma  and  flavor  of  the  juices  are  re- 
tained. If  it  is  intended  for  preserva- 
tion for  any  length  of  time  the  juice 
should  be  heated  on  a  water  bath  to  about 
176°  F.  and  poured,  while  hot,  into  bot- 
tles which  have  been  asepticized  by  filling 
with  cold  water,  and  placing  in  a  vessel 
similarly  filled,  bringing  to  a  boiling 
temperature,  and  maintaining  at  this 
temperature  until  the  juice,  while  still 
hot,  is  poured  into  them.  If  now  closed 
with  corks  similarly  asepticized,  or  by 
dipping  into  hot  melted  paraffine,  the 
juice  may  be  kept  unaltered  for  years. 
It  is  better,  however,  to  make  the  juice 
at  once  into  syrup,  using  the  best  refined 
sugar,  and  boiling  in  a  copper  kettle 
(iron  or  tin  spoil  the  color),  following  the 
usual  precautions  as  to  skimming,  etc. 
The  syrup  should  be  poured  hot  into  the 
bottles  previously  heated  as  before  de- 
scribed. 

Ripe  fruit  may  be  kept  in  suitable 
quantities  for  a  considerable  time  if  cov- 
ered with  a  solution  of  saccharine  and 
left  undisturbed,  this,  too,  without  dete- 
riorating the  taste,  color,  or  aroma  of  the 
fruit  if  packed  with  care. 

Whole  fruit  may  be  stored  in  bulk, 
by  carefully  and  without  fracture  filling 
into  convenient-sized  jars  or  bottles,  and 
pouring  thereon  a  solution  containing  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  refined  saccharine 
to  the  gallon  of  water,  so  filling  each 
vessel  that  the  solution  is  within  an  inch 
of  the  cork  when  pressed  into  position. 
The  corks  should  first  of  all  be  immersed 
in  melted  paraffine  wax,  then  drained, 
and  allowed  to  cool.  When  fruit  juices 
alone  are  required  for  storage  purposes 
they  are  prepared  by  subjecting  the 
juicy  fruits  to  considerable  pressure,  by 
which  process  the  juices  are  liberated. 

The  sound  ripe  fruits  are  crushed  and 

Eacked  into  felt  or  flannel  bags.     The 
:-uit  should  be  carefully  selected,  rotten 
or  impaired  portions  being  carefully  re- 


moved; this  is  important,  or  the  whole 
stock  would  be  spoiled.  Several  meth- 
ods are  adopted  for  preserving  and  clari- 
fying fruit  juices. 

A  common  way  in  which  they  are  kept 
from  fermenting  is  by  the  use  of  salicylic 
acid  or  other  antiseptic  substance,  which 
destroys  the  fermentative  germ,  or  other- 
wise retards  its  action  for  a  considerable 
time.  The  use  of  this  acid  is  seriously 
objected  to  by  some  as  injurious  to  the 
consumer.  About  2  ounces  of  salicylic 
acid,  previously  dissolved  in  alcohol,  to 
25  gallons  of  juice,  or  40  grains  to  the 
gallon,  is  generally  considered  the  proper 
proportion. 

Another  method  adopted  is  to  fill  the 
freshly  prepared  cold  juice  into  bottles 
until  it  reaches  the  necks,  and  on  the  top 
of  this  fruit  juice  a  little  glycerine  is 
placed. 

Juices  thus  preserved  will  keep  in  an 
unchanged  condition  in  any  season. 
Probably  one  of  the  best  methods  of  pre- 
serving fruit  juices  is  to  add  15  per  cent 
of  95  per  cent  alcohol.  On  such  an  ad- 
dition, albumen  and  mucilaginous  matter 
will  be  deposited.  The  juice  may  then 
be  stored  in  large  bottles,  jars,  or  barrels, 
if  securely  closed,  and  when  clear,  so 
that  further  clarification  is  unnecessary, 
the  juice  should  finally  be  decanted  or 
siphoned  off. 

A  method  applicable  to  most  berries  is 
as  follows: 

Take  fresh,  ripe  berries,  stem  them, 
and  rub  through  a  No.  8  sieve,  rejecting 
all  soft  and  green  fruit.  Add  to  each 
gallon  of  pulp  thus  obtained  8  pounds  of 
granulated  sugar.  Put  on  the  fire  and 
bring  just  to  a  boil,  stirring  constantly. 
Just  before  removing  from  the  fire,  add 
to  each  gallon  1  ounce  of  a  saturated  alco- 
holic solution  of  salicylic  acid,  stirring 
well.  Remove  the  scum,  and,  while  still 
hot,  put  into  jars  and  hermetically  seal. 
Put  the  jars  in  cold  water,  and  raise  them 
to  the  boiling  point,  to  prevent  them 
from  bursting  by  sudden  expansion  on 
pouring  hot  fruit  into  them.  Fill  the 
jars  entirely  full,  so  as  to  leave  no  air 
space  when  fruit  cools  and  contracts. 

Prevention  of  Foaming  and  Partial 
Caramelization  of  Fruit  Juices. — Fresh 
fruit  juices  carry  a  notable  amount  of 
free  carbonic  acid,  which  must  make  its 
escape  on  heating  the  liquid.  This  will 
do  easily  enough  if  the  juice  be  heated  in 
its  natural  state,  but  the  addition  of  the 
sugar  so  increases  the  density  of  the 
fluid  that  the  acid  finds  escape  difficult, 
and  often  the  result  is  foaming.  As  to 
the  burning  or  partial  caramelization  of 


812 


ESSENCES  AND   EXTRACTS 


the  syrup,  that  is  easily  accounted  for  in 
the  greater  density  of  the  syrup  at  the 
bottom  of  the  kettle — the  lighter  portion, 
or  that  still  carrying  imprisoned  gases, 
remaining  on  top  until  it  is  freed  from 
them.  Constant  stirring  can  prevent 
this  only  partially,  since  it  cannot  entirely 
overcome  the  results  of  the  natural  forces 
in  action.  The  consequence  is  more  or 
less  caramelization.  The  remedy  is  very 
simple.  Boil  the  juices  first,  adding  dis- 
tilled water  to  make  up  for  the  loss  by 
evaporation,  and  add  the  sugar  afterwards. 

ESSENCES  AND  EXTRACTS: 
Almond  Extracts. — 
I.  —Oil  of  bitter  almonds  90  minims 
Alcohol,  94  per  cent,  quantity  suffi- 
cient to  make  8  ounces. 

II. — Oil  of  bitter  almonds  80  miriims 

Alcohol 7  ounces 

Distilled  water,  quantity  sufficient 
to  make  8  ounces. 

III.— Oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds, deprived 
of  its  hydrocyanic 

acid 1  ounce 

Alcohol 15  ounces 

In  order  to  remove  the  hydrocyanic 
acid  in  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  dissolve  2 
parts  of  ferrous  sulphate  in  16  parts  of 
distilled  water;  in  another  vessel  slake  1 
part  freshly  burned  quicklime  in  a  simi- 
lar quantity  of  distilled  water,  and  to  this 
add  the  solution  of  iron  sulphate,  after 
the  same  has  cooled.  In  the  mixture  put 
4  parts  of  almond  oil,  and  thoroughly 
agitate  the  liquids  together.  Repeat  the 
agitation  at  an  interval  of  5  minutes, 
then  filter.  Put  the  filtrate  into  a  glass 
retort  and  distil  until  all  the  oil  has  passed 
over.  Remove  any  water  that  may  be 
with  the  distillate  by  decantation,  or 
otherwise. 

Apricot  Extract. — 

Linalyl  formate 90  minims 

Glycerine 1  ounce 

Amyl  valerianate 4  drachms 

Alcohol 11  ounces 

Fluid  extract  orris.  . .  1  ounce 
Water,  quantity  sufficient  to  make  1 
pint. 

Apple  Extract. — 

Glycerine 1  ounce 

Amyl  valerianate 4  drachms 

Linalyl  formate 45  minims 

Fluid  extract  orris..  .  .      1  ounce 

Alcohol 11  ounces 

Water,  quantity  sufficient  to  make  1 
pint. 


Apple  Syrup. — I. — Peel  and  remove  the 
cores  of,  say,  5  parts  of  apples  and  cut 
them  into  little  bits.  Put  in  a  suitable 
vessel  and  pour  over  them  a  mixture  of 
5  parts  each  of  common  white  wine  and 
water,  and  let  macerate  together  for  5 
days  at  from  125°  to  135°  F.,  the  vessel 
being  closed  during  the  time.  Then  strain 
the  liquid  through  a  linen  cloth,  using 
gentle  pressure  on  the  solid  matter,  forc- 
ing as  much  as  possible  of  it  through  the 
cloth.  Boil  30  parts  of  sugar  and  20 
parts  of  water  together,  and  when  boiling 
add  to  the  resulting  syrup  the  apple 
juice;  let  it  boil  up  for  a  minute  or  so, 
and  strain  through  flannel. 

II. — Good  ripe  apples  are  cut  into 
small  pieces  and  pounded  to  a  pulp  in  a 
mortar  of  any  metal  with  the  exception 
of  iron.  To  1  part  of  this  pulp  add  11 
parts  of  water.  Allow  this  to  stand  for 
12  hours.  Colate.  To  11  parts  of  the 
colature  add  1  part  of  sugar.  Boil  for 
5  minutes.  Skim  carefully.  Bottle  slight- 
ly warm.  A  small  quantity  of  tartaric 
acid  may  be  added  to  heighten  the  flavor. 

Banana  Syrup. — Cut  the  fruit  in  slices 
and  place  in  a  jar;  sprinkle  with  sugar 
and  cover  the  jar,  which  is  then  envel- 
oped in  straw  and  placed  in  cold  water 
and  the  latter  is  heated  to  the  boiling 
point.  The  jar  is  then  removed,  allowed 
to  cool,  and  the  juice  poured  into  bottles. 

Cinnamon  Essence. — 

Oil  of  cinnamon 2  drachms 

Cinnamon,  powdered  4  ounces 

Alcohol,  deodorized.  .  16  ounces 

Distilled  water 16  ounces 

Dissolve  the  oil  in  the  alcohol,  and  add 
the  water,  an  ounce  at  a  time,  with  agita- 
tion after  each  addition.  Moisten  the 
cinnamon  with  a  little  of  the  water,  add, 
and  agitate.  Cork  tightly,  and  put  in  a 
warm  place,  to  macerate,  2  weeks,  giv- 
ing the  flask  a  vigorous  agitation  sev- 
eral times  a  day.  Finally,  filter  through 
paper,  and  keep  in  small  vials,  tightly 
stoppered. 

Chocolate  Extract.— Probably  the  best 
form  of  chocolate  extract  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: 

Curacao  cocoa 400  parts 

Vanilla,      chopped 

fine 1  part 

Alcohol    of   55    per 

cent 2,000  parts 

Mix  and  macerate  together  for  15 
days,  express  and  set  aside.  Pack  the 
residue  in  a  percolator,  and  pour  on  boil- 
ing water  (soft)  and  percolate  until  575 
parts  pass  through.  Put  the  percolate 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


SIS 


in  a  flask,  cork,  and  let  cool,  then  mix 
with  the  alcoholic  extract.  If  it  be  de- 
sired to  make  a  syrup,  before  mixing  the 
extract,  add  1,000  parts  of  sugar  to  the 
percolate,  and  with  gentle  heat  dissolve 
the  sugar.  Mix  the  syrup  thus  formed, 
after  cooling,  with  the  alcoholic  extract. 

Coffee  Extracts. — In  making  coffee 
extract,  care  must  be  used  to  avoid  ex- 
tracting the  bitter  properties  of  the  coffee, 
as  this  is  where  most  manufacturers  fail; 
in  trying  to  get  a  strong  extract  they  suc- 
ceed only  in  getting  a  bitter  one. 

I. — The  coffee  should  be  a  mixture  of 
Mocha,  3  parts;  Old  Government  Java, 
5  parts;  or,  as  some  prefer,  Mocha,  3  parts; 
Java,  3  parts;  best  old  Rio,  2  parts. 

Coffee,  freshly  roasted 

and  pulverized 100  parts 

Boiling  water 600  parts 

Pack  the  coffee,  moistened  with  boil- 
ing water,  in  a  strainer,  or  dipper,  placed 
in  a  vessel  standing  in  the  water  bath  at 
boiling  point,  and  let  400  parts  of  the 
water,  in  active  ebullition,  pass  slowly 
through  it.  Draw  off  the  liquid  as  quick- 
ly as  possible  (best  into  a  vessel  previously 
heated  by  boiling  water  to  nearly  the  boil- 
ing point),  add  200  parts  of  boiling  water, 
and  pass  the  whole  again  through  the 
strainer  (the  container  remaining  in  the 
water  bath).  Remove  from  the  bath; 
add  540  parts  of  sugar,  and  dissolve  by 
agitation  while  still  hot. 

II. — The  following  is  based  upon  Lie- 
big's  method  of  making  coffee  for  table 
use:  Moisten  50  parts  of  coffee,  freshly 
roasted  and  powdered  as  before,  with 
cold  water,  and  add  to  it  a  little  egg  albu- 
men and  stir  in.  Pour  over  the  whole 
400  parts  of  boiling  water,  set  on  the  fire, 
and  let  come  to  a  boil.  As  the  liquid 
foams,  stir  down  with  a  spoon,  but  let  it 
come  to  a  boil  for  a  moment;  add  a  little 
cold  water,  cover  tightly,  and  set  aside  in 
a  warm  place.  Exhaust  the  residual 
coffee  with  300  parts  of  boiling  water,  as 
detailed  in  the  first  process,  and  to  the 
filtrate  add  carefully  the  now  clarified 
extract,  up  to  600  parts,  by  adding  boiling 
water.  Proceed  to  make  the  syrup  by 
the  method  detailed  above. 

III. — To  make  a  more  permanent  ex- 
tract of  coffee  saturate  600  parts  of 
freshly  roasted  coffee,  ground  moderately 
fine,  with  any  desired  quantity  of  a  1  in  3 
mixture  of  alcohol  of  94  per  cent  and 
distilled  water,  and  pack  in  a  percolator. 
Close  the  faucet  and  let  stand,  closely 
stoppered,  for  24  hours;  then  pour  on  the 
residue  of  the  alcohol  and  water,  and  let 
run  through,  adding  sufficient  water,  at 


the  last,  so  as  to  compensate  for  what 
boils  away.  Set  this  aside,  and  continue 
the  percolation,  with  boiling  water,  until 
the  powder  is  exhausted.  Evaporate  the 
resultant  percolate  down  to  the  consist- 
ency of  the  alcoholic  extract,  and  mix  the 
two.  If  desired,  the  result  may  be 
evaporated  down  to  condition  of  an  ex 
tract.  To  dissolve,  add  boiling  water. 

IV.— This  essence  is  expressly  adapted 
to  boiling  purposes.  Take  3  pounds  of 
good  coffee,  4  ounces  of  granulated  sugar, 
4  pints  of  pure  alcohol,  6  pints  of  hot 
water.  Have  coffee  fresh  roasted  and  of 
a  medium  grinding.  Pack  in  a  glass  per- 
colator, and  percolate  it  with  a  men- 
struum, consisting  of  the  water  and  the 
alcohol.  Repeat  the  percolation  until 
the  desired  strength  is  obtained,  or  the 
coffee  exhausted;  then  add  the  sugar  and 
filter. 

V. — Mocha  coffee 1  pound 

Java  coffee 1  pound 

Glycerine,  quantity  sufficient. 
Water,  quantity  sufficient. 

Grind  the  two  coffees  fine,  and  mix, 
then  moisten  with  a  mixture  of  1  part  of 
glycerine  and  3  parts  of  water,  and  pack 
in  a  glass  percolator,  and  percolate  slowly 
until  30  ounces  of  the  percolate  is  ob- 
tained. It  is  a  more  complete  extraction 
if  the  menstruum  be  poured  on  in  the  con- 
dition of  boiling,  and  it  be  allowed  to 
macerate  for  20  minutes  before  percola- 
tion commences.  Coffee  extract  should, 
by  preference,  be  made  in  a  glass  per- 
colator. A  glycerine  menstruum  is  pref- 
erable to  one  of  dilute  alcohol,  giving  a 
finer  product. 
VI.— Coffee,  Java,  roast- 
ed, No.  20  pow- 
der    4  ounces 

Glycerine,  pure. ...    4  fluidounces 
Water,  quantity  sufficient. 
Boiling,  quantity  sufficient. 

Moisten  the  coffee  slightly  with  water, 
and  pack  firmly  in  a  tin  percolator;  pour 
on  water,  gradually,  until  4  fluidounces 
are  obtained,  then  set  aside.  Place  the 
coffee  in  a  clean  tin  vessel,  with  8  fluid- 
ounces  of  water,  and  boil  for  5  minutes. 
Again  place  the  coffee  in  the  percolator 
with  the  water  (infusion),  and  when  the 
liquid  has  passed,  or  drained  off,  pack 
the  grounds  firmly,  and  pour  on  boiling 
water  until  8  fluidounces  are  obtained. 
When  cold,  mix  the  first  product,  and 
add  the  glycerine,  bottle,  and  cork  well. 

The  excellence  of  this  extract  of  cof- 
fee, from  the  manner  of  its  preparation, 
will  be  found  by  experience  to  be  incom- 
parably superior  to  that  made  by  the  for- 


314 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


mulas  usually  recommended,  the  reason 
being  apparent  in  the  first  step  in  the 
process. 

Coffee  Essence. — 

Best    ground    Mocha 

coffee 4  pounds 

Best  ground  chicory. .      2  pounds 
Boil  with  2  gallons  of  water  in  a  closed 
vessel  and  when  cold,  strain,  press,  and 
make  up  to  2  gallons,  and  to  this  add 
Rectified  spirit  of  wine    8  ounces 
Pure  glycerine  (fluid)   16  ounces 
Add  syrup  enough  to  make  4  gallons, 
and  mix  intimately. 

Cucumber  Essence. — Press  the  juice 
from  cucumbers,  mix  with  an  equal  vol- 
ume of  alcohol  and  distil.     If  the  distil- 
late is  not  sufficiently  perfumed,   more 
juice  may  be  added  and  the  mixture  dis- 
tilled.    It  is  said  that  the  essence  thus 
Erepared  will  not  spoil  when  mixed  with 
its  in  the  preparation  of  cosmetics. 

Fruit  Jelly  Extract.— Fill  into  separate 
paper  bags: 

Medium    finely    pow- 
dered gelatin 18  parts 

Medium    finely    pow- 
dered citric  acid. ...      3  parts 
Likewise  into  a  glass  bottle  a  mixture  of 
any  desired 

Fruit  essence 1  part 

Spirit  of  wine 1  part 

and  dissolve  in  the  mixture  for  obtain- 
ing the  desired  color,  raspberry  red  or 
lemon  yellow,  -jV  part. 

For  use,  dissolve  the  gelatin  and  the 
citric  acid  in  boiling  water,  adding 

Sugar 125  parts 

and  mixing  before  cooling  with  the  fruit 
essence  mixture. 

Ginger  Extracts. — The  following  is  an 
excellent  method  of  preparing  a  soluble 
essence  or  extract  of  ginger: 

I. — Jamaica  ginger 24  ounces 

Rectified  spirits,   60 

per  cent 45  ounces 

Water 15  ounces 

Mix  and  let  macerate  together  with 
frequent  agitations  for  10  days,  then  per- 
colate, press  off,  and  filter.  The  yield 
should  be  45  ounces.  Of  this  take  40 
ounces  and  mix  with  an  equal  amount  of 
distilled  water.  Dissolve  6  drachms  of 
sodium  phosphate  in  5  ounces  of  boiling 
water ;  let  cool  and  add  .the  solution  to  the 
filtrate  and  water,  mixing  well.  Add  2 
drachms  of  calcium  chloride  dissolved  in 
5  ounces  of  water,  nearly  cold,  and  again 


thoroughly  shake  the  whole.     Let  stand 
for  12  hours;  then  filter. 

Put  the  filtrate  in  a  still,  and  distil  off, 
at  as  slow  a  temperature  as  possible,  30 
ounces.  Set  this  distillate  to  one  side, 
and  continue  the  distillation  till  another 
40  ounces  have  passed,  then  let  the  still 
cool.  The  residue  in  the  still,  some  18 
ounces,  is  the  desired  essence.  Pour  out 
all  that  is  possible  and  wash  the  still  with 
the  30  ounces  of  distillate  first  set  aside. 
This  takes  up  all  that  is  essential. 
Finally,  filter  once  more,  through  double 
filter  paper  and  preserve  the  filtrate — 
about  40  ounces,  of  an  amber-colored 
liquid  containing  all  of  the  essentials  of 
Jamaica  ginger. 

Soluble  Essence  of  Ginger.— II.— The 
following  is  Harrop's  method  of  proceed- 
ing: 

Fluid  extract  of  gin- 
ger (U.  S.) 4  ounces 

Pumice,     in     moder- 
ately fine  powder  .  .      1  ounce 
Water  enough  to  make    12  ounces 

Pour  the  fluid  extract  into  a  bottle,  add 
the  pumice  and  shake  the  mixture  and 
repeat  the  shaking  in  the  course  of  several 
hours.  Now  add  the  water  in  propor- 
tion of  about  2  ounces,  shaking  well  and 
frequently  after  each  addition.  When 
all  is  added  repeat  the  agitation  occa- 
sionally during  24  hours,  then  filter, 
returning  the  last  portion  of  the  filtrate 
until  it  comes  through  clear,  and  if  nec- 
essary add  sufficient  water  to  make  12 
ounces. 

III. — Jamaica   ginger, 

ground 2  pounds 

Pumice  stone,  ground  2  ounces 

Lime,  slaked 2  ounces 

Alcohol,  dilute 4  pints 

Rub  the  ginger  with  the  pumice  stone 
and  lime  until  thoroughly  mixed.  Moisten 
with  the  dilute  alcohol  until  saturated  and 
place  in  a  narrow  percolator,  being  care- 
ful not  to  use  force  in  packing,  but  simply 
putting  it  in  to  obtain  the  position  of  a 
powder  to  be  percolated,  so  that  the 
menstruum  will  go  through  uniformly. 
Finally,  add  the  dilute  alcohol  and  pro- 
ceed until  4  pints  of  percolate  are  ob- 
tained. Allow  the  liquid  to  stand  for 
24  hours;  then  filter  if  necessary. 

IV. — Tincture  ginger 480  parts 

Tincture  capsicum..    12  parts 
Oleoresin  ginger. ...      8  parts 
Magnesium  carbon- 
ate      16  parts 

Rub  the  oleoresin  with  the  magnesia, 
and  add  the  tinctures;  add  about  400 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


315 


parts  of  water,  in  divided  portions,  stir- 
ring vigorously  the  while.  Transfer  the 
mixture  to  a  bottle,  and  allow  to  stand 
1  week,  shaking  frequently;  then  filter, 
and  make  up  960  parts  with  water. 

V. — Fluid  extract  of  ginger 

(U.S.  P.) 4  ounces 

Pumice,  powdered  and 

washed 1  ounce 

Water  enough  to  make  12  ounces 

Pour  the  fluid  extract  of  ginger  into  a 
bottle,  and  add  the  pumice,  shake  thor- 
oughly, set  aside,  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion in  the  course  of  several  hours.  Add 
the  water,  in  the  proportion  of  about  2 
ounces  at  a  time,  agitating  vigorously 
after  each  addition.  When  all  is  added, 
repeat  the  agitation  occasionally  during 
24  hours,  then  filter,  returning  the  first 
portion  of  the  filtrate  until  it  comes 
through  bright  and  clear.  If  necessary, 
pass  water  through  the  filter,  enough  to 
make  12  fluidounces  of  filtrate. 

VI. — Strongest    tincture 

of  ginger 1     pint 

Fresh  slaked  lime.  1£  ounces 

Salt  of  tartar \  ounce 

VII.'  Jamaica  ginger, 

ground 32  parts 

Pumice  stone,  pow- 
dered   32  parts 

Lime,  slaked 2     parts 

Alcohol,  dilute, 

sufficient  to  make  32  parts 

Rub  the  ginger  with  the  pumice  stone 
and  lime,  then  moisten  with  alcohol  until 
it  is  saturated  with  it.  Put  in  a  narrow 
percolator,  using  no  force  in  packing. 
Allow  the  mass  to  stand  for  24  hours, 
then  let  run  through.  Filter  if  neces- 
sary. 

VIII.— The  following  is  insoluble: 

Cochin     ginger, 

cut  fine 1,000  parts 

Alcohol,  95  per 

cent 2,500  parts 

Water. 1,250  parts 

Glycerine 250  parts 

Digest  together  for  8  days  in  a  very 
warm,  not  to  say  hot,  place.  Decant, 
press  off  the  roots,  and  add  to  the  cola- 
ture,  then  filter  through  paper.  This 
makes  a  strong,  natural  tasting  essence. 

IX. —Green  Ginger  Extract. —The 
green  ginger  root  is  freed  from  the  epi- 
dermis and  surface  dried  by  exposure  to 
the  air  for  a  few  hours.  It  is  then  cut 
into  thin  slices  and  macerated  for  some 
days  with  an  equal  weight  of  rectified 
spirit,  which  when  filtered  will  yield  an 


essence  possessing  a  very  fine  aroma 
and  forming  an  almost  perfectly  clear 
solution  in  water.  If  the  ginger  is  al- 
lowed to  dry  more  than  the  few  hours 
mentioned  it  will  not  produce  a  solu- 
ble essence.  It  is  used  in  some  of  the 
imported  ginger  ales  as  a  flavoring  only, 
and  makes  a  lovely  ginger  flavor. 

Hop  Syrup. — A  palatable  preparation 
not  inferior  to  many  of  the  so-called  hop 
bitters: 

Hops 2  parts 

Dandelion 2  parts 

Gentian 2  parts 

Chamomile 2  parts 

Stillingia 2  parts 

Orange  peel 2  parts 

Alcohol 75  parts 

Water 75  parts 

Syrup,  simple 50  parts 

Coarsely  powder  the  drugs  and  ex- 
haust with  the  water  and  alcohol  mixed. 
Decant,  press  out  and  filter,  and  finally 
add  the  syrup.  The  dose  is  a  wineglass- 
f  ul  2  or  3  times  daily. 

Lemon  Essences. — I. — Macerate  the 
cut-up  fresh  peelings  of  40  lemons  and  30 
China  oranges  in  8  quarts  of  alcohol  and 
2  quarts  of  water,  for  2  or  3  days,  then 
distil  off  8  quarts.  Every  100  parts  of 
this  distillate  is  mixed  with  75  parts  of 
citric  acid  dissolved  in  200  parts  of  water, 
colored  with  a  trace  of  orange  and  filtered 
through  talc.  Each  200  parts  of  the  fil- 
trate is  then  mixed  with  2  quarts  of 
syrup. 

II. — Twenty-five  middle-sized  lemons 
are  thinly  peeled,  the  peelings  finely  cut, 
and  the  whole,  lemons  and  peels,  put  to 
macerate  in  a  mixture  of  3  pints  90  per 
cent  alcohol  and  5  quarts  water.  Let 
macerate  for  24  hours.  Add  10  drops 
lemon  and  10  drops  orange  oil;  then 
slowly  distil  off  4  quarts.  The  distillate 
will  be  turbid,  but  if  left  to  stand  in  a 
cool,  dark  place  for  a  week  it  will  filter 
off  clear,  and  should  make  a  clear  mix- 
ture with  equal  parts  of  water  and  simple 
syrup.  If  it  does  not,  add  with  a 
pipette,  drop  by  drop,  sufficient  alcohol 
to  make  it  do  so.  Finally,  dissolve  in  the 
mixture  4  drachms  of  vanillin,  and  color 
with  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  turmeric 
and  a  little  caramel. 

III.— Peel  thinly  and  lightly,  25  me- 
dium-sized fresh  lemons  and  1  orange, 
and  cut  the  peelings  into  very  small 
pieces.  Macerate  in  55  drachms  96  per 
cent  alcohol,  for  6  hours.  Filter  off  the 
macerate  without  pressing.  Dilute  the 
filtrate  with  3  pints  water  and  set  aside 
for  eight  days,  shaking  frequently.  At 


316 


ESSENCES   AND    EXTRACTS 


the  end  of  this  time  filter.  The  filtrate 
is  usually  clear,  and  if  so,  add  4  drachms 
of  vanillin.  If  not,  proceed  as  in  the 
second  formula  above. 

IV.— Oil  of  lemon,  select,  8  fluid- 
ounces;  oil  of  lemon  grass  (fresh),  1 
fluidrachm  ;  peel,  freshly  grated,  of  12 
lemons;  alcohol,  7  pints;  boiled  water, 
1  pint. 

Mix  and  macerate  for  7  days.  If 
in  a  hurry  for  the  product,  percolate 
through  the  lemon  peel  and  filter.  The 
addition  of  any  other  substance  than  the 
oil  and  rind  of  the  lemon  is  not  recom- 
mended. 

V. — Fresh  oil  of  lemon     64     parts 
Lemon  peel  (outer 
rind)     freshly 

grated    32     parts 

Oil  of  lemon  grass       1     part 

Alcohol 500     parts 

Mix,  let  macerate  for  14  days,  and 
filter. 

VI. — Essence  of  lemon  If  ounces 
Rectified  spirit  of 

wine 6  ounces 

Pure  glycerine. ..  3  ounces 
Pure  phosphate 

calcium 4  ounces 

Distilled  water  to  make  1  pint. 

Mix  essence  of  lemon,  spirit  of  wine, 
glycerine,  and  8  ounces  of  distilled  water, 
agitate  briskly  in  a  quart  bottle  for  10 
minutes,  and  introduce  phosphate  of 
calcium  and  again  shake.  Put  in  a 
filter  and  let  it  pass  through  twice. 
Digest  in  filtrate  for  2  or  3  days,  add  1^ 
ounces  fresh  lemon  peel,  and  again  filter. 

VII.— Oil  of  lemon 6  parts 

Lemon  peel  (fresh- 
ly grated) 4  parts 

Alcohol,  sufficient. 

Dissolve  the  oil  of  lemon  in  90  parts  of 
alcohol,  add  the  lemon  peel,  and  macer- 
ate for  24  hours.  Filter  through  paper, 
adding  through  the  filter  enough  alcohol 
to  make  the  filtrate  weigh  100  parts. 

VIII.— Exterior   rind   of 

lemon 2  ounces 

Alcohol,    95    per 

cent,  deodorized  32  ounces 
Oil  of  lemon,  re- 
cent     3  fluidounces 

Expose  the  lemon  rind  to  the  air  until 
perfectly  dry,  then  bruise  in  a  wedgwood 
mortar,  and  add  it  to  the  alcohol,  agitat- 
ing until  the  color  is  extracted;  then  add 
the  lemon  oil. 

Natural  Lemon  Juice.— I.— Take  4.20 
parts  of  crystallized  citric  acid;  2  parts 


essence  of  lemons;  3  parts  of  alcohol  of 
96  per  cent;  ^  part  calcium  carbonate; 
50^  parts  sodium  phosphate,  and  2^0  part 
calcium  citrate,  and  dissolve  the  whole  in 
sufficient  water  to  make  60  parts. 

II. — Squeeze  out  the  lemon  juice, 
strain  it  to  get  rid  of  the  seeds  and  larger 
particles  of  pulp,  etc.,  heat  it  to  the  boil- 
ing point,  let  it  cool  down,  add  talc, 
shake  well  together  and  filter.  If  it  is  to 
be  kept  a  long  time  (as  on  a  sea  voyage) 
a  little  alcohol  is  added. 

Lime  juice. — This  may  be  clarified  by 
heating  it  either  alone  or  mixed  with  a  small 
quantity  of  egg  albumen,  in  a  suitable 
vessel,  without  stirring,  to.  near  the  boil- 
ing point  of  water,  until  the  impurities 
have  coagulated  and  either  risen  to  the 
top  or  sunk  to  the  bottom.  It  is  then 
filtered  into  clean  bottles,  which  should 
be  completely  filled  and  closed  (with 
pointed  corks),  so  that  each  cork  has  to 
displace  a  portion  of  the  liquid  to  be 
inserted.  The  bottles  are  sealed  and 
kept  at  an  even  temperature  (in  a  cellar). 
In  this  way  the  juice  may  be  satisfac- 
torily preserved. 

Nutmeg  Essence. — Oil  of  nutmeg,  2 
drachms;  mace,  in  powder,  1  ounce;  al- 
cohol, 95  per  cent,  deodorized,  32  ounces. 

Dissolve  the  oil  in  the  alcohol  by  agi- 
tation, add  the  mace,  agitate,  then  stop- 
per tightly,  and  macerate  12  hours.  Fil- 
ter through  paper. 

Orange  Extract. — Grated  peel  of  24 
oranges;  alcohol,  1  quart;  water,  1  quart; 
oil  of  orange,  4  drachms.  Macerate  the 
orange  peel  and  oil  of  orange  with  alco- 
hol for  2  weeks.  Add  distilled  water 
and  filter. 

Orange  Extract,  Soluble.— I.— Pure 
oil  of  orange,  1 1  fluidounces;  carbonate 
of  magnesium,  2  ounces;  alcohol,  12 
fluidounces;  water,  quantity  sufficient  to 
make  2  pints. 

II. — Dissolve  oil  of  orange  in  the 
alcohol,  and  rub  it  with*the  carbonate  of 
magnesium,  in  a  mortar.  Pour  the  mix- 
ture into  a  quart  bottle,  and  fill  the  bot- 
tle with  water.  Allow  to  macerate  for  a 
week  or  more,  shaking  every  day.  Then 
filter  through  paper,  adding  enough 
water  through  the  paper  to  make  filtrate 
measure  2  pints. 

Orange  Peel,  Soluble  Extract.— 
Freshly  grated  orange 

rind 1  part 

Deodorized  alcohol. .  .      1  part 
Macerate  for  4  days  and  express.    Add 
the  expressed  liquid  to  10  per  cent  of  its 
weight  of  powdered  magnesium  carbonate 


ESSENCES  AND   EXTRACTS 


317 


in  a  mortar,  and  rub  thoroughly  until  a 
smooth,  creamy  mixture  results;  then 
gradually  add  the  water,  constantly  stir- 
ring. Let  stand  for  48  hours,  then  filter 
through  paper.  Keep  in  an  amber  bottle 
and  cool  place.  To  make  syrup  of  orange, 
add  1  part  of  this  extract  to  7  parts  of 
heavy  simple  syrup. 


Peach  Extract.— 

Linalyl  formate 

Amyl  valerianate. .  .  . 
Fluid  extract  orris.  .  . 
Oenanthic  ether.  .  .  . 
Oil  rue  (pure  Ger- 
man)   

Chloroform 

Glycerine 

Alcohol,  70  per  cent, 


120  minims 
8  drachms 
2  ounces 
2  drachms 

30  minims 
2  drachms 
2  ounces 
to  3. pints. 


Pineapple  Essence. — A  ripe,  but  not 
too  soft,  pineapple,  weighing  about,  say, 
1  pound,  is  mashed  up  in  a  mortar  with 
Tokay  wine,  6  ounces.  The  mass  is 
then  brought  into  a  flask  with  1  pint  of 
water,  and  allowed  to  stand  2  hours. 
Alcohol,  90  per  cent,  f  pint,  is  then  added 
and  the  mixture  distilled  until  7  quarts 
of  distillate  have  been  collected.  Cog- 
nac, 9  ounces,  is  then  added  to  the  dis- 
tillation. 


Pistachio  Essence. — 
I. — Essence  of  almond 
Tincture  of  vanilla 
Oil  of  neroli.  . 


2  fluidounces 
4  fluidounces 
1  drop 


II. — Oil  of  orange  peel  .     4  fluidrachms 

Oil  of  cassia 1  fluidrachm 

Oil  of  bitter  almond  15  minims 

Oil  of  calamus. ...  15  minims 

Oil  of  nutmeg 1^  fluidrachms 

Oil  of  clove 30  minims 

Alcohol 12  fluidounces 

Water 4  fluidounces 

Magnesium     car- 
bonate       2  drachms 

Shake    together,    allow    to    stand    24 
hours,  and  filter. 

Pomegranate  Essence. — 

Oil  of  sweet  orange          3  parts 

Oil  of  cloves 3  parts 

Tincture  of  vanilla.  15  parts 
Tincture  of  ginger.  10  parts 
Maraschino  liqueur  150  parts 
Tincture  of  coccion- 

ella 165  parts 

Distilled  water 150  parts 

Phosphoric    acid, 

dilute 45  parts 

Alcohol,  95  per  cent,  quantity  suffi- 
cient to  make  1  000  parts. 
Mix  and  dissolve. 


Quince  Extract. — 

Fluid  extract  orris. ...      2    ounces 

Oenanthic  ether H  ounces 

Linalyl  formate 90     minims 

Glycerine 2     ounces 

Alcohol,  70  per  cent,  to  3  pints. 

Raspberry  Syrup,  without  Alcohol  or 
Antiseptics. — The  majority  of  producers 
of  fruit  juices  are  firmly  convinced  that 
the  preservation  of  these  juices  without 
the  addition  of  alcohol,  salicylic  acid, 
etc.,  is  impossible.  Herr  Steiner's  proc- 
ess to  the  contrary  is  here  reproduced: 

The  fruit  is  crushed  and  pressed;  the 
juice,  with  2  per  cent  of  sugar  added,  is 
poured  into  containers  to  about  three- 
quarters  of  their  capacity,  and  there  al- 
lowed to  ferment.  The  containers  are 
stoppered  with  a  cork  through  which 
runs  a  tube,  whose  open  end  is  protected 
by  a  bit  of  gum  tubing,  the  extremity  of 
which  is  immersed  in  a  glass  filled  with 
water.  It  should  not  go  deeper  than 
-iAo  of  an  inch  high.  The  evolution  of 
carbonic  gas  begins  in  about  4  hours 
and  is  so  sharp  that  the  point'of  the  tube 
must  not  be  immersed  any  deeper. 

Ordinarily  fermentation  ceases  on  the 
tenth  day,  a  fact  that  may  be  ascertained 
by  shaking  the  container  sharply,  when, 
if  it  has  ceased,  no  bubbles  of  gas  will 
appear  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  fermented  juice  is  then  filtered  to 
get  rid  of  the  pectinic  matters,  yeast,  etc., 
and  the  filtrate  should  be  poured  back  on 
the  filter  several  times.  The  juice  filters 
quickly  and  comes  off  very  clear.  The 
necessary  amount  of  sugar  to  make  a 
syrup  is  now  added  to  the  liquid  and  al- 
lowed to  dissolve  gradually  for  12  hours. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  the  liquid  is  put 
on  the  fire  and  allowed  to  boil  up  at  once, 
by  which  operation  the  solution  of  the 
sugar  is  made  complete.  Straining 
through  a  tin  strainer  and  filling  into 
heated  bottles  completes  the  process. 

The  addition  of  sugar  to  the  freshly 
pressed  juice  has  the  advantage  of  caus- 
ing the  fermentation  to  progress  to  the 
full  limit,  and  also  to  preserve,  by  the 
alcohol  produced  by  fermentation,  the 
beautiful  red  color  of  the  juice. 

Any  fermentation  that  may  be  per- 
mitted prior  to  the  pressing  out  of  the 
juices  is  at  the  expense  of  aroma  and 
flavor;  but  whether  fermentation  occurs 
before  or  after  pressure  of  the  berry,  the 
ordinary  alcohol  test  cannot  determine 
whether  the  juice  has  been  completely 
fermented  (and  consequently  whether  the 
pectins  have  been  completely  separated) 
or  not.  Since,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  liquid  remains  limpid  after  4  days' 


318 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


fermentation,  the  production  of  alcohol 
is  progressing  all  the  time — a  demonstra- 
tion that  fermentation  cannot  then  be 
completed,  and  that  at  least  10  days  will 
be  required  for  this  purpose. 

An  abortive  raspberry  syrup  is  always 
due  to  an  incomplete  or  faulty  fermenta- 
tion, for  too  often  does  it  occur  that  in- 
completely fermented  juices  after  a  little 
time  lose  color  and  become  turbid. 

The  habit  of  clarifying  juices  by  shak- 
ing up  with  a  bit  of  paper,  talc,  etc.,  or 
boiling  with  albumen  is  a  useless  waste 
of  time  and  labor.  By  the  process  indi- 
cated the  entire  process  of  clarification 
occurs  automatically,  so  to  speak. 

Deep  Red  Raspberry  Syrup. — A  much 
deeper  and  richer  color  than  that  ordi- 
narily attained  may  be  secured  by  add- 
ing to  crushed  raspberries,  before  fer- 
mentation, small  quantities  of  sugar,  sifted 
over  the  surface  in  layers.  The  ethylic 
alcohol  produced  by  fermentation  in  this 
manner  aids  in  the  extraction  of  the 
red  coloring  matter  of  the  fruit.  More- 
over, the  fermented  juice  should  never 
be  cooked  over  a  fire,  but  by  super- 
heated steam.  Only  in  this  way  can 
caramelization  be  completely  avoided. 
Only  sugar  free  from  ultramarine  and 
chalk  should  be  used  in  making  the 
syrup,  as  these  impurities  also  have  a 
bad  influence  on  the  color. 

Raspberry  Essences. — 
I. — Raspberries,  fresh  .  .  16  ounces 

Angelica  (California)  6  fluidounces 
Brandy    (California)  6  ounces 

Alcohol 6  ounces 

Water,  quantity  sufficient. 

Mash  the  berries  to  a  pulp  in  a  mortar 
or  bowl,  and  transfer  to  a  flask,  along 
with  the  Angelica,  brandy,  alcohol,  and 
about  8  ounces  of  water.  Let  macerate 
overnight,  then  distil  off  until  32  ounces 
have  passed  over.  Color  red.  The 
addition  of  a  trifle  of  essence  of  vanilla 
improves  this  essence. 

II. — Fresh  raspberries. .  .    200  grams 

Water,  distilled 100  grams 

Vanilla  essence 2  grams 

Pulp  the  raspberries,  let  stand  at  a 
temperature  of  about  70°  F.  for  48  hours, 
and  then  add  100  grams  of  water.  Fifty 
grams  are  then  distilled  off,  and  alcohol, 
90  per  cent,  25  grams,  in  which  0.01 
vanillin  has  been  previously  dissolved, 
is  added  to  the  distillate. 

Sarsaparilla,  Soluble  Extract.— 
Pure  oil  of  winter- 
green 5    fluidrachms 


Pure  oil  of  sassa- 
fras     5    fluidrachms 

Pure  oil  of  anise  .  .    5    fluidrachms 

Carbonate  of  mag- 
nesium     2i  ounces 

Alcohol 1    pint 

Water,  quantity  sufficient  to  make 
2  pints. 

Dissolve  the  various  oils  in  the  alcohol, 
and  rub  with  carbonate  of  magnesium  in 
a  mortar.  Pour  the  mixture  into  a 
quart  bottle,  and  fill  the  bottle  with 
water.  Allow  to  macerate  for  a  week 
or  more,  shaking  every  day.  Then  filter 
through  the  paper,  adding  enough  \yater 
through  the  paper  to  make  the  finished 
product  measure  2  pints. 

Strawberry  Juice. — Put  into  the  water 
bath  1,000  parts  of  distilled  water  and 
600  parts  of  sugar  and  boil,  with  con- 
stant skimming,  until  no  more  scum 
arises.  Add  5  parts  of  citric  acid  and 
continue  the  boiling  until  about  1,250 
parts  are  left.  Stir  in,  little  by  little, 
500  parts  of  fresh  strawberries,  properly 
stemmed,  and  be  particularly  careful 
not  to  crush  the  fruit.  When  all  the 
berries  are  added,  cover  the  vessel,  re- 
move from  the  fire,  put  into  a  warm  place 
and  let  stand,  closely  covered,  for  3  hours, 
or  until  the  mass  has  cooled  down  to  the 
surrounding  temperature,  then  strain  off 
through  flannel,  being  careful  not  to 
crush  the  berries.  Prepare  a  sufficient 
number  of  pint  bottles  by  filling  them 
with  warm  water,  putting  them  into  a 
kettle  of  the  same  and  heating  them  to 
boiling,  then  rapidly  emptying  and 
draining  as  quickly  as  possible.  Into 
these  pour  the  hot  juice,  cork  and  seal 
the  bottles  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Juice 
thus  prepared  retains  all  the  aroma  and 
flavor  of  the  fresh  berry,  and  if  carefully 
corked  and  sealed  up  will  retain  its 
properties  a  year. 

Strawberry  Essence. — 

Strawberries,  fresh..  16  ounces 
Angelica  (California)     6  fluidounces 
Brandy  (California)  .     6  ounces 

Alcohol 8  ounces 

Water,  quantity  sufficient. 

Mash  the  berries  to  a  pulp  in  a  mortar 
or  bowl,  and  transfer  to  a  flask,  along  with 
the  Angelica,  brandy,  alcohol,  and  about 
8  ounces  of  water.  Let  macerate  over- 
night, then  distil  off  until  32  ounces  have 
passed  over.  Color  strawberry  red. 
The  addition  of  a  little  essence  of  vanilla 
and  a  hint  of  lemon  improves  this  es- 
sence. 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


319 


Tea  Extract  — 

I. — Best  Souchong  tea.    175  parts 

Cinnamon 3  parts 

Cloves 3  parts 

Vanilla 1  part 

Arrack 800  parts 

Rum 200  parts 

Coarsely  powder  the  cinnamon,  clove, 
etc.,  mix  the  ingredients,  and  let  macer- 
ate for  3  days,  then  filter,  press  off,  and 
make  up  to  1,000  parts,  if  necessary,  by 
adding  rum.  The  Souchong  may  be 
replaced  by  any  other  brand  of  tea,  and 
the  place  of  the  arrack  may  be  occupied 
by  Santa  Cruz,  or  New  England  rum. 
The  addition  of  fluid  extract  of  kola  nut 
not  only  improves  the  taste,  but  gives  the 
drink  a  remarkably  stimulating  prop- 
erty. The  preparation  makes  a  clear 
solution  with  either  hot  or  cold  water  and 
keeps  well. 

II. — Tea,  any  desirable  variety,  16 
ounces;  glycerine,  4  ounces;  hot  water, 
4  pints;  water,  sufficient  to  make  1  pint. 

Reduce  the  tea  to  a  powder,  moisten 
with  sufficient  of  the  glycerine  and  alco- 
hol mixed,  with  4  ounces  of  water  added, 
pack  in  percolator,  and  pour  on  the  alco- 
hol (diluted  with  glycerine  and  water) 
until  12  ounces  of  percolate  have  been 
obtained.  Set  this  aside,  and  complete 
the  percolation  with  the  hot  water. 
When  this  has  passed  through,  evapo- 
rate to  4  ounces,  and  add  it  to  the  perco- 
late first  obtained. 

Tonka  Extract.— 

Tonka  beans 1  ounce 

Magnesium  carbonate,  quantity  suf- 
ficient. 

Balsam  of  Peru 2  drachms 

Sugar 4  ounces 

Alcohol 8  ounces 

Water  sufficient  to  make  16  ounces. 
Mix  the  tonka,  balsam  of  Peru,  and 
magnesia,  and  rub  together,  gradually 
adding  the  sugar  until  a  homogeneous 
powder  is  obtained.  Pack  in  a  percolator; 
mix  the  alcohol  with  an  equal  amount  of 
water,  and  pour  over  the  powder,  close 
the  exit  of  the  percolator,  and  let  macer- 
ate for  24  to  36  hours,  then  open  the 
percolator,  and  let  pass  through,  gradu- 
ally adding  water  until  16  ounces  pass 
through. 

Vanilla  Extracts.— I.— Vanilla,  in  fine 
bits,  250  parts,  is  put  into  1,350  parts  of 
mixture,  of  2,500  parts  95  per  cent  al- 
cohol, and  1,500  parts  distilled  water. 
Cover  tightly,  put  on  the  water  bath, 
and  digest  for  1  hour,  at  140°  F.  Pour 
off  the  liquid  and  set  aside.  To  the 
residue  in  the  bath,  add  half  the  remain- 


ing water,  and  treat  in  the  same  man- 
ner. Pack  the  vanilla  in  an  extraction 
apparatus,  and  treat  with  250  parts  of 
alcohol  and  water,  mixed  in  the  same  pro- 
portions as  before.  Mix  the  results  of 
the  three  infusions  first  made,  filter,  and 
wash  the  filter  paper  with  the  results  of 
the  percolation,  allowing  the  filtered  per- 
colate to  mingle  with  the  filtrate  of  the 
mixed  infusions. 

II. — Take  60  parts  of  the  best  vanilla 
beans,  cut  into  little  pieces,  and  put  into 
a  deep  vessel,  wrapped  with  a  cloth  to 
retain  the  heat  as  long  as  possible. 
Shake  over  the  vanilla  1  part  of  potas- 
sium carbonate  in  powder,  and  immedi- 
ately add  240  parts  distilled  water,  in  an 
active  state  of  ebullition.  Cover  the 
vessel  closely,  set  aside  until  it  is  com- 
pletely cold,  and  then  add  720  parts 
alcohol.  Cover  closely,  and  set  aside  in 
a  moderately  warm  place  for  15  days, 
when  the  liquid  is  strained  off,  the  resi- 
due pressed,  and  the  whole  colate  filtered. 
The  addition  of  1  part  musk  to  the 
vanilla  before  pouring  on  the  hot  water 
improves  this  essence. 

To  prepare  vanilla  fountain  syrup 
with  extracts  I  or  II,  mix  25  minims  of  the 
extract  with  1  pint  simple  syrup.  Color 
with  caramel. 

III. — Vanilla    beans,    cut 

fine 1  ounce 

Sugar 3  ounces 

Alcohol,  50  per  cent.      1  pint 
Beat  sugar  and  vanilla  together  to  a 
fine  powder.      Pour  on  the  dilute  alcohol, 
cork  the  vessel,  and  let  stand  for  2  weeks, 
shaking  it  up  2  or  3  times  a  day. 

IV. — Vanilla   beans, 

chopped  fine. .  .        30  parts 
Potassium  carbon- 
ate            1  part 

Boiling  water.  .  .  .  1,450  parts 

Alcohol 450  parts 

Essence  of  musk. .  1  part 

Dissolve  the  potassium  carbonate  in 
the  boiling  water,  add  the  vanilla,  cover 
the  vessel,  and  let  stand  in  a  mpderately 
warm  place  until  cold.  Transfer  to  a 
wide-mouthed  jar,  add  the  alcohol,  cork, 
and  let  macerate  for  15  days;  then  decant 
the  clear  essence  and  filter  the  remainder. 
Mix  the  two  liquids  and  add  the  essence 
of  musk. 

V. — Cut  60  parts  of  best  vanilla  beans 
into  small  bits;  put  into  a  deep  vessel, 
which  should  be  well  wrapped  in  a  wool- 
en cloth  to  retain  heat  as  long  as  possible. 
Shake  over  the  beans  1  part  of  potassium 
carbonate,  in  powder,  then  pour  over  the 
mass  240  parts  distilled  water,  in  an 


320 


ESSENCES   AND   EXTRACTS 


active  state  of  ebullition,  cover  the  vessel 
closely,  and  set  aside  in  a  moderately 
warm  place.  When  quite  cold  add  720 
parts  alcohol,  close  the  vessel  tightly, 
and  set  aside  in  a  moderately  warm 
place,  to  macerate  for  15  days,  then 
strain  off,  press  out,  and  set  aside  for  a 
day  or  two.  The  liquid  may  then  be 
filtered  and  bottled.  The  addition  of  a 
little  musk  to  the  beans  before  pouring 
on  the  hot  water,  is  thought  by  many  to 
greatly  improve  the  product.  One  part 
of  this  extract  added  to  300  parts  simple 
syrup  is  excellent  for  fountain  purposes. 

VI.  —  Vanilla  beans 8  ounces 

Glycerine 6  ounces 

Granulated  sugar.  .  .  1  pound 

Water 4  pints 

Alcohol    of    cologne 

spirits 4  pints 

Cut  or  grind  the  beans  very  fine;  rub 
with  the  glycerine  and  put  in  a  wooden 
keg;  dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  water,  first 
heating  the  water,  if  convenient;  mix  the 
water  and  spirits,  and  add  to  the  vanilla; 
pour  in  keg.  Keep  in  a  warm  place  from 
3  to  6  months  before  using.  Shake  often. 
To  clear,  percolate  through  the  dregs.  If 
a  dark,  rich  color  is  desired  add  a  little 
sugar  coloring. 

VII.— Vanilla    beans, 

good  quality..    16  ounces 

Alcohol 64  fluidounces 

Glycerine 24  fluidounces 

Water 10  fluidounces 

Dilute  alcohol,  quantity  sufficient. 
Mix  and  macerate,  with  frequent  agi- 
tation, for  3  weeks,  filter,  and  add  dilute 
alcohol  to  make  1  gallon. 

VIIL— Vanilla  beans, 

good  quality.  .  .      8  ounces 
Pumice     stone, 

lump 1  ounce 

Rock  candy 8  ounces 

Alcohol  and  water,  of  each  a  suffi- 
ciency. 

Cut  the  beans  to  fine  shreds  and  trit- 
urate well  with  the  pumice  stone  and  rock 
candy.  Place  the  whole  in  a  percolator 
and  percolate  with  a  menstruum  com- 
posed of  9  parts  alcohol  and  7  parts  water 
until  the  percolate  passes  through  clear. 
Bring  the  bulk  up  to  1  gallon  with  the 
same  menstruum  and  set  aside  to  ripen. 

IX. — Cut  up,  as  finely  as  possible,  20 
parts  of  vanilla  bean  and  with  40  parts  of 
milk  sugar  (rendered  as  dry  as  possible 
by  being  kept  in  a  drying  closet  until  it 
no  longer  loses  weight)  rub  to  a  coarse 
powder.  Moisten  with  10  parts  of 
dilute  alcohol,  pack  somewhat  loosely  in 


a  closed  percolator  and  let  stand  for  2 
hours.  Add  40  parts  of  dilute  alcohol, 
close  the  percolator,  and  let  stand  8  days. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  add  110  parts  of 
dilute  alcohol,  and  let  pass  through.  The 
residue  will  repay  working  over.  Dry  it 
well,  add  5  parts  of  vanillin,  and  110 
parts  of  milk  sugar  and  pass  through  a 
sieve,  then  treat  as  before. 

The  following  are  cheap  extracts: 
X.  —  Vanilla    beans, 

chopped  fine  .  .        5  parts 
Tonka    beans, 

powdered 10  parts 

Sugar,  powdered .      14  parts 
Alcohol,    95    per 

cent 25  parts 

Water,     quantity     sufficient     to 

make  100  parts. 

Rub  the  sugar  and  vanilla  to  a  fine 
powder,  add  the  tonka  beans,  and  incor- 
porate. Pack  into  a  filter,  and  pour  on 
10  parts  of  alcohol,  cut  with  15  parts  of 
water;  close  the  faucet,  and  let  macerate 
overnight.  In  the  morning  percolate 
with  the  remaining  alcohol,  added  to  80 
parts  of  water,  until  100  parts  of  perco- 
late pass  through. 

XL  —  Vanilla  beans 4  ounces 

Tonka  beans 8  ounces 

Deodorized  alcohol  8  pints 

Simple  syrup 2  pints 

Cut  and  bruise  the  vanilla  beans, 
afterwards  bruising  the  tonka  beans. 
Macerate  for  14  days  in  one-half  of  the 
spirit,  with  occasional  agitation.  Pour 
off"  the  clear  liquor  and  set  aside;  pour 
the  remaining  spirits  in  the  magma,  and 
heat  by  means  of  the  water  bath  to  about 
170°  F.  in  a  loosely  covered  vessel.  Keep 
at  this  temperature  2  or  3  hours,  and 
strain  through  flannel,  with  slight  pres- 
sure. Mix  the  two  portions  of  liquid, 
and  filter  through  felt.  Add  the  syrup. 

White  Pine  and  Tar  Syrup. — 
White  pine  bark  ....  75  parts 
Wild  cherry  bark. ...  75  parts 
Spikenard  root.  ...  10  parts 
Balm  of  Gilead  buds  10  parts 
Sanguinaria  root.  ...  8  parts 

Sassafras  bark 7  parts 

Sugar 750  parts 

Chloroform 6  parts 

Syrup  of  tar 75  parts 

Alcohol,  enough. 

Water,  enough. 

Syrup  enough  to  make  1,000  parts. 

Reduce  the  first  six  ingredients  to  a 
coarse  powder  and  by  using  a  menstruum 
composed  of  1  in  3  alcohol,  obtain  500 
parts  of  a  tincture  from  them.  In  this 


ESSENCES  AND  EXTRACTS 


dissolve  the  sugar,  add  the  syrup  of  tar 
and  the  chloroform,  and,  finally,  enough 
syrup  to  bring  the  measure  of  the  fin- 
ished product  up  to  1,000  parts. 

Wild  Cherry  Extract  — 

Oenanthic  ether. .      2  fluidrachms 

Amyl  acetate 2  fluidrachms 

Oil    of    bitter    al- 
monds (free  from 
hydrocyanic  acid)      1  fluidrachm 
Fluid  extract  of  wild 

cherry 3  fluidounces 

Glycerine.. 2  fluidounces 

Deodorized  alcohol  enough  to  make 
16  fluidounces. 

HARMLESS    COLORS    FOR    USE    IN 
SYRUPS,  ETC. : 

Red. — Cochineal  syrup,  prepared  as 
follows: 

I. — Cochineal  in  coarse 

powder 6  parts 

Potassium   carbon- 
ate       3  parts 

Distilled  water 15  parts 

Alcohol,     95     per 

cent 12  parts 

Simple  syrup  to  make  500  parts. 
Rub  the  cochineal  and  potassium  to- 
gether, adding  the  water  and  alcohol 
little  by  little,  under  constant  trituration. 
Let  stand  overnight,  add  the  syrup,  and 
filter. 

II. — Carmine,  in  fine 

powder 1  part 

Stronger  ammonia 

water 4  parts 

Distilled  water  to  make  24  parts. 

Rub  up  the  carmine  and  ammonia  and 
to  the  solution  add  the  water,  little  by 
little,  under  constant  trituration.  If  in 
standing  this  shows  a  tendency  to  sepa- 
rate, a  drop  or  two  of  ammonia  will  cor- 
rect the  trouble. 

Besides  these  there  is  caramel,  which, 
of  course,  you  know. 

Pink.— 

III. — Carmine 1  part 

Liquor  potassse ....  6  parts 

Distilled  water 40  parts 

Mix.  If  the  color  is  too  high,  dilute 
with  distilled  water  until  the  requisite 
color  is  obtained. 

To  Test  Fruit  Juices  and  Syrups  for 
Aniline  Colors. — Add  to  a  sample  of  the 
syrup  or  juice,  in  a  test  tube,  its  own 
volume  of  distilled  water,  and  agitate  to 
get  a  thorough  mixture,  then  add  a  few 
drops  of  the  standard  solution  of  lead 
diacetate,  shake,  and  filter.  If  the  syrup 
is  free  from  aniline  coloring  matter  the 


filtrate  will  be  clear  as  crystal,  since  the 
lead  salt  precipitates  natural  coloring 
matters,  but  has  no  effect  upon  the  ani- 
line colors. 

To  Test  Fruit  Juices  for  Salicylic  Acid. 
—Put  a  portion  of  the  juice  to  be  tested 
in  a  large  test  tube,  add  the  same  volume 
of  ether,  close  the  mouth  of  the  tube  and 
shake  gently  for  30  seconds.  Set  aside 
until  the  liquid  separates  into  two  layers. 
Draw  off  the  supernatant  ethereal  por- 
tion and  evaporate  to  dryness  in  a  cap- 
sule. Dissolve  the  residue  in  alcohol, 
dilute  with  3  volumes  of  water,  and  add 
1  drop  of  tincture  of  iron  chloride.  If 
salicylic  acid  be  present  the  character- 
istic purple  color  will  instantly  disappear. 

Syrups  Selected  from  the  Formulary 
of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of 
Antwerp. — 

Dionine  Syrup. — Dionine,  1  part;  dis- 
tilled water,  19  parts;  simple  syrup,  1,980 
parts.  Mix. 

Jaborandi  Syrup. — Tincture  of  jabor- 
andi,  1  part;  simple  syrup,  19  parts.  Mix. 

Convallaria  Syrup.  —  Extract  of  con- 
vallaria,  1  part;  distilled  water,  4  parts; 
simple  syrup,  95  parts.  Dissolve  the  ex- 
tract in  the  water  and  mix. 

Codeine  Phosphate  Syrup.  — Codeine  phos- 
phate, 3  parts;  distilled  water,  17  parts; 
simple  syrup,  980  parts.  Dissolve  the  co- 
deine in  the  water  and  mix  with  the  syrup. 

Licorice  Syrup. — Incised  licorice  root,  4 
parts;  dilute  solution  of  ammonia,  1  part; 
water,  20  parts.  Mix  and  macerate  for 
12  hours  at  58°  to  66°  F.  with  frequent 
agitation;  press,  heat  the  liquid  to  boil- 
ing, then  evaporate  to  two  parts  on  the 
water  bath;  add  alcohol,  2  parts;  allow  to 
stand  for  12  hours;  then  filter.  Add  to 
the  filtrate  enough  simple  syrup  to  bring 
the  final  weight  to  20  parts. 

Maize  Stigma  Syrup. — Extract  of  maize 
stigmas,  1  part;  distilled  water,  4  parts; 
simple  syrup,  95  parts.  Dissolve  the  ex- 
tract in  the  water,  filter,  and  add  the  syrup. 

Ammonium  Valerianate  Solution. — Am- 
monium valerianate,  2  parts;  alcoholic  ex- 
tract of  valerian,  1  part;  distilled  water, 
47  parts. 

Kola  Tincture. — Powdered  kola  nuts,  1 
part;  alcohol,  60  per  cent,  5  parts.  Mace- 
rate for  6  days,  press,  and  filter. 

Bidet's  Liquid  Vesicant. — Tincture  of 
cantharides,  tincture  of  rosemary,  chloro- 
form, equal  parts. 

Peptone  Wine. — Dried  peptone,  1  part; 
Malaga  wine,  19  parts.  Dissolve  without 
heat  and  filter  after  standing  for  several 
days. 


ETCHING 


Etching 

General  Instructions  for  Etching. — 
In  etching,  two  factors  come  into  con- 
sideration, (1)  that  which  covers  that 
part  of  the  metal  not  exposed  to  the 
etching  fluid  (the  resist),  and  (2)  the 
etching  fluid  itself. 

In  the  process,  a  distinction  is  to  be 
made  between  etching  in  relief  and 
etching  in  intaglio.  In  relief  etching, 
the  design  is  drawn  or  painted  upon  the 
surface  with  the  liquid  etching-ground, 
so  that  after  etching  and  removal  of  the 
etching-ground,  it  appears  raised.  In 
intaglio  etching,  the  whole  surface  is 
covered  with  the  etching-ground,  and 
the  design  put  on  with  a  needle;  the 
ground  being  thus  removed  at  the  points 
touched  by  the  drawing,  the  latter,  after 
etching  and  removal  of  the  etching- 
ground,  is  sunken. 

Covering  Agents  or  Resists. — The  plate 
is  enclosed  by  a  border  made  of  grafting 
wax  (yellow  beeswax,  8  parts;  pine  rosin, 
10  parts;  beef  tallow,  2  parts;  turpentine, 
10  parts);  or  a  mixture  of  yellow  wax, 
8  parts;  lard,  3  parts;  Burgundy  pitch, 
\  part.  This  mixture  is  also  used  to 
cover  the  sides  of  vessels  to  be  etched. 
Another  compound  consists  of  wax,  5 
parts;  cobbler's  wax,2i  parts;  turpentine, 

1  part. 

Etching  -  Ground.  —  I.  —  Soft :    Wax, 

2  parts;   asphalt,  1  part;  mastic,  1  part. 
II. — Wax,    3    parts;    asphalt,    4    parts. 
III. — Mastic,  16  parts;    Burgundy  pitch, 
50  parts;  melted  wax,   125    parts;    and 
melted  asphalt,  200  parts  added  succes- 
sively, and,  after  cooling,  turpentine  oil, 
500  parts.     If  the  ground  should  be  deep 
black,  lampblack  is  added. 

Hard:  Burgundy  pitch,  125  parts; 
rosin,  125  parts,  melted;  and  walnut  oil, 
100  parts,  added,  the  whole  to  be  boiled 
until  it  can  be  drawn  out  into  long 
threads. 

Etching-Ground  for  Copper  Engrav- 
ing.— White  wax,  120  parts;  mastic,  15 
parts;  Burgundy  pitch,  60  parts;  Syrian 
asphalt,  120  parts,  melted  together;  and 
5  parts  concentrated  solution  of  rubber 
in  rubber  oil  added. 

Ground  for  Relief  Etching. — I. — Syrian 
asphalt,  500  parts,  dissolved  in  turpen- 
tine oil,  1,000  parts.  II. — Asphalt,  rosin, 
and  wax,  200  parts  of  each,  are  melted, 
and  dissolved  in  turpentine  oil,  1,200 
parts.  The  under  side  of  the  metal  plate 
is  protected  by  a  coating  of  a  spirituous 
shellac  solution,  or  by  a  solution  of  as- 
phalt, 300  parts,  in  benzol,  600  parts. 


For  Strongly  Acid  Solutions. — I.-— 
Black  pitch,  1  part;  Japanese  wax,  2 
parts;  rosin,  1^  parts;  Damar  rosin,  1 
part,  melted  together  and  mixed  with 
turpentine  oil,  1  part.  II. — Heavy  black 
printers'  ink,  3  parts;  rosin,  1  part;  wax, 
1  part. 

For  electro-etching,  the  following 
ground  is  recommended:  Wax,  4  parts; 
asphalt,  4  parts;  pitch,  1  part. 

If  absolute  surety  is  required  respect- 
ing the  resistance  of  the  etching-ground 
to  the  action  of  the  etching  fluids,  several 
etching-grounds  are  put  on,  one  over  the 
other;  first  (for  instance),  a  solution  of 
rubber  in  benzol,  then  a  spirituous  shel- 
lac solution,  and  a  third  stratum  of 
asphalt  dissolved  in  turpentine  oil. 

If  the  etching  is  to  be  of  different  de- 
grees of  depth,  the  places  where  it  is  to 
be  faint  are  stopped  out  with  varnish, 
after  they  are  deep  enough,  and  the  ob- 
ject is  put  back  into  the  bath  for  further 
etching. 

For  putting  on  a  design  before  the 
etching,  the  following  method  may  be 
used:  Cover  the  metal  plate,  tin  plate 
for  example,  with  a  colored  or  colorless 
spirit  varnish;  after  drying,  cover  this,  in 
a  dark  room,  with  a  solution  of  gelatin, 
5  parts,  and  red  potassium  chromate,  1 
part,  in  water,  100  parts;  or .  with  a 
solution  of  albumen,  2  parts;  ammonium 
bichromate,  2  parts,  in  water,  200  parts. 
After  drying,  put  the  plate,  covered  with 
a  stencil,  in  a  copying  or  printing  frame, 
and  expose  to  light.  The  sensitive  gela- 
tin stratum  will  become  insoluble  at  the 
places  exposed.  Place  in  water,  and  the 
gelatin  will  be  dissolved  at  the  places 
covered  by  the  stencil;  dry,  and  remove 
the  spirit  varnish  from  the  places  with 
spirit,  then  put  into  the  etching  fluid. 

Etching  Fluids. —The  etching  fluid  is 
usually  poured  over  the  metallic  surface, 
which  is  enclosed  in  a  border,  as  de- 
scribed before.  If  the  whole  object  is  to 
be  put  into  the  fluid,  it  must  be  entirely 
covered  with  the  etching-ground.  After 
etching  it  is  washed  with  pure  water, 
dried  with  a  linen  cloth,  and  the  etching- 
ground  is  then  washed  off  with  turpentine 
oil  or  a  light  volatile  camphor  oil.  The 
latter  is  very  good  for  the  purpose. 

Etching  Fluids  for  Iron  and  Steel. — 
I. — Pure  nitric  acid,  diluted  for  light 
etching  with  4  to  8  parts  of  water,  for 
deep  etching  with  an  equal  weight  of 
water. 

II. — Tartaric  acid,  1  part,  by  weight; 
mercuric  chloride,  15  parts,  by  weight; 
water,  420  parts;  nitric  acid,  16  to  20 
drops,  if  1  part  equals  28  \  grains. 


ETCHING 


III. — Spirit,  80  per  cent,  120  parts,  by 
weight;  pure  nitric  acid,  8  parts;  silver 
nitrate,  1  part. 

IV. — Pure  acetic  acid,  30  per  cent,  40 
parts,  by  weight;  absolute  alcohol,  10 
parts;  pure  nitric  acid,  10  parts. 

V. — Fuming  nitric  acid,  10  parts,  by 
weight;  pure  acetic  acid,  30  per  cent,  50 
parts,  diluted  with  water  if  necessary  or 
desired. 

VI. — A  chromic  acid  solution. 

VII. — Bromine.  1  part;  water,  100 
parts.  Or — mere  uric  chloride,  1  part; 
water,  30  parts. 

VIII. — Antimonic  chloride,  1  part; 
water,  6  parts;  hydrochloric  acid,  6 
parts. 

For  Delicate  Etchings  on  Steel.— I.  — 
Iodine,  2  jr.arts;  potassium  iodide,  4  parts; 
water,  40  parts. 

II. — Silver  acetate,  8  parts,  by  weight; 
alcohol,  250  parts;  water,  250  parts;  pure 
nitric  acid,  260  parts;  ether,  64  parts; 
oxalic  acid,  4  parts. 

III. — A  copper  chloride  solution. 

Etching  Powder  for  Iron  and  Steel. — 
Blue  vitriol,  50  parts;  common  salt,  50 
parts;  mixed  and  moistened  with  water. 

For  lustrous  figures  on  a  dull  ground, 
as  on  sword  blades,  the  whole  surface  is 
polished,  the  portions  which  are  to  re- 
main bright  covered  with  stencils  and 
the  object  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  nitric 
acid.  This  is  best  done  by  pouring  sul- 
phuric acid,  20  parts,  over  common  salt, 
10  parts. 

Relief  Etching  of  Copper,  Steel,  and 
Brass. — Instead  of  nitric  acid,  which  has 
a  tendency  to  lift  up  the  etching-ground, 
by  evolution  of  gases,  it  is  better  to  use  a 
mixture  of  potassium  bichromate,  150 
parts;  water,  800  parts;  and  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  200  parts.  The  etching 
is  slow,  but  even,  and  there  is  no  odor. 

For  Etching  Copper,  Brass,  and  Tom- 
bac.— Pure  nitric  acid  diluted  with  water 
to  18°  Be.  The  bubbles  of  gas  given  out 
should  immediately  be  removed  with  a 
feather  that  the  etching  may  be  even. 

Another  compound  consists  of  a  boil- 
ing solution  of  potassium  chlorate,  2 
parts,  in  water,  20  parts,  poured  into  a 
mixture  of  nitric  acid,  10  parts,  and 
water,  70  parts.  For  delicate  etchings 
dilute  still  more  with  100  to  200  parts  of 
water. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Copper.— Weak:  A 
boiling  solution  of  potassium  chlorate, 
20  parts,  in  water,  200  parts,  poured  into 
a  mixture  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  20 
parts;  water,  500  parts. 

Stronger:    A  boiling  solution  of  potas- 


sium chlorate,   25   parts,   in  water,   250 

Earts,  poured  into  a  mixture  of  pure 
ydrochloric  acid,  250  parts;  water,  400 
parts. 

Very  strong:  A  boiling  solution  of 
potassium  chlorate,  30  parts,  in  water, 
300  parts,  poured  into  a  mixture  of  pure 
hydrochloric  acid,  300  parts;  water,  300 
parts. 

For  etching  on  copper  a  saturated 
solution  of  bromine  in  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  may  also  be  used;  or  a  mix- 
ture of  potassium  bichromate,  £  part; 
water,  1  part;  crude  nitric  acid,  3  parts. 

The  following  are  also  much  used  for 
copper  and  copper  alloys: 

I. — A  copper  chloride  solution  acidi- 
fied with  hydrochloric  acid. 

II. — Copper  nitrate  dissolved  in  water. 

III. — A  ferric  chloride  solution  of  30° 
to  45°  Be.  If  chrome  gelatin  or  chrome 
albumen  is  used  for  the  etching-ground, 
a  spirituous  ferric  chloride  solution  is 
employed.  The  etching  process  can  be 
made  slower  by  adding  common  salt  to 
the  ferric  chloride  solution. 

Matt  Etching  of  Copper.— White  vi- 
triol, 1  to  5  parts;  common  salt,  1  part; 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  100  parts; 
nitric  acid  (36°  Be.),  200  parts,  mixed 
together.  The  sulphuric  acid  is  to  be 
poured  carefully  into  the  nitric  acid,  not 
the  reverse. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Brass. — Nitric  acid, 
8  parts;  mixed  with  water,  80  parts;  into 
this  mixture  pour  a  hot  solution  of  potas- 
sium chlorate,  3  parts,  in  water,  50  parts. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Brass  to  Make 
Stencils.— Mix  nitric  acid,  of  1.3  specific 
weight,  with  enough  fuming  nitric  acid 
to  give  a  deep  yellow  color.  This  mix- 
ture acts  violently,  and  will  eat  through 
the  strongest  sheet  brass. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Zinc. — Boil  pounded 
gallnuts,  40  parts,  with  water,  560  parts, 
until  the  whole  amounts  to  200  parts; 
filter,  and  add  nitric  acid,  2  parts,  and  a 
few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  Ferric 
chloride  and  antimonic  chloride  solutions 
may  also  be  used  to  etch  zinc. 

Relief  Etching  of  Zinc.— The  design  is 
to  be  drawn  with  a  solution  of  platinum 
chloride,  1  part,  and  rubber,  1  part,  in 
water,  12  parts.  The  zinc  plate  is  placed 
in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  in  16).  The 
black  drawing  will  remain  as  it  is. 

Another  compound  for  the  drawing  is 
made  of  blue  vitriol,  2  parts;  copper 
chloride,  3  parts;  water,  64  parts;  pure 
hydrochloric  acid,  1.1  specific  weight. 
After  the  drawing  is  made,  lay  the  plate 
in  dilute  nitric  acid  (1  in  8). 


ETCHING 


Etching  Fluid  for  Aluminum. — Dilute 
hydrochloric  acid  serves  this  purpose. 
Aluminum  containing  iron  can  be  mat- 
ted with  soda  lye,  followed  by  treatment 
with  nitric  acid.  The  lye  dissolves  the 
aluminum,  and  the  nitric  acid  dissolves 
the  iron.  Aluminum  bronze  is  etched 
with  nitric  acid. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Tin  or  Pewter.— 
Ferric  chloride,  or  highly  diluted  nitric 
acid. 

Etching  Fluids  for  Silver.— I.— Dilute 
pure  nitric  acid. 

II. — Nitric  acid  (specific  weight, 
1.185),  172  parts;  water,  320  parts; 
potassium  bichromate,  30  parts. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Gold. — Dilute  aqua 
regia  (=  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  in  the 
proportion  of  1  in  3). 

Etching  Fluid  for  Copper,  Zinc,  and 
Steel. — A  mixture  of  4  parts  of  acetic 
acid  (30  per  cent),  and  alcohol,  1  part; 
to  this  is  added  gradually,  nitric  acid,  1 
part. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Lead,  Antimony, 
and  Britannia  Metal. — Dilute  nitric  acid. 

Etching  Powder  for  Metals  (Tin, 
Silver,  Iron,  German  Silver,  Copper,  and 
Zinc). — Blue  vitriol,  1  part;  ferric  oxide, 
4  parts.  The  powder,  moistened,  is  ap- 
plied to  the  places  to  be  etched,  as,  for 
instance,  knife  blades.  Calcined  green 
vitriol  can  also  be  used. 

Electro -Etching. —This  differs  from 
ordinary  etching  in  the  use  of  a  bath, 
which  does  not  of  itself  affect  the  metal, 
but  is  made  capable  of  doing  so  by  the 
galvanic  current. 

Ordinary  etching,  seen  under  the 
microscope,  consists  of  a  succession  of 
uneven  depressions,  which  widen  out 
considerably  at  a  certain  depth.  In  elec- 
tro-etching, the  line  under  the  micro- 
scope appears  as  a  perfectly  even  furrow, 
not  eaten  out  beneath,  however  deeply 
cut.  The  work  is,  accordingly,  finer  and 
sharper;  the  fumes  from  the  acids  are 
also  avoided,  and  the  etching  can  be 
modified  by  regulation  of  the  current. 
The  preparation  of  the  surface,  by  cov- 
ering, stopping-put,  etc.,  is  the  same  as 
in  ordinary  etching.  At  some  uncovered 
place  a  conducting  wire  is  soldered  on 
with  soft  solder,  and  covered  with  a  coat 
of  varnish.  The  plate  is  then  suspended 
in  the  bath,  and  acts  as  the  anode,  with 
another  similar  plate  for  the  cathode. 
If  gradations  in  etching  are  desired,  tin 
plates  are  taken  out  after  a  time,  rinsed, 
and  covered,  and  returned  to  the  bath. 

For  the   bath   dilute  acids   are  used, 


or  saline  solutions.  Thus,  for  copper, 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  1  in  20.  For  cop- 
per and  brass,  a  blue  vitriol  solution. 
For  zinc,  white  vitriol  or  a  zinc  chloride 
solution.  For  steel  and  iron,  green 
vitriol,  or  an  ammonium  chloride  solu- 
tion. For  tin,  a  tin-salt  solution.  For 
silver,  a  silver  nitrate  or  potassium  cya- 
nide solution.  For  gold  and  platinum, 
gold  chloride  and  platinum  chloride 
solutions,  or  a  potassium  cyanide  solu- 
tion. For  electro-etching  a  Leclauche  or 
Bunsen  battery  is  to  be  recommended. 
In  the  former,  the  negative  zinc  pole  is 
connected  with  a  plate  of  the  same  metal 
as  that  to  be  etched,  and  the  positive  iron 
pole  with  the  plate  to  be  etched.  In  the 
Bunsen  battery,  the  carbon  pole  is  con- 
nected with  the  object  to  be  etched,  the 
zinc  pole  with  the  metal  plate. 

Etching    Bath    for    Brass.— 1.— Mix 

nitric  acid  (specified  gravity,  1.4),  8 
parts,  with  water,  80  parts.  2. — Chlorate 
of  potash,  3  parts,  dissolved  in  50  parts 
of  water.  Mix  1  and  2.  For  protecting 
those  portions  which  are  not  to  be  etched, 
any  suitable  acid-proof  composition  can 
be  used. 

Etching  on  Copper. — I. — In  order  to 
do  regular  and  quick  etching  on  copper 
take  a  copper  plate  silvered  on  the  etch- 
ing side.  Trace  on  this  plate,  either  with 
varnish  or  lithographic  ink,  the  design. 
When  the  tracing  is  dry,  place  the  plate 
in  an  iron  bath,  using  a  battery.  The 
designs  traced  with  me  varnish  or  ink 
are  not  attacked  by  the  etching  fluid. 
When  the  plate  is  taken  from  the  bath 
and  has  been  washed  and  dried,  remove 
the  varnish  or  ink  with  essence  of  turpen- 
tine; next  pour  mercury  on  the  places 
reserved  by  the  varnish  or  ink;  the  mer- 
cury will  attack  the  silvered  portions  and 
the  etching  is  quickly  made.  When  the 
mercury  has  done  its  duty  gather  up  the 
excess  and  return  to  the  bottle  with  a 
paper  funnel.  Wash  the  plate  in  strong 
alum  water,  and  heat. 

II. — The  plate  must  be  first  polished 
either  with  emery  or  fine  pumice  stone, 
and  after  it  has  been  dried  with  care, 
spread  thereon  a  varnish  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  yellow  wax  and  essence 
of  turpentine.  The  solution  of  the  wax 
in  the  essence  is  accomplished  in  the 
cold;  next  a  little  oil  of  turpentine  and 
some  lampblack  are  added.  This  var- 
nish is  allowed  to  dry  on,  away  from 
dust  and  humidity.  When  dry,  trace 
the  design  with  a  very  fine  point.  Make 
a  border  with  modeling  wax,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  acid  from  running  off.  Pour  on 
nitric  acid  if  the  plate  is  of  copper,  or 


ETCHING 


325 


hydrochloric  acid  diluted  with  water  if 
the  plate  is  of  zinc,  allow  the  acid  to  act 
according  to  the  desired  depth  of  the  en- 
graving; wash  several  times  and  remove 
the  varnish  by  heating  the  plate  lightly. 
Wash  with  essence  of  turpentine  and  dry 
well  in  sawdust  or  in  the  stove.  For 
relief  engraving  the  designs  are  traced 
before  the  engraving  on  the  plate  with 
the  resist  varnish  instead  of  covering  the 
plate  entirely.  These  designs  must  be 
delicately  executed  and  without  laps,  as 
the  acid  eats  away  all  the  parts  not  pro- 
tected by  the  varnish. 

Etching  Fluids  for  Copper.— I.— A 
new  etching  fluid  for  copper  plate  is  hy- 
drogen peroxide,  to  which  a  little  dilute 
ammonia  water  is  added.  It  is  said  to 
bite  in  very  rapidly  and  with  great  regu- 
larity and  uniformity. 

II. — Another  fluid  is  fuming  hydro- 
chloric acid  (specific  gravity,  1.19),  10 
parts;  water,  70  parts.  To  this  add  a 
solution  of  potassium  chlorate,  2  parts, 
dissolved  in  20  parts  of  hot  water.  If 
the  articles  to  be  etched  are  very  delicate 
and  fine  this  should  be  diluted  with  from 
100  to  200  parts  of  water. 

ETCHING  ON  GLASS. 

Names,  designs,  etc.,  can  be  etched  on 
glass  in  three  ways:  First,  by  means  of  an 
engraving  wheel,  a  method  which  requires 
some  manual  skill.  Second,  by  means  of  a 
sand  blast,  making  a  stencil  of  the  name, 
fixing  this  on  the  glass,  and  then,  by  means 
of  a  blast  of  air,  blowing  sand  on  the  glass. 
Third,  by  the  use  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 
The  glass  is  covered  with  beeswax,  par- 
affine  wax,  or  some  acid  resisting  ink  or 
varnish;  the  name  or  device  is  then 
etched  out  of  the  wax  by  means  of  a  knife, 
and  the  glass  dipped  in  hydrofluoric  acid, 
which  eats  away  the  glass  at  those  parts 
where  the  wax  has  been  cut  away. 

Fancy  work,  ornamental  figures,  let- 
tering, and  monograms  are  most  easily 
and  neatly  cut  into  glass  by  the  sand- 
blast process.  Lines  and  figures  on 
tubes,  jars,  etc.,  may  be  deeply  etched  by 
smearing  the  surface  of  the  glass  with 
beeswax,  drawing  the  lines  with  a  steel 
point,  and  exposing  the  glass  to  the  fumes 
of  hydrofluoric  acid.  This  acid  is  ob- 
tained by  putting  powdered  fluorspar 
into  a  tray  made  of  sheet  lead  and  pour- 
ing sulphuric  acid  on  it,  after  which  the 
tray  is  slightly  warmed.  The  propor- 
tions will  vary  with  the  purity  of  the 
materials  used,  fluorspar  (except  when  in 
crystals)  being  generally  mixed  with  a 
large  quantity  of  other  matter.  Enough 
acid  to  make  a  thin  paste  with  the  pow- 
dered spar  will  be  about  right.  Where  a 


lead  tray  is  not  at  hand,  the  powdered 
spar  may  be  poured  on  the  glass  and  the 
acid  poured  on  it  and  left  for  some  time. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  marks  are  opaque, 
but  sometimes  they  are  transparent.  In 
this  case  cut  them  deeply  and  fill  up  with 
black  varnish,  if  they  are  required  to  be 
very  plain,  as  in  the  case  of  graduated 
vessels.  Liquid  hydrofluoric  acid  has 
been  recommended  for  etching,  but  is 
not  always  suitable,  as  it  leaves  the 
surface  on  which  it  acts  transparent. 

There  are  two  methods  of  marking 
bottles — dry  etching,  or  by  stamping 
with  etching  inks.  The  first  process  is 
usually  followed  in  glass  factories.  A 
rubber  stamp  is  necessary  for  this  proc- 
ess, and  the  letters  should  be  made  as 
large  and  clean  cut  as  possible  without 
crowding  them  too  much.  Besides  this, 
an  etching  powder  is  required. 

A  small  quantity  of  the  powder  is 
poured  into  a  porcelain  dish,  and  this  is 
placed  on  a  sand  bath  or  over  a  gentle 
fire,  and  heated  until  it  is  absolutely  dry, 
so  that  it  can  be  rubbed  down  to  an  im- 
palpable powder. 

The  bottle  or  other  glass  to  be  marked 
must  be  perfectly  clean  and  dry.  The 
etching  powder  takes  better  when  the 
vessel  is  somewhat  warm.  The  stamp 
should  be  provided  with  a  roller  which  is 
kept  constantly  supplied  with  a  viscid  oil 
which  it  distributes  on  the  stamp  and 
which  the  stamp  transfers  to  the  glass 
surface.  The  powder  is  dusted  on  the 
imprint  thus  made,  by  means  of  a  camel's- 
hair  brush.  Any  surplus  falling  on  the 
unoiled  surface  may  be  removed  with  a 
fine  long-haired  pencil.  The  printed 
bottle  is  transferred  to  a  damp  place  and 
kept  for  several  minutes,  the  dampness 
aiding  the  etching  powder  in  its  work  on 
the  glass  surface.  The  bottle  is  then  well 
washed  in  plain  water. 

Glass  cylinders,  large  flasks,  carboys, 
etc.,  may  be  treated  in  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent manner.  The  stamp  here  is  inserted, 
face  upward,  between  two  horizontal 
boards,  in  such  a  manner  that  its  face 
projects  about  a  quarter  of  a  millimeter 
(say  0.01  inch)  above  the  surface.  Oil 
is  applied  to  the  surface,  after  which  the 
cylinder,  carboy,  or  what  not,  is  rolled 
along  the  board  and  over  the  stamp. 
The  design  is  thus  neatly  transferred  to 
the  glass  surface,  and  the  rest  of  the 
operation  is  as  in  the  previous  case. 

For  an  etching  ink  for  glassware  the 
following  is  recommended: 

Ammonium  fluoride  .  .      2  drachms 
Barium  sulphate 2  drachms 

Reduce  to  a  fine  powder  in  a  mortar, 


326 


ETCHING 


then  transfer  to  a  lead  dish  and  make  into 
a  thin  writing-cream  with  hydrofluoric 
acid  or  fuming  sulphuric  acid.  Use  a 
piece  of  lead  to  stir  the  mixture.  The 
ink  may  be  put  up  in  bottles  coated  with 
paraffine,  which  can  be  done  by  heating 
the  bottle,  pouring  in  some  melted  paraf- 
fine, and  letting  it  flow  all  around.  The 
writing  is  done  with  a  quill,  and  in  about 
half  a  minute  the  ink  is  washed  off. 

Extreme  caution  must  be  observed  in 
handling  the  acid,  since  when  brought  in 
contact  with  the  skin  it  produces  dan- 
gerous sores  very  difficult  to  heal.  The 
vapor  is  also  dangerously  poisonous 
when  inhaled. 

Hydrofluoric  Formulas.  — I. — Dissolve 
about  0.72  ounces  fluoride  of  soda  with 
0.14  ounces  sulphate  of  potash  in  ^  pint 
of  water.  Make  another  solution  of  0.28 
ounces  chloride  of  zinc  and  1.30  ounces 
hydrochloric  acid  in  an  equal  quantity  of 
water.  Mix  the  solutions  and  apply  to 
the  glass  vessel  with  a  pin  or  brush.  At 
the  end  of  half  an  hour  the  design  should 
be  sufficiently  etched. 

II. — A  mixture  consisting  .  of  ammo- 
nium fluoride,  common  salt,  and  carbon- 
ate of  soda  is  prepared,  and  then  placed 
in  a  gutta-percha  bottle  containing  fum- 
ing hydrofluoric  acid  and  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid.  In  a  separate  vessel 
which  is  made  of  lead,  potassium  fluoride 
is  mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  a 
little  of  this  solution  is  added  to  the 
former,  along  with  a  small  quantity  of 
sodium  silicate  and  ammonia.  Some 
of  the  solution  is  dropped  upon  a  rubber 
pad,  and  by  means  of  a  suitable  rubber 
stamp,  bearing  the  design  which  is  to  be 
reproduced,  is  transferred  to  the  glass 
vessel  that  is  to  be  etched. 

Etching  with  Wax. — Spread  wax  or 
a  preservative  varnish  on  the  glass,  and 
trace  on  this  wax  or  varnish  the  letters 
or  designs.  If  letters  are  desired,  trace 
them  by  hand  or  by  the  use  of  letters 
cut  put  in  tin,  which  apply  on  the  wax, 
the  inside  contours  being  taken  with  a 
fine  point.  When  this  is  done,  remove 
the  excess  of  wax  from  the  glass,  leav- 
ing only  the  full  wax  letters  undis- 
turbed. Make  an  edge  of  wax  all  along 
the  glass  plate  so  as  to  prevent  the  acid 
from  running  over  when  you  pour  it  on 
to  attack  the  glass.  At  the  end  of  3  to  4 
hours  remove  the  acid,  wash  the  glass 
well  with  hot  water,  next  pour  on  essence 
of  turpentine  or  alcohol  to  take  off  the 
wax  or  the  preservative  varnish.  Pass 
again  through  clean  water;  the  glass 
plate  will  have  become  dead  wherever  the 
acid  has  eaten  in,  only  the  letters  remain- 


ing polished.  For  fancy  designs  it  suf- 
fices to  put  on  the  back  of  the  plate  a 
black  or  colored  varnish,  or  tin  foil,  etc., 
to  obtain  a  brilliant  effect. 

Etching  Glass  by  Means  of  Glue. — It 
is  necessary  only  to  cover  a  piece  of  ordi- 
nary or  flint  glass  with  a  coat  of  glue  dis- 
solved in  water  in  order  to  see  that  the 
layer  of  glue,  upon  contracting  through 
the  effect  of  drying,  becomes  detached 
from  the  glass  and  removes  therefrom 
numerous  scales  of  varying  thickness. 
The  glass  thus  etched  presents  a  sort  of 
regular  and  decorative  design  similar  to 
the  flowers  of  frost  deposited  on  window- 
panes  in  winter.  When  salts  that  are 
readily  crystallizable  and  that  exert  no 
chemical  action  upon  the  gelatin  are 
dissolved  in  the  latter  the  figures  etched 
upon  the  glass  exhibit  a  crystalline  ap- 
pearance that  recalls  fern  fronds. 

Hyposulphite  of  soda  and  chlorate  and 
nitrate  of  potash  produce  nearly  the  same 
effects.  A  large  number  of  mineral  sub- 
stances are  attacked  by  gelatin.  Tough- 
ened glass  is  easily  etched,  and  the  same 
is  the  case  with  fluorspar  and  polished 
marble.  A  piece  of  rock  crystal,  cut  at 
light  angles  with  the  axis  and  coated  with 
isinglass,  the  action  of  which  seems  to  be 
particularly  energetic,  is  likewise  at- 
tacked at  different  points,  and  the  parts 
detached  present  a  corichoidal  appear- 
ance. The  contraction  of  the  gelatin 
may  be  rendered  visible  by  applying  a 
coating  of  glue  to  sheets  of  cardboard  or 
lead,  which  bend  backward  in  drying 
and  assume  the  form  of  an  irregular 
cylinder. 

Such  etching  of  glass  and  different 
mineral  substances  by  the  action  of  gela- 
tin may  be  employed  for  the  decoration 
of  numerous  objects. 

Dissolve  some  common  glue  in  ordi- 
nary water,  heated  by  a  water  bath,  and 
add  6  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  potash 
alum.  After  the  glue  has  become  per- 
fectly melted,  homogeneous,  and  of  the 
consistency  of  syrup,  apply  a  layer,  while 
it  is  still  hot,  to  a  glass  object  by  means 
of  a  brush.  If  the  object  is  of  ground 
glass  the  action  of  the  glue  will  be  still 
more  energetic.  After  half  an  hour  ap- 
ply a  second  coat  in  such  a  way  as  to  ob- 
tain a  smooth,  transparent  surface  desti- 
tute of  air  bubbles.  After  the  glue  has 
become  so  hard  that  it  no  longer  yields  to 
the  pressure  of  the  finger  nail  (say,  in 
about  24  hours),  put  thfe  article  in  a 
warmer  place,  in  which  the  temperature 
must  not  exceed  105°  F.  When  the 
object  is  removed  from  the  oven,  after  a 
few  hours,  the  glue  will  detach  itself  with 


ETCHING 


327 


a  noise  and  removes  with  it  numerous 
flakes  of  glass.  All  that  the  piece  then 
requires  is  to  be  carefully  washed  and 
dried. 

The  designs  thus  obtained  are  not  al- 
ways the  same,  the  thickness  of  the  coat 
of  glue,  the  time  of  drying,  and  various 
other  conditions  seeming  to  act  to  modify 
the  form  and  number  of  the  flakes  de- 
tached. 

It  is  indispensable  to  employ  glass 
objects  of  adequate  thickness,  since,  in 
covering  mousseline  glass  with  a  layer  of 
glue,  the  mechanical  action  that  it  has  to 
support  during  desiccation  is  so  powerful 
that  it  will  break  with  an  explosion. 
Glue,  therefore,  must  not  be  allowed  to 
dry  in  glass  vessels,  since  they  would  be 
corroded  and  broken  in  a  short  time. 

Indelible  Labels  on  Bottles. -i-To  affix 
indelible  labels  on  bottles  an  etching 
liquid  is  employed  which  is  produced  as 
follows: 

Liquid  I,  in  one  bottle. — Dissolve  36 
parts  of  sodium  fluoride  in  500  parts  of 
distilled  water  and  add  7  parts  of  potas- 
sium sulphate. 

Liquid  II,  in  another  bottle. — Dissolve 
zinc  chloride,  14  parts,  in  500  parts  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  add  65  parts  of  concen- 
trated hydrochloric  acid. 

For  use  mix  equal  parts  together  and 
add  a  little  dissolved  India  ink  to  render 
the  writing  more  visible. 

The  mixing  cannot,  however,  be  con- 
ducted in  a  vessel.  It  is  best  to  use  a 
cube  of  paraffine  which  has  been  hol- 
lowed out. 

Etching  on  Marble  or  Ivory  (see 
also  Ivory). — Cover  the  objects  with  a 
coat  of  wax  dissolved  in  90  per  cent 
alcohol,  then  trace  the  desired  designs 
by  removing  the  wax  with  a  sharp 
tool  and  distribute  on  the  tracing  the 
following  mixture:  Hydrochloric  acid, 
1  part;  acetic  acid,  1  part.  Repeat 
this  operation  several  times,  until  the 
desired  depth  is  attained.  Then  take 
off  the  varnish  with  alcohol.  The  etch- 
ing may  be  embellished,  filling  up  the 
hollows  with  any  colored  varnish,  by 
wiping  the  surface  with  a  piece  of  linen 
fixed  on  a  stick,  to  rub  the  varnish  into 
the  cavities  after  it  has  been  applied  with 
a  brush.  The  hollows  may  be  gilded  or 
silvered  by  substituting  "mixtion"  for 
the  varnish  and  applying  on  this  mixtion 
a  leaf  of  gold  or  silver,  cut  in  pieces  a 
little  larger  than  the  design  to  be  cov- 
ered; press  down  the  gold  by  means  of  a 
soft  brush  so  as  to  cause  it  to  penetrate  to 
the  bottom;  let  dry  and  remove  the  pro- 
truding edges. 


Etching  on  Steel.— The  print  should  be 
heavily  inked  and  powdered  with  drag- 
on's blood  several  times.  After  each 
powdering  heat  slightly  and  additional 
powder  will  stick,  forming  a  heavy  coat- 
ing in  2  or  3  operations.  Before  pro- 
ceeding to  heat  up,  the  plate  should  re- 
ceive a  light  etching  in  a  weak  solution 
of  the  acid  described  later  on.  The 
purpose  of  this  preliminary  etching  is  to 
clean  up  the  print,  so  that  the  lines  will 
not  tend  to  thicken,  as  would  be  the  case 
otherwise.  Next  a  good  strong  heating 
should  be  given.  On  top  the  dragon's 
blood  plumbago  may  be  used  in  addition. 
For  etching  use  nitric  acid  mixed  with 
an  even  amount  of  acetic  acid.  Some 
operators  use  vinegar,  based  on  the  same 
theory.  When  commencing  the  etching, 
start  with  a  weak  solution  and  increase  as 
soon  as  the  plate  is  deep  enough  to  allow 
another  powdering.  If  the  operator  is 
familiar  with  lithography,  and  under- 
stands rolling  up  the  print  with  a  litho- 
roller,  the  etching  of  steel  is  not  harder 
than  etching  on  zinc. 

Liquids  for  Etching  Steel.— 

I. — Iodine 2  parts 

Potassium  iodide.  .        5  parts 
Water 40  parts 

II.— Nitric  acid 60  parts 

Water 120  parts 

Alcohol . 200  parts 

Copper  nitrate  ....  8  parts 

III. — Glacial  acetic  acid  .        4  parts 

Nitric  acid 1  part 

Alcohol 1  part 

IV. — Mix  1  ounce  sulphate  of  copper,  £ 
ounce  alum,  \  teaspoonf  ul  of  salt  (reduced 
to  powder),  with  1  gill  of  vinegar  and  20 
drops  of  nitric  acid.  This  fluid  can  be 
used  either  for  etching  deeply  or  for 
frosting,  according  to  the  time  it  is  al- 
lowed to  act.  The  parts  of  the  work 
which  are  not  to  be  etched  should  be 
protected  with  beeswax  or  some  similar 
substance. 

V. — Nitric  acid,  60  parts;  water,  120 
parts;  alcohol,  200  parts;  and  copper  ni- 
trate, 8  parts.  Keep  in  a  glass-stoppered 
bottle.  To  use  the  fluid,  cover  the  sur- 
face to  be  marked  with  a  thin  even  coat 
of  wax  and  mark  the  lines  with  a  ma- 
chinist's scriber.  Wrap  clean  cotton 
waste  around  the  end  of  the  scriber  or  a 
stick,  and  dip  in  the  fluid,  applying  it  to 
the  marked  surface.  In  a  few  minutes 
the  wax  may  be  scraped  off,  when  fine 
lines  will  appear  where  the  scriber 
marked  the  wax.  The  drippings  from  a 
lighted  wax  candle  can  be  used  for  the 


ETCHING— EXPLOSIVES 


coating,  and  this  may  be  evenly  spread 
with  a  knife  heated  in  the  candle  flame. 

VI.— For  Hardened  Steel.— Heat  an 
iron  or  an  old  pillar-file  with  a  smooth 
side,  and  with  it  spread  a  thin,  even  coat 
of  beeswax  over  the  brightened  surface  to 
be  etched.  With  a  sharp  lead  pencil 
(which  is  preferable  to  a  scriber)  write 
or  mark  as  wanted  through  the  wax  so  as 
to  be  sure  to  strike  the  steel  surface. 
Then  daub  on  with  a  stick  etching  acid 
made  as  follows:  Nitric  acid,  3  parts; 
muriatic  acid,  1  part.  If  a  lead  pencil 
has  been  used  the  acid  will  begin  to  bub- 
ble immediately.  Two  or  three  minutes 
of  the  bubbling  or  foaming  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  marking;  then  soak  up  the 
acid  with  a  small  piece  of  blotting  paper 
and  remove  the  beeswax  with  a  piece  of 
cotton  waste  wet  with  benzine,  and  if 
the  piece  be  small  enough  dip  it  into  a 
saturated  solution  of  sal  soda,  or  if  the 
piece  be  large  swab  over  it  with  a  piece  of 
waste.  This  neutralizes  the  remaining 
acid  and  prevents  rusting,  which  oil  will 
not  do. 

If  it  is  desired  to  coat  the  piece  with 
beeswax  without  heating  it,  dissolve 
pure  beeswax  in  benzine  until  of  the 
consistency  of  thick  cream  and  pour  on 
to  the  steel,  and  even  spread  it  by  rocking 
or  blowing,  and  lay  aside  for  it  to  harden; 
then  use  the  lead  pencil,  etc.,  as  before. 
This  method  will  take  longer.  Keep 
work  from  near  the  fire  or  an  open  flame. 

EUCALYPTUS  BONBONS  FOR  COLDS 
AND  COUGHS: 

See  Cold  and  Cough  Mixtures. 

EXPECTORANTS: 

See  Cold  and  Cough  Mixtures. 

Explosives 

Explosives  may  be  divided  into  two 
great  classes — mechanical  mixtures  and 
chemical  compounds.  In  the  former  the 
combustible  substances  are  intimately 
mixed  with  some  oxygen  supplying 
material,  as  in  the  case  of  gunpowder, 
where  carbon  and  sulphur  are  inti- 
mately mixed  with  potassium  nitrate; 
while  gun  cotton  and  nitro-glycerine  are 
examples  of  the  latter  class,  where  each 
molecule  of  the  substance  contains  the 
necessary  oxygen  for  the  oxidation  of 
the  carbon  and  hydrogen  present,  the 
oxygen  being  in  feeble  combination  with 
nitrogen.  Many  explosives  are,  how- 
ever, mechanical  mixtures  of  compounds 
which  are  themselves  explosive,  e.  g., 
cordite,  which  is  mainly  composed  of 
gun  cotton  and  nitro-glycerine. 


The  most  common  and  familiar  of 
explosives  is  undoubtedly  gunpowder. 
The  mixture  first  adopted  appears  to 
have  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  the 
three  ingredients — sulphur,  charcoal,  and 
niter;  but  some  time  later  the  propor- 
tions, even  now  taken  for  all  ordinary 
purposes,  were  introduced,  namely: 

Potassium  nitrate. .  ..    75  parts 

Charcoal 15  parts 

Sulphur 10  parts 

100  parts 

Since  gunpowder  is  a  mechanical  mix- 
ture, it  is  clear  that  the  first  aim  of  the 
maker  must  be  to  obtain  perfect  incor- 
poration, and,  necessarily,  in  order  to 
obtain  this,  the  materials  must  be  in  a 
very  finely  divided  state.  Moreover, 
in  order  that  uniformity  of  effect  may  be 
obtained,  purity  of  the  original  sub- 
stances, the  percentage  of  moisture  pres- 
ent, and  the  density  of  the  finished 
powder  are  of  importance. 

The  weighed  quantities  of  the  ingre- 
dients are  first  mixed  in  gun  metal  or 
copper  drums,  having  blades  in  the 
interior  capable  of  working  in  the  op- 

Sosite  direction  to  that  in  which  the 
rum  itself  is  traveling.  After  passing 
through  a  sieve,  the  mixture  (green 
charge)  is  passed  on  to  the  incorporating 
mills,  where  it  is  thoroughly  ground  un- 
der heavy  metal  rollers,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  water  being  added  to  prevent 
dust  and  facilitating  incorporation,  and 
during  this  process  the  risk  of  explosion 
is  greater  possibly  than  at  any  other 
stage  in  the  manufacture.  There  are 
usually  6  mills  working  in  the  same 
building,  with  partitions  between.  Over 
the  bed  of  each  mill  is  a  horizontal  board, 
the  "flash  board,"  which  is  connected 
with  a  tank  of  water  overhead,  the  ar- 
rangement being  such  that  the  upsetting 
of  one  tank  discharges  the  contents  of 
the  other  tanks  onto  the  corresponding 
mill  beds  below,  so  that  in  the  event  of 
an  accident  the  charge  is  drowned  in 
each  case.  The  "mill  cake"  is  now 
broken  down  between  rollers,  the  "meal" 
produced  being  placed  in  strong  oak 
boxes  and  subjected  to  hydraulic  pres- 
sure, thus  increasing  its  density  and 
hardness,  at  the  same  time  bringing  the 
ingredients  into  more  intimate  contact. 
After  once  more  breaking  down  the 
material  (press  cake),  the  powder  only 
requires  special  treatment  to  adapt  it 
for  the  various  purposes  for  which  it  is 
intended. 

The  products  of  the  combustion  of 
powder  and  its  manner  of  burning  are 


EXPLOSIVES 


329 


largely  influenced  by  the  pressure,  a 
property  well  illustrated  by  the  failure  of 
a  red-hot  platinum  wire  to  ignite  a  mass 
of  powder  in  a  vacuum,  only  a  few 
grams  actually  in  contact  with  the  plati- 
num undergoing  combustion. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  a  substance  of  a 
similar  chemical  nature  to  gun  cotton, 
the  principles  of  its  formation  and  puri- 
fication being  very  similar,  only  in  this 
case  the  materials  and  product  are 
liquids,  thereby  rendering  the  operations 
of  manufacture  and  washing  much  less 
difficult.  The  glycerine  is  sprayed  into 
the  acid  mixture  by  compressed-air  in- 
jectors, care  being  taken  that  the  tem- 
perature during  nitration  does  not  rise 
above  86°  F.  The  nitro-glycerine  formed 
readily  separates  from  the  mixed  acids, 
and  being  insoluble  in  cold  water,  the 
washing  is  comparatively  simple. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  an  oily  liquid  readily 
soluble  in  most  organic  solvents,  but 
becomes  solid  at  3°  or  4°  above  the 
freezing  point  of  water,  and  in  this  con- 
dition is  less  sensitive.  It  detonates 
when  heated,  to  500°  F.,  or  by  a  sudden 
blow,  yielding  carbon  dioxide,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  water.  Being  a  fluid  un- 
der ordinary  conditions,  its  uses  as  an 
explosive  were  limited,  and  Alfred  Nobel 
conceived  the  idea  of  mixing  it  with  other 
substances  which  would  act  as  absorb- 
ents, first  using  charcoal  and  afterwards 
an  infusorial  earth,  "kieselguhr,"  and 
obtaining  what  he  termed  "dynamite." 
Nobel  found  that  "collodion  cotton" — 
soluble  gun  cotton — could  be  converted 
by  treatment  with  nitro-glycerine  into  a 
jellylike  mass  which  was  more  trust- 
worthy in  action  than  the  components 
alone,  and  from  its  nature  the  substance 
was  christened  "blasting  gelatin." 

Nobel  took  out  a  patent  for  a  smoke- 
less powder  for  use  in  guns,  in  which 
these  ingredients  were  adopted  with  or 
without  the  use  of  retarding  agents. 
The  powders  of  this  class  are  ballistite 
and  filite,  the  former  being  in  sheets,  the 
latter  in  threads.  Originally  camphor 
was  introduced,  but  its  use  has  been 
abandoned,  a  small  quantity  of  aniline 
taking  its  place. 

Sir  Frederick  Abel  and  Prof.  Dewar 
patented  in  1889  the  use  of  trinitro- 
cellulose  and  nitro-glycerine,  for  al- 
though, as  is  well  known,  this  form  of 
nitre-cellulose  is  not  soluble  in  nitro-glyc- 
erine, yet  by  dissolving  the  bodies  in  a 
mutual  solvent,  perfect  incorporation 
can  be  attained.  Acetone  is  the  solvent 
used  in  the  preparation  of  "cordite,"  and 
for  all  ammunition  except  blank  charges 
a  certain  proportion  of  vaseline  is  also 


added.  The  combustion  of  the  powder 
without  vaseline  gives  products  so  free 
from  solid  or  liquid  substances  that 
excessive  friction  of  the  projectile  in  the 
gun  causes  rapid  wearing  of  the  rifling, 
and  it  is  chiefly  to  overcome  this  that  the 
vaseline  is  introduced,  for  on  explosion  a 
thin  film  of  solid  matter  is  deposited  in 
the  gun,  and  acts  as  a  lubricant. 

The  proportion  of  the  ingredients  are: 

Nitro-glycerine 58  parts 

Gun-cotton 37  parts 

Vaseline 5  parts 

Gun  cotton  to  be  used  for  cordite  is 
prepared  as  previously  described,  but 
the  alkali  is  omitted,  and  the  mass  is  not 
submitted  to  great  pressure,  to  avoid 
making  it  so  dense  that  ready  absorption 
of  nitro-glycerine  would  not  take  place. 
The  nitro-glycerine  is  poured  over  the 
dried  gun  cotton  and  first  well  mixed  by 
hand,  afterwards  in  a  kneading  machine 
with  the  requisite  quantity  of  acetone 
for  3 1  hours.  A  water  jacket  is  provided, 
since,  on  mixing,  the  temperature  rises. 
The  vaseline  is  now  added,  and  the 
kneading  continued  for  a  similar  period. 
The  cordite  paste  is  first  subjected  to 
a  preliminary  pressing,  and  is  finally 
forced  through  a  hole  of  the  proper  size 
in  a  plate  either  by  hand  or  by  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  smaller  sizes  are  wound 
on  drums,  while  the  larger  cordite  is  cut 
off  in  suitable  lengths,  the  drums  and 
cut  material  being  dried  at  100°  F.,  thus 
driving  off  the  remainder  of  the  acetone. 

Cordite  varies  from  yellow  to  dark 
brown  in  color,  according  to  its  thick- 
ness. When  ignited  it  burns  with  a 
strong  flame,  which  may  be  extinguished 
by  a  vigorous  puff  of  air.  Macnab  and 
Ristori  give  the  yield  of  permanent  gases 
from  English  cordite  as  647  cubic  centi- 
meters, containing  a  much  higher  per 
cent  of  carbon  monoxide  than  the  gases 
evolved  from  the  old  form  of  powder. 
Sir  Andrew  Noble  failed  in  attempts  to 
detonate  the  substance,  and  a  rifle  bullet 
fired  into  the  mass  only  caused  it  to  burn 
quietly. 

Dynamite. — Dynamite  is  ordinarily 
made  up  of  75  per  cent  nitro-glycerine, 
25  per  cent  infusorial  earth;  duahne  con- 
tains 80  per  cent  nitro-glycerine,  20  per 
cent  nitro-cellulose;  rend-rock  has  40  per 
cent  nitro  glycerine,  40  per  cent  nitrate 
of  potash,  13  per  cent  cellulose,  7  per 
cent  paraffine;  giant  powder,  36  per  cent 
nitro-glycerine,  48  per  cent  nitrate  of 
potash,  8  per  cent  sulphur,  8  per  cent 
rosin  or  charcoal. 

Smokeless  Powder.  —  The  base  of 
smokeless  powders  is  nitrated  cellulose.. 


330 


EXPLOSIVES 


which  has  been  treated  in  one  of  various 
ways  to  make  it  burn  slower  than  gun 
cotton,  and  also  to  render  it  less  sensitive 
to  heat  and  shocks.  As  a  rule,  these 
powders  are  not  only  less  inflammable 
than  gun  cotton,  but  require  stronger 
detonators.  As  metallic  salts  cause 
smoke,  they  are  not  used  in  these  pow- 
ders. The  smokeless  powders  now  in 
use  may  be  divided  into  three  groups: 
(1)  Those  consisting  of  mixtures  of 
nitro-glycerine  and  nitrated  cellulose, 
which  have  been  converted  into  a  hard, 
hornlike  mass,  either  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  a  solvent.  To  this  group  be- 
longs ballistite,  containing  50  per  cent  of 
nitro-glycerine,  49  per  cent  of  nitrated 
cellulose,  and  1  per  cent  of  diphenyl- 
amin;  also  cordite  (see  further  on), 
Lenord's  powder,  and  amberite.  This 
last  contains  40  parts  of  nitro-glycerine 
and  56  parts  of  nitrated  cellulose.  (2) 
Those  consisting  mainly  of  nitrated  cel- 
lulose of  any  kind,  which  has  been  ren- 
dered hard  and  horny  by  treatment  with 
some  solvent  which  is  afterwards  evapo- 
rated. These  are  prepared  by  treating 
nitrated  cellulose  with  ether  or  benzine, 
which  dissolves  the  collodion,  and  when 
evaporated  leaves  a  hard  film  of  collo- 
dion on  the  surface  of  each  grain. 
Sometimes  a  little  camphor  is  added  to 
the  solvent,  and,  remaining  in  the  pow- 
der, greatly  retards  its  combustion.  (3) 
Those  consisting  of  nitro-derivatives  of 
the  aromatic  hydrocarbons,  either  with 
or  without  the  admixture  of  nitrated 
cellulose;  to  this  group  belong  Dupont's 
powder,  consisting  of  nitrated  cellulose 
dissolved  in  nitro-benzine;  indurite,  con- 
sisting of  cellulose  hexanitrate  (freed 
from  collodion  by  extraction  with  methyl 
alcohol),  made  into  a  paste  with  nitro- 
benzine,  and  hardened  by  treatment  with 
steam  until  the  excess  of  nitro-benzine  is 
removed;  and  plastomeite,  consisting  of 
dinitrotoluene  and  nitrated  wood  pulp. 
Cordite  is  the  specific  name  of  a 
smokeless  powder  which  has  been 
adopted  by  the  English  government  as  a 
military  explosive.  It  contains  nitro- 
glycerine, 58  parts;  gun  cotton,  37  parts; 
and  petrolatum,  5  parts.  The  nitro- 
glycerine and  gun  cotton  are  first  mixed, 
19.2  parts  of  acetone  added,  and  the 
pasty  mass  kneaded  for  several  hours. 
The  petrolatum  is  then  added  and  the 
mixture  again  kneaded.  The  paste  is 
then  forced  through  fine  openings  to 
form  threads,  which  are  dried  at  about 
105°  F.  until  the  acetone  evaporates. 
The  threads,  which  resemble  brown 
twine,  are  then  cut  into  short  lengths  for 
use. 


Another  process  for  the  manufacture 
of  smokeless  powder  is  as  follows: 
Straw,  preferably  oat-straw,  is  treated  in 
the  usual  way  with  a  mixture  of  nitric 
acid  and  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
and  then  washed  in  water  to  free  it  from 
these,  then  boiled  with  water,  and  again 
with  a  solution  of  potassium  carbonate. 
It  is  next  subjected,  for  2  to  6  hours,  to 
the  action  of  a  solution  composed  of 
1,000  parts  of  water,  12.5  parts  of  potas- 
sium nitrate,  3.5  parts  of  potassium 
chlorate,  12.5  parts  of  zinc  sulphate,  and 
12.5  parts  of  potassium  permanganate. 
The  excess  of  solution  is  pressed  out, 
and  the  mass  is  then  pulverized,  granu- 
lated, and  finally  dried. 

The  warning  as  to  the  danger  of  ex- 
perimenting with  the  manufacture  of 
ordinary  gunpowder  applies  with  re- 
newed force  when  nitro-glycerine  is  the 
subject  of  the  experiment. 

Berge's  Blasting  Powder.  —  This  is 
composed  of  chlorate  of  potash,  1  part; 
chromate  of  potash,  0.1  part;  sugar, 
0.45  parts;  yellow  wax,  0.09  parts.  The 
proportions  indicated  may'  vary  within 
certain  limits,  according  to  the  force 
desired.  For  the  preparation,  the  chlo- 
rate and  the  chromate  of  potash,  as  well 
as  the  sugar,  are  ground  separately  and 
very  finely,  and  sifted  so  that  the  grains 
of  the  different  substances  may  have  the 
same  size.  At  first  any  two  of  the  sub- 
stances are  mixed  as  thoroughly  as  possi- 
ble, then  the  third  is  added.  The  yellow 
wax,  cut  in  small  pieces,  is  finally  added, 
and  all  the  substances  are  worked  to- 
gether to  produce  a  homogeneous  prod- 
uct. The  sugar  may  be  replaced  with 
charcoal  or  any  other  combustible  body. 
For  commercial  needs,  the  compound 
may  be  colored  with  any  inert  matter, 
also  pulverized. 

Safety  in  Explosives. — Ammoniacal 
salts  have  been  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  explosives  to  render  them  proof 
against  firedamp,  but  not  with  the  full 
success  desired.  Ammonium  chloride 
has  been  utilized,  but  inconveniences 
are  met  with,  and  the  vapor  is  quite  dis- 
agreeable. In  cooperation  with  equiva- 
lent quantities  of  soda  and  potash,  its 
action  is  regarded  as  favorable.  Tests 
employing  benzine  vapor  and  coal  dust 
were  made,  and  the  comparative  security 
calculated  to  be  as  given  below. 

I. — Donarite,  composed  as  follows: 
80  per  cent  of  nitrate  of  ammonia,  12  of 
trinitrotoluol,  4  of  flour,  3.8  of  nitro- 
glycerine, and  0.2  per  cent  of  cotton  col- 
lodion. Security:  Donarite  alone,  87 
parts;  95  per  cent  of  donarite  and  5  per 


EXPLOSIVES 


331 


cent  of  ammonium  chloride,  125  parts; 
90  per  cent  of  donarite  and  10  per  cent 
of  ammonium  chloride,  250  parts;  86 
per  cent  of  donarite  and  5.5  per  cent  of 
ammonium  chloride,  with  8.5  per  cent  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  425  parts.  The  force  of 
the  explosion  is  decreased  about  8  per 
cent,  while  the  security  is  quintupled. 

II. — Roburite,  with  the  following  com- 
position: 72.5  per  cent  nitrate  of  am- 
monia; 12  binitro-benzol;  10  nitrate  of 
potash;  5  sulphate  of  ammonia;  0.5  per 
cent  permanganate  of  potash.  Security: 
Roburite  only,  325  parts;  ammonium 
chloride,  taking  the  place  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  400  parts.  Here  an  intensi- 
fication of  the  explosive  force  is  simul- 
taneously produced. 

III. — Ammon  carbonite  I,  composed 
thus:  4  per  cent  nitro-glycerine;  75.5 
nitrate  of  ammonia;  9.5  nitrate  of  potash; 
9.5  coal  dust;  10.5  flour.  Security:  Am- 
mon carbonite  I  only,  250  parts;  95  per 
cent  A.  C.  I.  and  5  per  cent  ammonium 
chloride,  400  parts;  92  per  cent  A.  C.  I. 
and  8  per  cent  ammonium  chloride,  500 
parts.  The  addition  of  5  per  cent  am- 
monium chloride  diminishes  the  ex- 
plosive force  only  3  per  cent. 

IV.— An  explosive  of  nitro-glycerine 
base  composed  thus:  30  per  cent  nitro- 
glycerine; 1  per  cent  cotton  collodion; 
52.6  nitrate  of  ammonia;  13  nitrate  of 
potash;  3  to  4  per  cent  starch.  Security 
of  this  mixture,  150  parts. 

V. — Thirty  per  cent  nitro-glycerine;  1 
per  cent  cotton  collodion;  47.3  nitrate  of 
ammonia;  11.6  nitrate  of  potash;  3.1 
starch;  7  per  cent  ammonium  chloride. 
This  mixture  has  a  security  of  350  parts. 

Inflammable  Explosive  with  Chlorate 
of  Potash. — Take  as  an  agent  promot- 
ing combustion,  potassium  chlorate;  as  a 
combustible  agent,  an  oxidized,  nitrated, 
or  natural  rosin.  If,  to  such  a  mixture, 
another  body  is  added  in  order  to  render 
it  soft  and  plastic,  such  as  oil,  nitro-ben- 
zine,  glucose,  glycerine,  the  benefit  of  the 
discovery  is  lost,  for  the  mixture  is  ren- 
dered combustible  with  nitro-benzine, 
fecula,  sulphur,  etc.,  and  inexplosive 
with  glycerine,  glucose,  and  the  oil. 

Of  all  the  chlorates  and  perchlorates, 
potassium  chlorate  (KC1O3)  responds 
the  best  to  what  is  desired.  As  to  the 
rosins,  they  may  be  varied,  or  even 
mixed.  To  obtain  the  oxidation  or 
nitration  of  the  rosins,  they  are  heated 
with  nitric  acid,  more  or  less  concentrat- 
ed, and  with  or  without  the  addition  of 
sulphuric  acid.  An  oxidation,  sufficient 
and  without  danger,  can  be  secured  by 
a  simple  and  practical  means.  This  is 


boiling  them  for  several  hours  in  water 
containing  nitric  acid,  which  is  renewed 
from  time  to  time  in  correspondence  with 
its  decomposition.  The  rosins  recom- 
mended by  M.  Turpin  are  of  the  tere- 
binthine  group,  having  for  average  for- 
mula CaoHsoOa.  Colophony  is  the  type. 

The  products,  thus  nitrated,  are 
washed  with  boiling  water,  and,  on  oc- 
casion, by  a  solution  slightly  alkaline, 
with  a  final  washing  with  pure  water, 
and  dried  at  a  temperature  of  230°  F.  or 
in  the  open  air. 

The  mixing  of  the  constituents  of  this 
explosive  is  preferably  cold.  For  this 
purpose  they  are  used  in  the  state  of  fine 
powder,  and  when  mixed  in  the  tub,  2i 
to  5  per  cent  of  a  volatile  dissolvent  is 
added,  as  alcohol,  carbon  sulphide, 
ether,  or  benzine.  As  soon  as  thorough- 
ly mingled,  the  mass  is  put  either  in  an 
ordinary  grainer,  or  in  a  cylinder  of  wire 
cloth  revolving  horizontally  on  its  axis, 
with  glass  gobilles  forming  a  screen,  by 
the  aid  of  which  the  graining  is  rapidly 
accomplished.  Thus  a  powder  more  or 
less  finely  granulated  is  produced  free 
from  dust. 

The  proportions  preferably  employed 


1.  Potassium  chlorate.  ..    85  parts 
Natural  rosin 15  parts 

2.  Potassium  chlorate.  .  .    80  parts 
Nitrated  rosin 20  parts 

For  employment  in  firedamp  mines, 
there  is  added  to  these  compounds  from 
20  to  40  per  cent  of  one  of  the  following 
substances:  Ammonium  oxalate,  am- 
monium carbonate,  oxalic  acid,  sodium 
bicarbonate,  calcium  fluoride,  or  other 
substance  of  the  nature  to  lower  suffi- 
ciently the  temperature  of  the  explosive 
flame. 

Gun  Cotton. — For  the  production  of  a 
high-grade  gun  cotton,  it  is  important 
that  the  cotton  used  should  approach  as 
near  as  possible  pure  cellulose.  The 
waste  from  cotton  mills,  thoroughly 
purified,  is  usually  employed.  After 
careful  chemical  examination  has  been 
made  to  ascertain  its  freedom  from 
grease  and  other  impurities,  the  cotton 
waste  is  picked  over  by  hand  to  remove 
such  impurities  as  wood,  cardboard, 
string,  etc.  The  cotton  is  then  passed 
through  the  "teasing  machine,"  which 
opens  out  all  knots  and  lumps,  thereby 
reducing  it  to  a  state  more  suitable  for 
the  acid  treatment  and  exposing  to  view 
any  foreign  substances  which  may  have 
escaped  notice  in  the  previous  picking. 
The  cotton  is  then  dried.  When  per- 


EXPLOSIVES 


fectly  dry,  it  is  removed  to  air-tight  iron 
cases,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  cool.  The 
iron  cases  are  taken  to  the  dipping 
houses,  and  the  cotton  waste  weighed 
into  small  portions,  which  are  then 
transferred  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  the 
mixed  acids,  allowed  to  remain  a  few 
minutes,  then  removed  to  the  grating 
and  the  excess  of  acid  squeezed  out. 
The  cotton  now  containing  about  ten 
times  its  weight  of  acid  is  placed  in  an 
earthenware  pot  and  transferred  to  the 
steeping  pits,  where  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
main for  24  hours,  a  low  temperature 
being  maintained  by  a  stream  of  cold 
water. 

The  cotton  is  now  wholly  converted 
into  nitro-cellulose.  The  superfluous 
acid  is  next  removed  by  a  centrifugal 
extractor,  after  which  the  gun  cotton  is 
taken  out  of  the  machine  and  immedi- 
ately immersed  in  a  large  volume  of 
water,  and  thoroughly  washed  until  it 
shows  no  acid  reaction.  The  moisture 
is  then  run  out  and  the  gun  cotton  is  con- 
veyed by  tramway  to  the  boiling  vats, 
where  it  undergoes  several  boilings  by 
means  of  steam.  When  the  "  heat  test" 
shows  that  a  sufficient  degree  of  stability 
has  been  obtained,  the  gun  cotton  is  re- 
moved to  a  beating  engine,  and  reduced 
to  a  very  fine  state  of  division.  When 
this  process  is  completed  the  pulp  is  run 
by  gravity  along  wooden  shoots,  pro- 
vided with  "grit  traps"  and  electro- 
magnets, which  catch  any  traces  of  sand, 
iron,  etc.,  into  large  "  poachers,"  in 
which  the  gun  cotton  is  continuously 
agitated,  together  with  a  large  quantity 
of  water.  In  this  way  it  is  thoroughly 
washed  and  a  blend  made  of  a  large 
quantity  of  gun  cotton. 

Soluble  Gun  Cotton. — Soluble  gun 
cotton  is  made  on  the  same  lines,  except 
that  greater  attention  has  to  be  paid  to 
the  physical  condition  of  the  cotton  used, 
and  to  the  temperature  and  strength  of 
acid  mixture,  etc. 

The  term  "soluble"  usually  implies 
that  the  gun  cotton  is  dissolved  by  a  mix- 
ture of  ethyl-ether  and  ethyl-alcohol,  2 
parts  of  the  former  to  1  of  the  latter  being 
the  proportions  which  yield  the  best 
solvent  action.  The  classification  of 
nitro-celluloses  according  to  their  solu- 
bility in  ether-alcohol  is  misleading, 
except  when  the  nitrogen  contents  are 
also  quoted. 

The  number  of  solvents  for  gun  cotton 
which  have  at  various  times  been  pro- 
posed is  very  large.  Among  the  more 
important  may  be  mentioned  the  follow- 
ing: Alcohols  (used  chiefly  in  conjunc- 


tion with  other  solvents),  methyl,  ethyi, 
propyl,  and  amyl,  methyl-amyl  ether, 
acetic  ether,  di-ethyl-ketone,  methyl- 
ethyl  ketone,  amyl  nitrate  and  acetate, 
nitro-benzple,  nitro-toluol,  nitrated  oils,  gla- 
cial acetic  acid,  camphor  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  etc. 

Some  of  the  above  may  be  called 
selective  solvents,  i.  e.,  they  dissolve  one 
particular  variety  of  gun  cotton  better 
than  others,  so  that  solubility  in  any 
given  solvent  must  not  be  used  to  indi- 
cate solubility  in  another.  No  nitro- 
cotton  is  entirely  soluble  in  any  solvent. 
The  solution,  after  standing  some  time, 
always  deposits  a  small  amount  of  insol- 
uble matter.  Therefore,  in  making 
collodion  solutions,  care  should  be  taken 
to  place  the  containing  bottles  in  a  place 
free  from  vibration  and  shock.  After 
standing  a  few  weeks  the  clear  super- 
natant liquid  may  be  decanted  off.  On 
a  larger  scale  collodion  solutions  are 
filtered  under  pressure  through  layers  of 
tightly  packed  cotton  wool.  The  state 
of  division  is  important.  When  the  end 
in  view  is  the  production  of  a  strong  film 
or  thread,  it  is  advisable  to  use  unpulped 
or  only  slightly  pulped  nitro-cellulose. 
In  this  condition  it  also  dissolves  more 
easily  than  the  finely  pulped  material. 

FULMINATES: 

Fulminating  Antimony.  —  Tartar 
emetic  (dried),  100  parts;  lampblack  or 
charcoal  powder,  3  parts.  Triturate 
together,  put  into  a  crucible  that  it  will 
three-fourths  fill  (previously  rubbed  inside 
with  charcoal  powder).  Cover  it  with  a 
layer  of  dry  charcoal  powder,  and  lute 
on  the  cover.  After  3  hours'  exposure  to 
a  strong  heat  in  a  reverberatory  furnace, 
and  6  or  7  hours'  cooling,  cautiously 
transfer  the  solid  contents  of  the  crucible, 
as  quickly  as  possible,  without  breaking, 
to  a  wide-mouthed  stoppered  phial, 
where,  after  some  time,  it  will  sponta- 
neously crumble  to  a  powder.  When 
the  above  process  is  properly  conducted, 
the  resulting  powder  contains  potassium, 
and  fulminates  violently  on  contact  with 
water.  A  piece  the  size  of  a  pea  intro- 
duced into  a  mass  of  gunpowder  ex- 
plodes it  on  being  thrown  into  water, 
or  on  its  being  moistened  in  any  other 
manner. 

Fulminating  Bismuth. — Take  bis- 
muth, 120  parts;  carbureted  cream  of 
tartar,  60  parts;  niter,  1  part. 

Fulminating  Copper. — Digest  copper 
(in  powder  of  filings)  with  fulminate  of 
mercury  or  of  silver,  and  a  little  water. 


EXPLOSIVES— FATS 


333 


It  forms  soluble  green  crystals  that  ex- 
plode with  a  green  flame. 

Fulminating  Mercury. — Take  mer- 
cury, 100  parts;  nitric  acid  (specific 
gravity,  1.4),  1,000  parts  (or  740  parts,  by 
measure).  Dissolve  by  a  gentle  heat, 
and  when  the  solution  has  acquired  the 
temperature  of  130°  F.,  slowly  pour  it 
through  a  glass  funnel  tube  into  alcohol 
(specific  gravity,  .830),  830  parts  (or 
1,000  parts,  by  measure).  As  soon  as 
the  effervescence  is  over,  and  white  fumes 
cease  to  be  evolved,  filter  through  double 
paper,  wash  with  cold  water,  and  dry  by 
steam  (not  hotter  than  212°  F.)  or  hot 
water.  The  fulminate  is  then  to  be 
packed  in  100-grain  paper  parcels,  and 
these  stored  in  a  tight  box  or  corked 
bottle.  Product  130  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  mercury  employed. 

Fulminating  Powder. — I. — Niter,  3 
parts;  carbonate  of  potash  (dry),  2 
parts;  flowers  of  sulphur,  1  part;  reduce 
them  separately  to  fine  powder,  before 
mixing  them.  A  little  of  this  compound 
(20  to  30  grains),  slowly  heated  on  a 
shovel  over  the  fire,  first  fuses  and  be- 
comes brown,  and  then  explodes  with  a 
deafening  report. 

II. — Sulphur,  1  part ;  chlorate  of 
potassa,  3  parts.  When  triturated,  with 
strong  pressure,  in  a  marble  or  wedg- 
wood-ware  mortar,  it  produces  a  series  of 
loud  reports.  It  also  fulminates  by  per- 
cussion. 

III. — Chlorate  of  potassa,  6  parts; 
pure  lampblack,  4  parts;  sulphur,  1  part. 
A  little  placed  on  an  anvil  detonates  with 
a  loud  report  when  struck  with  a  ham- 


EXPOSURES  IN  PHOTOGRAPHING: 

See  Photography. 

EXTRACTS: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

EXTRACTS,  TESTS  FOR: 

See  Foods. 

EYE  LOTIONS: 

"Black  Eye"  Lotion.— "Black  eyes" 
or  other  temporary  discolorations  of  the 
skin  may  be  disguised  by  the  application 
of  pink  grease  paint,  or  collodion  colored 
by  means  of  a  little  Carmine.  As  lotions 
the  following  have  been  recommended: 

I. — Ammonium     chlo- 
ride        1  part 

Alcohol 1  part 

Water 10  parts 

Diluted  acetic  acid  may  be  substituted 
for  half  of  the  water,  and  the  alcohol 


may  be  replaced  by  tincture  of  arnica, 
with  advantage. 

II. — Potassium  nitrate. . .    15  grains 
Ammonium  chloride  30  grains 
Aromatic  vinegar.  .  .      4  drachms 
Water  to  make  8  ounces. 

III. — The  following  is  to  be  applied 
with  camel's-hair  pencil  every  1,  2,  or  3 
hours.  Be  careful  not  to  get  it  in  the 
eyes,  as  it  smarts.  It  will  remove  the 
black  discoloration  overnight: 

Oxalic  acid 15  grains 

Distilled  water 1  ounce 

Foreign  Matter  in  the  Eye.— If  a  piece 
of  iron  or  other  foreign  matter*  in  the  eye 
irritates  it,  and  there  is  no  way  of  remov- 
ing it  until  morning,  take  a  raw  Irish 
potato,  grate  it,  and  use  as  a  poultice  on 
the  eye.  It  will  ease  the  eye  so  one  can 
sleep,  and  sometimes  draws  the  piece 
out. 

Drops  of  Lime  in  the  Eye. — If  lime  has 
dropped  in  the  eye,  the  pouring-in  of  or 
the  wiping-out  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  is 
the  best  remedy,  as  the  causticity  of  the 
lime  is  arrested  thereby.  Poppy-seed 
oil  or  olive  oil  is  prescribed,  but  pure  lin- 
seed oil  ought  to  render  the  same  service, 
as  it  is  also  used  in  the  household.  Sub- 
sequently, the  eye  may  be  rinsed  out  with 
syrup,  as  the  saccharine  substance  will 
harden  any  remaining  particles  of  lime 
and  destroy  all  causticity  entirely. 

FABRIC  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods and  also  Household  Formulas. 

FABRICS,  WATERPROOFING  OF: 

See  Waterproofing. 

FACE  BLACK  AND  FACE  POWDER: 

See  Cosmetics. 

Fats 

Bear  Fat. — Fresh  bears'  fat  is  white 
and  very  similar  to  lard  in  appearance. 
The  flank  fat  is  softer  and  more  trans- 
parent than  the  kidney  fat,  and  its  odor 
recalls  that  of  fresh  bacon.  Bears'  fat 
differs  from  the  fats  of  the  dog,  fox,  and 
cat  in  having  a  lower  specific  gravity,  a 
very  low  melting  point,  and  a  fairly  high 
iodine  value. 

Bleaching  Bone  Fat. — Bone  fat,  which 
is  principally  obtained  from  horse  bones, 
is  very  dark  colored  in  the  crude  state, 
and  of  an  extremely  disagreeable  smell. 
To  remedy  these  ^  defects  it  ^  may  be 
bleached  by  the  air  or  chemicals,  the 
former  method  only  giving  good  results 


FATS 


when  the  fat  has  been  recovered  by 
means  of  steam.  It  consists  in  cutting 
up  the  fat  into  small  fragments  and  ex- 
posing it  to  the  air  for  several  days,  the 
mass  being  turned  over  at  intervals  with 
a  shovel.  When  sufficiently  bleached  in 
this  manner,  the  fat  is  boiled  with  half 
its  own  weight  of  water,  which  done, 
about  3  or  4  per  cent  of  salt  is  added, 
and  the  whole  is  boiled  over  again.  This 
treatment,  which  takes  2  or  3  weeks, 
sweetens  the  fat,  makes  it  of  the  consist- 
ency of  butter,  and  reduces  the  color  to  a 
pale  yellow.  Light  seems  to  play  no 
part  in  the  operation,  the  change  being 
effected  solely  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 
The  chemical  treatment  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  more  rapid,  sufficient  de- 
coloration being  produced  in  a  few 
hours.  The  fat,  which  should  be  free 
from  gelatin,  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
water,  is  placed  in  an  iron  pan  along 
with  an  equal  weight  of  brine  of  14°  to 
15°  Be.  strength,  with  which  it  is  boiled 
for  3  hours  and  left  to  rest  overnight. 
Next  day  the  fat  is  drawn  off  into  a 
wooden  vessel,  where  it  is  treated  by 
degrees  with  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of 
potassium  bichromate,  dissolved  in  6  of 
boiling  water,  and  8  parts  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  (density  22°  Be.),  this  quan- 
tity being  sufficient  for  400  parts  of  fat. 
Decoloration  proceeds  gradually,  and 
when  complete  the  fat  is  washed  with  hot 
water. 

Bleaching  Tallows  and  Fats. — In- 
stead of  exposing  to  the  sun,  which  is 
always  attended  with  danger  of  render- 
ing fats  rancid,  it  is  better  to  liquefy  these 
at  a  gentle  heat,  and  then  add  i  in  weight 
of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  kaolin  and 
water.  The  fatty  matter  should  be 
worked  up  for  a  time  and  then  left  to 
separate.  Kaolin  has  the  advantage  of 
cheapness  in  price  and  of  being  readily 
procured. 

Freshly  burned  animal  charcoal  would 
perhaps  be  a  more  satisfactory  decolor- 
izer  than  kaolin,  but  it  is  more  expen- 
sive to  start  with,  and  not  so  easy  to  re- 
generate. 

Exposure  of  tallow  to  the  action  of 
steam  under  high  pressure  (a  tempera- 
ture of  250°  or  260°  F.)  is  also  said  to 
render  it  whiter  and  harder. 

Coloring  Matter  in  Fats. — A  simple 
method  for  the  detection  of  the  addition 
of  coloring  matter  to  fats  is  here  de- 
scribed. Ten  parts,  by  measure,  of  the 
melted  fat  are  put  into  a  small  separating 
funnel  and  dissolved  in  10  parts,  by  meas- 
ure, of  petroleum  ether.  The  solution 
is  then  treated  with  15  parts,  by  measure, 


of  glacial  acetic  acid  and  the  whole 
shaken  thoroughly.  The  addition  of 
coloring  matter  is  known  by  the  red  or 
yellow  coloration  which  appears  in  the 
lower  layer  of  acetic  acid  after  the  con- 
tents of  the  funnel  have  been  allowed  to 
settle.  If  only  a  slight  addition  of 
coloring  matter  is  suspected,  the  acetic 
acid  solution  is  run  off  into  a  porcelain 
basin  and  the  latter  heated  on  a  water 
bath,  when  the  coloration  will  be  seen 
more  readily.  This  test  is  intended  for 
butter  and  margarine,  but  is  also  suitable 
for  tallow,  lard,  etc. 

Fatty  Acid  Fermentation  Process. — 
The  production  of  fatty  acids  from  fats 
and  oils  by  fermentation  is  growing  in 
importance.  These  particulars,  which 
are  the  actual  results  from  recent  experi- 
ments on  a  somewhat  extended  scale,  are 
given:  Seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of 
cottonseed  oil  are  mixed  with  45  gallons 
of  water  and  3^  pounds  of  acetic  acid; 
this  mixture  is  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  85°  F.  Castor-oil  seeds,  53  pounds, 
decorticated  and  ground,  are  mixed 
thoroughly  with  3  gallons  of  water  and 
4^  gallons  of  the  oil,  and  this  mixture  is 
stirred  into  the  oil  and  water;  the  whole 
mass  is  then  kept  mixed  for  12  hours  by 
blowing  air  through,  after  which  it  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  another  12  hours, 
being  given  a  gentle  stir  by  hand  at  the 
end  of  every  hour.  After  24  hours  the 
mass  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  180° 
F.,  which  stops  the  fermentation  and 
at  the  same  time  allows  the  fatty  acids  to 
separate  more  freely.  To  assist  in  this 
effect  there  is  added  1  gallon  of  sulphuric 
acid  (1  in  3)  solution. 

After  2  hours'  standing,  the  mass  will 
have  separated  into  three  layers— fatty 
acids  on  the  top,  glycerine  water  below, 
and  a  middle,  undefined  layer.  The 
glycerine  water  is  run  away,  and  the 
whole  mass  left  to  stand  for  2  hours. 
The  middle  portion  is  run  off  from  the 
separated  fatty  acids  into  another  vessel, 
where  it  is  mixed  with  10  gallons  of  hot 
water,  thoroughly  stirred,  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  16  hours  or  more.  The  watery 
layer  at  the  bottom,  which  contains  some 
glycerine,  is  then  run  off,  while  the  resi- 
due is  mixed  with  a  further  quantity  of 
10  gallons  of  water,  and  again  allowed  to 
stand.  The  water  which  separates  out, 
also  the  layer  of  fatty  acids  that  forms  on 
the  top,  are  run  off  and  mixed  with  the 
portions  previously  obtained.  The  va- 
rious glycerine  waters  are  treated  to  re- 
cover the  glycerine,  while  the  fatty  acids 
are  made  marketable  in  any  convenient 
way. 


FATS— FEATHER   BLEACHING 


Preservation  of  Fats. — To  produce 
fats  and  oils  containing  both  iodine  and 
sulphur,  whereby  they  are  preserved 
from  going  rancid,  and  consequently  can 
be  utilized  to  more  advantage  for  the 
usual  purposes,  such  as  the  manufacture 
of  soaps,  candles,  etc.,  following  is  the 
Loebell  method: 

The  essential  feature  of  the  process  is 
that  the  iodine  is  not  merely  held  in  solu- 
tion by  the  oil  or  fat,  but  enters  into 
chemical  combination  with  the  same;  the 
sulphur  also  combines  chemically  with 
the  oil  or  fat,  and  from  their  reactions 
the  preserving  properties  are  derived. 

The  process  consists  of  heating,  for 
example,  6  parts  of  oil  with  1  part  of  sul- 
phur to  a  temperature  varying  between 
300°  and  400°  F.,  then,  when  at  about 
195°  F.,  a  solution  of  iodine  and  oil  is 
added  to  the  mixture,  which  is  constantly 
agitated  until  cool  to  prevent  lumps 
forming.  A  product  is  thus  obtained 
which  acquires  the  consistency  of  butter, 
and  contains  both  iodine  and  sulphur  in 
combination. 

Purifying  Oils  and  Fats. — In  purifying 
fatty  oils  and  fats  for  edible  purposes  the 
chief  thing  is  to  remove  the  free  fatty 
acids,  which  is  done  by  the  aid  of  solu- 
tions of  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths. 
The  subsequent  precipitation  of  the 
resulting  soapy  emulsions,  especially 
when  lime  is  used,  entails  prolonged 
heating  to  temperatures  sometimes  as 
high  as  the  boiling  point  of  water. 
Furthermore,  the  amount  of  alkalies 
taken  is  always  greater  than  is  chemically 
necessaryj  the  consequence  being  that 
some  of  the  organic  substances  present 
are  attacked,  and  malodorous  products 
are  formed,  a  condition  necessitating  the 
employment  of  animal  charcoal,  etc., 
as  deodorizer. 

To  prevent  the  formation  of  these  un- 
toward products,  which  must  injuriously 
affect  the  quality  of  edible  oils,  C.  Fre- 
senius  proposes  to  accelerate  the  disper- 
sion of  the  said  emulsions  by  subjecting 
the  mixtures  to  an  excess  pressure  of  1 
to  1A  atmospheres  and  a  corresponding 
temperature  of  about  220°  F.,  for  a  short 
time,  the  formation  of  decomposition 
products,  and  any  injurious  influence  on 
the  taste  and  smell  of  the  substance  being 
prevented  by  the  addition  of  fresh  char- 
coal, etc.,  beforehand.  Charcoal  may, 
and  must  in  certain  cases,  be  replaced 
for  this  purpose  by  infusorial  earth  or 
fuller's  earth.  When  this  process  is  ap- 
plied to  cottonseed  oil,  100  parts  of  the 
oil  are  mixed  with  -fa  part  of  fresh,  pure 
charcoal,  and  ^  part  of  pure  fuller's  earth. 


The  mixture  is  next  neutralized  with 
lime-water,  and  placed  in  an  autoclave, 
where  it  is  kept  for  an  hour  under  pres- 
sure, and  at  a  temperature  of  220°  F. 
Under  these  conditions  the  emulsion  soon 
separates,  and  when  this  is  accomplished 
the  whole  is  left  to  cool  down  in  a  closed 
vessel. 

FATS,  DECOMPOSITION  OF: 
See  Oil. 

FEATHER  BLEACHING  AND  COL- 
ORING: 

See  also  Dyes. 

Bleaching  and  Coloring  Feathers.— 
Feathers,  in  their  natural  state,  are  not 
adapted  to  undergo  the  processes  of  dye- 
ing and  bleaching;  they  must  be  prepared 
by  removing  their  oil  and  dirt.  This  is 
usually  done  by  washing  them  in  moder- 
ately warm  soap  and  water,  and  rinsing 
in  warm  and  cold  water;  or  the  oil  may 
be  chemically  removed  by  the  use  of  ben- 
zine. To  remove  it  entirely,  the  feathers 
must  be  left  in  the  cleansing  fluid  from 
a  half  hour  to  an  hour,  when  they  may  be 
subjected  to  the  process  of  bleaching. 

Bleaching  Plumes. — Plumes  may  be 
almost  entirely  bleached  by  the  use  of 
hydrogen  peroxide,  without  injuring 
their  texture. 

In  specially  constructed  glass  troughs, 
made  the  length  of  an  average  ostrich 
feather,  15  or  20  of  these  feathers  can  be 
treated  at  a  time.  The  bleaching  fluid 
is  made  from  a  30  per  cent  solution  of 
hydrogen  peroxide,  with  enough  am- 
monia added  to  make  it  neutral;  in  other 
words  when  neutral,  blue  litmus  paper 
will  not  turn  red,  and  red  will  take  a  pale 
violet  tinge.  The  previously  cleansed 
feathers  are  entirely  immersed  in  this 
bleaching  bath,  which  may  be  diluted  if 
desired.  The  trough  is  covered  with  a 
glass  plate  and  put  in  a  dark  place.  From 
time  to  time  the  feathers  are  stirred  and 
turned,  adding  more  hydrogen  peroxide. 
This  process  requires  10  to  12  hours  and 
if  necessary  should  be  repeated.  After 
bleaching  they  are  rinsed  in  distilled 
water  or  rain  water,  dried  in  the  air,  and 
kept  in  motion  while  drying. 

To  insure  success  in  coloring  feathers 
in  delicate  tints,  they  must  be  free  from 
all  impurities,  and  evenly  white.  It  has 
been  found  of  advantage  to  rub  the  quill 
of  heavy  ostrich  plumes  while  still  moist 
with  carbonate  of  ammonia  before  the 
dyeing  is  begun. 

Methods  of  Dyeing  Feathers. — I. — A 
boiling  hot  neutral  solution,  the  feathers 
to  be  dried  in  a  rotating  apparatus.  Suit- 
able dyes  for  this  method  are  chrysoidin, 


336 


FEATHER   COLORING— FERTILIZERS 


A,  C;  crystal  vesuvin,  4  B  C;  phosphin 
extra,  leather  yellow,  O  H;  leather  red, 
O,  G  B;  leather  brown,  O;  morocco  red, 
O;  azophocphine,  G  O,  B  R  O;  fuchsine, 
cerise,  G  R;  grenadine,  O;  safranine,  O; 
methylene  violet,  malachite  green,  crys- 
tal brilliant  green,  methylene  green, 
methylene  gray,  coal  black  II. 

II. — A  boiling  hot  sulphuric  solution. 
Dyes,  acid  fuchsine,  orseilline,  R  B;  acid 
cerise,  O;  acid  maroon,  O;  opal  blue, 
blue  de  lyon,  R  B;  cotton  blue,  No.  2, 
China  blue  No.  2,  naphthalene  green,  O; 
patent  blue,  V  A;  fast  blue,  O  R;  fast 
blue  black,  O;  deep  black,  G;  azo  yellow, 
victorine  yellow,  orange  No.  2,  fast 
brown  O,  ponceau  G  R  K  R,  fast  red  O, 
Bordeaux,  GBR. 

III. — An  acetic  solution.  Dyes, 
Bengal  pink  G  B,  phloxine  G  O,  rosolan 
O  B  O  F,  rhodamine  O  4  G,  cosine  A  G, 
erythrosine. 

By  appropriate  mixtures  of  the  dyes  of 
any  one  class,  plumes  can  be  dyed  every 
possible  color.  After  dyeing  they  are 
rinsed,  and  dried  in  a  rotating  apparatus. 
The  final  process  is  that  of  curling,  which 
is  done  by  turning  them  round  and  round 
over  a  gentle  heat.  For  white  feathers  a 
little  sulphur  may  be  burned  in  the  fire; 
for  black  or  colored  ones  a  little  sugar. 

IV. — The  spray  method.  The  solu- 
tion of  the  dye  to  be  used  is  put  into  an 
atomizer,  and  the  spray  directed  to  that 
part  of  the  feather  which  it  is  desired  to 
color.  By  using  different  colors  the 
most  marvelous  effects  and  most  delicate 
transitions  from  one  color  to  another  are 
obtained.  Any  kind  of  an  atomizer  can 
be  used,  the  rubber  bulb,  pump,  or  bel- 
lows; the  result  is  the  same. 

FELT  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 


FERMENTATION    PROCESS,    FATTY 
ACID: 

See  Fats. 

FERMENTATION,  PREVENTION  OF: 

See  Anti -Ferments  and  Wines  and  Liquors. 

FERROUS  OXALATE  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

Fertilizers 

(See  also  Phosphate,  Artificial.) 

Plant  Fertilizers. — Plants  are  as  sen- 
sitive to  excessively  minute  quantities  of 
nutrient  substances,  such  as  salts  of 
potassium,  in  the  soil,  as  they  are  to 


minute  quantities  of  poisonous  sub 
stances.  Poisons  are  said  to  be  infinite- 
ly more  sensitive  reagents  for  the  pres- 
ence of  certain  metallic  salts  than  the 
most  delicate  chemical,  the  statement 
haying  been  made  that  a  trace  of  copper 
which  might  be  obtained  by  distilling  in  a 
copper  retort  is  fatal  to  the  wbite  and 
yellow  lupin,  the  castor-oil  plant,  and 
spirogyra.  Coupin  has  found  salts  of 
silver,  mercury,  copper,  and  cadmium 
especially  fatal  to  plants.  With  copper 
sulphate  the  limit  of  sensitiveness  is 
placed  at  1  in  700,000,000.  Devaux 
asserts  that  both  phanerogams  and 
cryptogams  are  poisoned  by  solutions  of 
salts  of  lead  or  copper  diluted  to  the 
extent  of  1  in  10,000,000,  or  less. 

As  a  result  of  a  series  of  experiments, 
Schloesing  stated  that  the  nitrification  of 
ammonium  salts  is  not  for  all  plants  a 
necessary  preliminary  to  the  absorption  of 
nitrogen  by  the  plant.  While  for  some 
plants,  as  for  example  buckwheat,  the 
preferable  form  of  the  food  material  is 
that  of  a  nitrate,  others,  for  instance, 
tropeolum,  thrive  even  better  when  the 
nitrogen  is  presented  to  them  in  an 
ammoniacal  form. 

Artificial  Fertilizers  for  Pot  Plants.— 
Experiments  on  vegetation  have  shown 
that  a  plant  will  thrive  when  the  lacking 
substances  are  supplied  in  a  suitable 
form,  e.  g.,  in, the  following  combinations: 

I. — Calcium  nitrate,  potassium  ni- 
trate, potassium  phosphate,  magnesium 
phosphate,  ferric  phosphate  (sodium 
chloride). 

II. — Calcium  nitrate,  ammonium  ni- 
trate, potassium  sulphate,  magnesiuir 
phosphate,  iron  chloride  (or  sulphate) 
(sodium  silicate). 

It  is  well  known  that  in  nature  nitrates 
are  formed  wherever,  decomposition  of 
organic  nitrogenous  substances  takes 
place  in  the  air,  the  ammonia  formed  by 
the  decomposition  being  oxidized  to 
nitric  acid.  These  conditions  for  the 
formation  of  nitrates  are  present  in 
nearly  every  cornfield,  and  they  are  also 
the  cause  of  the  presence  of  nitrates  in 
water  that  has  its  source  near  stables, 
etc.  In  Peruvian  guano  nitrogen  is 
present  partly  in  the  form  of  potassium 
nitrate,  partly  as  ammonium  phosphate 
and  sulphate.  As  a  nitrate  it  acts  more 
rapidly  than  in  the  form  of  ammonia, 
but  in  the  latter  case  the  effect  is  more 
lasting.  Phosphoric  acid  occurs  in  guano 
combined  with  ammonia,  potash,  and 
chiefly  with  lime,  the  last  being  slower 
and  more  lasting  in  action  than  the 
others. 


FERTILIZERS 


337 


Nearly  all  artificial  fertilizers  conform, 
more  or  less,  to  one  of  the  following  gen- 
eral formulas: 

I.— Artificial  Flower  Fertilizer.— 
123 

Ammonium  nitrate 0.40  1.60 

Ammonium  phosphate. . .  0 . 20  0 . 80 

Potassium  nitrate 0 . 25  1 . 00 

Ammonium  chloride 0 . 05  0 . 20 

Calcium  sulphate 0 . 06  0 . 24 

Ferrous  sulphate 0 . 04  0.16 


40.0  parts 

20  .  0  parts 

25  .  0  parts 

5.0  parts 

6.0  parts 

4.0  parts 


1.00     4.00  100.0  parts 

Dissolve  1  part  in  1,000  parts  water, 
and  water  the  flowers  with  it  2  or  3  times 
weekly.  Dissolve  4  parts  in  1,000  parts 
water,  and  water  with  this  quantity  10  or 
12  pots  of  medium  size. 

II.  —  Compost  for  Indoor  Plants.  — 


Ammonium  sulphate. 

Sodium  chloride 

Potassium  nitrate. . .  . 
Magnesium  sulphate.. 
Magnesium  phosphate 
Sodium  phosphate 


1 

.0.30 
.0.30 
.0.15 
.0.15 
.0.04 
.0.06 


2 

1.20 
1.20 
0.60 
0.60 
0.20 
0.24 


30 . 0  parts 

30.0  parts 

15.0  parts 

15.0  parts 

4.0  parts 

6 . 0  parts 


1.00     4.00  100.0  parts 

One  part  to  be  dissolved  in  1,000  parts 
water  and  the  flowers  watered  up  to  3 
times  daily.  Dissolve  4  parts  in  1,000 
parts  water,  and  water  with  this  solution 
daily: 

III.— Plant  Food  Solution.— 

1  2 

Potassium  chloride 0.16     or  12.5  parts 

Calcium  nitrate 0.71     or  58 . 0  parts 

Magnesium  sulphate 0.125  or  12.0  parts 

Potassium  phosphate 0.133  or  15.0  parts 

Iron     phosphate,     recently 

precipitated 0 . 032  or  2.5  parts 

1.160  or  100.  0  parts 

This  turbid  mixture  (1  part  in  1,000 
parts)  is  used  alternately  with  water 
for  watering  a  pot  of  about  1  quart  capac- 
ity; for  smaller  or  larger  pots  in  pro- 
portion. After  using  the  amount  indi- 
cated, the  watering  is  continued  with 
wa';er  alone. 

IV.— Fertilizer  with  Organic  Matter, 
for  Pot  Flowers. — 

Potassium  nitrate. .  100.0  parts 
Ammonium     phos- 
phate   100.0  parts 

Phosphoric  acid.  ..  2.5  parts 

Simple  syrup 1,000  parts 

Add  not  more  than  10  parts  to  1,000 
parts  water,  and  water  alternately  with 
this  and  with  water  alone.  For  cac- 
tacese,  crassulacese,  and  similar  plants, 
which  do  not  assimilate  organic  matter 
directly,  use  distilled  water  instead  of 
syrup. 

Cmorotic  plants  are  painted  with  a 


dilute  iron  solution  or  iron  is  added  to  the 
soil,  which  causes  them  to  assume  their 
natural  green  color.  The  iron  is  used  in 
form  of  ferric  chloride  or  ferrous  sul- 
phate. 

V. — Sodium  phosphate     4  ounces 
Sodium  nitrate.  ...      4  ounces 
Ammonium     sul- 
phate       2  ounces 

Sugar 1  ounce 

Use  2  teaspoonf  uls  to  a  gallon  of  water. 

VI. — Ammonium  phosphate  30  parts 

Sodium  nitrate 25  parts 

Potassium  nitrate 25  parts 

Ammonium  sulphate.  .    20  parts 
Water 100,000  parts 

One    application    of    this    a    week    is 
enough  for  the  slower  growing   plants, 
and  2  for  the  more  rapid  growing  her 
baceous  ones. 

VII. — Calcium  phos- 
phate   4  ounces 

Potassium  nitrate        1  ounce 

Potassium  phos- 
phate   1  ounce 

Magnesium  sul- 
phate   1  ounce 

Iron  (ferric) 

phosphate 100  grains 

VIII. — Pot  plants,  especially  flowering 
plants  kept  around  the  house,  should  be 
treated  to  an  occasional  dose  of  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Ammonium  chlo- 
ride   2  parts 

Sodium  phosphate     4  parts 
Sodium  nitrate. ...      3  parts 

Water 80  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve.  To  use,  add  25 
drops  to  the  quart  of  water,  and  use  as  in 
ordinary  watering. 

IX. — Sugar 1  part 

Potassium  nitrate .  2  parts 
Ammonium    sul- 
phate    4  parts 

X. — Ferric  phosphate. .      1  part 

Magnesium  sul- 
phate    2  parts 

Potassium  phos- 
phate   2  parts 

Potassium  nitrate.      2  parts 

Calcium  acid 

phosphate 8  parts 

About  a  teaspoonful  of  either  of  these 
mixtures  is  added  to  a  gallon  of  water, 
and  the  plants  sprinkled  with  the  liquid. 

For  hastening  the  growth  of  flowers, 
the  following  fertilizer  is  recommended: 


FERTILIZERS 


XI. — Potassium  nitrate.  30  parts 

Potassium  phos- 
phate   25  parts 

Ammonium  sul- 
phate   10  parts 

Ammonium  nitrate  35  parts 

The  following  five  are  especially  recom- 
mended for  indoor  use: 

XII. — Sodium  chloride  . .     10  parts 
Potassium  nitrate.       5  parts 
Magnesium       sul- 
phate.        5  parts 

Magnesia 1  part 

Sodium  phosphate       2  parts 
Mixed  and  bottled.      Dissolve  a  tea- 
spoonful  daily  in   a  quart  of  water  and 
water  the  plants  with  the  solution. 

XIII. — Ammonium  nitrate    40  parts 
Potassium  nitrate.     90  parts 
Ammonium   phos- 
phate      50  parts 

Two  grams  is  sufficient  for  a  medium- 
sized  flower  pot. 

XIV. — Ammonium       sul- 
phate   10  parts 

Sodium  chloride  .  .  10  parts 
Potassium  nitrate.  5  parts 
Magnesium       sul- 
phate.    5  parts 

Magnesium      car- 

t  bonate 1  part 

Sodium  phosphate  20  parts 
One  teaspoonful  to  1  quart  of  water. 

XV. — Ammonium  nitrate    40  parts 
Ammonium    phos- 
phate  20  parts 

Potassium  nitrate. 0.25  parts 
Ammonium    chlo- 
ride         5  parts 

Calcium  sulphate.        6  parts 
Ferrous  sulphate. .       4  parts 
Dissolve  2  parts  in  1,000  of  water,  and 
water  the  plants  with  the  solution. 

XVI. — Potassium  nitrate.  20  parts 

Potassium  phos- 
phate.    25  parts 

Ammonium  sul- 
phate.   .....  10  parts 

Ammonium  nitrate  35  parts 

This  mixture  produces  a  luxuriant 
foliage.  If  blooms  are  desired,  dispense 
with  the  ammonium  nitrate. 

XVII. —  Saltpeter,  5  parts;  cooking 
salt,  10  parts;  bitter  salt,  5  parts;  mag- 
nesia, 1  part;  sodium  phosphate,  2  parts. 
Mix  and  fill  in  bottles.  Dissolve  a  tea- 
spoonful  in  If  pints  of  hot  water,  and 
water  the  flower  pots  with  it  each  day. 


XVIII. — Ammonium  sulphate,  30 
parts;  sodium  chloride,  30  parts;  potash 
niter,  15  parts;  magnesium  sulphate,  15 
parts;  magnesium  phosphate,  4  parts; 
sodium  phosphate,  6  parts.  Dissolve 
1  part  in  1,000  parts  water,  and  apply  3 
times  per  day. 

XIX. — Calcium  nitrate,  71  parts; 
potassium  chlorate,  15  parts;  magnesium 
sulphate,  12.5  parts;  potassium  phos- 
phate, 13.3  parts;  freshly  precipitated 
ferric  phosphate,  3.2  parts.  A  solution 
of  1  in  1,000  of  this  mixture  is  applied, 
alternating  with  water,  to  the  plants. 
After  using  a  certain  quantity,  pour  on 
only  water. 

XX. — Ammonium  phosphate,  300 
parts;  sodium  nitrate,  250  parts:  potas- 
sium nitrate,  250  parts;  and  ammonium 
sulphate,  200  parts,  are  mixed  together. 
To  every  1,000  parts  of  water  dissolve  2 
parts  of  the  mixture,  and  water  the  pot- 
ted plants  once  a  week  with  this  solution. 

XXI. — Potash  niter,  20  parts;  calcium 
carbonate,  20  parts;  sodium  chlorate,  20 
parts;  calcium  phosphate,  20  parts;  so- 
dium silicate,  14  parts;  ferrous  sulphate, 
1.5  parts.  Dissolve  1  part  of  the  mix- 
ture in  1,000  parts  water. 

Preparing  Bone  for  Fertilizer. — Bone, 
in  its  various  forms,  is  the  only  one  of 
the  insoluble  phosphates  that  is  now 
used  directly  upon  the  soil,  or  without 
other  change  than  is  accomplished  by 
mechanical  action  or  grinding.  The 
terms  used  to  indicate  the  character  of 
the  bone  have  reference  rather  to  their 
mechanical  form  than  to  the  relative 
availability  of  the  phosphoric  acid  con- 
tained in  them.  The  terms  raw  bone, 
fine  bone,  boiled  and  steamed  bone,  etc., 
are  used  to  indicate  methods  of  prep- 
aration, and  inasmuch  as  bone  is  a 
material  which  is  useful  largely  in  pro- 
portion to  its  rate  of  decay,  its  fineness 
has  an  important  bearing  upon  availabil- 
ity, since  the  finer  the  bone  the  more  sur- 
face is  exposed  to  the  action  of  those 
forces  which  cause  decay  or  solution,  and 
the  quicker  will  the  constituents  become 
available.  In  the  process  of  boiling  or 
steaming,  not  only  is  the  bone  made  finer 
but  its  physical  character  in  other  re- 
spects is  also  changed,  the  particles, 
whether  fine  or  coarse,  being  made  soft 
and  crumbly  rather  than  dense  or  hard; 
hence  it  is  more  likely  to  act  quickly  than 
if  the  same  degree  of  fineness  be  obtained 
by  simple  grinding.  The  phosphoric 
acid  in  fine  steamed  bone  may  all  become 
available  in  1  or  2  years,  while  the  coarser 
fatty  raw  bone  sometimes  resists  final 
decay  for  3  or  4  years  or  even  longer. 


FERTILIZERS— FILTERS 


339 


Bone  contains  considerable  nitrogen,  a 
fact  which  should  be  remembered  in  its 
use,  particularly  if  used  in  comparison 
with  other  phosphatic  materials  which 
do  not  contain  this  element.  Pure  raw 
bone  contains  on  an  average  22  per  cent 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent  of 
nitrogen.  By  steaming  or  boiling,  a  por- 
tion of  the  organic  substance  containing 
nitrogen  is  extracted,  which  has  the  effect 
of  proportionately  increasing  the  phos- 
phoric acid  in  the  product;  hence  a 
steamed  bone  may  contain  as  high  as  28 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  as  low  as 
1  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Steamed  bone  is 
usually,  therefore,  much  richer  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  has  less  nitrogen  than 
the  raw  bone. 

Brewers'  Yeast  and  Fertilizers. — A 
mixture  is  made  of  about  2  parts  of 
yeast  with  1  part  of  sodium  chloride  and 
5  parts  of  calcium  sulphate,  by  weight, 
for  use  as  a  manure.  Pure  or  impure 
yeast,  or  yeast  previously  treated  for  the 
extraction  of  a  portion  of  its  constituents, 
may  be  used,  and  the  gypsum  may  be 
replaced  by  other  earthy  substances  of  a 
similar  non-corrosive  nature. 

Authorities  seem  to  agree  that  lime  is 
necessary  to  the  plant,  and  if  it  be 
wholly  lacking  in  the  soil,  even  though 
an  abundance  of  all  the  other  essential 
elements  is  present,  it  cannot  develop 
normally.  Many  soils  are  well  provided 
with  lime  by  nature  and  it  is  seldom  or 
never  necessary  for  those  who  cultivate 
them  to  resort  to  liming.  It  would  be 
just  as  irrational  to  apply  lime  where  it  is 
not  needed  as  to  omit  it  where  it  is  re- 
quired, and  hence  arises  the  necessity  of 
ascertaining  the  needs  of  particular  soils 
in  this  respect. 

The  method  usually  resorted  to  for 
ascertaining  the  amount  of  lime  in  soils 
is  to  treat  them  with  some  strong  mineral 
acid,  such  as  hydrochloric  acid,  and  de- 
termine the  amount  of  lime  which  is  thus 
dissolved.  The  fact  that  beets  of  all 
kinds  make  a  ready  response  to  liming 
on  soils  which  are  deficient  in  lime  may 
be  utilized  as  the  basis  of  testing. 

FEVER  IN  CATTLE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

FIG  SQUARES: 

See  Confectionery. 

Files 

Composition  Files.' — These  files,  which 
are  frequently  used  by  watchmakers  and 
other  metal  workers  for  grinding  and  pol- 
ishing, and  the  color  of  which  resembles 


silver,  are  composed  of  8  parts  copper,  2 
parts  tin,  1  part  zinc,  1  part  lead.  They 
are  cast  in  forms  and  treated  upon  the 
grindstone;  the  metal  is  very  hard,  and 
therefore  worked  with  difficulty  with  the 
file. 

To  Keep  Files  Clean  (see  also  Clean- 
ing Preparations  and  Methods). — The  un- 
even working  of  a  file  is  usually  due  to  the 
fact  that  filings  clog  the  teeth  of  the  file. 
To  obviate  this  evil,  scratch  brush  the 
files  before  use,  and  then  grease  them 
with  olive  oil.  A  file  prepared  in  this 
manner  lasts  for  a  longer  time,  does  not 
become  so  quickly  filled  with  filings  and 
can  be  conveniently  cleaned  with  an  or- 
dinary rough  brush. 

Recutting  Old  Files.— Old  files  may  be 
rendered  useful  again  by  the  following 

Erocess:  Boil  them  in  a  potash  bath, 
rush  them  with  a  hard  brush  and  wipe 
off.  Plunge  for  half  a  minute  into  nitric 
acid,  and  pass  over  a  cloth  stretched 
tightly  on  a  flat  piece  of  wood.  The 
effect  will  be  that  the  acid  remains  in  the 
grooves,  and  will  take  away  the  steel 
without  attacking  the  top,  which  has 
been  wiped  dry.  The  operation  may  be 
repeated  according  to  the  depth  to  be  ob- 
tained. Before  using  the  files  thus  treated 
they  should  be  rinsed  in  water  and  dried. 

FILE  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

FILLERS  FOR  LETTERS: 

See  Lettering. 

FILLERS  FOR  WOOD: 

See  Wood. 

FILTERS  FOR  WATER. 

A  filter  which  possesses  the  advantages 
of  being  easily  and  cheaply  cleaned  when 
dirty,  and  which  frees  water  from 
mechanical  impurities  with  rapidity, 
may  be  formed  by  placing  a  stratum  of 
sponge  between  two  perforated  metallic 
plates,  united  by  a  central  screw,  and 
arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit 
of  the  sponge  being  compressed  as  re- 
quired. Water,  under  gentle  pressure, 
flows  with  such  rapidity  through  the 
pores  of  compressed  sponge,  that  it  is 
said  that  a  few  square  feet  of  this  sub- 
stance will  perfectly  filter  several  millions 
of  gallons  of  water  daily. 

The  sponges  are  cleaned  thoroughly, 
rolled  together  as  much  as  possible,  and 
placed  in  the  escape  pipe  of  a  percolator 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  larger  portion 
of  the  sponge  is  in  the  pipe  while  the 
smaller  portion,  spreading  by  itself,  pro- 
trudes over  the  pipe  toward 'the  interior 


340 


FILTERS— FIRE    EXTINGUISHERS 


of  the  percolator,  thus  forming  a  flat 
filter  covering  it.  After  a  thorough  moist- 
ening of  the  sponge  it  is  said  to  admit  of 
a  very  quick  and  clear  filtration  of  large 
quantities  of  tinctures,  juices,  etc. 

.For  filtering  water  on  a  small  scale, 
and  for  domestic  use,  "alcarrazas," 
diaphragms  of  porous  earthenware  and 
filtering-stone  and  layers  of  sand  and 
charcoal,  etc.,  are  commonly  employed 
as  filtering. 

A  cheap,  useful  form  of  portable  filter 
is  the  following,  given  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  British  Association:  "Take  any 
common  vessel,  perforated  below,  such 
as  a  flower  pot,  fill  the  lower  portion  with 
coarse  pebbles,  over  which  place  a  layer 
of  finer  ones,  and  on  these  a  layer  of  clean 
coarse  sand.  On  the  top  of  this  a  piece 
of  burnt  clay  perforated  with  small  holes 
should  be  put,  and  on  this  again  a 
stratum  of  3  or  4  inches  thick  of  well- 
burnt,  pounded  animal  charcoal.  A 
filter  thus  formed  will  last  a  considerable 
time,  and  will  be  found  particularly  use- 
ful in  removing  noxious  and  putrescent 
substances  held  in  solution  by  water." 

The  "portable  filters,"  in  stoneware, 
that  are  commonly  sold  in  the  shops, 
contain  a  stratum  of  sand,  or  coarsely 
powdered  charcoal;  before,  however, 
having  access  to  this,  the  water  has  to 
pass  through  a  sponge,  to  remove  the 
coarser  portion  of  the  impurities. 

Alum  Process  of  Water  Purification. — 
Water  may  be  filtered  and  purified  by 
precipitation,  by  means  of  alum,  by  add- 
ing a  4  per  cent  solution  to  the  water  to 
be  clarified  until  a  precipitate  is  no  longer 
'produced.  After  allowing  the  turbid  mix- 
ture to  stand  for  8  hours,  the  clear  portion 
may  be  decanted  or  be  siphoned  off. 
About  2  grains  of  alum  is  ordinarily  re- 
quired to  purify  a  gallon  of  water. 
Potassa  alum  only  should  be  used,  as 
ammonia  alum  cannot  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  amount  of  alum  re- 
quired varies  with  the  water,  so  that  an 
initial  experiment  is  required  whenever 
water  from  a  new  source  is  being  purified. 
If  the  purification  is  properly  done,  the 
water  will  not  contain  any  alum,  but 
only  a  trace  of  potassium  sulphate,  for 
the  aluminum  of  the  double  sulphate 
unites  with  the  various  impurities  to 
form  an  insoluble  compound  which 
gradually  settles  out,  mechanically  carry- 
ing with  it  suspended  matter,  while  the 
sulphuric  acid  radical  unites  with  the 
calcium  in  the  water  to  form  insoluble 
calcium  sulphate. 

FILTER  PAPER: 
See  Paper, 


FILM -STRIPPING: 

See  Photography. 

FINGER-TIPS,  SPARKS  FROM: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

FIRES,  COLORED: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 


FIREARM  LUBRICANTS: 
See  Lubricants. 

FIRE   EXTINGUISHERS: 

I. — Calcium  chloride.     184  parts 
Magnesium     chlo- 
ride         57  parts 

Sodium  chloride. .         13  parts 
Potassium      b  r  o  - 

mide 22  parts 

Barium  chloride. .          3  parts 

Water  to  make. .  .  1,000  parts 

Dissolve  and  fill  into  hand  grenades. 

II. — Iron  sulphate 4  parts 

Ammonium      sul- 
phate       16  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Mix,  dissolve,  and  fill  into  flasks. 

III. — Sodium  chloride.  . .  430  parts 

Alum 195  parts 

Glauber  salts 50  parts 

Sodium  carbonate, 

impure 35  parts 

Water  glass 266  parts 

Water 233  parts 

Mix,  etc. 

IV. — Sodium  chloride.  .  .      90  parts 
Ammonium  chlo- 
ride        45  parts 

Water 300  parts 

Mix,    dissolve,    and    put    into    quart 
flasks  of  very  thin  glass,  which  are  to  be 
kept  conveniently  disposed  in  the  dwell- 
ing rooms,  etc.,  of  all  public  institutions. 
V. — Make  6  solutions  as  follows: 
a. — A  m  m  p  n  i  u  m 

chloride 20  parts 

Water 2,000  parts 

6. — Alum,      calcined 

and  powdered        35  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

c. — Ammonium  sul- 
phate, pow- 
dered   30  parts 

Water 500  parts 

d. — Sodium  chloride        20  parts 

Water 4,000  parts 

e. — Sodium  carbon- 
ate   35  parts 

Water 500  parts 

/. — Liquid    water 

glass 450  parts 


FIRE   EXTINGUISHERS— FIREPROOFING 


Mix  the  solutions  in  the  order  named 
and  to  the  mixture,  while  still  yellow  and 
turbid,  add  2,000  parts  of  water,  and  let 
stand.  When  the  precipitate  has  sub- 
sided fill  off  the  clear  liquid  into  thin 
glass  (preferably  blue,  to  deter  decom- 
position) containers  each  of  3  pints  to  a 
half  gallon  capacity. 

VI. — Calcium  chloride. .  30  parts 
Magnesium    chlo- 
ride   10  parts 

Water. 60  parts 

VII. — Sodium  chloride..  20  parts 
Ammonium    chlo- 
ride       9  parts 

Water 71  parts 

VIII. — Sodium  carbonate  16  parts 
Sodium  chloride.  64  parts 
Water 920  parts 

The  most  effective  of  all  extinguishers 
is  ammonia  water.  It  is  almost  instan- 
taneous in  its  effect,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity only  is  required  to  extinguish  any  fire. 
Next  in  value  is  carbonic  acid  gas.  This 
may  be  thrown  from  siphons  or  soda- 
water  tanks.  The  vessel  containing  it 
should  be  thrown  into  the  fire  in  such  a 
way  as  to  insure  its  breaking. 

Dry  Powder  Fire  Extinguishers. — The 
efficacy  of  these  is  doubted  by  good 
authorities.  They  should  be  tested  be- 
fore adoption. 

I. — Alum.- 24  parts 

Ammonium  sulphate  52  parts 
Ferrous  sulphate..  .  .      4  parts 

II. — Sodium  chloride.  ...  8  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate  6  parts 

Sodium  sulphate.. .  .  2  parts 

Calcium  chloride.. . .  2  parts 

Sodium  silicate 2  parts 

III. — Sodium  chloride.  ...  6  parts 
Ammonium  chloride  6  parts 
Sodium  bicarbonate..  8  parts 

IV. — Ammonium  chloride  10  parts 
Sodium  sulphate. ...  6  parts 
Sodium  bicarbonate  4  parts 

Oil  Extinguisher. — To  extinguish  oils 
which  have  taken  fire,  a  fine-meshed 
wire  net  of  the  size  of  a  boiling  pan 
should  be  kept  on  hand  in  every  varnish 
factory,  etc.  In  the  same  moment  when 
the  netting  is  laid  upon  the  burning  sur- 
face, the  flame  is  extinguished  because 
it  is  a  glowing  mass  of  gas,  which  the 
iron  wire  quickly  cools  off  so  that  it  can- 
not glow  any  more.  The  use  of  water  is 
excluded,  and  that  of  earth  and  sand  un- 
desirable, because  both  dirty  the  oil. 


Substitute  for  Fire  Grenades. — A  com- 
mon quart  bottle  filled  with  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  salt  makes  a  cheap 
and  efficient  substitute  for  the  ordinary 
hand  grenade.  The  salt  forms  a  coating 
on  all  that  the  water  touches  and  makes 
it  nearly  incombustible. 

Fireproofing 

For  Textiles.— I.— Up  to  the  present 
this  has  generally  been  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  a  combination  of  water  glass 
or  soluble  glass  and  tungstate  of  soda. 
The  following  is  cheaper  and  more  suit- 
able for  the  purpose: 

Equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  commercial 
white  copperas,  Epsom  salt,  and  sal  am- 
moniac are  mingled  together  and  mixed 
with  three  times  their  weight  of  ammonia 
alum.  This  mixture  soon  changes  into 
a  moist  pulp  or  paste,  that  must  be  dried 
by  a  low  heat.  When  dressing  the  ma- 
terial, add  ^  part  of  this  combination  to 
every  1  part  of  starch. 

II. — Good  results  are  also  obtained 
from  the  following  formula:  Supersatu- 
rate a  quantity  of  superphosphate  of 
lime  with  ammonia,  filter,  and  decolorize 
it  with  animal  charcoal.  Concentrate 
the  solution  and  mix  with  it  5  per  cent 
of  gelatinous  silica,  evaporate  the  water, 
dry,  and  pulverize.  For  use  mix  30  parts 
of  this  powder  with  35  parts  of  gum  and 
35  parts  of  starch  in  sufficient  water  to 
make  of  suitable  consistency. 

III. — -As  a  sample  of  the  Melunay 
process,  introduced  in  France,  the  fol- 
lowing has  been  published:  Apply  to  a 
cotton  fabric  like  flannellet,  or  other 
cotton  goods,  a  solution  of  stannate  of 
soda  (or  a  salt  chemically  equivalent)  of 
the  strength  of  5  to  10°  Be.,  then  dry 
the  fabric  and  saturate  it  again,  this 
time  with  a  solution  of  a  titanium  salt; 
any  soluble  titanium  salt  is  suitable. 
This  salt  should  be  so  concentrated  that 
each  1,000  parts  may  contain  about  62 
parts  of  titanium  oxide.  The  fabrics  are 
again  dried,  and  the  titanium  is  ulti- 
mately fixed  by  means  of  a  suitable 
alkaline  bath.  It  is  advantageous  to  em- 
ploy for  this  purpose  a  solution  of  silicate 
of  soda  of  about  14°  Be.,  but  a  mixed 
bath,  composed  of  tungstate  of  soda  and 
ammonium  chloride,  may  be  employed. 
The  objects  are  afterwards  washed,  dried, 
and  finished  as  necessary  for  trade.  A 
variation  consists  in  treating  the  objects 
in  a  mixed  bath  containing  titanium, 
tungsten,  and  a  suitable  solvent. 

IV. — Boil     together,     with     constant 


FIREPROOFING 


stirring,  the  following  ingredients  until  a 
homogeneous  mass  results: 

Linseed  oil 77      parts 

Litharge. 10      parts 

Sugar  of  lead 2      parts 

Lampblack 4      parts 

Oil  turpentine 2      parts 

Umber 0.4  parts 

Japanese  wax 0.3  parts 

Soap  powder 1.2  parts 

Manila  copal 0.7  parts 

Caoutchouc  varnish. .  2      parts 

V.— For  Light  Woven  Fabrics.— 
Ammonium  sulphate,  8  parts,  by  weight; 
ammonium  carbonate,  2.5  parts;  borax, 
2;  boracic  acid,  3;  starch,  2;  or  dextrin, 
0.4,  or  gelatin,  0.4;  water,  100.  The 
fabric  is  to  be  saturated  with  the  mixture, 
previously  heated  to  86°  F.,  and  dried; 
it  can  then  be  calendered  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  cost  is  only  2  or  3  cents 
for  16  yards  or  more  of  material. 

VI.— For  Rope  and  Straw  Matting. - 
Ammonium  chloride  (sal  ammoniac),  15 
parts,  by  weight;  boracic  acid,  6  parts; 
borax,  3;  water,  100.  The  articles  are 
to  be  left  in  the  solution,  heated  to 
212°  F.  for  about  3  hours,  then  squeezed 
out  and  dried.  The  mixture  costs 
about  5  cents  a  quart. 

VII.  — For  Clothing.— The  following 
starch  is  recommended:  Sodium  tung- 
state,  perfectly  neutral,  30  parts;  borax, 
20;  wheat  or  rice  starch,  60.  The  con- 
stituents are  to  be  finely  pulverized, 
sharply  dried,  and  mixed,  and  the  starch 
used  like  any  other.  Articles  stiffened 
with  it,  if  set  on  fire,  will  not  burst- into 
flame,  but  only  smolder. 

VIII. —For  Tents.— 

Water.... 100 

Ammonium 
sulphate, 

chemically  Parts 

pure 14    >-     by 

Boracic  acid . .        1       weight. 

Hartshorn  salt         1 

Borax 3 

Glue  water. ...        2 

Boil  the  water,  put  ammonium  sul- 
phate into  a  vat,  pour  a  part  of  the  boil- 
ing water  on  and  then  add  the  remaining 
materials  in  rotation.  Next  follow  the 
rest  of  the  hot  water.  The  vat  should  be 
kept  covered  until  the  solution  is  com- 
plete. 

IX. — For  Stage  Decorations. — Much 
recommended  and  used  as  a  fireproof- 
ing  composition  is  a  cheap  mixture  of 


borax,  bitter  salt,  and  water;  likewise  for 
canvas  a  mixture  of  ammonium  sulphate, 
gypsum,  and  water.  Ammonium  sul- 
phate and  sodium  tungstate  are  also 
named  for  impregnating  the  canvas 
before  painting. 

X. — For  Mosquito  Netting. — Immerse 
in  a  20  per  cent  solution  of  ammonium 
sulphate.  One  pound  of  netting  will 
require  from  20  to  24  ounces  of  the  solu- 
tion to  thoroughly  saturate.  After  with- 
drawing from  the  bath,  do  not  wring  it 
out,  but  spread  it  over  a  pole  or  some 
such  object,  and  let  it  get  about  half  dry, 
then  iron  it  out  with  a  hot  iron.  The 
material  (ammonium  sulphate)  is  in- 
offensive. 

Fireproofing  of  Wood. — Strictly  speak- 
ing, it  is  impossible  to  render  wood  com- 
pletely incombustible,  but  an  almost  ab- 
solute immunity  against  the  attacks  of 
fire  can  be  imparted. 

Gay-Lussac  was  one  of  the  first  to  lay 
down  the  principal  conditions  indispen- 
sable for  rendering  organic  matters  in 
general,  and  wood  in  particular,  unin- 
flammable. 

During  the  whole  duration  of  the 
action  of  the  heat  the  fibers  must  be  kept 
from  contact  with  the  air,  which  would 
cause  combustion.  The  presence  of 
borates,  silicates,  etc.,  imparts  this  prop- 
erty to  organic,  bodies. 

Combustible  gases,  disengaged  by  the 
action  of  the  heat,  must  be  mingled  in 
sufficient  proportion  with  other  gases 
difficult  of  combustion  in  such  a  way  that 
the  disorganization  of  bodies  by  heat  will 
be  reduced  to  a  simple  calcination  with- 
out production  of  flame.  Salts  volatile 
or  decomposable  by  heat  and  not  com- 
bustible, like  certain  ammoniacal  salts, 
afford  excellent  results. 

Numerous  processes  have  been  rec- 
ommended for  combating  the  inflam- 
mability of  organic  tissues,  some  consist- 
ing in  external  applications,  others  in 
injection,  under  a  certain  pressure,  of 
saline  solutions. 

By  simple  superficial  applications  only 
illusory  protection  is  attained,  for  these 
coverings,  instead  of  fireproofing  the  ob- 
jects on  which  they  are  applied,  preserve 
them  only  for  the  moment  from  a  slight 
flame.  Resistance  to  the  fire  being  of  only 
short  duration,  these  coatings  scale  off 
or  are  rapidly  reduced  to  ashes  and  the 
parts  covered  are  again  exposed.  It 
often  happens,  too,  that  such  coatings 
have  disappeared  before  the  occurrence 
of  a  fire,  so  that  the  so-called  remedy  be- 
comes injurious  from  the  false  security 
occasioned. 


FIREPROOFING 


343 


Some  formulas  recommended  are  as 
follows: 

I. — For  immersion  or  imbibition  the 
following  solution  is  advised:  Ammo- 
nium phosphate,  100  parts;  boracic  acid, 
10  parts  per  1,000;  or  ammonium  sul- 
phate, 135  parts;  sodium  borate,  15 
parts;  boracic  acid,  5  parts  per  1,000. 
For  each  of  these  formulas  two  coats  are 
necessary. 

II.— For  application  with  the  brush  the 
following  compositions  are  the  best: 

a.  Apply    hot,    sodium    silicate,    100 
parts;  Spanish  white,  50  parts;  glue,  100 
parts. 

b.  Apply    successively    and    hot;    for 
first   application,  water,  100  parts;  alu- 
minum sulphate,  20  parts;  second  appli- 
cation, water,  100  parts;   liquid  sodium 
silicate,  50  parts. 

c.  First    application,     2    coats,     hot; 
water,    100    parts;    sodium    silicate,    50 
parts;    second    application,    2    coatings; 
boiling   water,  75    parts;  gelatin,  white, 
200   parts;   work   up   with   asbestos,   50 
parts;  borax,  30  parts;  and  boracic  acid, 
10  parts. 

Oil  paints  rendered  uninflammable  by 
the  addition  of  phosphate  of  ammonia 
and  borax  in  the  form  of  impalpable 
powders  incorporated  in  the  mass,  mor- 
tar of  plaster  and  asbestos  and  asbestos 
paint,  are  still  employed  for  preserving 
temporarily  from  limited  exposure  to  a 
fire. 

III. — Sodium    silicate, 

solid 350  parts 

Asbestos,   pow- 
dered     350  parts 

Water,  boiling 1,000  parts 

Mix.  Give  several  coatings,  letting 
each  dry  before  applying  the  next. 

IV. — Asbestos,  powdered     35  parts 
Sodium  borate.  ...      20  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Gum  lac 10  to  15  parts 

Dissolve  the  borax  in  the  water  by  the 
aid  of  heat,  and  in  the  hot  solution  dis- 
solve the  lac.  When  solution  is  com- 
plete incorporate  the  asbestos.  These 
last  solutions  give  a  superficial  protection, 
the  efficiency  of  which  depends  upon  the 
number  of  coatings  given. 

V. — Prepare  a  syrupy  solution  of  so- 
dium silicate,  1  part,  and  water,  3  parts, 
and  coat  the  wood  2  to  3  times,  thus  im- 
parting to  it  great  hardness.  After  dry- 
ing, it  is  given  a  coating  of  lime  of  the 
consistency  of  milk,  and  when  this  is  al- 
most dry,  is  fixed  by  a  strong  solution  of 


soluble  glass,  2  parts  of  the  syrupy  mass 
to  3  parts  of  water.  If  the  lime  is  applied 
thick,  repeat  the  treatment  with  the  sol- 
uble glass. 

VI. — Subject  the  wood  or  wooden  ob- 
jects for  6  to  8  hours  to  the  boiling  heat  of 
a  solution  of  33  parts  of  manganese 
chloride,  20  parts  of  orthophosphoric 
acid,  12  parts  of  magnesium  carbonate, 
10  parts  of  boracic  acid,  and  25  parts  of 
ammonium  chloride  in  1,000  parts  of 
water.  The  wood  thus  treated  is  said  to 
be  perfectly  incombustible  even  at  great 
heat,  and,  besides,  to  be  also  protected  by 
this  method  against  decay,  injury  by  in- 
sects, and  putrefaction. 

VII. — One  of  the  simplest  methods  is 
to  saturate  the  timber  with  a  solution  of 
tungstate  of  soda;  if  this  is  done  in  a 
vacuum  chamber,  by  means  of  which  the 
wood  is  partly  deprived  of  the  air  con- 
tained in  its  cells,  a  very  satisfactory 
result  will  be  obtained.  Payne's  process 
consists  in  treating  wood  under  these 
conditions  first  with  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  iron,  and  then  with  chloride  of 
calcium;  calcium  sulphate  is  thus  pre- 
cipitated in  the  tissues  of  the  timber, 
which  is  rendered  incombustible  and 
much  more  durable.  There  are  several 
other  methods  besides  these,  phosphate 
of  ammonia  and  tungstate  being  most 
useful.  A  coat  of  common  whitewash  is 
an  excellent  means  of  lessening  the  com- 
bustibility of  soft  wood. 

Fireproofing  Wood  Pulp. — The  pulp 
is  introduced  into  a  boiler  containing  a 
hot  solution  of  sulphate  and  phosphate  of 
ammonia  and  provided  with  a  stirring 
and  mixing  apparatus,  as  well  as  with  an 
arrangement  for  regulating  the  tempera- 
ture. After  treatment,  the  pulp  is  taken 
out  and  compressed  in  order  to  free  it 
from  its  humidity.  When  dry,  it  may  be 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  or  for 
analogous  purposes.  Sawdust  treated  in 
the  same  manner  may  be  used  for  pack- 
ing goods,  for  deadening  walls,  and  as  a 
jacketing  for  steam  pipes. 

Fireproofing  for  Wood,  Straw,  Tex- 
tiles, etc. — The  material  to  be  made  fire- 
proof is  treated  with  a  solution  of  10  to  20 
parts  of  potassium  carbonate  and  4  to  8 
parts  of  ammonium  borate  in  100  parts 
of  water.  W'herever  excessive  heat  oc- 
curs, this  compound,  which  covers  the 
substance,  is  formed  into  a  glassy  mass, 
thus  protecting  the  stuff  from  burning; 
at  the  same  time  a  considerable  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  is  given  off,  which 
smothers  the  flames, 


344 


FIREPROOFING— FLOOR  DRESSINGS 


MISCELLANEOUS    FORMULAS    FOR 
FIREPROOFING. 

I. — In  coating  steel  or  other  furnaces, 
first  brush  over  the  brickwork  to  be  cov- 
ered a  solution  made  by  boiling  1  pound 
each  of  silicate  of  soda  and  alum  in  4 
gallons  of  water,  and  follow  immediately 
with  composition: 

Silica 50  parts 

Plastic  fire  clay  ....    10  parts 

Ball  clay 3  parts 

Mix  well. 

Fireproof  Compositions. — II. — For  fur- 
naces, etc.: 

Pure  silica  (in  grain)   60  parts 

Ground  flint 8  parts 

Plaster  of  Paris 3  parts 

Ball  clay 3  parts 

Mix  well  together  by  passing  once  or 
more  through  a  fine  sieve,  and  use  in  the 
same  way  as  cement. 

Fireproof  Paper. — Paper  is  rendered 
fireproof  by  saturating  it  with  a  solution 
of 

Ammonium  sulphate.      8  parts 

Boracic  acid 3  parts 

Borax 2  parts 

Water 100  parts 

For  the  same  purpose  sodium  tung- 
state  may  also  be  employed. 

Fireproof  Coating. — A  fireproof  coat- 
ing (so-called)  consists  of  water,  100 
parts;  strong  glue,  20  parts;  silicate  of 
soda,  38°  Be.,  50  parts;  carbonate  of  soda, 
35  parts;  cork  in  pieces  of  the  size  of  a 
pea,  100  parts. 

Colored  Fireproofing.  —  I.  —  Ammo- 
nium sulphate,  70  parts;  borax,  50  parts; 
glue,  1  part;  and  water  up  to  1,000 
parts. 

II. — Solution  of  glue,  5  parts,  zinc 
chloride,  2  parts;  sal  ammoniac,  80 

?arts;  borax,  57  parts;  and  water  up  to 
00  parts. 

If  the  coating  is  to  be  made  visible  by 
coloration,  an  addition  of  10  parts  of 
Cassel  brown  and  6  parts  of  soda  per 
1,000  parts  is  recommended,  which  may 
be  dissolved  separately  in  a  portion  of 
the  water  used. 

FIREPROOFING  CELLULOID : 

See  Celluloid. 

FIREPROOFING  OF  PAPER: 

See  Paper. 

FIREWORKS: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

FILIGREE  GILDING: 

See  Plating. 


FISH  BAIT. 

Oil  of  rhodium 3  parts 

Oil  of  cumin 2  parts 

Tincture  of  musk  ....      1  part 
Mix.     Put  a  drop  or  two  on  the  bait,  or 

rub  trigger  of  trap  with  the  solution. 

FIXATIVES    FOR    CRAYON    DRAW- 
INGS, ETC. 

I.— Shellac 40)    Parts 

Sandarac 20  V       by 

Spirit  of  wine .    940  )  weight. 

II. — During  the  Civil  War,  when  both 
alcohol  and  shellac  often  were  not  pur- 
chasable, and  where,  in  the  field  espe- 
cially, ink  was  almost  unknown,  and 
sized  paper,  of  any  description,  a  rarity, 
men  in  the  field  were  compelled  to  use 
the  pencil  for  correspondence  of  all  sorts. 
Where  the  communication  was  of  a  na- 
ture to  make  its  permanency  desirable, 
the  paper  was  simply  dipped  in  skim 
milk,  which  effected  the  purpose  admi- 
rably. Such  documents  written  with  a 
pencil  on  unsized  paper  have  stood  the 
wear  and  rubbing  of  upward  of  40  years. 

To  Fix  Pounced  Designs. — Take  beer 
pr  milk  or  alcohol,  in  which  a  little 
bleached  shellac  has  been  dissolved,  and 
blow  one  of  these  liquids  upon  the  freshly 
pounced  design  by  means  of  an  atomizer. 
After  drying,  the  drawing  will  have  the 
desired  fixedness. 

FIXING    BATHS    FOR    PAPER    AND 

NEGATIVES: 
See  Photography. 

FLANNELS,  WHITENING  OF: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

FLASH-LIGHT      APPARATUS      AND 
POWDERS: 

See  Photography. 

FLAVORINGS: 

See  Condiments. 

FLEA  DESTROYERS: 

See  Insecticides. 

FLIES *IN  THE  HOUSE: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

FLIES  AND  PAINT: 

See  Paint. 

Floor  Dressings 

(See  also  Paint,  Polishes,  Waxes,  and 
Wood.) 

Oil  Stains  for  Hard  Floors.— I.— Burnt 
sienna,  slate  brown,  or  wine  black,  is 
ground  with  strong  oil  varnish  in  the 
paint  mill.  The  glazing  color  obtained 


FLOOR  DRESSINGS— FLOWER  PRESERVATIVES       S45 


is  thinned  with  a  mixture  of  oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  applied  with  a  brush  on  the 
respective  object.  The  superfluous  stain 
is  at  once  wiped  away  with  a  rag,  so  that 
only  the  absorbed  stain  remains  in  the 
wood.  If  this  is  uneven,  go  over  the 
light  places  again  with  dark  stain.  In  a 
similar  manner  all  otherwise  tinted  and 
colored  oil  stains  are  produced  by  merely 
grinding  the  respective  color  with  the 
corresponding  addition  of  oil.  Thus, 
green,  red,  and  even  blue  and  violet 
shades  on  wood  can  be  obtained,  it  being 
necessary  only  to  make  a  previous  ex- 
periment with  the  stains  on  a  piece  of 
suitable  wood.  In  the  case  of  soft  wood, 
however,  it  is  advisable  to  stain  the  whole 
previously  with  ordinary  nut  stain  (not 
too  dark),  and  only  after  drying  to  coat 
with  oil  stain,  because  the  autumn  rings 
of  the  wood  take  no  color,  and  would 
appear  too  light,  and,  therefore,  disturb 
the  effect. 

II. — Boil  25  parts,  by  weight,  of  fustic 
and  12  parts  of  Brazil  wood  with  2,400 
parts  of  soapmakers'  lye  and  12  parts  of 
potash,  until  the  liquid  measures  about 
12  quarts.  Dissolve  in  it,  while  warm, 
30  parts  of  annatto  and  75  of  wax,  and 
stir  until  cold.  There  will  be  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  brownish-red  stain  to 
keep  the  floor  of  a  large  room  in  good 
order  for  a  year.  The  floor  should  be 
swept  with  a  brush  broom  daily,  and 
wiped  up  twice  a  week  with  a  damp 
cloth,  applying  the  stain,  when  neces- 
sary, to  places  where  there  is  much  wear, 
and  rubbing  it  in  with  a  hard  brush. 
Every  6  weeks  put  the  stain  all  over  the 
floor,  and  brush  it  in  well. 

III.— Neatsfoot  oil 1  part 

Cottonseed  oil 1  part 

Petroleum  oil 1  part 

IV. — Beeswax 8  parts 

Water. 56  parts 

Potassium  carbonate  4  parts 
Dissolve  the  potash  in  12  parts  of 
water;  heat  together  the  wax  and  the  re- 
maining water  till  the  wax  is  liquefied; 
then  mix  the  two  and  boil  together  until 
a  perfect  emulsion  is  effected.  Color,  if 
desired,  with  a  solution  of  annatto. 

V. — Paraffine  oil 8  parts 

Kerosene 1  part 

Limewater 1  part 

Mix  thoroughly.  A  coat  of  the  mix- 
ture is  applied  to  the  floor  with  a  mop. 

Paraffining  of  Floors. — The  cracks  and 
joints  of  the  parquet  floor  are  filled  with 
a  putty  consisting  of  Spanish  white,  540 
parts;  glue,  180  parts;  s;enna,  150  parts; 


umber,  110  parts:  and  calcareous  earth, 
20  parts.  After  48  hours  apply  the  paraf- 
fine,  which  is  previously  dissolved  in  pe- 
troleum, or  preferably  employed  in  a  boil- 
ing condition,  in  which  case  it  will  enter 
slightly  into  the  floor.  When  solidifica- 
tion sets  in,  the  superfluous  paraffine  is 
scratched  off  and  .an  even,  smooth  sur- 
face of  glossy  color  results,  which  with- 
stands acids  and  alkalies. 

Ball-Room  Floor  Powder. — 

Hard  paraffine 1  pound 

Powdered  boric  acid. .      7  pounds 

Oil  lavender 1  drachm 

Oil  neroli 20  minims 

Melt  the  paraffine  and  add  the  boric 
acid  and  the  perfumes.  Mix  well,  and 
sift  through  a  -^  mesh  sieve. 

Renovating  Old  Parquet  Floors. — 
Caustic  soda  lye,  prepared  by  boiling 
for  45  minutes  with  1  part  calcined  soda, 
and  1  part  slaked  lime  with  15  parts 
water,  in  a  cast-iron  pot,  is  applied  to  the 
parquet  to  be  renovated  by  means  of  a 
cloth  attached  to  a  stick.  After  a  while 
rub  off  the  floor  with  a  stiff  brush,  fine 
sand,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water, 
to  remove  the  dirt  and  old  wax.  Spread 
a  mixture  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
and  water  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  8  on 
the  floor.  The  sulphuric  acid  will  re- 
move the  particles  of  dirt  and  wax  which 
have  entered  the  floor  and  enliven  the 
color  of  the  wood.  Finally,  wax  the 
parquet  after  it  has  been  washed  off  with 
water  and  dried  completely. 

FLOOR  OIL: 

See  Oils. 

FLOOR  PAPER: 

See  Paper. 

FLOOR  POLISH: 

See  Polishes. 

FLOOR  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

FLOOR  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

FLOOR  WAX: 

See  Waxes. 

FLORICIN  OIL: 
See  Oil. 

FLOWER  PRESERVATIVES. 

I. — To  preserve  flowers  they  should  be 
dipped  in  melted  paraffine,  which  should 
be  just  hot  enough  to  maintain  its  fluidity. 
The  flowers  should  be  dipped  one  at  a 
time,  held  by  the  stalks  and  moved  about 
for  an  instant  to  get  rid  of  air  bubbles. 
Fresh  cut  flowers,  free  from  moisture, 


346 


FLOWER   PRESERVATIVES 


are  said  to  make  excellent  specimens 
when  treated  in  this  way.  A  solution  in 
which  cut  flowers  may  be  kept  immersed 
is  made  as  follows: 

Salicylic  acid 20  grains 

Formaldehyde 10  minims 

Alcohol 2  fluidounces 

Distilled   water 1  quart 

II. — The  English  method  of  preserv- 
ing flowers  so  as  to  retain  their  form  and 
color  is  to  imbed  the  plants  in  a  mixture 
of  equal  quantities  of  plaster  of  Paris  and 
lime,  and  gradually  heat  them  to  a  tem- 
perature of  100°  F.  After  this  the 
flower  looks  dusty,  but  if  it  is  laid  aside  for 
an  hour  so  as  to  absorb  sufficient  mois- 
ture to  destroy  its  brittleness,  it  can  be 
dusted  without  injury.  To  remove  the 
hoary  appearance  which  is  often  left, 
even  after  dusting,  a  varnish  composed  of 
5  ounces  of  dammar  and  16  ounces  of 
oil  of  turpentine  should  be  used  and  a 
second  coat  given  if  necessary.  When 
the  gum  has  been  dissolved  in  the  tur- 
pentine, 16  ounces  of  benzoline  should 
be  added,  and  the  whole  should  be 
strained  through  fine  muslin. 

III. — Five  hundred  parts  ether,  20  parts 
transparent  copal,  and  20  parts  sand. 
The  flowers  should  be  immersed  in  the 
varnish  for  2  minutes,  then  allowed  to  dry 
for  10  minutes,  and  this  treatment  should 
be  repeated  5  or  6  times. 

IV. — Place  the  flowers  in  a  solution  of 
30  grains  of  salicylic  acid  in  1  quart  of 
water. 

V. — Moisten  1,000  parts  of  fine  white 
sand  that  has  been  previously  well 
washed  and  thoroughly  dried  and  sifted, 
with  a  solution  consisting  of  3  parts  of 
stearine,  3  parts  of  paraffine,  3  parts  of 
salicylic  acid,  and  100  parts  of  alcohol. 
Work  the  sand  up  thoroughly  so  that 
every  grain  of  it  is  impregnated  with  the 
mixture,  and  then  spread  it  out  and  let  it 
become  perfectly  dry.  To  use,  place 
the  flowers  in  a  suitable  box,  the  bottom 
of  which  has  been  covered  with  a  portion 
of  the  prepared  sand,  and  then  dust  the 
latter  over  them  until  all  the  interstices 
have  been  completely  filled  with  it. 
Close  the  box  lightly  and  put  it  in  a  place 
where  it  can  be  maintained  at  a  tem- 
perature of  from  86°  to  104°  F.  for  2  or  3 
days.  At  the  expiration  of  this  time 
remove  the  box  and  let  the  sand  escape. 
The  flowers  can  then  be  put  into  suitable 
receptacles  or  glass  cases  without  fear  of 
deterioration.  Wilted  or  withered  flow- 
ers should  be  freshened  up  by  dipping 
into  a  suitable  aniline  solution,  which 
will  restore  their  color. 


VI. — Stand  the  flowers  upright  in  a  box 
of  proper  size  and  pour  over  and  around 
them  fine  dry  sand,  until  the  flowers  are 
completely  surrounded  in  every  direction 
Leave  them  in  this  way  for  8  or  10  days9 
then  carefully  pour  off  the  sand.  The 
flowers  retain  their  color  and  shape  per- 
fectly, but  in  very  fleshy,  juicy  specimens 
the  sand  must  be  renewed.  To  be  effect- 
ive the  sand  must  be  as  nearly  dry  as 
possible. 

VII. — A  method  of  preserving  cut  flow- 
ers in  a  condition  of  freshness  is  to  dis- 
solve small  amounts  of  ammonium 
chloride,  potassium  nitrate,  sodium  car- 
bonate or  camphor  in  the  water  into 
which  the  stems  are  inserted.  The 

Eresence  of  one  or  more  of  these  drugs 
eeps  the  flowers  from  losing  their  tur- 
gidity  by  stimulating  the  cells  to  action 
and  by  opposing  germ  growth.  Flow- 
ers that  have  already  wilted  are  said  to 
revive  quickly  if  the  stems  are  inserted  in 
a  weak  camphor  water. 

Stuccoed  Gypsum  Flowers. — Take 
natural  flowers,  and  coat  the  lower  sides 
of  their  petals  and  stamens  with  paraf- 
fine or  with  a  mixture  of  glue,  gypsum, 
and  lirne,  which  is  applied  lightly.  Very 
fine  parts  of  the  flowers,  such  as  stamens, 
etc.,  may  be  previously  supported  by 
special  attachments  of  textures,  wire, 
etc.  After  the  drying  of  the  coating  the 
whole  is  covered  with  shellac  solution 
or  with  a  mixture  of  glue,  gypsum,  lime 
with  lead  acetate,  oil,  mucilage,  glycer- 
ine, colophony,  etc.  If  desired,  the  sur- 
face may  be  painted  with  bronzes  in 
various  shades.  Such  flowers  are  much 
employed  in  the  shape  of  festoons  for 
decorating  walls,  etc. 

Artificial  Coloring  of  Flowers. — A 
method  employed  by  florists  to  impart  a 
green  color  to  the  white  petals  of  "carna- 
tion pinks"  consists  in  allowing  long- 
stemmed  flowers  to  stand  in  water  con- 
taining a  green  aniline  dye.  When  the 
flowers  are  fresh  they  absorb  the  fluid 
readily,  and  the  dye  is  carried  to  the 
petals. 

Where  the  original  color  of  the  flower 
is  white,  colored  stripes  can  be  produced 
upon  the  petals  by  putting  the  cut  ends 
into  water  impregnated  with  a  suitable 
aniline  dye.  Some  dyes  can  thus  be 
taken  up  by  the  capillary  action  of  the 
stem  and  deposited  in  the  tissue  of  the 
petal.  If  flowers  are  placed  over  a  basin 
of  water  containing  a  very  small  amount 
of  ammonia  in  a  bell  glass,  the  colors  of 
the  petals  will  generally  show  some 
marked  change.  Many  violet-colored 
flowers  when  so  treated  will  become 


FLUID   MEASURES— FLY-PAPERS   AND   FLY-POISONS     347 


green,  and  if  the  petals  contain  several 
tints  they  will  show  greens  where  reds 
were,  yellows  where  they  were  white, 
and  deep  carmine  will  become  black. 
When  such  flowers  are  put  into  water 
they  will  retain  their  changed  colors  for 
hours. 

If  violet  asters  are  moistened  with 
very  dilute  nitric  acid,  the  ray  florets  be- 
come red  and  acquire  an  agreeable  odor. 

FLUID  MEASURES: 

See  Weights  and  Measures. 

FLUORESCENT  LIQUIDS. 

J^sculin  gives  pale  blue  by  (1)  reflected 
light,  straw  color  by  (2)  transmitted  light. 

Amido-phthalic  acid,  pale  violet  (1), 
pale  yellow  (2).  Amido-terephthalic 
acid,  bright  green  (1),  pale  green  (2). 

Eosine,  yellow  green  (1),  orange  (2). 

Fluorescein,  intense  green  (1),  orange 
yellow  (2). 

Fraxin,  blue  green  (1),  pale  green  (2). 

Magdala  red,  opaque  scarlet  (1),  bril- 
liant carmine  (2). 

Quinine,  pale  blue  (1),  no  color  (2). 

Safranine,  yellow  red  (1),  crimson  (2). 

FLUXES  USED  IN  ENAMELING: 
See  Enameling. 

FLUXES  FOR  SOLDERING: 

See  Soldering. 

Fly-Papers  and  Fly-Poisons 

(See  also  Insecticides.) 

Sticky  Fly-Papers.—  The  sticky  mate- 
rial applied  to  the  paper  is  the  following: 

I. — Boiled  linseed  oil.    5  to  7  parts 

Gum  thus 2  to  3  parts 

Non-drying  oil ...    3  to  7  parts 

For  the  non-drying  oil,  cottonseed, 
castor,  or  neatsfoot  will  answer — in  fact, 
any  of  ,the  cheaper  oils  that  do  not  readily 
dry  or  harden  will  answer.  The  proper 
amount  of  each  ingredient  depends  upon 
the  condition  of  the  boiled  oil.  If  it  is 
boiled  down  very  stiff,  more  of  the  other 
ingredients  will  be  necessary,  while  if 
thin,  less  will  be  required. 

II. — Rosin 8  parts 

Rapeseed  oil 4  parts 

Honey 1  part 

Melt  the  rosin  and  oil  together,  and  in- 
corporate the  honey.  Two  parts  of  raw 
linseed  oil  and  2  parts  of  honey  may  be 
used  along  with  8  parts  of  rosin  instead 
of  the  foregoing.  Use  paper  already 
sized,  as  it  comes  from  the  mills,  on 
which  to  spread  the  mixture. 


III. — Castor  oil 12  ounces 

Rosin 27  ounces 

Melt  together  and  spread  on  paper 
sized  with  glue,  using  12  ounces  glue  to  4 
pints  water. 

IV. — Rosin 8  ounces 

Venice  turpentine. . .      2  ounces 

Castor  oil 2  ounces 

Spread  on  paper  sized  with  glue. 
Poisonous  Fly-Papers. — 

I. — Quassia  chips 150' parts 

Chloride  of  cobalt. ..     10  parts 

Tartar  emeiic 2  parts 

Tincture     of     long 

pepper  (1  to  4)  . .      80  parts 

Water 400  parts 

Boil  the  quassia  in  the  water  until  the 
liquid  is  reduced  one-half,  strain,  add 
the  other  ingredients,  saturate  common 
absorbent  paper  with  the  solution,  and 
dry.  The  paper  is  used  in  the  ordinary 
way. 

II. — Potassium  bichromate  10  ounces 

Sugar 3  drachms 

Oil  of  black  pepper. .      2  drachms 

Alcohol   2  ounces 

Water 14  ounces 

Mix  and  let  stand  for  several  days, 
then  soak  unsized  paper  with  the  solu- 
tion. 

III. — Cobalt  chloride 4  drachms 

Hot  water 16  ounces 

Brown  sugar 1  ounce 

Dissolve  the  cobalt  in  the  water  and 
add  the  sugar,  saturate  unsized  paper  in 
the  solution,  and  hang  up  to  dry. 

IV. — Quassia  chips 150  parts 

Cobalt  chloride..  . .  10  parts 
Tartrate  antimony.  2  parts 
Tincture  of  pepper.  80  parts 

Water 400  parts 

Boil  chips  in  the  water  until  the  vol- 
ume of  the  latter  is  reduced  one-half,  add 
other  ingredients  and  saturate  paper  and 
dry. 

Fly-Poison. — 

Pepper 4  ounces 

Quassia 4  ounces 

Sugar 8  ounces 

Diluted  alcohol 4  ounces 

Mix  dry  and  sprinkle  around  where 
the  flies  can  get  it. 

Non-Poisonous  Fly-Papers. — I. — Mix 
25  parts  of  quassia  decoction  (1:10)  with 
6  parts  of  brown  sugar  and  3  parts  of 
ground  pepper,  and  place  on  flat  dishes. 

II. — Mix  1  part  of  ground  pepper  and 
1  part  of  brown  sugar  with  16  parts  milk 


348 


FLY-PAPERS—FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


or  cream,  and  put  the  mixture  on  flat 
plates. 

III. — Macerate  20  parts  of  quassia 
wood  with  100  parts  of  water  for  24 
hours,  boil  one-half  hour,  and  squeeze 
off  24  hours.  The  liquid  is  mixed  with 
3  parts  of  molasses,  and  evaporated  to 
10  parts.  Next  add  1  part  of  alcohol. 
Soak  blotting  paper  with  this  mixture, 
and  put  on  plates. 

IV. — Dissolve  5  parts  of  potassium 
bichromate,  15  parts  of  sugar,  and  1  part 
of  essential  pepper  oil  in  60  parts  of 
water,  and  add  10  parts  of  alcohol. 
Saturate  unsized  paper  with  this  solu- 
tion and  dry  well. 

V. — Boil  together  for  half  an  hour 

Ground  quassia 

wood 18  pounds 

Broken  colocynth. .        3  pounds 

Ground  long  pep- 
per   5  pounds 

Water 80  pounds 

Then  percolate  and  make  up  to  60 
pounds  if  necessary  with  more  water. 
Then  add  4  pounds  of  syrup.  Unsized 
paper  is  soaked  in  this,  and  dried  as 
quickly  as  possible  to  prevent  it  from 
getting  sour. 

VI.— Mix  together 

Ordinary  syrup.. .  .    100  ounces 

Honey 30  ounces 

Extract  of  quassia 

wood 4  ounces 

Oil  of  aniseed,  a  few  drops. 

Removing  the  Gum  of  Sticky  Fly- 
Paper. — The  "gum"  of  sticky  fly-paper 
that  has  "  leaked "  over  furniture  and 
shelfware  can  be  removed  without  caus- 
ing injury  to  either  furniture  or  bottles. 

The  "gum"  of  sticky  fly-paper,  while 
being  quite  adhesive,  is  easily  dissolved 
with  alcohol  (grain  or  wood)  or  oil  of 
turpentine.  Alcohol  will  not  injure  the 
shelfware,  but  it  should  not  be  used  on 
varnished  furniture;  in  the  latter  case 
turpentine  should  be  used. 

FLY  PROTECT! VES  FOR  ANIMALS: 

See  Insecticides. 

FOAM  PREPARATIONS. 

A  harmless  gum  cream  is  the  follow- 
ing: 

I. — Digest  100  parts  of  Panama  wood 
for  8  days  with  400  parts  of  water  and 
100  parts  of  spirits  of  wine  (90  per  cent). 
Pour  off  without  strong  pressure  and 
filter. 

For  every  5  parts  of  lemonade  syrup 
take  5  parts  of  this  extract,  whereby  a 


magnificent,    always    uniform    foam     is 
obtained  on  the  lemonade. 

II.— Heat  200  parts  of  quillaia  bark 
with  distilled  water  during  an  hour  in  a 
vapor  bath,  with  frequent  stirring,  and 
squeeze  out.  Thin  with  water  if  neces- 
sary and  filter. 

FOOD  ADULTERANTS,  SIMPLE  TESTS 

FOR  THEIR  DETECTION. 

Abstract  of  a  monograph  by  W.  D. 
Bigelow  and  Burton  J.  Howard,  pub- 
lished by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. 

Generally  speaking,  the  methods  of 
chemical  analysis  employed  in  food 
laboratories  can  be  manipulated  only  by 
one  who  has  had  at  least  the  usual  college 
course  in  chemistry,  and  some  special 
training  in  the  examination  of  foods  is 
almost  as  necessary.  Again,  most  of  the 
apparatus  and  chemicals  necessary  are 
entirely  beyond  the  reach  of  the  home, 
and  the  time  consumed  by  the  ordinary 
examination  of  a  food  is  in  itself  pro- 
hibitive. 

Yet  there  are  some  simple  tests  which 
serve  to  point  out  certain  forms  of  adul- 
teration and  can  be  employed  by  the 
careful  housewife  with  the  reagents  in 
her  medicine  closet  and  the  apparatus  in 
her  kitchen.  The  number  may  be  great- 
ly extended  by  the  purchase  of  a  very 
few  articles  that  may  be  procured  for  a 
few  cents  at  any  drug  store.  In  apply- 
ing these  tests,  one  general  rule  must 
always  be  kept  carefully  in  mind.  Every 
one,  whether  layman  or  chemist,  must 
familiarize  himself  with  a  reaction  be- 
fore drawing  any  conclusions  from  it.  For 
instance,  before  testing  a  sample  of  sup- 
posed coffee  for  starch,  the  method 
should  be  applied  to  a  sample  of  pure 
coffee  (which  can  always  be  procured 
unground)  and  to  a  mixture  of  pure 
coffee  and  starch  prepared  by  the  oper- 
ator. 

Many  manufacturers  and  dealers  in 
foods  have  the  ordinary  senses  so  highly 
developed  that  by  their  aid  alone  they 
can  form  an  intelligent  opinion  of  the 
nature  of  a  product,  or  of  the  character, 
and  sometimes  even  of  the  proportion  of 
adulterants  present.  This  is  especially 
true  of  such  articles  as  coffee,  wine, 
salad  oils,  flavoring  extracts,  butter,  and 
milk.  The  housewife  finds  herself  con- 
stantly submitting  her  purchases  to  this 
test.  Her  broad  experience  develops 
her  senses  of  taste  and  smell  to  a  high 
degree,  and  her  discrimination  is  often 
sharper  and  more  accurate  than  she  her- 
self realizes.  The  manufacturer  who 
has  developed  his  natural  senses  most 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


349 


highly  appreciates  best  the  assistance  or 
collaboration  of  the  chemist,  who  can 
often  come  to  his  relief  when  his  own 
powers  do  not  avail.  So  the  housewife, 
by  a  few  simple  chemical  tests,  can 
broaden  her  field  of  vision  and  detect 
many  impurities  that  are  not  evident  to 
the  senses. 

There  are  here  given  methods  adapted 
to  this  purpose,  which  may  be  applied  to 
milk,  butter,  coffee,  spices,  olive  oil, 
vinegar,  jams  and  jellies,  and  flavoring 
extracts.  In  addition  to  this  some  gen- 
eral methods  for  the  detection  of  coloring 
matter  and  preservatives  will  be  given. 
All  of  the  tests  here  described  may  be 
performed  with  utensils  found  in  any 
well-appointed  kitchen.  It  will  be  con- 
venient, however,  to  secure  a  small  glass 
funnel,  about  3  inches  in  diameter,  since 
filtration  is  directed  in  a  number  of  the 
methods  prescribed.  Filter  paper  can 
best  be  prepared  for  the  funnel  by  cut- 
ting a  circular  piece  about  the  proper 
size  and  folding  it  once  through  the  mid- 
dle, and  then  again  at  right  angles  to  the 
first  fold.  The  paper  may  then  be 
opened  without  unfolding  in  such  a  way 
that  three  thicknesses  lie  together  on  one 
side  and  only  one  thickness  on  the  other. 
In  this  way  the  paper  may  be  made  to 
fit  nicely  into  the  funnel. 

Some  additional  apparatus,  such  as 
test  tubes,  racks  for  supporting  them, 
and  glass  rods,  will  be  found  more  con- 
venjent  for  one  who  desires  to  do  consid- 
erable work  on  this  subject,  but  can  be 
dispensed  with.  The  most  convenient 
size  for  test  tubes  is  a  diameter  of  from 
J  to  f  inch,  and  a  length  of  from  5  to  6 
inches.  A  graduated  cylinder  will  also 
be  found  very  convenient.  If  this  is 
graduated  according  to  the  metric  sys- 
tem, a  cylinder  containing  about  100 
cubic  centimeters  will  be  found  to  be 
convenient;  if  the  English  liquid  measure 
is  used  it  may  be  graduated  to  from  3  to 
8  ounces. 

Chemical  Reagents. — The  word  "re- 
agent" is  applied  to  "any  substance  used 
to  effect  chemical  change  in  another 
substance  for  the  purpose  of  identifying 
its  component  parts  or  determining  its 
percentage  composition."  The  follow- 
ing reagents  are  required  in  the  methods 
here  given: 

Turmeric   paper. 

Iron  alum  (crystal  or  powdered  form). 

Hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid), 
concentrated. 

Caution. — All  tests  in  which  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  used  should  be  conducted 
in  glass  or  earthenware,  for  this  acid  at- 


tacks and  will  injure  metal  vessels.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  bring  it  into 
contact  with  the  flesh  or  clothes.  If,  by 
accident,  a  drop  of  it  falls  upon  the 
clothes,  ammonia,  or  in  its  absence  a 
solution  of  saleratus  or  sal  soda  (wash- 
ing soda),  in  water,  should  be  applied 
promptly. 

Iodine  tincture. 

Potassium  permanganate,  1  per  cent 
solution. 

Alcohol  (grain  alcohol). 

Chloroform. 

Boric  acid  or  borax. 

Ammonia  water. 

Halphen's  reagent. 

With  the  exception  of  the  last  reagent 
mentioned,  these  substances  may  be 
obtained  in  any  pharmacy.  The  Hal- 
phen  reagent  should  be  prepared  by  a 
druggist,  certainly  not  by  an  inexperi- 
enced person. 

It  is  prepared  as  fellows:  An  approx- 
imately 1  per  cent  solution  of  sulphur  is 
made  by  dissolving  about  ^  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  precipitated  sulphur  in  3  or 
4  ounces  of  carbon  bisulphide.  This 
solution  mixed  with  an  equal  volume  of 
amyl  alcohol  forms  the  reagent  required 
by  the  method.  A  smaller  quantity  than 
that  indicated  by  these  directions  may, 
of  course,  be  prepared. 

If  turmeric  paper  be  not  available  it 
may  be  made  as  follows:  Place  a  bit  of 
turmeric  powder  (obtainable  at  any  drug 
store)  in  alcohol,  allow  it  to  stand  for  a 
few  minutes,  stir,  allow  it  to  stand  again 
until  it  settles,  dip  a  strip  of  filter  paper 
into  the  solution,  and  dry  it. 

Determination  of  Preservatives. — The 
following  methods  cover  all  of  the  more 
important  commercial  preservatives  with 
the  exception  of  sulphites  and  fluorides. 
These  are  quite  frequently  used  for  pre- 
serving foods — the  former  with  meat 
products  and  the  latter  with  fruit  prod- 
ucts— but,  unfortunately,  the  methods  for 
their  detection  are  not  suitable  for  house- 
hold use. 

Detection  of  Salicylic  Acid.— The 
determination  of  salicylic  acid  can  best 
be  made  with  liquids.  Solid  and  semi- 
solid  foods,  such  as  jelly,  should  be  dis- 
solved, when  soluble,  in  sufficient  water 
to  make  them  thinly  liquid.  Foods  con- 
taining insoluble  matter,  such  as  jam, 
marmalade,  and  sausage,  may  be  macer- 
ated with  water  and  strained  through  a 
piece  of  white  cotton  cloth.  The  macer- 
ation may  be  performed  by  rubbing  in  a 
teacup  or  other  convenient  vessel  with  a 
heavy  spoon. 

Salicylic   acid   is   used   for   preserving 


350 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


fruit  products  of  all  kinds,  including 
beverages.  It  is  frequently  sold  by  drug 
stores  as  fruit  acid.  Preserving  powders 
consisting  entirely  of  salicylic  acid  are 
often  carried  from  house  to  house  by 
agents.  It  may  be  detected  as  follows: 

Between  2  and  3  ounces  of  the  liquid 
obtained  from  the  fruit  products,  as  de- 
scribed above,  are  placed  in  a  narrow 
bottle  holding  5  ounces,  about  a  quarter 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar  (or, 
better,  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid)  is 
added,  the  mixture  shaken  for  2  or  3 
minutes,  and  filtered  into  a  second  small 
bottle.  Three  or  4  tablespoonfuls  of 
chloroform  are  added  to  the  clear  liquid 
in  the  second  bottle  and  the  liquids 
mixed  by  a  somewhat  vigorous  rotary 
motion,  poured  into  an  ordinary  glass 
tumbler,  and  allowed  to  stand  till  the 
chloroform  settles  out  in  the  bottom. 
Shaking  is  avoided,  as  it  causes  an  emul- 
sion which  is  difficult  to  break  up.  As 
much  as  possible  of  the  chloroform  layer 
(which  now  contains  the  salicylic  acid) 
is  removed  (without  any  admixture  of 
the  aqueous  liquid)  by  means  of  a  medi- 
cine dropper  and  placed  in  a  test  tube  or 
small  bottle  with  about  an  equal  amount 
of  water  and  a  small  fragment — a  little 
larger  than  a  pinhead — of  iron  alum. 
The  mixture  is  thoroughly  shaken  and 
allowed  to  stand  till  the  chloroform  again 
settles  to  the  bottom.  The  presence  of 
salicylic  acid  is  then  indicated  by  the 
purple  color  of  the  upper  layer  of  liquid. 

Detection  of  Benzole  Acid. — Benzoic 
acid  is  also  used  for  preserving  fruit  prod- 
ucts. Extract  the  sample  with  chloro- 
form as  in  the  case  of  salicylic  acid; 
remove  the  chloroform  layer  and  place  it 
in  a  white  saucer,  or,  better,  in  a  plain 
glass  sauce  dish.  Set  a  basin  of  water — 
as  warm  as  the  hand  can  bear — on  the 
outside  window  ledge  and  place  the  dish 
containing  the  chloroform  extract  in  it, 
closing  the  window  until  the  chloroform 
has  completely  evaporated.  In  this 
manner  the  operation  may  be  conducted 
with  safety  even  by  one  who  is  not  accus- 
tomed to  handling  chloroform.  In 
warm  weather  the  vessel  of  warm  water 
may,  of  course,  be  omitted.  Benzoic 
acid,  if  present  in  considerable  amount, 
will  now  appear  in  the  dish  in  character- 
istic flat  crystals.  On  warming  the  dish 
the  unmistakable  irritating  odor  of 
benzoic  acid  may  be  obtained.  This 
method  will  detect  benzoic  acid  in  tomato 
catsup  or  other  articles  in  which  it  is 
used  in  large  quantities.  It  is  not  suffi- 
ciently delicate,  however,  for  the  smaller 
amount  used  with  some  articles,  such  as 


wine.  It  is  often  convenient  to  extract  a 
larger  quantity  of  the  sample  and  divide 
the  chloroform  layer  into  two  portions, 
testing  one  for  salicylic  acid  and  the  other 
for  benzoic  acid. 

Detection  of  Boric  Acid  and  Borax. — 
Boric  acid  (also  called  boracic  acid)  and 
its  compound  with  sodium  (borax)  are 
often  used  to  preserve  animal  products, 
such  as  sausage,  butter,  and  sometimes 
milk.  For  the  detection  of  boric  acid 
and  borax,  solids  should  be  macerated 
with  a  small  amount  of  water  and 
strained  through  a  white  cotton  cloth. 
The  liquid  obtained  by  treating  solids  in 
this  manner  is  clarified  somewhat  by 
thoroughly  chilling  and  filtering  through 
filter  paper. 

In  testing  butter  place  a  heaping  tea- 
spoonful  of  the  sample  in  a  teacup,  add  a 
couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  hot  water,  and 
stand  the  cup  in  a  vessel  containing  a 
little  hot  water  until  the  butter  is  thor- 
oughly melted.  Mix  the  contents  of  the 
cup  well  by  stirring  with  a  teaspoon  and 
set  the  cup  with  the  spoon  in  it  in  a 
cold  place  until  the  butter  is  solid.  The 
spoon  with  the  butter  (which  adheres  to 
it)  is  now  removed  from  the  cup  and  the 
turbid  liquid  remaining  strained  through 
a  white  cotton  cloth,  or,  better,  through 
filter  paper.  The  liquid  will  not  all  pass 
through  the  cloth  or  filter  paper,  but  a 
sufficient  amount  for  the  test  may  be 
secured  readily. 

In  testing  milk  for  boric  acid  2  or  3 
tablespoonfuls  of  milk  are  placed  in  a 
bottle  with  twice  that  amount  of  a 
solution  of  a  teaspoonful  of  alum  in  a 
pint  of  water,  shaken  vigorously,  and 
filtered  through  filter  paper.  Here  again 
a  clear  or  only  slightly  turbid  liquid 
passes  through  the  paper. 

About  a  teaspoonful  of  the  liquid  ob- 
tained by  any  one  of  the  methods  men- 
tioned above  is  placed  in  any  dish,  not 
metal,  and  5  drops  of  hydrochloric 
(muriatic)  acid  added.  A  strip  of 
turmeric  paper  is  dipped  into  the  liquid 
and  then  held  in  a  warm  place — near  a 
stove  or  lamp — till  dry.  If  boric  acid  or 
borax  was  present  in  the  sample  the 
turmeric  paper  becomes  bright  cherry 
red  when  dry.  A  drop  of  household 
ammonia  changes  the  red  color  to  dark 
green  or  greenish  black.  If  too  much 
hydrochloric  acid  is  used  the  turmeric 
paper  may  take  on  a  brownish-red  color 
even  in  the  absence  of  boric  acid.  In  this 
case,  however,  ammonia  changes  the 
color  to  brown  just  as  it  does  turmeric 
paper  which  has  not  been  dipped  into 
the  acid  solution. 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


351 


Detection  of  Formaldehyde. — Formal- 
dehyde is  rarely  used  with  other  foods 
than  milk.  The  method  for  its  detec- 
tion in  milk  is  given  later.  For  its 
detection  in  other  foods  it  is  usually 
necessary  first  to  separate  it  by  distilla- 
tion, a  process  which  is  scarcely  available 
for  the  average  person  without  laboratory 
training  and  special  apparatus.  For 
this  reason  no  method  is  suggested  here 
for  the  detection  of  formaldehyde  in 
other  foods  than  milk. 

Detection  of  Saccharine. — Saccharine 
has  a  certain  preservative  power,  but  it  is 
used  not  so  much  for  this  effect  as  be- 
cause of  the  very  sweet  taste  which  it 
imparts.  It  is  extracted  by  means  of 
chloroform,  as  described  under  the 
detection  of  salicylic  acid.  In  the  case 
of  solid  and  semi-solid  foods,  the  sample 
must,  of  course,  be  prepared  by  extrac- 
tion with  water,  as  described  under  sali- 
cylic acid.  The  residue  left  after  the 
evaporation  of  the  chloroform,  if  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  saccharine  is  present, 
has  a  distinctly  sweet  taste. 

The  only  other  substance  having  a 
sweet  taste  which  may  be  present  in 
foods,  i.  e.,  sugar,  is  not  soluble  in 
chloroform,  and  therefore  does  not 
interfere  with  this  reaction.  Certain 
other  bodies  (tannins)  which  have  an 
astringent  taste  are  present,  and  as  they 
are  soluble  in  chloroform  may  sometimes 
mask  the  test  for  saccharine,  but  with 
practice  this  difficulty  is  obviated. 

Determination  of  Artificial  Colors: 
Detection  of  Coal-Tar  Dyes. — Coloring 
matters  used  with  foods  are  usually 
soluble  in  water.  If  the  food  under 
examination  be  a  liquid,  it  may  there- 
fore be  treated  directly  by  the  method 
given  below.  If  it  be  a  solid  or  a  pasty 
substance,  soluble  in  water  either  in  the 
cold  or  after  heating,  it  may  be  dissolved 
in  sufficient  water  to  form  a  thin  liquid. 
If  it  contains  some  insoluble  material,  it 
may  be  treated  with  sufficient  water  to 
dissolve  .the  soluble  portion  with  the 
formation  of  a  thin  liquid  and  filtered, 
and  then  strained  through  a  clean  white 
cotton  cloth  to  separate  the  insoluble 
portion.  About  a  half  teacupful  of  the 
liquid  thus  described  is  heated  to  boiling, 
after  adding  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid  and  a  small  piece  of  white  woolen 
cloth  or  a  few  strands  of  white  woolen 
yarn.  (Before  using,  the  wool  should 
be  boiled  with  water  containing  a  little 
soda,  to  remove  any  fat  it  may  contain, 
and  then  washed  with  water.)  The  wool 
is  again  washed,  first  with  hot  and  then 


with  cold  water,  the  water  pressed  out  as 
completely  as  possible,  and  the  color  of 
the  fabric  noted.  If  no  marked  color  is 
produced,  the  test  may  be  discontinued 
and  the  product  considered  free  from 
artificial  colors.  If  the  fabric  is  colored, 
it  may  have  taken  up  coal-tar  colors, 
some  foreign  vegetable  colors,  and  if  a 
fruit  product  is  being  examined,  some  of 
the  natural  coloring  matter  of  the  fruit. 
Rinse  the  fabric  in  hot  water,  and  then 
boil  for  2  or  3  minutes  in  about  one- 
third  of  a  teacupful  of  water  and  2  or  3 
teaspoonfuls  of  household  ammonia. 
Remove  and  free  from  as  much  of  the 
liquid  as  possible  by  squeezing  or  wring- 
ing. Usually  the  fabric  will  retain  the 
greater  part  of  the  natural  fruit  color, 
while  the  coal-tar  color  dissolves  in  dilute 
ammonia.  The  liquid  is  then  stirred 
with  a  splinter  of  wood  and  hydrochloric 
acid  added,  a  drop  or  two  at  a  time,  until 
there  is  no  longer  any  odor  of  ammonia. 
(The  atmosphere  of  the  vessel  is  some- 
times charged  with  the  ammonia  for 
several  minutes  after  it  has  all  been 
driven  out  of  the  liquid;  therefore  one 
should  blow  into  the  dish  to  remove  this 
air  before  deciding  whether  the  ammonia 
odor  has  been  removed  or  not.)  When 
enough  acid  has  been  added  the  liquid 
has  a  sour  taste,  as  may  be  determined  by 
touching  the  splinter,  used  in  stirring,  to 
the  tongue. 

A  fresh  piece  of  white  woolen  cloth  is 
boiled  in  this  liquid  and  thoroughly 
washed.  If  this  piece  of  cloth  has  a  dis- 
tinct color  the  food  under  examination 
is  artificially  colored.  The  color  used 
may  have  been  a  coal-tar  derivative, 
commonly  called  an  aniline  dye,  or  an 
artificial  color  chemically  prepared  from 
some  vegetable  color.  If  of  the  first 
class  the  dyed  fabric  is  usually  turned 
purple  or  blue  by  ammonia.  In  either 
case,  if  the  second  fabric  has  a  distinct 
color,  it  is  evident  that  the  product  under 
examination  is  artificially  colored.  Of 
course  a  dull,  faint  tint  must  be  disre- 
garded. 

Detection  of  Copper. — The  presence  of 
copper,  often  used  to  deepen  the  green 
tint  of  imported  canned  peas,  beans, 
spinach,  etc.,  may  be  detected  as  follows: 

Mash  some  of  the  sample  in  a  dish 
with  a  stiff  kitchen  spoon.  Place  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  the  pulp  in  a  teacup  with  3 
teaspoonfuls  of  water  and  add  30  drops 
of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  with  a  medi- 
cine dropper.  Set  the  cup  on  the  stove 
in  a  saucepan  containing  boiling  water. 
Drop  a  bright  iron  brad  or  nail  (wire 
nails  are  the  best  and  tin  carpet  tacks 


352 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


will  not  answer  the  purpose)  into  the  cup 
and  keep  the  water  in  the  saucepan  boil- 
ing for  20  minutes,  stirring  the  contents 
of  the  cup  frequently  with  a  splinter  of 
wood.  Pour  out  the  contents  of  the  cup 
and  examine  the  nail.  If  present  in  an 
appreciable  amount  the  nail  will  be 
heavily  plated  with  copper. 

Caution. — Be  careful  not  to  allow  the 
hydrochloric  acid  to  come  in  contact  with 
metals  or  with  the  flesh  or  clothing. 

Detection  of  Turmeric. — In  yellow 
spices,  especially  mustard  and  mace,  tur- 
meric is  often  employed.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  prepared  mustard  to  which 
a  sufficient  amount  of  starch  adulterant 
has  been  added  to  reduce  the  natural 
color  materially.  If  turmeric  be  em- 
ployed to  restore  the  normal  shade  an 
indication  of  that  fact  may  sometimes  be 
obtained  by  mixing  a  half  teaspoonful 
of  the  sample  in  a  white  china  dish  and 
mixing  with  it  an  equal  amount  of  water, 
and  a  few  drops  (4  to  10)  of  housenold 
ammonia,  when  a  marked  brown  color, 
which  does  not  appear  in  the  absence  of 
turmeric,  is  formed.  At  the  present 
time  turmeric  or  a  solution  of  curcuma 
(the  coloring  matter  of  turmeric)  is 
sometimes  added  to  adulterated  mus- 
tard in  sufficient  amount  to  increase  its 
color,  but  not  to  a  sufficient  extent  to 
give  the  brown  appearance  with  ammo- 
nia described  above.  In  such  cases  a 
teaspoonful  of  the  suspected  sample  may 
be  thoroughly  stirred  with  a  couple  of 
tablespoonfuls  of  alcohol,  the  mixture 
allowed  to  settle  for  15  minutes  or  more, 
and  the  upper  liquid  ooured  off  into  a 
clean  glass  or  bottle.  To  about  1  table- 
spoonful  of  the  liquid  thus  prepared  and 
placed  in  a  small,  clear  dish  (a  glass 
salt  cellar  serves  excellently)  add  4  or  5 
drops  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  boric 
acid  or  borax  and  about  10  drops  of  hy- 
drochloric acid,  and  mix  the  solution  by 
stirring  with  a  splinter  of  wood.  A 
wedge-shaped  strip  of  filter  paper,  about 
2  or  3  inches  long,  1  inch  wide  at  the 
upper  end,  and  J  inch  at  the  lower  end,  is 
then  suspended  by  pinning,  so  that  its 
narrow  end  is  immersed  in  the  solution, 
and  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  couple  of 
hours.  The  best  results  are  obtained  if 
the  paper  is  so  suspended  that  air  can 
circulate  freely  around  it,  i.  e.,  not  allow- 
ing it  to  touch  anything  except  the  pin  and 
the  liquid  in  the  dish.  If  turmeric  be 
present  a  cherry-red  color  forms  on  the 
filter  paper  a  short  distance  below  the 
upper  limit  to  which  the  liquid  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  paper,  frequently  from 
|  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  above  the  surface 


of  the  liquid  itself.  A  drop  of  household 
ammonia  changes  this  red  color  to  a  dark 
green,  almost  black.  If  too  much  hy- 
drochloric acid  is  used  a  dirty  brownish 
color  is  produced. 

Detection  of  Caramel. — A  solution  of 
caramel  is  used  to  color  many  sub- 
stances, such  as  vinegar  and  some  dis- 
tilled liquors.  To  detect  it  two  test  tubes 
or  small  bottles  of  about  equal  size  and 
shape  should  be  employed  and  an  equal 
amount  (2  or  3  tablespoonfuls  or  more) 
of  the  suspected  sample  placed  in  each. 
To  one  of  these  bottles  is  added  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  fuller's  earth,  the  sample 
shaken  vigorously  for  2  or  3  minutes, 
and  then  filtered  through  filter  paper, 
the  first  portion  of  the  filtered  liquid 
being  returned  to  the  filter  paper  and 
the  sample  finally  collected  into  the  test 
tube  or  bottle  in  which  it  was  originally 
placed,  or  a  similar  one.  The  filtered 
liquid  is  now  compared  with  the  un- 
treated sample.  If  it  is  markedly 
lighter  in  color  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  the  color  of  the  liquid  is  due 
to  caramel,  which  is  largely  removed  by 
fuller's  earth.  In  applying  this  test, 
however,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
caramel  occurs  naturally  in  malt  vinegar, 
being  formed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
malt.  It  is  evident  that  the  tests  require 
practice  and  experience  before  they  can 
be  successfully  performed.  The  house- 
wife can  use  them,  but  must  repeat  them 
frequently  in  order  to  become  proficient 
in  their  use. 

EXAMINATION  OF  CERTAIN  CLASSES 
OF  FOODS: 

Canned  Vegetables. — These  are  rela- 
tively free  from  adulteration  by  means  of 
foreign  substances.  The  different  grades 
of  products  may  with  care  be  readily 
detected  by  the  general  appearance  of 
the  sample.  The  purchaser  is,  of 
course,  at  the  disadvantage  of  not  being 
able  to  see  the  product  until  the  can  is 
opened.  By  a  study  of  the  different 
brands  available  in  the  vicinity,  however, 
he  can  readily  select  those  which  are 
preferable.  As  stated  in  an  earlier  part 
of  this  article,  canned  tomatoes  some- 
times contain  an  artificial  coloring  mat- 
ter, which  may  be  detected  as  described. 

Canned  sweet  corn  is  sometimes  sweet- 
ened with  saccharine,  which  may  be  de- 
tected as  described. 

It  is  believed  that,  as  a  rule,  canned 
vegetables  are  free  from  preservatives, 
although  some  instances  of  chemical 
preservation  have  recently  been  reported 
in  North  Dakota,  and  some  imported 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


85$ 


tomatoes  have  been  found  to  be  arti- 
ficially preserved.  The  presence  of  cop- 
per, often  used  for  the  artificial  greening 
of  imported  canned  peas,  beans,  spinach, 
etc.,  may  be  detected  as  described. 

Coffee. — There  are  a  number  of  sim- 
ple tests  for  the  presence  of  the  adulter- 
ants of  ground  coffee.  These  are  called 
simple  because  they  can  be  performed 
without  the  facilities  of  the  chemical 
laboratory,  and  by  one  who  has  not  had 
the  experience  and  training  of  a  chemist. 
It  must  be  understood  that  they  require 
careful  observation  and  study,  and  that 
one  must  perform  them  repeatedly  in 
order  to  obtain  reliable  results.  Before 
applying  them  to  the  examination  of  an 
unknown  sample,  samples  of  known 
character  should  be  secured  and  studied. 
Unground  coffee  may  be  ground  in  the 
home  and  mixed  with  various  kinds  of 
adulterants,  which  can  also  be  secured 
separately.  Thus  the  articles  themselves 
in  known  mixtures  may  be  studied,  and 
when  the  same  results  are  obtained  with 
unknown  samples  they  can  be  correctly 
interpreted.  These  tests  are  well  known 
in  the  laboratory  and  may  be  used  in  the 
home  of  the  careful  housewife  who  has 
the  time  and  perseverance  to  master 
them. 

Physical  Tests.— The  difference  be- 
tween the  genuine  ground  coffee  and  the 
adulterated  article  can  often  be  detected 
by  simple  inspection  with  the  naked  eye. 
This  is  particularly  true  if  the  product 
be  coarsely  crushed  rather  than  finely 
ground.  In  such  condition  pure  coffee 
has  a  quite  uniform  appearance,  whereas 
the  mixtures  of  peas,  beans,  cereals, 
chicory,  etc.,  often  disclose  their  hetero- 
geneous nature  to  the  careful  observer. 
This  is  particularly  true  if  a  magnifying 
glass  be  employed.  The  different  arti- 
cles composing  the  mixture  may  then  be 
separated  by  the  point  of  a  pen-knife. 
The  dark,  gummy-looking  chicory  par- 
ticles stand  out  in  strong  contrast  to  the 
other  substances  used,  and  their  nature 
can  be  determined  by  one  who  is  familiar 
with  them  by  their  astringent  taste. 

The  appearance  of  the  coffee  particles 
is  also  quite  distinct  from  that  of  many 
of  the  coffee  substitutes  employed.  The 
coffee  has  a  dull  surface,  whereas  some 
of  its  substitutes,  especially  leguminous 
products,  often  present  the  appearance 
of  having  a  polished  surface. 

After  a  careful  inspection  of  the  sample 
with  the  naked  eye,  or,  better,  with  a 
magnifying  glass,  a  portion  of  it  may  be 
placed  in  a  small  bottle  half  full  of  water 
and  shaken.  The  bottle  is  then  placed 


on  the  table  for  a  moment.  Pure  coffee 
contains  a  large  amount  of  oil,  by  reason 
of  which  the  greater  portion  of  the  sample 
will  float.  All  coffee  substitutes  and 
some  particles  of  coffee  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  liquid.  A  fair  idea  of  the 
purity  of  the  sample  can  often  be  deter- 
mined by  the  proportion  of  the  sample 
which  floats  or  sinks. 

Chicory  contains  a  substance  which 
dissolves  in  water,  imparting  a  brownish- 
red  color.  When  the  suspected  sample 
is  dropped  into  a  glass  of  water,  the 
grains  of  chicory  which  it  contains  may 
be  seen  slowly  sinking  to  the  bottom, 
leaving  a  train  of  a  dark-brown  colored 
liquid  behind  them.  This  test  appears 
to  lead  to  more  errors  in  the  hands  of 
inexperienced  operators  than  any  other 
test  here  given.  Wrong  conclusions 
may  be  avoided  by  working  first  with 
known  samples  of  coffee  and  chicory  as 
suggested  above. 

Many  coffee  substitutes  are  now  sold 
as  such  and  are  advertised  as  more 
wholesome  than  coffee.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  claims  that  are  made  for  them, 
a  few  of  them  contain  a  considerable  per- 
centage of  coffee.  This  may  be  deter- 
mined by  shaking  a  teaspoon! ul  in  a  bot- 
tle half  full  of  water,  as  described  above. 
The  bottle  must  be  thoroughly  shaken 
so  as  to  wet  every  particle  of  the  sample. 
Few  particles  of  coffee  substitutes  will 
float. 

Chemical  Tests. — Coffee  contains  no 
starch,  while  all  of  the  substances,  ex- 
cept chicory,  used  for  its  adulteration 
and  in  the  preparation  of  coffee  substi- 
tutes contain  a  considerable  amount  of 
starch.  The  presence  of  such  substi- 
tutes may,  therefore,  be  detected  by 
applying  the  test  for  starch.  In  making 
this  test  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  ground  coffee  should  be  used,  or  a 
portion  of  the  ordinary  infusion  pre- 
pared for  the  table  may  be  employed 
after  dilution.  The  amount  of  water 
that  should  be  added  can  only  be  de- 
termined by  experience. 

Condimental  Sauces. — Tomato  catsup 
and  other  condimental  sauces  are  fre- 
quently preserved  and  colored  artifi- 
cially. The  preservatives  employed  are 
usually  salicylic  acid  and  benzoic  acid 
or  their  sodium  salts.  These  products 
may  be  detected  by  the  methods  given. 
•Coal-tar  colors  are  frequently  em- 
ployed with  this  class  of  goods,  espe- 
cially with  those  of  a  reddish  tint,  like 
tomato  catsup.  They  may  be  detected 
by  the  methods  given. 


354 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


DAIRY  PRODUCTS: 

Butter. — Methods  are  available  which, 
with  a  little  practice,  may  be  employed 
to  distinguish  between  fresh  butter, 
renovated  or  process  butter,  and  oleo- 
margarine. 

These  methods  are  commonly  used  in 
food  and  dairy  laboratories.  They  give 
reliable  results.  At  the  same  time  con- 
siderable practice  is  necessary  before  we 
can  interpret  correctly  the  results  ob- 
tained. Some  process  butters  are  on 
the  market  which  can  be  distinguished 
from  fresh  butter  only  with  extreme 
difficulty.  During  the  last  few  years 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  attempt  to  renovate  butter  in  such  a 
way  that  it  will  appear  like  fresh  butter  in 
all  respects.  A  study  must  be  made  of 
these  methods  if  we  would  obtain  reliable 
results. 

The  "spoon"  test  has  been  suggested 
as  a  household  test,  and  is  commonly 
used  by  analytical  chemists  for  distin- 
guishing fresh  butter  from  renovated 
butter  and  oleomargarine.  A  lump  of 
butter,  2  or  3  times  the  size  of  a  pea,  is 
placed  in  a  large  spoon  and  heated  over 
an  alcohol  or  Bunsen  burner.  If  more 
convenient  the  spoon  may  be  held  above 
the  chimney  of  an  ordinary  kerosene 
lamp,  or  it  may  even  be  held  over  an 
ordinary  illuminating  gas  burner.  If 
the  sample  in  question  be  fresh  butter  it 
will  boil  quietly,  with  the  evolution  of 
many  small  bubbles  throughout  the  mass 
which  produce  a  large  amount  of  foam. 
Oleomargarine  and  process  butter,  on 
the  other  hand,  sputter  and  crackle, 
making  a  noise  similar  to  that  heard 
when  a  green  stick  is  placed  in  a  fire. 
Another  point  of  distinction  is  noted  if  a 
small  portion  of  the  sample  be  placed  in 
a  small  bottle  and  set  in  a  vessel  of  water 
sufficiently  warm  to  melt  the  butter. 
The  sample  is  kept  melted  from  half  an 
hour  to  an  hour,  when  it  is  examined. 
If  renovated  butter  or  oleomargarine, 
the  fat  will  be  turbid,  while  if  genuine 
fresh  butter  the  fat  will  almost  certainly 
be  entirely  clear. 

To  manipulate  what  is  known  as  the 
"Waterhouse"  or  "milk"  test,  about  2 
ounces  of  sweet  milk  are  placed  in  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle,  which  is  set  in  a 
vessel  of  boiling  water.  When  the  milk 
is  thoroughly  heated,  a  teaspoonful  of 
butter  is  added,  and  the  mixture  stirred 
with  a  splinter  of  wood  until  the  fat  is 
melted.  The  bottle  is  then  placed  in  a 
dish  of  ice  water  and  the  stirring  con- 
tinued until  the  fat  solidifies.  If  the 
sample  be  butter,  either  fresh  or  reno- 
vated, it  will  be  solidified  in  a  granular 


condition  and  distributed  through  the 
milk  in  small  particles.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  sample  consist  of  oleomar- 
garine it  solidifies  practically  in  one  piece 
and  may  be  lifted  by  the  stirrer  from  the 
milk. 

By  these  two  tests,  the  first  of  which 
distinguishes  fresh  butter  from  process 
or  renovated  butter  and  oleomargarine, 
and  the  second  of  which  distinguishes 
oleomargarine  from  either  fresh  butter  or 
renovated  butter,  the  nature  of  the  sample 
under  examination  may  be  determined. 

Milk. — The  oldest  and  simplest  method 
of  adulterating  milk  is  by  dilution  with 
water.  This  destroys  the  natural  yellow- 
ish-white color  and  produces  a  bluish 
tint,  which  is  sometimes  corrected  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  coloring 
matter. 

Another  form  of  adulteration  is  the 
removal  of  the  cream  and  the  sale  as 
whole  milk  of  skimmed  or  partially 
skimmed  milk.  Again,  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  the  preservation  of  milk 
in  warm  weather  has  led  to  the  wide- 
spread use  of  chemical  preservatives. 

Detection  of  Water. — If  a  lactometer 
or  hydrometer,  which  can  be  obtained  of 
dealers  in  chemical  apparatus,  be  avail- 
able, the  specific  gravity  of  milk  will 
afford  some  clew  as  to  whether  the  sam- 
ple has  been  adulterated  by  dilution  with 
water.  Whole  milk  has  a  specific  grav- 
ity between  1.027  and  1.033.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  of  skimmed  milk  is  higher, 
and  milk  very  rich  in  cream  is  some-i 
times  lower  than  these  figures.  It  is 
understood,  of  course,  that  by  specific 
gravity  is  meant  the  weight  of  a  substance 
with  reference  to  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  water.  The  specific  gravity 
of  water  is  1.  It  is  obvious  that  if  water 
be  added  to  a  milk  with  the  specific 
gravity  of  1.030,  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  mixture  will  be  somewhat  below 
those  figures. 

An  indication  by  means  of  a  hydrom- 
eter or  lactometer  below  the  figure  1.027 
therefore  indicates  either  that  the  sample 
in  question  is  a  very  rich  milk  or  that 
it  is  a  milk  (perhaps  normal,  perhaps 
skimmed)  that  has  been  watered.  The 
difference  in  appearance  and  nature  of 
these  two  extremes  is  sufficiently  obvious 
to  make  use  of  the  lactometer  or  hydrom- 
eter of  value  as  a  preliminary  test  of  the 
purity  of  milk. 

Detection  of  Color.  —  As  previously 
stated,  when  milk  is  diluted  by  means  of 
water  the  natural  yellowish-white  color 
is  changed  to  a  bluish  tint,  which  is 
sometimes  corrected  by  the  addition 


J?OOD   ADULTERANTS 


355 


of  coloring  matter.  Coal-tar  colors  are 
usually  employed  for  this  purpose.  A 
reaction  for  these  colors  is  often  obtained 
in  the  method  given  below  for  the  detec- 
tion of  formaldehyde.  When  strong 
hydrochloric  acid  is  added  to  the  milk  in 
approximately  equal  proportions  before 
the  mixture  is  heated  a  pink  tinge  some- 
times is  evident  if  a  coal-tar  color  has 
been  added. 

Detection  of  Formaldehyde. — Formal- 
dehyde is  the  substance  most  commonly 
used  for  preserving  milk  and  is  rarely,  if 
ever,  added  to  any  other  food.  Its  use 
is  inexcusable  and  especially  objection- 
able in  milk  served  to  infants  and  in- 
valids. 

To  detect  formaldehyde  in  milk  3  or 
4  tablespoonfuls  of  the  sample  are  placed 
in  a  teacup  with  at  least  an  equal  amount 
of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  a  piece 
of  ferric  alum  about  as  large  as  a  pin- 
head,  the  liquids  being  mixed  by  a  gentle 
rotary  motion.  The  cup  is  then  placed 
in  a  vessel  of  boiling  water,  no  further 
heat  being  applied,  and  left  for  5  min- 
utes. At  the  end  of  this  time,  if  formal- 
dehyde be  present,  the  mixture  will  be 
distinctly  purple.  If  too  much  heat  is 
applied,  a  muddy  appearance  is  imparted 
to  the  contents  of  the  cup. 

Caution. — Great  care  must  be  exercised  in 
working  with  hydrochloric  acid,  as  it  is 
strongly  corrosive. 

Edible  Oils.— With  the  exception  of 
cottonseed  oil,  the  adulterants  ordi- 
narily used  with  edible  oils  are  of  such 
a  nature  that  the  experience  of  a  chemist 
and  the  facilities  of  a  chemical  labora- 
tory are  essential  to  their  detection. 
There  is,  however,  a  simple  test  for  the 
detection  of  cottonseed  oil,  known  as  the 
Halphen  test,  which  may  be  readily 
applied. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  manip- 
ulation of  this  test,  as  one  of  the  reagents 
employed — carbon  bisulphide — is  very 
inflammable.  The  chemicals  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  the  reagent  used 
for  this  test  are  not  household  articles. 
They  may,  however,  be  obtained  in  any 
pharmacy.  The  mixture  should  be  pre- 
pared by  a  druggist  rather  than  by  an  in- 
experienced person  who  desires  to  use  it. 

In  order  to  perform  the  test  2  or  3 
tablespoonfuls  of  this  reagent  are  mixed 
in  a  bottle  with  an  equal  volume  of  the 
suspected  sample  of  oil  and  heated  in  a 
vessel  of  boiling  salt  solution  (prepared 
by  dissolving  1  tablespoonful  of  salt  in  a 
pint  of  water)  for  10  or  15  minutes.  At 
the  end  of  that  time,  if  even  a  small  per- 
centage of  cottonseed  oil  be  present,  the 


mixture  will  be  of  a  distinct  reddish  color, 
and  if  the  sample  consists  largely  or 
entirely  of  cottonseed  oil,  the  color  will 
be  deep  red. 

Eggs-— There  is  no  better  method  for 
the  testing  of  the  freshness  of  an  egg 
than  the  familiar  one  of  "candling," 
which  has  long  been  practiced  by  dealers. 
The  room  is  darkened  and  the  egg  held 
between  the  eye  and  a  light;  the  presence 
of  dark  spots  indicates  that  the  egg  is  not 
perfectly  fresh,  one  that  is  fresh  present- 
ing a  homogeneous,  translucent  appear- 
ance. Moreover,  there  is  found  in  the 
larger  end  of  a  fresh  egg,  between  the 
shell  and  the  lining  membrane,  a  small 
air  cell  which,  of  course,  is  distinctly 
transparent.  In  an  egg  which  is  not 
perfectly  fresh  this  space  is  filled  and 
hence  presents  the  same  appearance  as 
the  rest  of  the  egg. 

It  is  now  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance  to  be  able  to  distinguish 
between  fresh  eggs  and  those  that  have 
been  packed  for  a  considerable  time. 
Until  recently  that  was  not  a  difficult 
matter.  All  of  the  solutions  that  were 
formerly  extensively  used  for  that  pur- 
pose gave  the  shell  a  smooth,  glistening 
appearance  which  is  not  found  in  the 
fresh  egg.  This  characteristic,  how- 
ever, is  of  less  value  now  than  formerly, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  packed  eggs  are 
usually  preserved  in  cold  storage. 
There  is  now  no  means  by  which  a  fresh 
egg  can  be  distinguished  from  a  packed 
egg  without  breaking  it.  Usually  in  eggs 
that  have  been  packed  for  a  considerable 
time  the  white  and  yolk  slightly  inter- 
mingle along  the  point  of  contact,  and 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  separate  them. 
Packed  eggs  also  have  a  tendency  to 
adhere  to  the  shell  on  one  side  and  when 
opened  frequently  have  a  musty  odor. 

FLAVORING   EXTRACTS. 

Although  a  large  number  of  flavoring 
extracts  are  on  the  market,  vanilla  and 
lemon  extracts  are  used  so  much  more 
commonly  than  other  flavors  that  a 
knowledge  of  their  purity  is  of  the 
greatest  importance.  Only  methods  for 
the  examination  of  those  two  products 
will  be  considered. 

Vanilla  Extract. — Vanilla  extract  is 
made  by  extracting  vanilla  beans  with 
alcohol.  It  consists  of  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  vanillin  (the  characteristic 
flavoring  matter  of  the  vanilla  bean)  and 
several  other  products,  chiefly  rosins, 
which,  though  present  in  but  small 
amount  and  having  only  a  slight  flavor 
in  themselves,  yet  affect  very  materially 


356 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


the  flavor  of  the  product.  Vanilla  ex- 
tract is  sometimes  adulterated  with  the 
extract  of  the  Tonka  bean.  This  extract, 
to  a  certain  extent,  resembles  vanilla 
extract.  The  extract  of  the  Tonka  bean, 
however,  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the 
vanilla  bean.  It  has  a  relatively  pene- 
trating, almost  pungent  odor,  standing 
in  sharp  contrast  to  the  flavor  of  the 
vanilla  extract.  This  odor  is  so  different 
that  one  who  has  given  the  matter  some 
attention  may  readily  distinguish  the 
two,  and  the  quality  of  the  vanilla  ex- 
tract may  often  be  judged  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy  by  means  of  the  odor 
alone. 

Another  form  of  adulteration,  and  one 
that  is  now  quite  prevalent,  is  the  use  of 
artificial  vanillin  in  place  of  the  extract 
of  either  vanilla  or  Tonka  beans.  Arti- 
ficial vanillin  has,  of  course,  the  same 
composition  and  characteristics  as  the 
natural  vanillin  of  the  vanilla  bean. 
Extracts  made  from  it,  however,  are 
deficient  in  the  rosins  and  other  products 
which  are  just  as  essential  to  the  true 
vanilla,  as  is  vanillin  itself.  Since 
vanillin  is  thus  obtained  from  another 
source  so  readily,  methods  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  purity  of  vanilla  extract 
must  depend  upon  the  presence  of  other 
substances  than  vanillin. 

Detection  of  Caramel. — The  coloring 
matter  of  vanilla  extract  is  due  to  sub- 
stances naturally  present  in  the  vanilla 
bean  and  extracted  therefrom  by  alcohol. 
Artificial  extracts  made  by  dissolving 
artificial  vanillin  in  alcohol  contain  no 
color  of  themselves*  and  to  supply  it 
caramel  is  commonly  employed.  Cara- 
mel may  be  detected  in  artificial  extracts 
by  shaking  and  observing  the  color  of 
the  resulting  foam  after  a  moment's 
standing.  The  foam  of  pure  extracts  is 
colorless.  If  caramel  is  present  a  color 
persists  at  the  points  of  contact  between 
the  bubbles  until  the  last  bubble  has 
disappeared.  The  test  with  fuller's 
earth  given  for  caramel  in  vinegar  is 
also  very  satisfactory,  but  of  course  re- 
quires the  loss  of  the  sample  used  for  the 
test. 

Examination  of  the  Rosin. —  If  pure 
vanilla  extract  be  evaporated  to  about 
one-third  its  volume  the  rosins  become 
insoluble  and  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the 
dish.  Artificial  extracts  remain  clear 
under  the  same  conditions.  In  exam- 
ining vanilla  extract  the  character  of 
these  rosins  is  studied.  For  this  purpose 
a  dish  containing  about  an  ounce  of  the 
extract  is  placed  on  a  teakettle  or  other 
vessel  of  boiling  water  until  the  liquid 


evaporates  to  about  one-third  or  less  of 
its  volume.  Owing  to  the  evaporation 
of  the  alcohol  the  rosins  will  then  be  in- 
soluble. Water  may  be  added  to  restore 
the  liquid  to  approximately  its  original 
volume.  The  rosin  will  then  separate 
out  as  a  brown  flocculent  precipitate.  A 
few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  may  be 
added  and  the  liquid  stirred  and  the 
insoluble  matter  allowed  to  settle.  It  is 
then  filtered  and  the  rosin  011  the  filter 
paper  washed  with  water.  The  rosin  is 
then  dissolved  in  a  little  alcohol,  and  to  1 
portion  of  this  solution  is  added  a  small 
particle  of  ferric  alum,  and  to  another 
portion  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
If  the  rosin  be  that  of  the  vanilla  bean, 
neither  ferric  alum  nor  hydrochloric  acid 
will  produce  more  than  a  slight  change 
of  color.  With  rosins  from  most  other 
sources,  however,  one  or  both  of  these 
substances  yield  a  distinct  color  change. 
For  filtering,  a  piece  of  filter  paper 
should  be  folded  once  through  the  middle 
and  again  at  right  angles  to  the  first  fold. 
It  may  now  be  opened  with  one  fold  on 
one  side  and  three  on  the  other  and  fitted 
into  a  glass  funnel.  When  the  paper  is 
folded  in  this  manner  the  precipitated 
rosins  may  be  readily  washed  with  water. 
When  the  washing  is  completed  the 
rosins  may  be  dissolved  by  pouring  alco- 
hol through  the  filter.  This  work  with 
the  rosins  will  require  some  practice  be- 
fore it  can  be  successfully  performed.  It 
is  of  considerable  value,  however,  in 
judging  of  the  purity  of  vanilla  extract. 

Lemon  Extract. — By  lemon  extract  is 
understood  a  solution  of  lemon  oil  in 
strong  alcohol.  In  order  to  contain  as 
much  lemon  oil  as  is  supposed  to  be 
found  in  high-grade  extracts  the  alcohol 
should  constitute  about  80  per  cent  of 
the  sample.  The  alcohol  is  therefore 
the  most  valuable  constituent  of  lemon 
extract,  and  manufacturers  who  turn  out 
a  low-grade  product  usually  do  so  be- 
cause of  their  economy  of  alcohol  rather 
than  of  lemon  oil.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  lemon  extract  is  practically  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  oil  of  lemon  in  strong 
alcohol  the  sample  may  be  examined  by 
simple  dilution  with  water.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  the  oil  in  question  may  be 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  an  ordinary 
glass  tumbler  and  2  or  3  teaspoonfuls  of 
water  added.  If  the  sample  in  question 
be  real  lemon  extract  tne  lemon  oil 
should  be  thrown  put  of  solution  by  rea- 
son of  its  insolubility  in  the  alcohol  after 
its  dilution  with  water.  The  result  is  at 
first  a  marked  turbidity  and  later  the 
separation  of  the  oil  of  lemon  on  the  top 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


357 


of  the  aqueous  liquid.  If  the  sample 
remains  perfectly  clear  after  the  addition 
of  water,  or  if  a  marked  turbidity  is  not 
produced,  it  is  a  low-grade  product  and 
contains  very  little,  if  any,  oil  of  lemon. 

Fruit  Products. — Adulteration  of  fruit 
products  is  practically  confined  to  jellies 
and  jams.  Contrary  to  the  general 
belief,  gelatin  is  never  used  in  making 
fruit  jelly.  In  the  manufacture  of  the 
very  cheapest  grade  of  jellies  starch  is 
sometimes  employed.  Jellies  contain- 
ing starch,  however,  are  so  crude  in  their 
appearance  that  the  most  superficial 
inspection  is  sufficient  to  demonstrate 
that  they  are  not  pure  fruit  jellies.  From 
their  appearance  no  one  would  think  it 
worth  while  to  examine  them  to  deter- 
mine their  purity. 

Natural  fruit  jellies  become  liquid  on 
being  warmed.  A  spoonful  dissolves 
readily  in  warm  water,  although  con- 
siderable time  is  required  with  those 
that  are  especially  firm.  The  small 
fruits  contain  practically  no  starch,  as 
apples  do,  and  the  presence  of  starch  in 
a  jelly  indicates  that  some  apple  juice 
has  probably  been  used  in  its  prepara- 
tion. 

Detection  of  Starch. — Dissolve  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  jelly  in  a  half  teacupful  of 
hot  water,  heat  to  boiling  and  add,  drop 
by  drop,  while  stirring  with  a  teaspoon,  a 
solution  of  potassium  permanganate 
until  the  solution  is  almost  colorless. 
Then  allow  the  solution  to  cool  and  test 
for  starch  with  tincture  of  iodine,  as 
directed  later.  Artificially  colored  jel- 
lies are  sometimes  not  decolorized  by 
potassium  permanganate.  Even  without 
decolorizing,  however,  the  blue  color  can 
usually  be  seen. 

Detection  of  Glucose. — For  the  detec- 
tion of  glucose,  a  teaspoonful  of  the  jelly 
may  be  dissolved  in.  a  glass  tumbler  or 
bottle  in  2  or  3  tablespoonfuls  of  water. 
The  vessel  in  which  the  jelly  is  dissolved 
may  be  placed  in  hot  water  if  necessary 
to  hasten  the  solution.  In  case  a  jam  or 
marmalade  is  being  examined,  the  mix- 
ture is  filtered  to  separate  the  insoluble 
matter.  The  solution  is  allowed  to  cool, 
and  an  equal  volume  or  a  little  more  of 
strong  alcohol  is  added.  If  the  sample  is 
a  pure  fruit  product  the  addition  of 
alcohol  causes  no  precipitation,  except 
that  a  very  slight  amount  of  proteid 
bodies  is  thrown  down.  If  glucose  has 
been  employed  in  its  manufacture,  how- 
ever, a  dense  white  precipitate  separates 
and,  after  a  time,  settles  to  the  bottom  of 
the  liquid. 


Detection  of  Foreign  Seeds. — In  addi- 
tion to  the  forms  of  adulteration  to 
which  jellies  are  subject,  jams  are  some 
times  manufactured  from  the  exhausted 
fruit  pulp  left  after  removing  the  juice 
for  making  jelly.  When  this  is  done 
residues  from  different  fruits  are  some- 
times mixed.  Exhausted  raspberry  or 
blackberry  pulp  may  be  used  in  making 
"strawberry"  jam  and  vice  versa.  Some 
instances  are  reported  of  various  small 
seeds,  such  as  timothy,  clover,  and 
alfalfa  seed,  having  been  used  with  jams 
made  from  seedless  pulp. 

With  the  aid  of  a  small  magnifying 
glass  such  forms  of  adulteration  may 
be  detected,  the  observer  familiarizing 
himself  with  the  seeds  of  the  ordinary 
fruits. 

Detection  of  Preservatives  and  Colors. 
— With  jellies  and  jams  salicylic  and 
benzoic  acids  are  sometimes  employed. 
They  may  be  detected  by  the  methods 
given. 

Artificial  colors,  usually  coal-tar  deriva- 
tives, are  sometimes  used  and  may  be 
detected  as  described. 

Meat  Products. — As  in  many  other 
classes  of  foods,  certain  questions  im- 
portant in  the  judgment  of  meats  require 
practical  experience  and  close  observa- 
tion rather  than  chemical  training.  This 
is  especially  true  of  meat  products.  The 
general  appearance  of  the  meat  must 
largely  guide  the  purchaser.  If,  how- 
ever, the  meat  has  been  treated  with  pre- 
servatives and  coloring  matter  its  appear- 
ance is  so  changed  as  to  deceive  him. 
The  preservatives  employed  with  meat 
products  are  boric  acid,  borax,  and  sul- 
phites. The  methods  for  the  detection  of 
sulphites  are  not  suitable  for  household 
use. 

Detection  of  Boric  Acid  and  Borax. — 
To  detect  boric  acid  (if  borax  has  been 
used  the  same  reaction  will  be  obtained), 
about  a  tablespoonful  of  the  chopped 
meat  is  thoroughly  macerated  with  a 
little  hot  water,  pressed  through  a  bag, 
and  2  or  3  tablespoonfuls  of  the  liquid 
placed  in  a  sauce  dish  with  15  or  20 
drops  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  for 
each  tablespoonful.  The  liquid  is  then 
filtered  through  filter  paper,  and  a  piece 
of  turmeric  paper  dipped  into  it  and 
dried  near  a  lamp  or  stove.  If  boric 
acid  or  borax  were  used  for  preserv- 
ing the  sample,  the  turmeric  paper 
should  be  changed  to  a  bright  cherry- 
red  color.  If  too  much  hydrochloric 
acid  has  been  employed  a  dirty  brown- 
ish-red color  is  obtained,  which  interferes 
with  the  color  due  to  the  presence  of 


358 


FOOD    ADULTERANTS 


boric  acid.  When  a  drop  of  household 
ammonia  is  added  to  the  colored  turmeric 
paper,  it  is  turned  a  dark  green,  almost 
black  color,  if  boric  acid  is  present.  If 
the  reddish  color,  however,  was  caused 
by  the  use  of  too  much  hydrochloric  acid 
this  green  color  does  not  form. 

Caution. — The  corrosive  nature  of 
hydrochloric  acid  must  not  be  forgotten. 
It  must  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  flesh, 
clothes,  or  any  metal. 

Detection  of  Colors. — The  detection  of 
coloring  matter  in  sausage  is  often  a  diffi- 
cult matter  without  the  use  of  a  com- 
pound microscope.  It  may  sometimes 
be  separated,  however,  by  macerating 
the  meat  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  glycerine  and  water  to  which  a  few 
drop;*  of  acetic  or  hydrochloric  acid  have 
been  added.  After  macerating  for  some 
time  the  mixture  is  filtered  and  the  color- 
ing matter  detected  by  means  of  dyeing 
wool  in  the  liquid  thus  obtained. 

Spices. — Although  ground  spices  are 
very  frequently  adulterated,  there  are 
few  methods  that  may  be  used  by  one 
who  has  "not  had  chemical  training,  and 
who  is  not  skilled  in  the  use  of  a  com- 
pound microscope,  for  the  detection  of 
the  adulterants  employed.  The  major- 
ity of  the  substances  used  for  the  adul- 
teration of  spices  are  of  a  starchy  char- 
acter. Unfortunately  for  our  purposes, 
most  of  the  common  spices  also  contain 
a  considerable  amount  of  starch.  Cloves, 
mustard,  and  cayenne,  however,  are  prac- 
tically free  from  starch,  and  the  presence 
of  starch  in  the  ground  article  is  proof  of 
adulteration. 

Detection  of  Starch  in  Cloves,  Mustard, 
and  Cayenne. — A  half  teaspoonful  of  the 
spice  in  question  is  stirred  into  half  a 
cupful  of  boiling  water,  and  the  boiling 
continued  for  2  or  3  minutes.  The  mix- 
ture is  then  cooled.  If  of  a  dark  color, 
it  is  diluted  with  a  sufficient  amount  of 
water  to  reduce  the  color  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  reaction  formed  by  starch 
and  iodine  may  be  clearly  apparent  if 
starch  be  present.  The  amount  of  dilu- 
tion can  only  be  determined  by  practice, 
but  usually  the  liquid  must  be  diluted 
with  an  equal  volume  of  water,  or  only 
^  of  a  teaspoonful  of  the  sample  may  be 
employed  originally.  A  single  drop  of 
tincture  of  iodine  is  now  added.  If  starch 
is  present,  a  deep  blue  color,  which  in  the 
presence  of  a  large  amount  of  starch  ap- 
pears black,  is  formed.  If  no  blue  color 
appears,  the  addition  of  the  iodine  tinct- 
ure should  be  continued,  drop  by  drop, 
until  the  liquid  shows  by  its  color  the 
presence  of  iodine  in  solution. 


Detection  of  Colors. — Spice  substitutes 
are  sometimes  colored  with  coal-tar 
colors.  These,  products  may  be  detected 
by  the  methods  given. 

Vinegar. — A  person  thoroughly  famil- 
iar with  vinegar  can  tell  much  regarding 
the  source  of  the  article  from  its  appear- 
ance, color,  odor,  and  taste. 

If  a  glass  be  rinsed  out  with  the  sample 
of  vinegar  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a 
number  of  hours  or  overnight,  the  odor 
of  the  residue  remaining  in  the  glass  is 
quite  different  with  different  kinds  of 
vinegar.  Thus,  wine  vinegar  has  the 
odor  characteristic  of  wine,  and  cider 
vinegar  has  a  peculiar  fruity  odor.  A 
small  amount  of  practice  with  this  test 
enables  one  to  distinguish  with  a  high 
degree  of  accuracy  between  wine  and 
cider  vinegars  and  the  ordinary  substi- 
tutes. 

If  a  sample  of  vinegar  be  placed  in  a 
shallow  dish  on  a  warm  stove  or  boiling 
teakettle  and  heated  to  a  temperature 
sufficient  for  evaporation  and  not  suffi- 
cient to  burn  the  residue,  the  odor  of  the 
warm  residue  is  also  characteristic  of  the 
different  kinds  of  vinegar.  Thus,  the 
residue  from  cider  vinegar  has  the  odor 
of  baked  apples  and  the  flavor  is  acid 
and  somewhat  astringent  in  taste,  and 
that  from  wine  vinegar  is  equally  char- 
acteristic. The  residue  obtained  by 
evaporating  vinegar  made  from  sugar- 
house  products  and  from  spirit  and  wood 
vinegar  colored  by  means  of  caramel 
has  the  peculiar  bitter  taste  character- 
istic of  caramel. 

If  the  residue  be  heated  until  it  begins 
to  burn,  the  odor  of  the  burning  product 
also  varies  with  different  kinds  of  vine- 
gar. Thus,  the  residue  from  cider 
vinegar  has  the  odor  of  scorched  apples, 
while  that  of  vinegars  made  from  sugar- 
house  wastes  and  of  distilled  and  wood 
vinegars  colored  with  a  large  amount  of 
caramel  has  the  odor  of  burnt  sugar.  In 
noting  these  characteristics,  however,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  order  to 
make  them  conform  to  these  tests,  dis- 
tilled and  wood  vinegars  often  receive 
the  addition  of  apple  jelly. 

The  cheaper  forms  of  vinegar,  espe- 
cially distilled  and  wood  vinegar,  are 
commonly  colored  with  caramel,  which 
can  be  detected  by  the  method  given. 

FOOD  COLORANTS. 

(Most,  if  not  all,  of  these  colorants  are 
injurious  and  should  therefore  be  used 
with  extreme  caution.) 

Sausage  Color. — To  dye  sausage  red, 
certain  tar  dyestuffs  are  employed, 


FOOD   ADULTERANTS 


359 


especially  the  azo  dyes,  preference  being 
given  to  the  so-called  genuine  red.  For 
this  purpose  about  100  parts  of  dyestuff 
are  dissolved  in  1,000  to  2,000  parts  of 
hot  water;  when  the  solution  is  com- 
plete, add  a  likewise  hot  solution  of  45  to 
50  parts  of  boracic  acid,  whereupon  the 
mixture  should  be  stirred  well  for  some 
time;  then  filter,  allow  to  cool,  and  pre- 
serve in  tightly  closing  bottles.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  in  using  aniline 
colors  to  add  a  disinfectant  to  the  dye- 
stuff  solution,  the  object  of  which  is,  in 
case  the  sausage  should  commence  to 
decompose,  to  prevent  the  decomposition 
azo  dyestuff  by  the  disengaged  hydrogen. 
Instead  of  boracic  acid,  formalin  may 
be  used  as  a  disinfectant.  Of  this 
formalin,  38  per  cent,  add  about  25  to 
30  parts  to  the  cooled  and  filtered  dye- 
stuff  solution.  This  sausage  color  is 
used  by  adding  about  1  ^  to  2  tablespoon- 
f  uls  of  it  to  the  preserving  salt  measured 
out  for  100  kilos  of  sausage  mass,  stirring 
well.  The  sausage  turns  neither  gray  nor 
yellow  on  storing. 

Cheese  Color. — I. — To  produce  a  suit- 
able, pretty  yellow  color,  boil  100  parts 
of  orlean  or  annatto  with  75  parts  of 
potassium  carbonate  in  li  to  2  liters  of 
water,  allow  to  cool,  and  filter  after  set- 
tling, whereupon  15  to  18  parts  of  boracic 
acid  are  added  to  give  keeping  qualities 
to  the  solution.  According  to  another 
method,  digest  about  200  parts  of  or- 
lean. 200  parts  of  potassium  carbonate, 
and  100  parts  of  turmeric  for  10  to  12 
days  in  1,500  to  2,000  parts  of  60  per 
cent  alcohol,  filter,  and  keep  in  bottles. 
To  100,000  parts  of  milk  to  be  made  into 
cheese  add  1  ^  to  2  small  spoonfuls  of 
this  dye,  which  imparts  to  the  cheese  a 
permanent  and  natural  yellow  appear- 
ance. 

II. — To  obtain  a  handsome  yellow 
color  for  cheese,  such  as  is  demanded  for 
certain  sorts,  boil  together  100  parts  of 
annatto  and  75  parts  of  potassium  car- 
bonate in  from  1,500  to  2,000  parts  of 
pure  water;  let  it  cool,  stand  it  aside  for  a 
time,  and  filter,  adding  finally  from  12  to 
15  parts  of  boracic  acid  as  a  preservative. 
For  coloring  butter,  there  is  in  the  trade 
a  mixture  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  with  12 
per  cent  to  15  per  cent  of  sodium  chlo- 
ride, to  which  is  added  from  1J  per  cent 
to  2  per  cent  of  powdered  turmeric. 

Butter  Color. — For  the  coloring  of 
butter  there  is  in  the  market  under  the 
name  of  butter  powder  a  mixture  of 
sodium  bicarbonate  with  12  to  15  per 
cent  of  sodium  chloride  and  1^  to  2  per 
cent  of  powdered  turmeric;  also  a  mix- 


ture of  sodium  bicarbonate,  1,50'0  parts; 
saffron  surrogate,  8  parts;  and  salicylic 
acid,  2  parts.  For  the  preparation  of 
liquid  butter  color  use  a  uniform  solution 
of  olive  oil,  1,500  parts;  powdered  tur- 
meric, 300  parts;  orlean,  200  parts.  The 
orlean  is  applied  on  a  plate  of  glass  or 
tin  in  a  thin  layer  and  allowed  to  dry 
perfectly,  whereupon  it  is  ground  very 
fine  and  intimately  mixed  with  the 
powdered  turmeric.  This  mixture  is 
stirred  into  the  oil  with  digestion  for 
several  hours  in  the  water  bath.  When 
a  uniform,  liquid  mass  has  resulted,  it  is 
filtered  hot  through  a  linen  filter  with 
wide  meshes.  After  cooling,  the  fil- 
trate is  filled  into  bottles.  Fifty  to  60 
drops  of  this  liquid  color  to  1|  kilos  of 
butter  impart  to  the  latter  a  handsome 
golden  yellow  shade. 

INFANT  FOODS: 

Infants'  (Malted)  Food.— 
I. — Powdered  malt  ....      1  ounce 
Oatmeal     (finest 

ground) 2  ounces 

Sugar  of  milk 4  ounces 

Baked  flour 1  pound 

Mix  thoroughly. 

II. — Infantine  is  a  German  infant 
food  which  is  stated  to  contain  egg 
albumen,  5.5  per  cent;  fat,  0.08  per  cent; 
water,  4.22  per  cent;  carbohydrates, 
86.58  per  cent  (of  which  54.08  per  cent 
is  soluble  in  water);  and  ash,  2.81  per 
cent  (consisting  of  calcium,  10.11  per 
cent;  potassium,  2.64  per  cent;  sodium, 
25.27  per  cent;  chlorine,  36.65  per  cent; 
sulphuric  acid,  3.13  per  cent;  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  18.51  per  cent). 

MEAT  PRESERVATIVES. 

(Most  of  these  are  considered  injurious 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  should  therefore  be  used  with 
extreme  caution.) 

The  Preservation  of  Meats. — Decom- 
position of  the  meat  sets  in  as  soon  as 
the  blood  ceases  to  pulse  in  the  veins, 
and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  properly 
preserve  it  until  the  time  of  its  consump- 
tion. 

The  nature  of  preservation  must  be 
governed  by  circumstances  such  as  the 
kind  and  quality  of  the  article  to  be  pre- 
served, length  of  time  and  climatic  con- 
dition, etc.  While  salt,  vinegar,  and 
alcohol  merit  recognition  on  the  strength 
of  a  long-continued  usage  as  preserva- 
tives, modern  usage  favors  boric  acid  and 
borax,  and  solutions  containing  salicylic 
acid  and  sulphuric  acid  are  common, 


360 


FOOD   PRESERVATIVES 


and  have  been  the  subject  of  severe  criti- 
cism. 

Many  other  methods  of  preservation 
have  been  tried  with  variable  degrees  of 
success;  and  of  the  more  thoroughly 
tested  ones  the  following  probably 
include  all  of  those  deserving  more  than 
passing  mention  or  consideration. 

1.  The  exclusion  of  external,  atmos- 
pheric  electricity,    which   has   been   ob- 
served to  materially  reduce  the  decaying 
of  meat,  milk,  butter,  beer,  etc. 

2.  The  retention  of  occluded  electric 
currents.      Meats  from  various  animals 
packed  into  the  same  packages,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  conducting  medium,  such 
as  salt  and  water,  liberate  electricity. 

3.  The  removal  of  the  nerve  centers. 
Carcasses  with  the  brains  and  spinal  cord 
left  therein   will   be  found   more  prone 
to  decomposition  than  those  wherefrom 
these  organs  have  been  removed. 

4.  Desiccation.      Dried     beef     is     an 
excellent  example  of  this  method  of  pres- 
ervation.     Other    methods    coming  un- 
der this  heading  are  the  application  of 
spices  with  ethereal  oils,  various  herbs, 
coriander  seed   extracted   with   vinegar, 
etc. 

5.  Reduction    of    temperature,    i.    e., 
cold  storage. 

6.  Expulsion  of  air  from  the  meat  and 
the  containers.     Appert's,  Willaumez's, 
Redwood's,  and  Prof.  A.  Vogel's  meth- 
ods are  representative  for  this  category  of 
preservation.  Phenyl  paper,  Dr.  Busch's, 
Georges's,  and  Medlock  and  Baily's  proc- 
esses are  equally  well  known. 

7.  The    application    of    gases.      Here 
may  be  mentioned   Dr.    Gamgee's  and 
Bert  and  Reynoso's  processes,  applying 
carbon    dioxide   and    other   compressed 
gases,  respectively. 

Air-drying,  powdering  of  meat,  smok- 
ing, pickling,  sugar  or  vinegar  curing 
are  too  well  known  to  receive  any 
further  attention  here.  Whatever  proc- 
ess may  be  employed,  preference  should 
be  given  to  that  which  will  secure  the 
principal  objects  sought  for,  the  most 
satisfactory  being  at  the  same  time  not 
deleterious  to  health,  and  of  an  easily 
applicable  and  inexpensive  nature. 

To  Preserve  Beef,  etc.,  in  Hot 
Weather. — Put  the  meat  into  a  hot  oven 
and  let  it  remain  until  the  surface  is 
browned  all  over,  thus  coagulating  the 
albumen  of  the  surface  and  inclosing  the 
body  of  the  meat  in  an  impermeable  en- 
velope of  cooked  flesh.  Pour  some  melted 
lard  or  suet  into  a  jar  of  sufficient  size, 
and  roll  the  latter  around  until  the  sides 
are  evenly  coated  to  the  depth  of  half 


an  inch  with  the  material.  Put  in  the 
meat,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  touch 
the  sides  of  the  jar  (thus  scraping  away 
the  envelope  of  grease),  and  fill  up  with 
more  suet  or  lard,  being  careful  to  com- 
pletely cover  and  envelop  the  meat.  Thus 
prepared,  the  meat  will  remain  absolutely 
fresh  for  a  long  time,  even  in  the  hottest 
weather.  When  required  for  use  the 
outer  portion  may  be  left  on  or  removed. 
The  same  fat  may  be  used  over  and 
over  again  by  melting  and  retaining  in 
the  melted  state  a  few  moments  each  time, 
by  which  means  not  only  all  solid  portions 
of  the  meat  which  have  been  retained 
fall  to  the  bottom,  but  all  septic  microbes 
are  destroyed. 

Meat  Preservatives.  —  I.  —  Barmenite 
Corning  Agent:  For  every  100  parts,  by 
weight,  take  25.2  parts,  by  weight,  of 
saltpeter;  46.8  parts,  by  weight,  sodium 
chloride;  25.7  parts,  by  weight,  cane 
sugar;  0.8  parts,  by  weight,  plaster  of 
Paris  or  gypsum;  0.1  part,  by  weight, 
of  some  moistening  material,  and  a  trace 
of  magnesia. 

Il.—Carniform,  A  :  For  every  100  parts, 
by  weight,  take  3.5  parts,  by  weight, 
sodium  diphosphate;  3.1  parts,  by  weight, 
water  of  crystallization;  68.4  parts,  by 
weight,  sodium  chloride;  24.9  parts,  by 
weight,  saltpeter;  together  with  traces  of 
calcium  phosphate,  magnesia,  and  sul- 
phuric acid. 

III. — Carniform,  B:  For  every  100 
parts,  by  weight,  take  22.6  parts,  by 
weight,  sodium  diphosphate;  17.3  parts, 
by  weight,  water  of  crystallization;  59.7 
parts,  by  weight,  saltpeter;  0.6  parts,  by 
weight,  calcium  phosphate;  with  traces 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  magnesia. 

IV. — "Cervelatwurst"  (spice  powder): 
For  100  parts,  by  weight,  take  0.7  parts, 
by  weight,  of  moistening;  3.5  parts,  by 
weight,  spices — mostly  pepper;  89  parts, 
by  weight,  sodium  chloride;  5  parts,  by 
weight,  saltpeter;  0.7  parts,  by  weight, 
gypsum;  and  traces  of  magnesia. 

V. — Cervelatwurst  Salt  (spice  powder): 
For  100  parts,  by  weight,  take  7.5  parts, 
by  weight,  spices — mostly  pepper;  1.6 
parts,  by  weight,  moistener;  81.6  parts, 
by  weight,  sodium  chloride;  2.5  parts,  by 
weight,  saltpeter;  6.2  parts,  by  weight, 
cane  sugar;  and  traces  of  magnesia. 

VI. — Rubrolin  Sausage  (spice  powder): 
For  100  parts  by  weight,  take  53.5  parts, 
by  weight,  sal  ammoniac,  and  45.2  parts, 
by  weight,  of  saltpeter. 

VII.—  Servator  Special  Milk  and  But- 
ter Preserving  Salt:  80.3  per  cent  of 
crystallized  boracic  acid;  10.7  per  cent 


FOOD   PRESERVATIVES— FOOT-POWDERS 


861 


sodium  chloride;  and  9.5  per  cent  of 
benzoic  acid.  (Its  use  is,  however,  pro- 
hibited in  Germany.) 

VIII.— Wittenberg  Pickling  Salt:  For 
100  parts,  by  weight,  take  58.6  parts,  by 
weight,  sodium  chloride;  40.5  parts,  by 
weight,  saltpeter;  0.5  parts,  by  weight, 
gypsum;  traces  of  moisture  and  mag- 
nesia. 

IX.—  Securo:  For  a  quart  take  3.8 
parts,  by  weight,  aluminum  oxide,  and  8 
parts,  by  weight,  acetic  acid;  basic  ace- 
tate of  alumina,  62  parts,  by  weight; 
sulphuric  acid,  0.8  parts,  by  weight  ; 
sodium  oxide,  with  substantially  traces 
of  lime  and  magnesia. 

X.—Michels  Cassala  Salt:  This  is 
partially  disintegrated.  30.74  per  cent 
sodium  chloride;  15.4  per  cent  sodium 
phosphate;  23.3  per  cent  potassio-sodic 
tartrate;  16.9  per  cent  water  of  crystalli- 
zation; 1.2  per  cent  aluminum  oxide; 
and  2.1  per  cent  acetic  acid  as  basic  ace- 
tate of  alumina;  8.4  per  cent  sugar;  0.98 
per  cent  benzoic  acid;  0.5  per  cent  sul- 
phuric acid;  and  traces  of  lime. 

XI. — Corning  Salt:  Sodium  nitrate, 
50  parts;  powdered  boracic  acid,  45 
parts;  salicylic  acid,  5  parts. 

XII. — Preservative  Salt:  Potassium 
nitrate,  70  parts;  sodium  bicarbonate, 
15  parts;  sodium  chloride,  15  parts. 

XIII. — Another  Corning  Salt:  Potas- 
sium nitrate,  50  parts;  sodium  chloride, 
20  parts;  powdered  boracic  acid,  20 
parts;  sugar,  10  parts. 

XIV. — Maciline  (offered  as  condiment 
and  binding  agent  for  sausages):  A  mix- 
ture of  wheat  flour  and  potato  flour  dyed 
intensely  yellow  with  an  azo  dyestuff  and 
impregnated  with  oil  of  mace. 

XV.— Borax 80  parts 

Boric  acid 17  parts 

Sodium  chloride.     3  parts 

Reduce  the  ingredients  to  a  powder 
and  mix  thoroughly. 

XVI. — Sodium  sulphite, 

powdered  ....   80  parts 
Sodium  sulphate, 

powdered  ....    20  parts 

XVII.— Sodium  chloride.  80  parts 

Borax 8  parts 

Potassium  nitrate  12  parts 
Reduce  to  a  powder  and  mix. 

XVIII. — Sodium  nitrate.  .  50  parts 
Salicylic  acid. ...  5  parts 
Boric  acid 45  parts 

XIX. — Potassium    ni- 
trate     70  parts 


Sodium    bicar- 
bonate      15  parts 

Sodium  chloride.   15  parts 

XX. — Potassium     ni- 
trate   50  parts 

Sodium  chloride.  20  parts 

Boric  acid 20  parts 

Sugar 10  parts 

A  German  Method  of  Preserving  Meat. 
— Entire  unboweled  cattle  or  large,  suit- 
ably severed  pieces  are  sprinkled  with 
acetic  acid  and  then  packed  and  trans- 
ported in  sawdust  impregnated  with 
cooking  salt  and  sterilized. 

Extract  of  Meat  Containing  Albumen. 
— In  the  ordinary  production  of  meat 
extract,  the  albumen  is  more  or  less  lost, 
partly  through  precipitation  by  the  acids 
or  the  acid  salts  of  the  meat  extract,  part- 
ly through  salting  out  by  the  salts  of  the  ex- 
tract, and  partly  by  coagulation  at  a  higher 
temperature.  A  subsequent  addition  of 
albumen  is  impracticable  because  the  al- 
bumen is  likewise  precipitated,  insolubly, 
by  the  acids  and  salts  contained  in  the 
extract.  This  precipitation  can  be  pre- 
vented, according  to  a  French  patent,  by 
neutralizing  the  extract  before  mixing 
with  albumen,  by  the  aid  of  sodium 
bicarbonate.  The  drying  of  the  mixture 
is  accomplished  in  a  carbonic  acid  at- 
mosphere. The  preparation  dissolves 
in  cold  or  hot  water  into  a  white,  milky 
liquid  and  exhibits  the  smell  and  taste  of 
meat  extract,  if  the  albumen  added  was 
tasteless.  The  taste  which  the  extract 
loses  by  the  neutralization  returns  in  its 
original  strength  after  the  mixture  with 
albumen.  In  this  manner  a  meat  prep- 
aration is  obtained  which  contains  larger 
quantities  of  albumen  and  is  more 
nutritious  and  palatable  than  other 
preparations. 


Foot-Powders  and  Solutions 

The  following  foot-powders  have  been 
recommended  as  dusting  powders: 

I. — Boric  acid 2  ounces 

Zinc  oleate 1  ounce 

Talcum 3  ounces 

II. — Oleate  of  zinc  (pow- 
dered)          $  ounce 

Boric  acid 1     ounce 

French  chalk 5     ounces 

Starch 1    ounces 


FOOT-POWDERS—FORMALDEHYDE 


III. — Dried  alum 1     drachm 

Salicylic  acid £  drachm 

Wheat  starch 4     drachms 

Powdered  talc 1^  ounces 

IV. — Formaldehyde   solu- 
tion       1     part 

Thymol -rV  part 

Zinc  oxide 35     parts 

Powdered  starch. ...  65     parts 

V. — Salicylic  acid 7  drachms 

Boric  acid.  2  ounces,  440  grains 

Talcum 38  ounces 

Slippery  elm  bark. .  .      1  ounce 

Orris  root 1  ounce 

VI.— Talc. 12  ounces 

Boric  acid 10  ounces 

Zinc  oleate 1  ounce 

Salicylic  acid. ......  1  ounce 

Oil  of  eucalyptus ...  2  drachms 

VEI. — Salicylic  acid 7  drachms 

Boric  acid 3  ounces 

Talcum    38  ounces 

Slippery    elm,    pow- 
dered    1  ounce 

Orris,  powdered. ...  1  ounce 

Salicylated  Talcum.— 

I. — Salicylic  acid 1  drachm 

Talcum    6  ounces 

Lycopodium 6  drachms 

Starch  3  ounces 

Zinc  oxide 1  ounce 

Perfume,  quantity  sufficient. 

II. — Tannoform 1     drachm 

Talcum 2    drachms 

Lycopodium 30     grains 

Use  as  a  dusting  powder. 

Solutions  for  Perspiring  Feet. — 

I. — Balsam  Peru 15     minims 

Formic  acid 1     drachm 

Chloral   hydrate 1     drachm 

Alcohol  to  make  3  ounces. 

Apply  by  means  of  absorbent  cotton. 

II. — Boric  acid 15     grains 

Sodium   borate 6    drachms 

Salicylic  acid 6    drachms 

Glycerine 1£  ounces 

Alcohol  to  make  3  ounces. 
For  local  application. 

FOOTSORES  ON  CATTLE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 


FORMALDEHYDE : 

See  also  Disinfectants,  Foods,  and  Milk. 

Commercial  Formaldehyde. — This  ex- 
tremely poisonous  preservative  is  ob- 
tained by  passing  tne  vapors  of  wood 


spirit,  in  the  presence  of  air,  over  copper 
heated  to  redness.  The  essential  parts 
of  the  apparatus  employed  are  a  metal 
chamber  into  which  a  feed-tube  enters, 
and  from  which  4  parallel  copper  tubes 
or  oxidizers  discharge  by  a  common  exit 
tube.  This  chamber  is  fitted  with  in- 
spection apertures,  through  which  the 
course  of  the  process  may  be  watched 
and  controlled.  The  wood  spirit,  stored 
in  a  reservoir,  falls  into  a  mixer  where  it 
is  volatilized  and  intimately  mixed  with 
air  from  a  chamber  which  is  connected 
with  a  force  pump.  The  gases  after 
traversing  the  oxidizer  are  led  into  a 
condensing  coil,  and  the  crude  formal- 
dehyde is  discharged  into  the  receiver 
beneath. 

The  small  amount  of  uncondensed  gas 
is  then  led  through  a  series  of  two 
washers.  The  "formol"  thus  obtained 
is  a  mixture  of  water,  methyl  alcohol, 
and  30  to  40  per  cent  of  formaldehyde. 
It  is  rectified  in  a  still,  by  which  the  free 
methyl  alcohol  is  removed  and  pure  for- 
mol obtained,  containing  40  per  cent  of 
formaldehyde,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the 
acetal.  Rectification  must  not  be  pushed 
too  far,  otherwise  the  formaldehyde  may 
become  polymerized  into  trioxmethylene. 
When  once  oxidation  starts,  the  heat  gen- 
erated is  sufficient  to  keep  the  oxidizers 
red  hot,  so  that  the  process  works  practi- 
cally automatically. 

Determination  of  the  Presence  of  For- 
maldehyde in  Solutions. — Lemme  makes 
use,  for  this  purpose,  of  the  fact  that 
formaldehyde,  in  neutral  solutions  of 
sodium  sulphite,  forms  normal  bisulphite 
salts,  setting  free  a  corresponding  quan- 
tity of  sodium  hydrate,  that  may  be 
titrated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  phenol- 
phthalein.  The  sodium  sulphite  solu- 
tion has  an  alkaline  reaction  toward 
phenolphthalein,  and  must  be  exactly 
neutralized  with  sodium  bisulphite. 
Then  to  100  cubic  centimeters  of  this 
solution  of  250  grams  of  sodium  sulphite 
(NaaSO3+7HaO)  in  750  grams  water, 
add  5  cubic  centimeters  of  the  suspected 
formaldehyde  solution.  A  strong  red 
color  is  instantly  produced.  Titrate  with 
normal  sulphuric  acid  until  the  color 
disappears.  As  the  exact  disappearance 
of  the  color  is  not  easily  determined,  a 
margin  of  from  0.1  to  0.2  cubic  centi- 
meters may  be  allowed  without  the  ex- 
actness of  the  reaction  being  injured, 
since  1  cubic  centimeter  of  normal  acid 
answers  to  only  0.03  grams  of  formal- 
dehyde. 

FORMALIN  FOR  GRAIN  SMUT: 
See  Grain. 


FREEZING   PREVENTIVES— FROST  BITE 


FRAMES :  THEIR  PROTECTION  FROM 

FLIES. 

Since  there  is  great  risk  of  damaging 
the  gilt  when  trying  to  remove  fly- 
specks  with  spirits  of  wine,  it  has  been 
found  serviceable  to  cover  gilding  with 
a  copal  varnish.  This  hardens  and  will 
stand  rough  treatment,  and  may  be  re- 
newed wherever  removed. 

FRAME  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

FRAME  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

FRAMING,  PASSE-PARTOUT: 

See  Passe- Partout. 

FRECKLE  LOTIONS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

FREEZING  MIXTURES: 

See  also  Refrigeration  and  Refriger- 
ants. 

Freezing  Preventives 

Liquid  for  Cooling  Automobile  En- 
gines.— In  order  to  prevent  freezing  of  the 
jacket  water,  when  the  engine  is  not  in 
operation  in  cold  weather,  solutions  are 
used,  notably  of  glycerine  and  of  calcium 
chloride  (CaCl2).  The  proportions  for 
the  former  solution  are  equal  parts  of 
water  and  glycerine,  by  weight;  for  the 
latter,  approximately  ^  gallon  of  water  to 
8  pounds  of  CaCl2,  or  a  saturated  solution 
at  60°  F.  This  solution  (CaCl2+6H2O) 
is  then  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  water, 
gallon  for  gallon.  Many  persons  com- 
plain that  CaCl2  corrodes  the  metal  parts, 
but  this  warning  need  do  no  more  than 
urge  the  automobilist  to  use  only  the 
chemically  pure  salt,  carefully  avoiding 
the  "chloride  of  lime"  (CaOCl2). 

A  practical  manufacturing  chemist  of 
wide  experience  gives  this: 

A  saturated  solution  of  common  salt  is 
one  of  the  best  things  to  use.  It  does 
not  affect  the  metal  of  the  engine,  as 
many  other  salts  would,  and  is  easily 
renewed.  It  will  remain  fluid  down  to 
0°  F.,  or  a  little  below. 

Equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  water  is 
also  good,  and  has  the  advantage  that  it 
will  not  crystallize  in  the  chambers,  or 
evaporate  readily.  It  is  the  most  con- 
venient solution  to  use  on  this  account, 
and  may  repay  the  increased  cost  over 
brine,  in  the  comfort  of  its  use.  It  needs 
only  the  occasional  addition  of  a  little 
water  to  make  it  last  all  winter  and 
leave  the  machinery  clean  when  it  is 


drawn  off.  With  brine  an  incrustation 
of  salt  as  the  water  evaporates  is  bound 
to  occur  which  reduces  the  efficiency  of 
the  solution  until  it  is  removed.  Water 
frequently  must  be  added  to  keep  the 
original  volume,  and  to  hold  the  salt  in 
solution.  A  solution  of  calcium  chloride 
is  less  troublesome  so  far  as  crystallizing 
is  concerned,  but  is  said  to  have  a  ten- 
dency to  corrode  the  metals. 

Anti-Freezing  Solution  for  Automo- 
bilists. — Mix  and  filter  4£  pounds  pure 
calcium  chloride  and  a  gallon  of  warm 
water  and  put  the  solution  in  the  radia- 
tor or  tank.  Replace  evaporation  with 
clean  water,  and  leakage  with  solution. 
Pure  calcium  chloride  retails  at  about  8 
cents  per  pound,  or  can  be  procured 
from  any  wholesale  drug  store  at  5  cents. 

Anti-Freezing,  Non-Corrosive  Solu- 
tion.— A  solution  for  water-jackets  on 
gas  engines  that  will  not  freeze  at  any 
temperature  above  20°  below  zero  (F.) 
may  be  made  by  combining  100  parts  of 
water,  by  weight,  with  75  parts  of  car- 
bonate potash  and  50  parts  of  glycerine. 
This  solution  is  non-corrosive  and  will 
remain  perfectly  liquid  at  all  tempera- 
tures above  its  congealing  point. 

Anti-Frost  Solution. — As  an  excellent 
remedy  against  the  freezing  of  shop  win- 
dows, apply  a  mixture  consisting  of  55 
parts  of  glycerine  dissolved  in  1,000  parts 
of  62  per  cent  alcohol,  containing,  to 
improve  the  odor,  some  oil  of  amber. 
As  soon  as  the  mixture  clarifies,  it  is 
rubbed  over  the  inner  surface  of  the 
glass.  This  treatment,  it  is  claimed,  not 
only  prevents  the  formation  of  frost,  but 
also  stops  sweating. 

Protection  of  Acetylene  Apparatus 
from  Frost. — Alcohol,  glycerine,  and 
calcium  chloride  have  been  recommend- 
ed for  the  protection  of  acetylene  gener- 
ators from  frost.  The  employment  of 
calcium  chloride,  which  must  not  be 
confounded  with  chloride  of  lime, 
appears  preferable  in  all  points  of  view. 
A  solution  of  20  parts  of  calcium  chloride 
in  80  parts  of  water  congeals  only  at  5°  F. 
above  zero.  But  as  this  temperature 
does  not  generally  penetrate  the  genera- 
tors, it  will  answer  to  use  10  or  15  parts 
of  the  chloride  for  100  parts  of  water, 
which  will  almost  always  be  sufficient  to 
avoid  congelation.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  use  sea  salt  or  other  alkaline  or 
metallic  salts,  which  deteriorate  the 
metal  of  the  apparatus. 
FROST  BITE. 

When  the  skin  is  as  yet  unbroken, 
Hugo  Kuhl  advises  the  following: 


364 


FROST  BITE— FRUIT  PRESERVING 


I. — Carbolized  water.  . .     4  drachms 

Nitric  acid 1  drop 

Oil  of  geranium  ....      1  drop 
Mix.     Pencil  over  the  skin  and  then 
hold   the    penciled    place   near  the   fire 
until  the  skin  is  quite  dry. 

If  the  skin  is  already  broken,  use  the 
following  ointment: 

II. — Hebra's  ointment. .  500  parts 

Glycerine 100  parts 

Liquefied    carbolic 

acid 15  parts 

Mix.  Apply  to  the  broken  skin 
occasionally. 

III.— Camphor 25  parts 

Iodine,  pure 50  parts 

Olive  oil 500  parts 

Paraffine,  solid 450  parts 

Alcohol,  enough. 

Dissolve  the  camphor  in  the  oil  and 
the  iodine  in  the  least  possible  amount  of 
alcohol.  Melt  the  paraffine  and  add  the 
mixed  solutions.  When  homogeneous 
pour  into  suitable  molds.  Wrap  the 
pencils  in  paraifine  paper  or  tin  foil,  and 
pack  in  wooden  boxes.  By  using  more 
or  less  olive  oil  the  pencils  may  be  made 
of  any  desired  consistency. 

IV. — Dissolve  5  parts  of  campho'.  in 
a  mixture  consisting  of  5  parts  of  yther 
and  5  parts  of  alcohol;  then  add  collodion 
sufficient  to  make  100  parts. 

V. — Dissolve  1  part  of  thymol  in  5 
parts  of  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol, 
then  add  collodion  sufficient  to  make  100 
parts. 

VI. — Carbolic  a«id 2     parts 

Lead  ointment. ...  40     parts 

Lanolin 40     parts 

Olive  oil... 20     parts 

Lavender  oil 1 J  parts 

VII. — Tannic  acid 15     parts 

Lycopodium 15     parts 

Lard 30     parts 

VIII.— Zinc  oxide 15     parts 

Glycerine 45     parts 

Lanolin 40     parts 

IX.— Ichthyol 10     parts 

Resorcin 10     parts 

Tannic  acid 10     parts 

Distilled  water 50     parts 

Any  of  these  is  to  be  applied  about 
twice  a  day. 

FROSTED  GLASS: 
See  Glass. 

FROST  PREVENTIVE: 
See  Freezing  Preventives. 


FROST  REMOVERS: 

See  Glass. 

FRUIT  ESSENCES  AND  EXTRACTS: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

Fruit  Preserving 

(See  also  Essences,  Extracts,  and  Pre- 
serves.) 

How  to  Keep  Fruit. — According  to 
experiments  of  Max  de  Nansouty,  fruit 
carefully  wrapped  in  silk  paper  and  then 
buried  in  dry  sand  will  preserve  a  fresh 
appearance  with  a  fresh  odor  or  flavor, 
almost  indefinitely.  It  may  also  be  pre- 
served in  dry  excelsior,  but  not  nearly 
so  well.  In  stubble  or  straw  fruit  rots 
very  quickly,  while  in  shavings  it.  mil- 
dews quickly.  In  short,  wheat-straw  fruit 
often  takes  on  a  musty  taste  and  odor, 
even  when  perfectly  dry.  Finally,  wnen 
placed  on  wooden  tablets  and  exposed  to 
the  air,  most  fruit  decays  rapidly. 

I. — Crushed  Strawberry. — Put  up  by 
the  following  process,  the  fruit  retains 
its  natural  color  and  taste,  and  may  be 
exposed  to  the  air  for  months,  without 
fermenting: 

Take  fresh,  ripe  berries,  stem  them, 
and  rub  through  a  No.  8  sieve,  rejecting 
all  soft  and  green  fruit.  Add  to  each 
gallon  of.  pulp  thus  obtained,  8  pounds  of 
granulated  sugar.  Put  on  the  fire  and 
bring  just  to  a  boil,  stirring  constantly. 
Just  before  removing  from  the  fire,  add 
to  each  gallon  1  ounce  of  a  saturated 
alcoholic  solution  of  salicylic  acid,  stir- 
ring well.  Remove  the  scum,  and,  while 
still  hot,  put  into  jars,  and  hermetically 
seal.  Put  the  iars  in  cold  water,  and 
raise  them  to  the  boiling  point,  to  pre- 
vent them  from  bursting  by  sudden 
expansion  on  pouring  hot  fruit  into 
them.  Fill  the  jars  entirely  full,  so  as  to 
leave  no  air  space  when  fruit  cools  and 
contracts. 

II. — Crushed  Raspberry. — Prepare  in 
the  same  manner  as  for  crushed  straw- 
berry, using  £  red  raspberries  and  £ 
black,  to  give  a  nice  color,  and  using  7 
pounds  of  sugar  to  each  gallon  of  pulp. 

III. — Crushed  Pineapple. — Secure  a 
good  brand  of  canned  grated  pineapple, 
and  drain  off  about  one-half  of  the  liquor, 
by  placing  on  a  strainer.  Add  to  each 
pound  of  pineapple  1  pound  of  granu- 
lated sugar.  Place  on  the  fire,  and  bring 
to  boiling  point,  stirring  constantly. 
Just  before  removing  from  the  fire,  add 
to  each  gallon  of  pulp  1  ounce  saturat- 
ed alcoholic  solution  of  salicylic  acid. 


FRUIT   PRESERVING— FUMIGANTS 


365 


Put  into  air-tight  jars  until  wanted  for 
use. 

IV.— Crushed  Peach.— Take  a  good 
brand  of  canned  yellow  peaches,  drain  off 
liquor,  and  rub  through  a  No.  8  sieve. 
Add  sugar,  bring  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  when  ready  to  remove  from  fire  add 
to  each  gallon  1  ounce  saturated  alco- 
holic solution  of  salicylic  acid.  Put  into 
jars  and  seal  hermetically. 

V. — Crushed  Apricot. — Prepared  in 
similar  manner  to  crushed  peach,  using 
canned  apricots. 

VI.  —  Crushed    Orange.  —  Secure    or- 
anges with  a  thin  peel,  and  containing 
plenty  of  juice.      Remove  the  outer,  or 
yellow  peel,  first,  taking  care  not  to  in- 
clude any  of  the  bitter  peel.      (The  outer 
peel    may    be    used    in    making    orange 
phosphate,  or  tincture  of  sweet  orange 
peel.)      Next   remove    the    inner,    bitter 
peel,    quarter,    and    remove    the    seeds. 
Extract  part  of  the  juice,  and  grind  the 
pulp  through  an  ordinary  meat  grinder. 
Add  sugar,  place  on  the  fire,  and  bring 
to  the    boiling    point.      When   ready   to 
remove,  add  to  each  gallon  1  ounce  of 
saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  salicylic 
acid  and  1  ounce  of  glycerine.      Put  into 
air-tight  jars. 

VII.  —  Crushed    Cherries.— Stone    the 
cherries  and  grind  them  to  a  pulp.     Add 
sugar,  and  place  on  the  fire,  stirring  con- 
stantly.     Before  removing,  add  to  each 
gallon  1  ounce  of  the  saturated  solution 
of  salicylic  acid.      Put  into  jars  and  seal. 

VIII.^-Fresh  Crushed  Fruits  in  Sea- 
son.— In  their  various  seasons  berries 
and  fruits  may  be  prepared  in  fresh  lots 
for  the  soda  fountain  each  morning,  by 
reducing  the  fruit  to  a  pulp,  and  mixing 
this  pulp  with  an  equal  quantity  of  heavy 
simple  syrup. 

Berries  should  be  rubbed  through  a 
sieve.  In  selecting  berries,  it  is  better 
to  use  the  medium-sized  berries  for  the 
pulp,  reserving  the  extra  large  specimens 
for  garnishing  and  decorative  effects. 

Mash  the  berries  with  a  wooden 
masher,  never  using  iron  or  copper 
utensils,  which  may  discolor  the  fruit. 

Pineapple  may  be  prepared  by  remov- 
ing the  rough  outer  skin  and  grating  the 
pulp  upon  an  ordinary  tin  kitchen  grater. 
The  grater  should  be  scrupulously  clean, 
and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  grate  off 
any  of  the  coarse,  fibrous  matter  com- 
prising the  fruit's  core. 

All  crushed  fruits  are  served  as  follows: 
Mix  equal  quantities  of  pulp  and  simple 
syrup  in  the  counter  bowl;  use  1|  to  2* 


ounces  to  each  glass,  adding  the  usual 
quantity  of  cream,  or  ice  cream.  Draw 
soda,  using  a  fine  stream  freely. 

IX. — Glaces. — Crushed  fruits,  served 
in  the  following  manner,  make  a  deli- 
cious and  refreshing  drink: 

Crushed  fruit. 12  drachms 

Juice  of  half  a  lemon. 
Shaved  ice. 

Put  the  ice  into  a  small  glass,  add  the 
fruit  and  lemon  juice,  stir  well,  and  serve 
with  a  spoon  and  straws. 

FRUIT  PRODUCTS,  TESTS  FOR: 

See  Foods. 

FRUIT  SYRUPS: 

See  Syrups. 

FRUIT  VINEGAR: 

See  Vinegar. 


Fumigants 

(See  also  Disinfectants.) 

Fumigating  Candles. — I. — Lime  wood 
charcoal,  6,000  parts,  by  weight,  satu- 
rated with  water  (containing  saltpeter, 
150  parts,  by  weight,  in  solution),  and 
dried  again,  is  mixed  with  benzoin,  750 
parts,  by  weight;  styrax,  700  parts,  by 
weight;  mastic,  100  parts,  by  weight; 
cascarilla,  450  parts,  by  weight;  Peruvian 
balsam,  40  parts,  by  weight;  Mitcham 
oil,  lavender  oil,  lemon  oil,  and  bergamot 
oil,  15  parts,  by  weight,  each;  and  neroli 
oil,  3  parts,  by  weight. 

II. — Charcoal,  7,500  parts,  by  weight; 
saltpeter,  150  parts,  by  weight;  Tolu  bal- 
sam, 500  parts,  by  weight;  musk,  2  parts, 
by  weight;  rose  oil,  1  part.  The  mixtures 
are  crushed  with  thick  tragacanth  to  a 
solid  mass. 

III. — Sandal  wood,  48  parts,  by 
weight;  clove,  6  parts,  hy  weight;  ben- 
zoin, 6  parts,  by  weight;  licorice  juice,  4 
parts,  by  weight;  potash  saltpeter,  2 
parts,  by  weight ;  cascarilla  bark,  1.5 
parts,  by  weight;  cinnamon  bark,  1.5  parts, 
by  weight;  musk,  0.05  parts,  by  weight. 
All  these  substances  are  powdered  and 
mixed,  whereupon  the  following  are  added: 
Styrax  (liquid),  5  parts,  by  weight;  cin- 
namon oil,  0.05  parts,  by  weight;  clove 
oil,  0.05  parts,  by  weight;  geranium  oil, 
0.5  parts,  by  weight;  lavender  oil,  0.2 
parts,  by  weight;  Peruvian  balsam,  0.2 
parts,  by  weight.  The  solid  ingredients 
are  each  powdered  separately,  then 
placed  in  the  respective  proportion  in  a 


366 


FUMIGANTS 


spacious  porcelain  dish  and  intimately 
mixed  by  means  of  a  flat  spatula.  The 
dish  must  be  covered  up  with  a  cloth  in 
this  operation.  After  the  mixture  has 
been  accomplished,  add  the  essential  oils 
and  just  enough  solution  of  gum  arabic 
so  that  by  subsequent  kneading  with  the 
pestle  a  moldable  dough  results  which 
possesses  sufficient  solidity  after  drying. 
The  mass  is  pressed  into  metallic  molds 
in  the  shape  of  cones  not  more  than  £  of 
an  inch  in  height. 

IV. — Red  Fumigating  Candles. — San- 
dal wood,  1  part;  gum  benzoin,  1.5  parts; 
Tolu  balsam,  0.250  parts;  sandal  oil,  .025 
parts;  cassia  oil,  .025  parts;  clove  oil,  25 
parts;  saltpeter,  .090  parts.  The  powder 
is  mixed  intimately,  saturated  with  spirit 
of  wine,  in  which  the  oils  are  dissolved, 
and  shaped  into  cones. 

V. — Wintergreen  oil..".  . .        1  part 

Tragacanth 20  parts 

Saltpeter 50  parts 

Phenol,  crystallized.  100  parts 
Charcoal,  powdered.  830  parts 
Water. 

Dissolve  the  saltpeter  in  the  water, 
stir  the  solution  together  with  the  pow- 
dered charcoal  and  dry.  Then  add  the 
tragacanth  powder,  also  the  wintergreen 
oil  and  the  phenol,  and  prepare  from  the 
mixture,  by  means  of  a  tragacanth  solu- 
tion containing  2  per  cent  of  saltpeter,  a 
mass  which  can  be  shaped  into  candles. 

Fumigating  Perfumes. — These  are 
used  for  quickly  putting  down  bad  odors 
in  the  sick  room,  etc.  They  are  decid- 
edly antiseptic,  and  fulfil  their  purpose 
admirably. 

I. — Select  good  white  blotting  paper, 
and  cut  each  large  sheet  lengthwise  into 
3  equal  pieces.  Make  a  solution  of  1 
ounce  of  potassium  nitrate  in  12  ounces 
of  boiling  water;  place  this  solution  in  a 
large  plate,  and  draw  each  strip  of  paper 
over  the  solution  so  as  to  saturate  it. 
Then  dry  by  hanging  up.  The  dried 
paper  is  to  be  saturated  in  a  similar 
manner  with  either  of  the  following  so- 
lutions: 

(1)  Siam  benzoin 1  ounce 

Storax 3  drachms 

Olibanum 2  scruples 

Mastic 2  scruples 

Cascarilla 2  drachms 

Vanilla 1  drachm 

Rectified  spirit 8  ounces 

Bruise  the  solids  and  macerate  in  the 
spirit  5  days,  filter,  and  add 

Oil  of  cinnamon. ...  8  parts 

Oil  of  cloves 8  parts 


Oil  of  bergamot ....      5    parts 

Oil  of  neroli 5    parts 

Mix. 

(2)  Benzoin 1£  ounces 

Sandal  wood 1     ounce 

Spirit 8     ounces 

Macerate  as  No.  1,  and  add 

Essence  of  vetiver  .  .      3     ounces 
Oil  of  lemon  grass.  .    40     drops 
Mix. 

After  the  paper  is  dry,  cut  up  into 
suitable  sized  pieces  to  go  into  commer- 
cial envelopes. 

II. — Benzoin 1  av.  ounce 

Storax 1  av.  ounce 

Fumigating     e  s  - 

sence 2  fluidounces 

Ether 1  fluidounce 

Acetic  acid,  glacial  20  drops 

Alcohol 2  fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  benzoin  and  storax  in  a 
mixture  of  the  alcohol  and  ether,  filter 
and  add  the  fumigating  and  the  acetic 
acid.  Spread  the  mixture  upon  filtering 
or  bibulous  paper  and  allow  it  to  dry. 
To  prevent  sticking,  dust  the  surface  with 
talcum  and  preserve  in  wax  paper.  When 
used  the  paper  is  simply  warmed,  or  held 
over  a  lamp. 

III.— Musk 0.2  parts 

Oil  of  rose 1  part 

Benzoin 100  parts 

Myrrh 12  parts 

Orris  root 250  parts 

Alcohol     (**0     per 

cent) 500  parts 

IV. — Benzoin 80  parts 

Balsam  Tolu. ....  20  parts 

Storax 20  parts 

Sandal  wood 20  parts 

Myrrh 10  parts 

Cascarilla  bark.  .  .  20  parts 

Musk 0.2  parts 

Alcohol 250  parts 

Fumigating  Ribbon. — I. — Take  |-inch 

cotton  tape  and   saturate  it  with  niter; 

when   dry,   saturate  with   the   following 

tincture: 

Benzoin 1  ounce 

Orris  root 1  ounce 

Myrrh 2  drachms 

Tolu  balsam 2  drachms 

Musk 10  grains 

Rectified  spirit 10  ounces 

Macerate  for  a  week,  filter,  and  add 

10  minims  of  attar  of  rose. 

II. — Another  good  formula  which  may 
also  be  used  for  fumigating  paper,  is: 


FUMIGANTS 


367 


Olibanum 2     ounces 

Storax 1     ounce 

Benzoin 6     drachms 

Peruvian  balsam.  .  .        ^  ounce 

Tolu  balsam 3     drachms 

Rectified  spirit 10     ounces 

Macerate  10  days,  and  filter. 
Perfumed  Fumigating  Pastilles. — 
I. — Vegetable  charcoal. .     6     ounces 

Benzoin 1     ounce 

Nitrate  of  potash.  . .        |  ounce 

Tolu  balsam 2    drachms 

Sandal  wood 2    drachms 

Mucilage   of  tragacanth,    a    suffi- 
ciency. 

Reduce  the  solids  to  fine  powder,  mix, 
and  make  into  a  stiff  paste  with  the  mu- 
cilage.     Divide  this  into  cones  25  grains 
in  weight,  and  dry  with  a  gentle  heat. 
II. — Powdered    willow 

charcoal 8 

Benzoic  acid. .  6 


ounces 
ounces 
drachms 
drachm 
drachm 
drachm 
drachm 
drachm 
drachm 
ounces 
recipe    is 
grains  of 


Nitrate  of  potash ...      6 

Oil  of  thyme \ 

Oil  of  sandal  wood. . 

Oil  of  caraway \ 

Oil  of  cloves \ 

Oil  of  lavender 

Oil  of  rose \ 

Rose  water 10 

Proceed   as  in    I,   but   this 
better  for  the  addition  of  20 
powdered  tragacanth. 
III. — Benzoin 10  av.  ounces 

Charcoal 24  av.  ounces 

Potassium  nitrate.      1  av.  ounce 

Sassafras 2  av.  ounces 

Mucilage  of  acacia,  sufficient. 
Mix  the  first  four  in  fine  powder,  add 
the  mucilage,  form  a  mass,  and  make  into 
conical  pastilles. 
IV. — Potassium  nitrate  375    grains 

Water 25    fluidounces 

Charcoal     wood, 

powder 30    a v.  ounces 

Tragacanth,  pow- 
der     375 

Storax .........    300 

Benzoin..  .    300 


Vanillin 

Coumarin 

Musk 

Civet 

Oil  of  rose 

Oil  of  bergamot. 
Oil  of  ylang-ylang 
Oil  of  rhodium.  . 
Oil    of    sandal 

wood 

Oil  of  cinnamon. 

Oil  of  orris 

Oil  of  cascarilla .   • 


8 
3 
3 
1^ 

20' 

15 

10 

10 

5 
5 
1 
1 


grains 
grains 
grains 
grains 
grains 
grains 

grains 
rops 
drops 
drops 
drops 

drops 
drops 
drop 
drop 


Saturate  the  charcoal  with  the  potas- 
sium nitrate  dissolved  in  the  water,  dry 
the  mass,  powder,  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients, and  mix  thoroughly.  Beat  the 
mixture  to  a  plastic  mass  with  the  addi- 
tion of  sufficient  mucilage  of  tragacanth 
containing  2  per  cent  of  saltpeter  in 
solution,  and  form  into  cone-shaped 
pastilles.  In  order  to  evenly  distribute 
the  storax  throughout  the  mass,  it  may 
be  previously  dissolved  in  a  small  amount 
of  acetic  ether. 

V. — Benzoin 2     av.  ounces 

Cascarilla 1     av.  ounce 

Myrrh 1     av.  ounce 

Potassium    n  i  - 

trate £  av.  ounce 

Potassium  chlo- 
rate     60     grains 

Charcoal,  wood.     4     av.  ounces 
Oil  of  cloves..  ..      1     fluidrachm 
Oil  of  cinnamon     1     fluidrachm 
Oil  of  lavender.      1     fluidrachm 
Mucilage  of  tragacanth,  sufficient. 
Mix  the  first  six  ingredients  previously 
reduced  to  fine  powder,  add  the  oils,  and 
then    incorporate    enough    mucilage    to 
form  a  mass.      Divide  this  into  pastilles 
weighing  about  60  grains  and  dry. 

VI. — Charcoal,  pow- 
der       30     av.  ounces 

Potassium     ni- 
trate   J  av.  ounce 

Water 33     fluidounces 

Tragacanth, 

powder 300    grains 

Tincture    of 

benzoin 1J  fluidounces 

Peru  balsam  .  .  300  grains 
Storax,  crude. .  300  grains 
Tolu  balsam  .  .  300  grains 
Oleo-balsamic 

mixture 2i  fluidrachms 

Coumarin  ....  8  grains 
Saturate  the  charcoal  with  the  potas- 
sium nitrate  dissolved  in  the  water,  then 
dry,  reduce  to  powder,  and  incorporate 
the  tragacanth  and  then  the  remaining 
ingredients.  Form  a  mass  by  the  addi- 
tion of  sufficient  mucilage  of  tragacanth 
containing  2  per  cent  of  potassium 
nitrate  in  solution  and  divide  into  pas- 
tilles. 

VII.— Powdered  nitrate  of 

potassium i  ounce 

Powdered  gum  ara- 

bic 5  ounce 

Powdered  cascarilla 

bark  (fresh) ^  ounce 

Powdered  benzoin 

(fresh) 4     ounces 


368 


FURS— GARDENS,    CHEMICAL 


Powdered  charcoal.      7     ounces 
Oil  of  eucalyptus. .  .    25    drops 

Oil  of  cloves 25     drops 

Water,  a  sufficiency. 
Make  a  smooth  paste,  press  into  molds 
and  dry. 

FURS: 

To  Clean  Furs. — For  dark  furs,  warm 
a  quantity  of  new  bran  in  a  pan,  taking 
care  that  it  does  not  burn,  to  prevent 
which  it  must  be  briskly  stirred.  When 
well  warmed  rub  it  thoroughly  into  the 
fur  with  the  hand.  Repeat  this  2  or  3 
times,  then  shake  the  fur,  and  give  it 
another  sharp  rubbing  until  free  from 
dust.  For  white  furs:  Lay  them  on  a 
table,  and  rub  well  with  bran  made 
moist  with  warm  water;  rub  until  quite 
dry,  and  afterwards  with  dry  bran.  The 
wet  bran  should  be  put  on  with  flannel, 
then  dry  with  book  muslin.  Light  furs, 
in  addition  to  the  above,  should  be  well 
rubbed  with  magnesia  or  a  piece  of  book 
muslin,  after  the  bran  process,  against 
the  way  of  the  fur. 

To  Preserve  Furs. — I. — Furs  may  be 
preserved  from  moths  and  other  insects 
oy  placing  a  little  colocynth  pulp  (bitter 
apple),  or  spice  (cloves,  pimento,  etc.), 
wrapped  in  muslin,  among  them;  or  they 
may  be  washed  in  a  very  weak  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  warm  water 
(10  to  15  grains  to  the  pint),  and  after- 
wards carefully  dried.  As  well  as  every 
other  species  of  clothing,  they  should  be 
kept  in  a  clean,  dry  place,  from  which 
they  should  be  taken  out  occasionally, 
well  beaten,  exposed  to  the  air,  and  re- 
turned. 

II. — Sprinkle  the  furs  or  woolen 
stuffs,  as  well  as  the  drawers  or  boxes  in 
which  they  are  kept,  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, the  unpleasant  scent  of  which 
will  speedily  evaporate  on  exposure  of 
the  stuffs  to  the  air.  Some  persons 
place  sheets  of  paper  moistened  with 
spirits  of  turpentine,  over,  under,  or 
between  pieces  of  cloth,  etc.,  and  find  it 
a  very  effectual  method.  Many  woolen 
drapers  put  bits  of  camphor,  the  size  of 
a  nutmeg,  in  papers,  on  different  parts 
of  the  shelves  in  their  shops,  and  as  they 
brush  their  cloths  every  2,  3,  or  4 
months,  this  keeps  them  free  from  moths; 
and  this  should  be  done  in  boxes  where 
the  furs,  etc.,  are  put.  A  tallow  candle  is 
frequently  put  within  each  muff  when 
laid  by.  Snuff  or  pepper  is  also  good. 

FURNACE  JACKET. 

A  piece  of  asbestos  millboard — 10 
inches  by  4  inches  by  f  inch — is  per- 


forated in  about  a  dozen  or  more  places 
with  glycerined  cork  borers,  then  nicked 
about  an  inch  from  each  short  end  and 
immersed  in  water  until  saturated;  next 
the  board  is  bent  from  the  nicks  at  right 
angles  and  the  perforated  portion  shaped 
by  bending  it  over  a  bottle  with  as  little 
force  as  possible.  The  result  should  be 
a  perforated  arched  tunnel,  resting  on 
narrow  horizontal  ledges  at  each  side. 
Dry  this  cover  in  the  furnace,  after  set- 
ting it  in  position,  and  pressing  it  well  to 
the  supports.  Three  such  covers,  weigh- 
ing 1  pound,  replaced  24  fire  clay  tiles, 
weighing  13  pounds,  and  a  higher  tem- 
perature was  obtained  than  with  the 
latter. 

FURNITURE  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

FURNITURE,  ITS  DECORATION: 

See  Wood. 

FURNITURE   ENAMEL: 
See  Varnishes. 

FURNITURE  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

FURNITURE  WAX: 
See  Waxes. 

FUSES: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

FUSES  FOR  ELECTRICAL  CIRCUITS: 

See  Alloys. 

FUNNELS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

GALVANIZED  PAPER: 

See  Paper,  Metallic. 

GAMBOGE  STAIN: 

See  Lacquers. 

GAPES  IN  POULTRY: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

GARANCINE   PROCESS: 
See  Dyes. 

GARDENS,    CHEMICAL: 

See  also  Sponges. 

I. — Put  some  sand  into  a  fish-globe  or 
other  suitable  glass  vessel  to  the  depth  of 

2  or  3  inches;  in  this  place  a  few  pieces  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  aluminum,  and  iron; 
pour  over  the  whole  a  solution  of  sodium 
silicate  (water  glass),  1  part,  and  water, 

3  parts,  care  being  taken  not  to  disar- 
range the  chemicals.      Let  this  stand  a 
week  or  so,  when  a  dense  growth  of  the 
silicates  of  the  various  bases  used  will  be 
seen   in   various  •  colors.     Now   displace 


GARDENS,    CHEMICAL— GELATIN 


369 


the  solution  of  the  sodium  silicate  with 
clear  water,  by  conveying  a  stream  of 
water  through  a  very  small  rubber  tube 
into  the  vessel.  The  water  will  gradu- 
ally displace  the  sodium  silicate  solution. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  disarrange  or 
break  down  the  growth  with  the  stream 
of  water.  A  little  experimenting,  ex- 
perience and  expertness  will  enable  the 
operator  to  produce  a  very  pretty  garden. 

II. — This  is  a  permanent  chemical 
garden,  which  may  be  suspended  by 
brass  chains  with  a  lamp  behind. 

Prepare  a  small  beaker  or  jar  full  of 
cold  saturated  solution  of  Glauber's  salt, 
and  into  the  solution  suspend  by  means 
of  threads  a  kidney  bean  and  a  non-por- 
ous body,  such  as  a  marble,  stone,  glass, 
etc.  Cover  the  jar,  and  in  a  short  time 
there  will  be  seen  radiating  from  the 
bean  small  crystals  of  sulphate  of  sodium 
which  will  increase  and  give  the  bean 
the  aspect  of  a  sea  urchin,  while  the  non- 
porous  body  remains  untouched.  The 
bean  appears  to  have  a  special  partiality 
for  the  crystals,  which  is  due  to  the  ab- 
sorption of  water  by  the  bean,  but  not  of 
the  salt.  In  this  way  a  supersaturated 
solution  is  formed  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  bean,  and  the  crys- 
tals, in  forming,  attach  themselves  to  its 
surface. 

III. — A  popular  form  of  ornamental 
crystallization  is  that  obtained  by  im- 
mersing a  zinc  rod  in  a  solution  of  a  lead 
salt,  thus  obtaining  the  "lead  tree."  To 
prepare  this,  dissolve  lead  acetate  in 
water,  add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  and 
then  suspend  the  zinc  rod  in  the  solution. 
The  lead  is  precipitated  in  large  and 
beautiful  plates  until  the  solution  is  ex- 
hausted or  the  zinc  dissolved.  In  this 
case  the  action  is  electro-chemical,  the 
first  portions  of  the  lead  precipitated 
forming  with  the  zinc  a  voltaic  arrange- 
ment of  sufficient  power  to  decompose 
the  salt. 

It  is  said  that  by  substituting  chloride 
of  tin  for  the  lead  salt  a"tin  tree"  may  be 
produced,  while  nitrate  of  silver  under 
the  same  conditions  would  produce  a 
"silver  tree."  In  the  latter  case  dis- 
tilled water  should  be  used  to  prevent 
precipitation  of  the  silver  by  possible 
impurities  contained  in  ordinary  water. 

GAS  FIXTURES: 
See  Brass. 

GAS  FIXTURES,  BRONZING  OF: 

See  Plating. 

GAS  SOLDERING: 

See  Soldering. 


GAS-STOVES,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

GAS  TRICK: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

GEAR  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricants. 

GELATIN: 

French  Gelatin. — Gelatin  is  derived 
from  two  sources,  the  parings  of  skins, 
hides,  etc.,  and  from  bones.  The  latter 
are  submitted  to  the  action  of  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid  for  several  days,  which 
attacks  the  inorganic  matters — car- 
bonates, phosphates,  etc.,  and  leaves  the 
ossein,  which  is,  so  to  say,  an  isomer  of 
the  skin  substance.  The  skin,  parings 
of  hide,  etc.,  gathered  from  the  shambles, 
butcher  shops,  etc.,  are  brought  into  the 
factory,  and  if  not  ready  for  immediate 
use  are  thrown  into  quicklime,  which 
preserves  them  for  the  time  being.  From 
the  lime,  after  washing,  they  pass  into 
dilute  acid,  which  removes  the  last  traces 
of  lime,  and  are  now  ready  for  the  treat- 
ment that  is  to  furnish  the  pure  gelatin. 
The  ossein  from  bones  goes  through  the 
same  stages  of  treatment,  into  lime,  washed 
and  laid  in  dilute  acid  again.  From  the 
acid  bath  the  material  goes  into  baths  of 
water  maintained  at  a  temperature  not 
higher  than  from  175°  to  195°  F. 

The  gelatin  manufacturer  buys  from 
the  button-makers  and  manufacturers 
of  knife  handles  and  bone  articles  gen- 
erally, those  parts  of  the  bone  that  they 
cannot  use,  some  of  which  are  pieces 
8  inches  long  by  a  half  inch  thick. 

Bones  gathered  by  the  ragpickers  fur- 
nish the  strongest  glue.  The  parings  of 
skin,  hide,  etc.,  are  from  those  portions  of 
bullock  hides,  calf  skins,  etc.,  that  cannot 
be  made  use  of  by  the  tanner,  the  heads, 
legs,  etc. 

The  gelatin  made  by  Coignet  for  the 
Pharmacie  Centrale  de  France  is  made 
from  skins  procured  from  the  tawers  of 
Paris,  who  get  it  directly  from  the  abat- 
toirs, which  is  as  much  as  to  say  that  the 
material  is  guaranteed  fresh  and  healthy, 
since  these  institutions  are  under  rigid 
inspection  and  surveillance  of  govern- 
ment inspectors  and  medical  men. 

There  is  a  gelatin  or  glue,  used  ex- 
clusively for  joiners,  inside  carpenters, 
and  ceiling  makers  (plafonneurs),  called 
rabbit  vermicelli,  and  derived  from  rab- 
bit skins.  As  the  first  treatment  of  these 
skins  is  to  saturate  them  with  mercury 
bichloride,  it  is  needless  to  say  the  prod- 
uct is  not  employed  in  pharmacy. 


370 


GELATIN— GEMS 


To  Clarify  Solutions  of  Gelatin,  Glues, 
etc. — If  1  per  cent  of  ammonium  fluoride 
be  added  to  turbid  solutions  of  gelatin  or 
common  glue,  or,  in  fact,  of  any  gums, 
it  quickly  clarifies  them.  It  causes  a  dep- 
osition of  ligneous  matter,  and  also  very 
materially  increases  the  adhesive  power 
of  such  solutions. 

Air  Bubbles  in  Gelatin. — The  pres- 
ence of  minute  air  bubbles  in  cakes  of 
commercial  gelatin  often  imparts  to 
them  an  unpleasant  cloudy  appearance. 
These  minute  air  bubbles  are  the  result 
of  the  rapid,  continuous  process  of  drying 
the  sheets  of  gelatin  by  a  counter-cur- 
rent of  hot  air.  Owing  to  the  rapid 
drying  a  hard  skin  is  formed  on  the  out- 
side of  the  cake,  leaving  a  central  layer 
from  which  the  moisture  escapes  only 
with  difficulty,  and  in  which  the  air  bub- 
bles remain  behind.  Since  the  best  qual- 
ities of  gelatin  dry  most  rapidly,  the 
presence  of  these  minute  bubbles  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  an  indication  of  supe- 
riority, and  they  rarely  occur  in  the  poorer 
qualities  of  gelatin.  If  dried  slowly  in 
the  old  way  gelatin  is  liable  to  be  dam- 
aged by  fermentation;  in  such  cases  large 
bubbles  of  gas  are  formed  in  the  sheets, 
and  are  a  sign  of  bad  quality. 

GEMS,  ARTIFICIAL: 

See  also  Diamonds. 

The  raw  materials  for  the  production 
of  artificial  gems  are  the  finest  silica  and, 
as  a  rule,  finely  ground  rock  crystals; 
white  sand  and  quartz,  which  remain 
pure  white  even  at  a  higher  temperature, 
may  also  be  used.  ^ 

Artificial  borax  is  given  the  preference, 
since  the  native  variety  frequently  con- 
tains substances  which  color  the  glass. 
Lead  carbonate  or  red  lead  must  be  per- 
fectly pure  and  not  contain  any  protoxide, 
since  the  latter  gives  the  glass  a  dull, 
greenish  hue.  White  lead  and  red  lead 
have  to  dissolve  completely  in  dilute  nitric 
acid  or  without  leaving  a  residue;  the  so- 
lution, neutralized  as  much  as  possible, 
must  not  be  reddened  by  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash. In  the  former  case  tin  is  present,  in 
the  latter  copper.  Arsenious  acid  and  salt- 
peter must  be  perfectly  pure;  they  serve 
for  the  destruction  of  the  organic  sub- 
stances. The  materials,  without  the  col- 
oring oxide,  furnish  the  starting  quantity 
for  the  production  of  artificial  gems ;  sucn 
glass  pastes  are  named  "strass." 

The  emerald,  a  precious  stone  of  green 
color,  is  imitated  by  melting  1,000  parts 
of  strass  and  8  parts  of  chromic  oxide. 
Artificial  emeralds  are  also  obtained 
with  cupric  acid  and  ferric  oxides,  con- 


sisting of  43.84  parts  of  rock  crystal; 
21.92  parts  of  dry  sodium  carbonate  ;  7.2 
parts  of  calcined  and  powdered  borax; 
7.2  parts  of  red  lead;  3.65  parts  of  salt- 
peter; 1.21  parts  of  red  ferric  oxide,  and 
0.6  parts  of  green  copper  carbonate. 

Agates  are  imitated  by  allowing  frag- 
ments of  variously  colored  pastes  to  flow 
together,  and  stirring  during  the  deli- 
quatiori. 

The  amethyst  is  imitated  by  mixing 
300  parts  of  a  glass  frit  with  0.6  parts  of 
gray  manganese  ore,  or  from  300  parts  of 
frit  containing  0.8  per  cent  of  manganic- 
oxide,  36.5  parts  of  saltpeter,  15  parts  of 
borax,  and  15  parts  of  minium  (red  lead). 
A  handsome  amethyst  is  obtained  by 
melting  together  1,000  parts  of  strass,  8 
parts  of  manganese  oxide,  5  parts  of 
cobalt  oxide,  and  2  parts  of  gold  purple. 

Latterly,  attempts  have  also  been 
made  to  produce  very  hard  glasses  for 
imitation  stones  from  alumina  and 
borax  with  the  requisite  coloring  agents. 

Besides  imitation  stones  there  are  also 
produced  opaque  glass  pastes  bearing  the 
name  of  the  stones  they  resemble,  e.  g., 
aventurine,  azure -stone  (lapis  lazuli), 
chrysoprase,  turquoise,  obsidian,  etc. 
For  these,  especially  pure  materials,  as 
belonging  to  the  most  important  ingre- 
dients of  glassy  bodies,  are  used,  and 
certain  quantities  of  red  lead  and  borax 
are  also  added. 

GEM  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Jewelers'  Ce- 
ments. 

GERMAN  SILVER: 
See  Alloys. 

GERMAN  SILVER  SOLDERS: 

See  Solders. 

GILDING: 

See  Paints,  Plating,  and  Varnishes. 

GILDING  GLASS: 
See  Glass. 

GILDING,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

GILDING,  RENOVATION  OF: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

GILDING  SUBSTITUTE: 

See  Plating. 

GILT,  TEST  FOR: 
See  Gold. 

GILT  WORK,  TO  BURNISH: 

See  Gold. 


GLASS 


371 


GINGERADE: 
See  Beverages. 

GINGER  ALE  AND  GINGER  BEER: 

See  Beverages. 

GINGER  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

GINGER  EXTRACTS: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

Glass 

Bent  Glass. — This  was  formerly  used 
for  show  cases;  its  uce  in  store  fronts  is 
becoming  more  and  more  familiar,  large 
plates  being  bent  for  this  purpose.  It  is 
much  used  in  the  construction  of  dwell- 
ings, in  windows,  or  rounded  corners, 
and  in  towers;  in  coach  fronts  and  in 
rounded  front  china  closets.  Either  plain 
glass  or  beveled  glass  may  be  bent,  and  to 
any  curve. 

The  number  of  molds  required  in  a 
glass-bending  establishment  is  large. 

The  bending  is  done  in  a  kiln.  Glass 
melts  at  2,300°  F.;  the  heat  employed  in 
bending  is  1 ,800°  F.  No  pyrometer  would 
stand  long  in  that  heat,  so  the  heat  of 
the  kiln  is  judged  from  the  color  of  the 
flame  and  other  indications.  Smaller 
pieces  of  glass  are  put  into  the  molds  in 
the  kilns  with  forks  made  for  the  purpose. 
The  great  molds  used  for  bending  large 
sheets  of  glass  are  mounted  on  cars,  that 
may  be  rolled  in  and  out  of  kilns.  The 
glass  is  laid  upon  the  top  of  the  mold  or 
cavity,  and  is  bent  by  its  own  weight. 
As  it  is  softened  by  the  heat  it  sinks  into 
the  mold  and  so  is  bent.  It  may  take 
an  hour  or  two  to  bend  the  glass,  which 
is  then  left  in  the  kiln  from  24  to  36  hours 
to  anneal  and  cool.  Glass  of  any  kind 
or  size  is  put  into  the  kilns  in  its  finished 
state;  the  great  heat  to  which  it  is  sub- 
jected does  not  disturb  the  polished  sur- 
face. Despite  every  precaution  more 
or  less  glass  is  broken  in  bending.  Bent 
glass  costs  about  50  per  cent  more  than 
the  flat. 

The  uzc  of  bent  glass  is  increasing, 
and  there  are  4  or  5  glass-bending  estab- 
lishments in  the  United  States,  of  which 
one  is  in  the  East. 

Colored  Glass. — R.  Zsigmondy  has 
made  some  interesting  experiments  in 
coloring  glass  with  metallic  sulphides, 
such  as  molybdenite,  and  sulphides  of 
antimony,  copper,  bismuth,  and  nickel. 
Tests  made  with  batches  of  20  to  40 
pounds  and  with  a  heat  not  too  great,  give 
good  results  as  follows: 

Sand,  65  parts;  potash,  15  parts;  soda, 


5  parts;  lime,  9  parts;  molybdenite,  3 
parts;  sulphide  of  sodium,  2  parts,  gave  a 
dark  reddish-brown  glass.  In  thinner 
layers  this  glass  appeared  light  brownish 
yellow.  Flashed  with  opal,  it  became  a 
smutty  black  brown. 

Sand,  50  parts;  potash,  15  parts;  soda, 
5  parts;  lime,  9  parts;  molybdenite,  1  part; 
sulphide  of  sodium,  2  parts,  gave  a  yellow 
glass. 

Sand,  10  parts;  potash,  3. 3  parts;  soda, 
0.27  parts;  lime,  1.64  parts;  molybdenite, 
0.03  parts,  gave  a  reddish-yellow  glass 
with  a  fine  tinge  of  red. 

Sand,  100  parts;  potash,  26  parts;  soda, 
108  parts;  lime,  12  parts;  sulphide  of  cop- 
per, 1.7  parts;  sulphide  of  sodium,  2.3 
parts,  gave  a  dark-brown  color,  varying 
from  sepia  to  sienna.  In  thick  layers  it 
was  no  longer  transparent,  but  still  clear 
and  unclouded.  When  heated  this  glass 
became  smutty  black  brown  and  clouded. 

A  fine  copper  red  was  obtained  from 
sand,  10  parts;  potash,  3  parts;  lime,  1.2 
parts;  soda,  0.25  parts;  sulphide  of  cop- 
per, 7.5  parts;  sulphide  of  sodium,  10.5 
parts;  borax,  9.5  parts. 

Attempts  to  color  with  sulphides  of 
antimony  and  bismuth  failed.  But  the 
addition  of  7  per  cent  of  sulphide  of 
nickel  to  an  ordinary  batch  gave  a  glass 
of  fine  amethyst  color. 

Coloring  Electric-Light  Bulbs  and 
Globes. — Two  substances  suggest  them- 
selves as  excellent  vehicles  of  color,  and 
both  water  soluble — water  glass  (po- 
tassium or  sodium  silicate)  and  gelatin. 
For  tinting,  water-soluble  aniline  colors 
should  be  tried.  The  thickness  of  the 
solution  must  be  a  matter  of  experimenta- 
tion. Prior  to  dipping  the  globes  they 
should  be  made  as  free  as  possible  from 
all  grease,  dirt,  etc.  The  gelatin  solu- 
tion should  not  be  so  thick  that  any 
appreciable  layer  of  it  will  form  on  the 
surface  of  the  glass,  and  to  prevent 
cracking,  some  non-drying  material 
should  be  added  to  it,  say  glycerine. 

Rose-Tint  Glass. — Selenium  is  now 
used  for  coloring  glass.  Rose-tinted 
glass  is  made  by  adding  selenium  directly 
to  the  ingredients  in  the  melting  pot. 
By  mixing  first  with  cadmium  sulphide, 
orange  red  is  produced.  This  process 
is  stated  not  to  require  the  reheating  of 
the  glass  and  its  immersion  in  the  color- 
ing mixture,  as  in  the  ordinary  process 
of  making  red  glass. 

CUTTING,  DRILLING,  GRINDING.  AND 
SHAPING  GLASS: 

To  Cut  Glass.— I.— Glass  may  be  cut 
without  a  diamond.  Dip  a  piece  of 


372 


GLASS 


common  string  in  alcohol  and  squeeze 
it  reasonably  dry.  Then  tie  the  string 
tightly  around  the  glass  on  the  line  of 
cutting.  Touch  a  match  to  the  string 
and  let  it  burn  off.  The  heat  of  the 
burning  string  will  weaken  the  glass  in 
this  particular  place.  While  it  is  hot 
plunge  the  glass  under  water,  letting  the 
arm  go  well  under  to  the  elbow,  so  there 
will  be  no  vibration  when  the  glass  is 
struck.  With  the  free  hand  strike  the 
glass  outside  the  line  of  cutting,  giving  a 
quick,  sharp  stroke  with  a  stick  of  wood, 
a  long-bladed  knife,  or  the  like,  and  the 
cut  will  be  as  clean  and  straight  as  if 
made  by  a  regular  glass  cutter. 

The  same  principle  may  be  employed 
to  cut  bottles  into  vases,  and  to  form  all 
sorts  of  pretty  things,  such  as  jewelry 
boxes,  picture  panes,  trays,  small  tablets, 
windows  for  a  doll  house,  etc. 

II. — Scratch  the  glass  around  the 
shape  you  desire  with  the  corner  of  a  file 
or  graver;  then,  having  bent  a  piece  of 
wire  into  the  sa^me  shape,  heat  it  red  hot 
and  lay  it  upon  the  scratch  and  sink  the 
glass  into  cold  water  just  deep  enough 
for  the  water  to  come  almost  on  a  level 
with  its  upper  surface.  It  will  rarely 
fail  to  break  perfectly  true. 

To  Cut  Glass  Under  Water.— It  is 
possible  to  cut  a  sheet  of  glass  roughly 
to  any  desired  shape  with  an  ordinary 
pair  of  scissors,  if  tne  operation  be  per- 
formed under  water.  Of  course,  a 
smooth  edge  cannot  be  obtained  by  such 
means,  but  it  will  be  found  satisfactory. 

Drilling,  Shaping,  and  Filing  Glass. — 
Take  any  good  piece  of  steel  wire, 
file  to  the  shape  of  a  drill,  and  then  hold 
it  in  a  flame  till  it  is  at  a  dull  red  heat; 
then  quench  in  metallic  mercury.  A 
piece  of  good  steel,  thus  treated,  will  bore 
through  glass  almost  as  easily  as  through 
soft  brass.  In  use,  lubricate  with  oil  of 
turpentine  in  which  camphor  has  been 
dissolved.  When  the  point  of  the  drill 
has  touched  the  other  side  put  the  glass 
in  water,  and  proceed  with  the  drilling 
very  slowly.  If  not  possible  to  do  this, 
reverse  the  work — turn  the  glass  over 
and  drill,  very  carefully,  from  the  op- 
posite side.  By  proceeding  with  care 
you  can  easily  drill  three  holes  through 

flass  yV  inch  thick  \  of  an  inch  apart, 
n  making  the  drill  be  careful  not  to  make 
the  point  and  the  cutting  edges  too  acute. 
The  drill  cuts  more  slowly,  but  more  safe- 
ly, when  the  point  and  cutting  edges  are 
at  a  low  angle. 

To  Make  Holes  in  Thin  Glass.— To 
produce  holes  in  panes  of  thin  or  weak 


glass,  provide  the  places  to  be  perforated 
with  a  ring  of  moist  loam,  whose  center 
leaves  free  a  portion  of  glass  exactly  the 
size  of  the  desired  hole.  Pour  molten 
lead  into  the  ring,  and  the  glass  and  lead 
will  fall  through  at  once.  This  process 
is  based  upon  the  rapid  heating  of  the 
glass. 

To  Grind  Glass. — For  the  grinding  of 
glass,  iron,  or  steel  laps  and  fine  sand 
are  first  used;  after  that,  the  sand  is  re- 
placed by  emery.  Then  the  polishing 
is  started  with  pure  lead  or  pure  tin  laps, 
and  finished  with  willow  wood  laps.  The 
polishing  powder  is  tin  putty,  but  per- 
oxide of  iron  or  dioxide  of  tin  is  a  good 
polishing  medium. 

Pohl  asserts  that  if  glass  is  polished 
with  crocus  (Paris  red)  it  appears  of  a 
dark  or  a  yellowish-brown  tint.  He  con- 
tends that  the  crocus  enters  the  pores  of 
the  glass,  and,  to  prevent  this,  he  uses 
zinc  white  with  the  most  satisfactory 
results. 

A  Home -Made  Outfit  for  Grinding 
Glass. — Provide  two  pieces  of  cork,  one 
concave  and  one  convex  (which  may  be 
cut  to  shape  after  fitting  to  the  lathe). 
Take  a  copper  cent  or  other  suitable 
article  and  soft-solder  a  screw  to  fit  the 
lathe,  and  then  wax  it  to  the  cork;  get  a 
cheap  emery  wheel,  such  as  is  used  on 
sewing  machines.  Polish  the  edge  on 
the  zinc  collar  of  the  emery  wheel  (or  use 
a  piece  of  zinc).  The  other  cork  should 
be  waxed  to  a  penny  and  centered. 
Spectacle  lenses  may  be  cut  on  the  same 
emery  wheel  if  the  wheel  is  attached  to 
the  lathe  so  as  to  revolve.  Another 
method  is  to  take  a  common  piece  of 
window  glass  (green  glass  is  the  best) 
and  make  a  grindstone  of  that,  using  the 
flat  surface  for  grinding.  Cement  it  on 
a  large  chuck,  the  glass  being  from  2  to 
2 \  inches  in  diameter. 

To  Drill  Optical  Glass. — A  graver 
sharpened  to  a  long  point  is  twisted 
between  the  fingers,  and  pressed  against 
the  glass,  the  point  being  moistened 
from  time  to  time  with  turpentine. 
When  the  hole  is  finished  half  way,  the 
drilling  should  be  commenced  from  the 
other  side.  The  starting  should  be  be- 
gun with  care,  as  otherwise  the  graver 
is  likely  to  slide  out  and  scratch  the  lens. 
It  is  advisable  to  mark  the  point  of  drill- 
ing with  a  diamond,  and  not  to  apply 
too  great  a  pressure  when  twisting  the 
graver. 

Lubricants  for  Glass  Drilling. — I. — 
Put  garlic,  chopped  in  small  pieces,  into 
spirit  of  turpentine  and  agitate  the  mix- 


GLASS 


373 


ture  from  time  to  time.  Filter  at  the  end 
of  a  fortnight,  and  when  you  desire  to 
pierce  the  glass  dip  your  bit  or  drill  into 
this  liquid,  taking  care  to  moisten  it 
constantly  to  prevent  the  drill,  etc.,  from 
becoming  heated. 

II. — Place  a  little  alum  in  acetic  acid, 
dip  your  drill  into  this  and  put  a  drop 
of  it  on  the  spot  where  the  glass  is  to  be 
pierced. 

GILDING   GLASS. 

When  it  is  desired  to  gild  glass  for 
decorative  purposes  use  a  solution  of 
gelatin  in  hot  water,  to  which  an  equal 
quantity  of  alcohol  has  been  added. 
The  glass  to  be  gilded  is  covered  with 
this  solution  and  the  gold  leaf  put  on 
while  wet.  A  sheet  of  soft  cotton  must 
be  pressed  and  smoothed  over  the  leaf 
until  the  gelatin  below  is  evenly  distrib- 
uted. This  prevents  spots  in  gilding. 
Careful  apportionment  of  the  gelatin  is 
necessary.  If  too  much  be  used,  the  gold 
may  become  spotted;  if  too  little,  the 
binding  may  be  too  weak  to  allow  the 
gold  to  be  polished.  The  glass  should 
be  cleaned  thoroughly  before  gilding. 
After  the  gold  leaf  is  put  on  the  whole 
is  allowed  to  dry  for  10  or  20  minutes, 
when  the  luster  of  the  gold  can  be  raised 
by  a  cautious  rubbing  with  cotton.  Then 
another  layer  of  gelatin  is  spread  on  with 
one  stroke  of  a  soft  brush,  and,  if  espe- 
cially good  work  be  required,  a  second 
layer  of  gold  is  put  on  and  covered  as 
before.  In  this  case,  however,  the  gela- 
tin is  used  hot.  After  the  gilding  has 
become  perfectly  dry  the  letters  or  orna- 
mentation are  drawn  and  the  surplus 
gold  around  the  edges  is  taken  off.  The 
gilding  docs  not  become  thoroughly  fixed 
until  after  several  months,  and  until  then 
rough  handling,  washing,  etc.,  should  be 
avoided. 

The  best  backing  for  glass  gilding  is 
asphaltum,  with  a  little  lampblack,  this 
to  be  mixed  up  with  elastic  varnish; 
outside  finishing  varnish  is  the  best,  as 
the  addition  of  this  material  gives  dur- 
ability. 

GLASS   MANUFACTURING: 

See  also  Ceramics. 

The  blue  tint  of  the  common  poison 
bottle  is  got  by  the  addition  of  black 
oxide  of  cobalt  to  the  molten  glass;  the 
green  tint  of  the  actinic  glass  bottle  is 
obtained  in  the  same  way  by  the  ad- 
dition of  potassium  bichromate,  which 
is  reduced  to  the  basylous  condition,  and 
the  amber  tint  is  produced  by  the  ad- 
dition of  impure  manganese  dioxide,  a 
superior  tint  beirrg  produced  by  suphur 


in  one  form  or  another.  The  .formulas 
for  various  kinds  of  bottle  glass,  which 
indicate  the  general  composition  of 
almost  all  glasses,  are: 

White    Glass     for    Ordinary    Molded 
Bottles.— 
Sand. . 


64T 

Lime..  6 


Parts 


Carbonate  of  sodium...    23  f       .\. 
Nitrate  of  sodium 5  J  wei^ht' 

White  Flint  Glass  Containing  Lead.— 

Sand 63^ 

Lime -  5  I    Parts 

Carbonate  of  sodium  ....    21  >-     by 

Nitrate  of  sodium 3  I  weight. 

Red  lead 8J 

Ordinary  Green  Glass  for  Dispensing 
Bottles.— 

Sand 63^1  Parts 

Carbonate  of  sodium  ....    26  j-     by 

Lime llj  weight. 

A  mixture  for  producing  a  good  green 
flint  glass  is  much  the  same  as  that  for 
the  ordinary  white  flint  glass,  except  that 
the  lime,  instead  of  being  the  purest,  is 
ordinary  slaked  lime,  and  the  sodium 
nitrate  is  omitted.  Sand,  lime,  and 
sodium  carbonate  are  the  ordinary  bases 
of  glass,  while  the  sodium  nitrate  is  the 
decolorizing  agent. 

Glass  Refractory  to  Heat. — Fine  sand, 
70  parts;  potash,  30  parts;  kaolin,  25 
parts. 

Transparent  Ground  Glass. — Take  hold 
of  the  glass  by  one  corner  with  .  an 
ordinary  pair  of  fire  tongs.  Hold  it  in 
front  of  a  clear  fire,  and  heat  to  about 
98°  F.,  or  just  hot  enough  to  be  held 
comfortably  in  the  hand.  Then  hold 
the  glass  horizontally,  ground  side  upper- 
most, and  pour  in  the  center  a  little 
photographer's  dry-plate  negative  var- 
nish. Tilt  the  glass  so  that  the  varnish 
spreads  over  it  evenly,  then  drain  back 
the  surplus  varnish  into  the  bottle  from 
one  corner  of  the  glass.  Hold  the  glass 
in  front  of  the  fire  again  for  a  few  minutes 
and  the  varnish  will  crystallize  on  its 
surface,  making  it  transparent.  The 
glass  should  not  be  made  too  hot  before 
the  varnish  is  put  on,  or  the  varnish  will 
not  run  evenly.  This  method  answers 
very  well  for  self-made  magic-lantern 
slides.  Ground  glass  may  be  made 
temporarily  transparent  by  wiping  with 
a  sponge  dipped  in  paraffine  or  glycerine. 

WATER-TIGHT  GLASS: 

Water-Tight  Glass  Roofs.— Glass  roofs, 
the  skeletons  of  which  are  constructed 


374 


GLASS 


of  iron,  are  extremely  difficult  to  keep 
water-tight,  as  the  iron  expands  and 
contracts  with  atmospheric  changes. 
To  meet  this  evil,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
an  elastic  putty,  which  follows  the  vari- 
ations of  the  iron.  A  good  formula  is: 
Two  parts  rosin  and  one  part  tallow, 
melted  together  and  stirred  together 
thoroughly  with  a  little  minium.  This 
putty  is  applied  hot  upon  strips  of  linen 
or  cotton  cloth,  on  top  and  below,  and 
these  are  pasted  while  the  putty  is  still 
warm,  with  one  edge  on  the  iron  ribs  and 
the  other,  about  one-fourth  inch  broad, 
over  the  glass. 

Tightening  Agent  for  Acid  Receptacles. 
— Cracked  vessels  of  glass  or  porcelain, 
for  use  in  keeping  acids,  can  be  made 
tight  by  applying  a  cement  prepared  in 
the  following  manner:  Take  finely  sifted 
sand,  some  asbestos  with  short  fiber,  a 
little  magnesia  and  add  enough  con- 
centrated water  glass  to  obtain  a  readily 
kneadable  mass.  The  acid  renders  the 
putty  firm  and  waterproof. 

PENCILS  FOR  MARKING  GLASS: 

See  also  Etching  and  Frosted  Glass. 

Crayons  for  Writing  on  Glass. — I. — 
The  following  is  a  good  formula: 

Spermaceti 4  parts 

Tallow 3  parts 

Wax 2  parts 

Red  lead 6  parts 

Potassium  carbonate.      1  part 

Melt  the  spermaceti,  tallow,  and  wax 
together  over  a  slow  fire,  and  when 
melted  stir  in,  a  little  at  a  time,  the 
potassium  carbonate  and  red  lead,  previ- 
ously well  mixed.  Continue  the  heat  for 
20  or  30  minutes,  stirring  constantly. 
Withdraw  from  the  source  of  heat,  and  let 
cool  down  somewhat,  under  constant  stir- 
ring, at  the  temperature  of  about  180°  F. ; 
before  the  mixture  commences  to  set, 
pour  off  into  molds  and  let  cool.  The 
latter  may  be  made  of  bits  of  glass  tubing 
of  convenient  diameter  and  length. 
After  the  mixture  cools,  drive  the  crayons 
out  by  means  of  a  rod  that  closely  fits 
the  diameter  of  the  tubes. 

II.— Take  sulphate  of  copper,  1  part, 
and  whiting,  1  part.  Reduce  these  to  a 
fine  powder  and  mix  with  water;  next 
roll  this  paste  into  the  shape  of  crayons 
and  let  dry.  When  it  is  desired  to  write 
on  the  glass  use  one  of  these  crayons  and 
wipe  the  traced  designs.  To  make  them 
reappear  breathe  on  the  glass. 

III. — Melt  together,  spermaceti,  3 
parts;  talc,  3  parts,  and  wax,  2  parts. 
When  melted  stir  in  6  parts  of  minium 


and  1  part  of  caustic  potash.  Continue 
heating  for  30  minutes,  then  cast  in  suit- 
able molds.  When  formed  and  ready  to 
be  put  away  dust  them  with  talc  pow- 
der, or  roll  each  pencil  in  paraffine 
powder. 

PREVENTION    OF     FOGGING,     DIM- 
MING, AND  CLOUDING. 

I. — Place  a  few  flat  glass  or  porcelain 
dishes  with  calcium  chloride  in  each 
window.  This  substance  eagerly  ab- 
sorbs all  moisture  from  the  air.  The 
contents  of  the  dishes  have  to  be  re- 
newed every  2  or  3  days,  and  the  moist 
calcium  chloride  rigorously  dried,  where- 
upon it  may  be  used  over  again. 

II. — Apply  to  the  inside  face  of  the 
glass  a  thin  layer  of  glycerine,  which 
does  not  permit  the  vapor  to  deposit  in 
fine  drops  and  thus  obstruct  the  light. 
Double  glass  may  also  be  used.  In  this 
way  the  heat  of  the  inside  is  not  in  direct 
contact  with  the  cold  outside. 

III. — By  means  of  the  finger  slightly 
moistened,  apply  a  film  of  soap  of  any 
brand  or  kind  to  the  mirror;  then,  rub 
this  off  with  a  clean,  dry  cloth;  the 
mirror  will  be  as  bright  and  clear  as  ever; 
breathing  on  it  will  not  affect  its  clear- 
ness. 

IV. — Window  glass  becomes  dull  dur- 
ing storage  by  reason  of  the  presence  of 
much  alkali.  This  can  be  avoided  by 
taking  sand,  160  parts;  calcined  sodium 
sulphate,  75;  powdered  marble,  50;  and 
coke,  4  to  5  parts.  About  3  parts  of  the 
sodium  sulphate  may  be  replaced  by  an 
equal  quantity  of  potash. 

FROSTED  GLASS. 

I. — A  frosted  appearance  may  be 
given  to  glass  by  covering  it  with  a 
mixture  of 

Magnesium  sulphate.      6  ounces 

Dextrin 2  ounces 

Water 20  ounces 

When  this  solution  dries,  the  magne- 
sium sulphate  crystallizes  in  fine  needles. 

II. — Another  formula  directs  a  strong 
solution  of  sodium  or  magnesium  sul- 
phate, applied  warm,  and  afterwards 
coated  with  a  thin  solution  of  acacia. 

III. — A  more  permanent  "frost"  may 
be  put  on  the  glass  by  painting  with 
white  lead  and  oil,  either  smooth  or  in 
stipple  effect.  The  use  of  lead  acetate 
with  oil  gives  a  more  pleasing  effect, 
perhaps,  than  the  plain  white  lea,d. 

IV. — If  still  greater  permanency  is 
desired,  the  glass  may  be  ground  by 
rubbing  with  some  gritty  substance. 


GLASS 


375 


V. — For  a  temporary  frosting,  dip  a 
piece  of  flat  marble  into  glass  cutter's 
sharp  sand,  moistened  with  water;  rub 
over  the  glass,  dipping  frequently  in 
sand  and  water.  If  the  frosting  is  re- 
quired very  fine,  finish  off  with  emery 
and  water.  Mix  together  a  strong,  hot 
solution  of  Epsom  salt  and  a  clear  solu- 
tion of  gum  arabic;  apply  warm.  Or 
use  a  strong  solution  of  sodium  sulphate, 
warm,  and  when  cool,  wash  with  gum 
water.  Or  daub  the  glass  with  a  lump 
of  glazier's  putty,  carefully  and  uniform- 
ly, until  the  surface  is  equally  covered. 
This  is  an  excellent  imitation  of  ground 
glass,  and  is  not  disturbed  by  rain  or 
damp. 

VI. — This  imitates  ground  glass: 

Sandarac 2£  ounces 

Mastic |  ounce 

Ether 24     ounces 

Benzine 16  to  18    ounces 

VII.  — Take  white  lead  ground  in  a  mix- 
ture of  £  varnish  and  £  oil  of  turpentine, 
to  which  burnt  white  vitriol  and  white 
sugar  of  lead  are  added  for  drier.  The 
paint  must  be  prepared  exceedingly  thin 
and  applied  to  the  glass  evenly,  using 
a  broad  brush.  If  the  windows  require 
a  new  coat,  the  old  one  is  first  removed 
by  the  use  of  a  strong  lye,  or  else  apply 
a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  acid,  2  parts; 
vitriol,  2  parts;  copper  sulphate,  1  part; 
and  gum  arabic  1  part,  by  means  of  a 
brush.  The  production  of  this  imitation 
frosting  entails  little  expense  and  is  of 
special  advantage  when  a  temporary  use 
of  the  glass  is  desired. 

VIII.— A  little  Epsom  salt  (sulphate  of 
magnesia)  stirred  in  beer  with  a  small 
dose  of  dextrin  and  applied  on  the  panes 
by  means  of  a  sponge  or  a  brush  permits 
of  obtaining  mat  panes. 

Hoarfrost  Glass. — The  feathery  foams 
traced  by  frost  on  the  inside  of  the 
windows  in  cold  weather  may  be  imitated 
as  follows: 

The  surface  is  first  ground  either  by 
sand-blast  or  the  ordinary  method,  and 
is  then  covered  with  a  sort  of  varnish. 
On  being  dried  either  in  the  sun  or  by 
artificial  heat,  the  varnish  contracts 
strongly,  taking  with  it  the  particles  of 
glass  to  which  it  adheres;  and  as  the  con- 
traction takes  places  along  definite  lines, 
the  pattern  given  by  the  removal  of  the 
particles  of  glass  resembles  very  closely 
the  branching  crystals  of  frostwork.  A 
single  coat  gives  a  small,  delicate  effect, 
while  a  thick  film,  formed  by  putting  on 
2,  3  or  more  coats,  contracts  so  strongly 
as  to  produce  a  large  and  bold  design. 


By  using  colored  glass,  a  pattern  in 
half-tint  may  be  made  on  the  colored 
ground,  and  after  decorating  white  glass, 
the  back  may  be  silvered  or  gilded. 

Engraving,  Matting,  and  Frosting.— 
Cover  the  glass  with  a  layer  of  wax  or  of 
varnish  on  which  the  designs  are  traced 
with  a  graver  or  pen-point;  next,  hydro- 
fluoric acid  is  poured  on  the  tracings. 
This  acid  is  very  dangerous  to  handle, 
while  the  following  process,  though  fur- 
nishing the  same  results,  does  not  present 
this  drawback:  Take  powdered  fluoride 
of  lime,  1  part,  and  sulphuric  acid,  2  parts. 
Make  a  homogeneous  paste,  which  is 
spread  on  the  parts  reserved  for  the 
engraving  or  frosting.  At  the  end  of 
3  or  4  hours  wash  with  water  to  remove 
the  acid,  next  with  alcohol  to  take  off 
the  varnish,  or  with  essence  of  turpen- 
tine if  wax  has  been  employed  for  stop- 
ping off. 

To  Render  Window  Panes  Opaque.— 
I. — Panes  may  be  rendered  mat  and 
non-transparent  by  painting  them  on  one 
side  with  a  liquid  prepared  by  grinding 
whiting  with  potash  water-glass  solution. 
After  one  or  two  applications,  the  panes 
are  perfectly  opaque,  while  admitting  the 
light. 

II. — Paint  the  panes  with  a  solution  of 

Dextrin 20(n      p 

Zinc  vitriol 800  ( 

Bitter  salt 800  f         .y,  . 

In  water 2,000  J     wei^ht- 

III. — For  deadening  panes  already  set 
in  frames  the  following  is  suitable:  Dis- 
solve 1  part  of  wax  in  10  parts  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  adding  1  part  of  varnish  and 
1  part  of  siccative.  With  this  mixture 
coat  the  panes  on  the  outside  and  dab, 
while  still  wet,  with  a  pad  of  cotton 
wadding.  If  desired  small  quantities  of 
Paris  blue,  madder  lake,  etc.,  may  be 
added  to  the  wax  solution. 

IV. — For  deadening  window  panes  in 
factories  and  workshops:  To  beeswax 
dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine,  add  some 
dryer  and  varnish  to  obtain  a  quicker 
drying  and  hardening.  After  the  win- 
dow pane  has  been  coated  with  this 
mixture  on  the  outside,  it  is  dabbed 
uniformly  with  a  pad  of  wadding.  The 
wax  may  be  tinted  with  glazing  colors. 

Frosted  Mirrors.— I.— Cover  with  a 
solution  of  Epsom  salts  in  stale  beer; 
apply  with  a  sponge  to  the  mirror,  first 
wiping  it  clean  and  dry.  On  drying,  the 
Epsom  salt  crystallizes,  giving  very  hand- 
some frosted  effects,  but  the  solution 
must  not  be  applied  on  humid  days 


376 


GLASS 


when  the  glass  is  liable  to  be  damp,  for 
in  that  case  the  effect  will  be  a  blurred 
one.  When  it  is  desirable  to  remove 
the  coating,  lukewarm  water  will  serve 
the  purpose  without  damage  to  the 
luster  of  the  mirror. 

II. — The  following  mixture,  when 
applied  to  a  mirror  and  left  to  dry,  will 
form  in  many  shapes,  all  radiating  from 
a  focus,  this  focus  forming  anywhere  on 
the  glass,  and  when  all  dry  tends  to  form 
a  most  pleasing  object  to  the  eye. 

Sour  ale 4  ounces 

Magnesium  sulphate.    1  ounce 

Put  on  the  mirror  with  a  small,  clean 
sponge  and  let  dry.  It  is  now  ready 
for  the  artist,  and  he  may  choose  his  own 
colors  and  subject. 

Crystalline  Coatings  or  Frostwork  on 
Glass  or  Paper. — Dissolve  a  small  quan- 
tity of  dextrin  (gum  arabic  and  trag- 
acanth  are  not  so  suitable)  in  aqueous 
salt  solution  as  concentrated  as  possible, 
for  instance,  m  sulphate  of  magnesia 
(bitter  salt),  sulphate  of  zinc  or  any 
other  readily  crystallizing  salt;  filter  the 
solution  through  white  blotting  paper 
and  coat  glass  panes  uniformly  thin  with 
the  clear  filtrate,  using  a  fine,  broad 
badger  brush;  leave  them  lying  at  an 
ordinary  medium  temperature  about  one- 
quarter  hour  in  a  horizontal  position. 

As  the  water  slowly  evaporates  during 
this  short  time,  handsome  crystalline 
patterns,  closely  resembling  frostwork, 
will  develop  gradually  on  the  glass  panes, 
which  adhere  so  firmly  to  the  glass  or  the 
paper  (if  well-sized  glazed  paper  had 
been  used)  that  they  will  not  rub  off 
easily.  They  can  be  permanently  fixed 
by  a  subsequent  coat  of  alcoholic  shellac 
solution. 

Especially  handsome  effects  are  pro- 
duced with  colored  glass  panes  thus 
treated,  and  in  the  case  of  reflected  light 
by  colored  paper. 

For  testing  crystals  as  regards  their 
optical  behavior,  among  others  their 
behavior  to  polarized  light,  it  is  sufficient 
to  pour  a  solution  of  collodion  wool 
(soluble  peroxide  lime  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  collodion)  over  the  surface  of 
glass  with  the  crystalline  designs,  and  to 
pull  off  the  dry  collodion  film  care- 
fully. If  this  is  done  cautiously  it  is  not 
difficult  to  lift  the  whole  crystalline 
group  from  the  glass  plate  and  to  in- 
corporate it  with  the  glass-like,  thin 
collodion  film. 

REMOVING  WINDOW  FROST. 

Here  are  fourteen  methods  of  prevent- 
ing frost  on  windows,  arranged  in  the 


order  of  their  efficacy:  1,  Flame  of  an  alco- 
hol lamp;  2,  sulphuric  acid;  3,  aqua 
ammonia;  4,  glycerine;  5,  aqua  regia;  6, 
hydrochloric  acid;  7,  benzine;  8,  hydri- 
oaic  acid;  9,  boric  acid;  10,  alcohol;  11, 
nitric  acid;  12,  cobalt  nitrate;  13,  in- 
fusion of  nutgalls;  14,  tincture  of  ferrous 
sulphate.  By  the  use  of  an  alcohol  lamp 
(which,  of  course,  has  to  be  handled  with 
great  care)  the  results  are  immediate, 
and  the  effect  more  nearly  permanent 
than  by  any  other  methods.  The  sul- 
phuric acid  application  is  made  with  a 
cotton  cloth  swab,  care  being  taken  not 
to  allow  any  dripping,  and  so  with  all 
other  acids.  The  effect  of  the  aqua 
ammonia  is  almost  instantaneous,  but  the 
window  is  frosted  again  in  a  short  time. 
With  the  glycerine  there  are  very  good 
results — but  slight  stains  on  the  window 
which  may  be  easily  removed. 

The  instructions  for  glycerine  are: 
Dissolve  2  ounces  of  glycerine  in  1  quart 
of  62  per  cent  alcohol  containing,  to 
improve  the  odor,  some  oil  of  amber. 
When  the  mixture  clarifies  it  is  rubbed 
over  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass.  This, 
it  is  claimed,  not  only  prevents  the 
formation  of  frost,  but  also  prevents 
sweating. 

To  Prevent  Dimming  of  Eyeglasses, 
etc. — Mix  olein-potash  soap  with  about 
3  per  cent  of  glycerine  and  a  little  oil 
turpentine.  Similar  mixtures  have  also 
been  recommended  for  polishing  physi- 
cians' reflectors,  show-windows,  etc.,  to 
prevent  dimming. 

WRITING  ON  GLASS: 

See  also  Etching  and  Inks. 

Composition  for  Writing  on  Glass. — 
To  obtain  mat  designs  on  glass,  take 
sodium  fluoride,  35  parts;  potassium  sul- 
phate, 7  parts;  zinc  chloride,  15  parts; 
hydrochloric  acid,  65  parts;  distilled 
water,  1,000  parts.  Dissolve  the  sodium 
fluoride  and  the  potassium  sulphate  in 
half  the  water;  dissolve  the  zinc  chloride 
in  the  remaining  water  and  add  the 
hydrochloric  acid.  Preserve  these  two 
solutions  separately.  For  use,  mix  a 
little  of  each  solution  and  write  on  the 
glass  with  a  pen  or  brush. 

Ink  for  Writing  on  Glass. — 

Shellac 20  parts 

Alcohol 150  parts 

Borax 35  parts 

Water 250  parts 

Water  -  soluble    dye     sufficient     to 

color. 

Dissolve  the  shellac  in  the  alcohol,  the 
borax  in  the  water,  and  pour  the  shellac 


GLASS— GLAZES 


377 


solution  slowly  into  that  of  the  borax. 
Then  add  the  coloring  matter  previously 
dissolved  in  a  little  water. 

GLASS   AND   GLASSWARE   CEMENT: 
See  Adhesives  and  Amalgams. 

GLASS  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

GLASS,  COPPERING,  GILDING,  AND 
PLATING: 

See  Plating. 

GLASS  ETCHING: 

See  Etching. 

GLASS,  HOW  TO  AFFIX  SIGN-LET- 
TERS ON: 

See     Adhesives     under     Sign-Letter 
Cements. 

GLASS,  FASTENING  METALS  ON: 
See  Adhesives. 

GLASS  LETTERING: 
See  Lettering. 

GLASS  LUBRICANTS: 

See  Lubricants. 

GLASS,  PERCENTAGE  OF  LIGHT  AB- 
SORBED BY: 

See  Light. 

GLASS  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

GLASS,  SILVERING  OF: 
See  Mirrors. 

GLASS  SOLDERS: 

See  Solders. 

GLASS,  SOLUBLE,  AS  A  CEMENT: 
See  Adhesives. 

GLASS,  TO  AFFIX  PAPER  ON: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Water-Glass 
Cements. 

GLASS,  TO  SILVER: 

See  Silver. 

Glazes 

(See  also  Ceramics,  Enamels,  Paints, 
and  Varnishes.) 

Glazes  for  Cooking  Vessels. — Melt  a 
frit  of  red  lead,  22.9  parts  (by  weight); 
crystallized  boracic  acid,  31  parts; 
enamel  soda,  42.4  parts;  cooking  salt,  10 
parts;  gravel,  12  parts;  feldspar,  8  parts. 
According  to  the  character  of  the  clay, 
this  frit  is  mixed  with  varying  quantities 
of  sand,  feldspar  and  kaolin,  in  the 
following  manner: 


Frit 84         84         84         84 

Red  lead 1.5        1.5        1.5        1.5 

Gravel 8  6  3 

Feldspar —  25  8 

Kaolin,  burnt .6.5        6.5        6.5        6.5 

Glazes  which  are  produced  without 
addition  of  red  lead  to  the  frit,  are  pre- 
pared as  follows.  Melt  a  frit  of  the 
following  composition:  Red  lead,  22.9 
parts  (by  weight);  boracic  acid  in 
crystals,  24.8  parts;  enamel  soda,  37.1 
parts;  calcined  potash,  6.9  parts;  cook- 
ing salt,  10  parts;  chalk,  10  parts;  gravel, 
12  parts;  feldspar,  8  parts. 

From  the  frit  the  following  glazes  are 
prepared: 

Frit 86.5     86.5     86.5     86.5 

Gravel 7  4.5        3 

Feldspar 2.5        4  7 

Kaolin,  burnt.    6.5       6.5       6.5       6.5 

Glazing  on  Size  Colors. — The  essential 
condition  for  this  work  is  a  well-sized 
foundation.  For  the  glazing  paint,  size 
is  likewise  used  as  a  binder,  but  a  little 
dissolved  soap  is  added,  of  about  the 
strength  employed  for  coating  ceilings. 
Good  veining  can  be  done  with  this,  and 
a  better  effect  can  be  produced  in  execut- 
ing pieces  which  are  to  appear  in  relief, 
such  as  car-touches,  masks,  knobs,  etc., 
than  with  the  ordinary  means.  A  skill- 
ful grainer  may,  also  impart  to  the  work 
the  pleasant  luster  of  natural  wood. 
The  same  glazing  method  is  applicable 
to  colored  paintings.  If  the  glazing 
colors  are  prepared  with  wax,  dissolved 
in  French  turpentine,  one  may  likewise 
glaze  with  them  on  a  size-paint  ground. 
Glazing  tube-oil  colors  thinned  with 
turpentine  and  siccative,  are  also  useful 
for  this  purpose.  For  the  shadows, 
asphalt  and  Van  Dyke  brown  are  recom- 
mended, while  the  contour  may  be 
painted  with  size-paint. 

Coating  Metallic  Surfaces  with  Glass. 
— Metallic  surfaces  may  be  coated  with 
glass  by  melting  together  125  parts  (by 
weight)  of  flint-glass  fragments,  20  parts 
of  sodium  carbonate,  and  12  parts  of 
boracic  acid.  The  molten  mass  is  next 
poured  on  a  hard  and  cold  surface,  stone 
or  metal.  After  it  has  cooled,  it  is  pow- 
dered. Make  a  mixture  of  50°  Be.  of  this 
powder  and  sodium  silicate  (water 
glass).  The  metal  to  be  glazed  is  coated 
with  this  and  heated  in  a  muffle  or  any 
other  oven  until  the  mixture  melts  and 
can  be  evenly  distributed.  This  glass 
coating  adheres  firmly  to  iron  and  steel. 

Gl?ze  for  Bricks. — A  glazing  color  for 
bricks  patented  in  Germany  is  a  compo- 


378 


GLAZES— GLYCERINE 


sition  of  12  parts  (by  weight)  lead;  4  parts 
litharge;  3  parts  quartzose  sand;  4  parts 
white  argillaceous  earth;  2  parts  kitchen 
salt;  2  parts  finely  crushed  glass,  and  1 
part  saltpeter.  These  ingredients  are 
all  reduced  to  a  powder  and  then  mixed 
with  a  suitable  quantity  of  water.  The 
color  prepared  in  this  manner  is  said  to 
possess  great  durability,  and  to  impart  a 
fine  luster  to  the  bricks. 

GLAZES  FOR  LAUNDRY: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

GLOBES,  HOW  TO  COLOR: 

See  Glass-Coloring. 

GLOBES,    PERCENTAGE    OF    LIGHT 
ABSORBED  BY: 

See  Light. 

GLOBES,  SILVERING  OF: 

See  Mirrors. 

GLOSS  FOR  PAPER: 

See  Paper. 

GLOVE -CLEANERS : 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

GLOVES,  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  RUBBER : 

See  Antiseptics. 

GLOVES,  TESTING: 

See  Rubber. 

GLUCOSE  IN  JELLY: 

See  Foods. 

Glue 

(Formulas  for  Glues  and  methods  of 
manufacturing  Glue  will  be  found  under 
Adhesives.) 

Rendering  Glue  Insoluble  in  Water. — 
Stuebling  finds  that  the  usual  mixture  of 
bichromate  and  glue  when  used  in  the 
ordinary  way  does  not  possess  the  water- 
proof properties  with  which  it  is  gener- 
ally credited.  If  mixed  in  the  daylight, 
it  sets  hard  before  it  can  be  applied  to 
the  surfaces  to  be  glued,  and  if  mixed 
and  applied  in  the  dark  room  it  remains 
just  as  soluble  as  ordinary  glue,  the 
light  being  unable  to  penetrate  the  in- 
terior of  the  joints.  Neither  is  a  mixture 
of  linseed  oil  and  glue  of  any  use  for  this 
purpose.  Happening  to  upset  a  strong 
solution  of  alum — prepared  for  wood 
staining — into  an  adjacent  glue  pot,  he 
stirred  up  the  two  together  out  of 
curiosity  and  left  them.  Wishing  to  use 
the  glue  a  few  days  later,  he  tried  to 
thin  it  down  with  water,  but  unsuccess- 
fully, the  glue  having  set  to  a  waterproof 
mass.  Fresh  glue  was  then  mixed  with 
alum  solution  and  used  to  join  two 
pieces  of  wood,  these  resisting  the  action 
of  the  water  completely. 


To  Bleach  Glue. — Dissolve  the  glue  in 
water,  by  heat,  and  while  hot,  add  a 
mixture  in  equal  parts  of  oxalic  acid  and 
zinc  oxide,  to  an  amount  equal  to  about 
1  per  cent  of  the  glue.  After  the  color 
has  been  removed,  strain  through  muslin. 

Method  of  Purifying  Glue.— The  glue 
is  soaked  in  cold  water  and  dissolved  in  a 
hot  25  per  cent  solution  of  magnesium 
sulphate.  The  hot  solution  is  filtered, 
and  to  the  filtrate  is  added  a  25  per  cent, 
solution  of  magnesium  sulphate  con- 
taining 0.5  per  cent  of  hydrochloric  acid 
(or,  if  necessary,  sulphuric  acid).  A 
white  flocculent  precipitate  is  obtained 
which  is  difficult  to  filter.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  glue  in  the  saline  solution 
is  extracted  by  treatment  with  magnesium 
sulphate. 

The  viscous  matter  is  washed,  then 
dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  allowed  to 
cool,  a  quantity  of  weak  alcohol  acid- 
ulated by  1  per  cent  of  hydrochloric  acid 
being  added  just  before  the  mass  solidi- 
fies. From  2  to  3  parts,  by  volume,  of 
strong  alcohol  (methyl  or  ethyl)  are 
then  added  and  the  solution  filtered, 
charcoal  being  used  if  necessary.  The 
glue  is  finally  precipitated  from  this 
solution  by  neutralizing  with  ammonia 
and  washing  with  alcohol  or  water. 

To  Distinguish  Glue  and  Other  Ad- 
hesive Agents. — The  product  to  be  ex- 
amined is  heated  with  hydrofluoric  acid 
(50  per  cent).  If  bone  glue  is  present  in 
any  reasonable  quantity,  an  intense  odor 
of  butyric  acid  arises  at  once,  similar 
to  that  of  Limburger  cheese.  But  if 
dextrin  or  gum  arabic  is  present,  only 
an  odor  of  dextrine  or  fluorhydric  acid 
will  be  perceptible.  Conduct  the  re- 
action with  small  quantities;  otherwise 
the  smell  will  be  so  strong  that  it  is  hard 
to  remove  from  the  room. 

GLUE  CLARIFIER: 
See  Gelatin. 

Glycerine 

Recovering  Glycerine  from  Soap  Boil- 
er's Lye. — I. — Glycerine  is  obtained  as 
a  by-product  in  making  soap.  For 
many  years  the  lyes  were  thrown  away 
as  waste,  but  now  considerable  quantities 
of  glycerine  are  recovered,  which  are 
much  used  in  making  explosive  com- 
pounds. 

When  a  metallic  salt  or  one  of  the 
alkalies,  as  caustic  soda,  is  added  to 
tallow,  a  stearite  of  the  metal  (common 
soap  is  stearite  of  sodium)  is  formed, 
whereby  the  glycerine  is  eliminated. 


GLYCERINE— GOLD 


379 


This  valuable  by-product  is  contained  in 
the  waste  lye,  and  has  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  several  patents. 

Draw  the  lye  off  from  the  soap-pans; 
this  contains  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
some  salt  and  soap  and  a  small  quantity 
of  glycerine,  and  the  great  trouble  is  to 
concentrate  the  lye  so  that  the  large 
quantity  of  water  is  eliminated,  some- 
times 10  to  12  days  being  occupied  in 
doing  this.  The  soap  and  salt  are  easily 
removed. 

To  remove  the  soap,  run  the  lye  into  a 
series  of  tanks  alternating  in  size  step- 
like,  so  that  as  the  first,  which  should  be 
the  largest,  becomes  full,  the  liquor  will 
flow  into  the  second,  from  that  into  the 
third,  and  so  on;  by  this  arrangement 
the  rosinous  and  albuminous  matters 
will  settle,  and  the  soap  still  contained 
in  the  lyes  will  float  on  the  surface,  from 
which  it  is  removed  by  skimming. 

After  thus  freeing  the  lye  of  the  solid 
impurities,  convey  the  purified  lye  to  the 
glycerine  recovering  department  (wooden 
troughs  or  pipes  may  be  used  to  do  this), 
and  after  concentrating  by  heating  it  in  a 
steam-jacketed  boiler,  and  allowing  it  to 
cool  somewhat,  ladle  out  the  solid  salt 
that  separates,  and  afterwards  con- 
centrate the  lye  by  allowing  it  to  flow 
into  a  tank,  but  before  doing  so  let  the 
fluid  come  in  contact  with  a  hot  blast  of 
air  or  superheated  steam,  whereby  the 
crude  discolored  glycerine  is  obtained. 
This  is  further  purified  by  heating  with 
animal  charcoal  to  decolorize  it,  then 
distilling  several  times  in  copper  stills 
with  superheated  steam.  The  chief 
points  to  attend  to  are:  (1)  The  neutral- 
izing and  concentrating  the  lye  as  much 
as  possible  and  then  separating  the  salts 
and  solid  matters;  (2)  concentrating  the 
purified  lye,  and  mixing  this  fluid  with 
oleic  acid,  oil,  tallow,  or  lard,  and  heating 
the  mixture  to  338°  F.,  in  a  still,  by  steam, 
and  gradually  raise  the  heat  to  372°  F.; 
(3)  stirring  the  liquor  while  being  heated, 
and  allowing  the  aqueous  vapor  to  es- 
cape, and  when  thus  concentrated,  sa- 
ponifying the  liquid  with  lime  to  elimi- 
nate the  glycerine;  water  is  at  the  same 
time  expelled,  but  this  is  removed  from 
the  glycerine  by  evaporating  the  mix- 
ture. 

II. — In  W.  E.  Garrigues's  patent  for 
the  recovering  of  glycerine  from  spent 
soap  lyes,  the  liquid  is  neutralized  with  a 
mineral  acid,  and  after  separation  of  the 
insoluble  fatty  acids  it  is  concentrated 
and  then  freed  from  mineral  salts  and 
volatile  fatty  acids,  and  the  concentrat- 
ed glycerine  solution  treated  with  an 
alkaline  substance  and  distilled.  Thus 


the  soap  lye  may  be  neutralized  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  aluminum  sulphate 
added  to  precipitate  the  insoluble  fatty 
acids.  The  filtrate  from  these  is  con- 
centrated and  the  separated  mineral 
salts  removed,  after  which  barium 
chloride  is  added  and  then  sufficient 
sulphuric  acid  to  liberate  the  volatile 
fatty  acids  combined  with  the  alkali. 
These  acids  are  partially  enveloped  in 
the  barium  sulphate,  with  which  they 
can  be  separated  from  the  liquid  by 
filtration,  \vhile  the  remaining  portion 
can  be  expelled  by  evaporating  the 
liquid  in  a  vacuum  evaporator.  Finally, 
the  solution  is  treated  with  sodium 
carbonate,  and  the  glycerine  distilled. 

Glycerine  Lotion. — 

Glycerine 4     ounces 

Essence  bouquet  ....      f  ounce 

Water 4     ounces 

Cochineal     coloring,      a     sufficient 

quantity. 

(See    also     Cosmetics     for    Glycerine 
Lotions.) 

GLYCERINE  APPLICATIONS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

GLYCERINE  AS  A  DETERGENT: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

GLYCERINE  PROCESS: 

See  Photography. 

GLYCERINE  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

GLYCERINE  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 


Gold 

(See  also  Jewelers'  Formulas.) 

Gold  Printing  on  Oilcloth  and  Imita- 
tion Leather. — Oilcloth  can  very  easily 
be  gilt  if  the  right  degree  of  heat  is 
observed.  After  the  engraving  has  been 
put  in  the  press,  the  latter  is  heated 
slightly,  so  that  it  is  still  possible  to  lay 
the  palm  of  the  hand  on  the  heated  plate 
without  any  unpleasant  sensation.  Go 
over  the  oilcloth  with  a  rag  in  which  a 
drop  of  olive  oil  has  been  rubbed  up, 
which  gives  a  greasy  film.  No  priming 
with  white  of  egg  or  any  other  priming 
agent  should  be  done,  since  the  gold  leaf 
wbuld  stick.  Avoid  sprinkling  on  gild- 
ing powder.  The  gold  leaf  is  applied 
directly  on  the  oilcloth;  then  place  in  the 
lukewarm  press,  squeezing  it  down  with 


GOLD 


a  quick  jerky  motion  and  opening  it  at 
once.  If  the  warm  plate  remains  too 
long  on  the  oilcloth,  the  gold  leaf  will 
stick.  When  the  impression  is  done,  the 
gold  leaf  is  not  swept  off  at  once,  but 
the  oilcloth  is  first  allowed  to  cool  com- 
pletely for  several  minutes,  since  there 
is  a  possibility  that  it  has  become  slightly 
softened  under  the  influence  of  the  heat, 
especially  at  the  borders  of  the  pressed 
figures,  and  the  gold  would  stick  there 
if  swept  off  immediately.  The  printing 
should  be  sharp  and  neat  and  the  gold 
glossy.  For  bronze  printing  on  oilcloth, 
a  preliminary  treatment  of  printing  with 
varnish  ground  should  be  given.  The 
bronze  is  dusted  on  this  varnish. 

Imitation  leather  is  generally  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  The  tough  paper 
substance  is  made  to  imitate  leather 
perfectly  as  regards  color  and  press- 
ing, especially  the  various  sorts  of  calf, 
but  the  treatment  in  press  gilding  differs 
entirely  from  that  of  genuine  leather. 
The  stuff  does  not  possess  the  porous, 
spongy  nature  of  leather,  but  on  the 
contrary  is  very  hard,  and  in  the 
course  of  manufacture  in  stained-paper 
factories  is  given  an  almost  waterproof 
coating  of  color  and  varnish.  Hence 
the  applied  ground  of  white  of  egg  pene- 
trates but  slightly  into  this  substance, 
and  a  thin  layer  of  white  of  egg  remains 
on  the  surface.  The  consequence  is 
that  in  gilding  the  gold  leaf  is  prone  to 
become  attached,  the  ground  of  albumen 
being  quickly  dissolved  under  the  action 
of  the  heat  and  put  in  a  soft  sticky  state 
even  in  places  where  there  is  no  en- 
graving. In  order  to  avoid  this  the 
ground  is  either  printed  only  lukewarm, 
or  this  imitation  leather  is  not  primed  at 
all,  but  the  gold  is  applied  immediately 
upon  going  over  the  surface  with  the  oily 
rag.  Print  with  a  rather  hot  press,  with 
about  the  same  amount  of  heat  as  is 
employed  for  printing  shagreen  and 
title  paper.  A  quick  jerky  printing, 
avoiding  a  long  pressure  of  the  plate,  is 
necessary. 

Liquid  Gold. — Take  an  evaporating 
dish,  put  into  it  880  parts,  by  weight,  of 
pure  gold;  then  4,400  parts,  by  weight,  of 
muriatic  acid,  and  3,520  parts,  by  weight, 
nitric  acid;  place  over  a  gas  flame 
until  the  gold  is  dissolved,  and  then  add 
to  it  22  parts,  by  weight,  of  pure  tin; 
when  the  tin  is  dissolved  add  42  parts,  by 
weight,  of  butter  of  antimony.  Let  ail 
remain  over  the  gas  until  the  mixture 
begins  to  thicken.  Now  put  into  a  glass 
and  test  with  the  hydrometer,  which 
should  give  about  1,800  specific  gravity. 


Pour  into  a  large  glass  and  fill  up  with 
water  until  the  hydrometer  shows  1090; 
pour  all  the  solution  into  a  chemical  pot 
and  add  to  it  1,760  parts,  by  weight, 
balsam  of  sulphur,  stirring  well  all  the 
while,  and  put  it  over  the  gas  again;  in 
an  hour  it  should  give,  on  testing, 
125°  F.;  gradually  increase  the  heat  up 
to  185°  F.,  when  it  should  be  well  stirred 
and  then  left  to  cool  about  12  hours. 
Pour  the  watery  fluid  into  a  large  vessel 
and  wash  the  dark-looking  mass  5  or  6 
times  with  hot  water;  save  each  lot  of 
water  as  it  contains  some  portion  of  gold. 
Remove  all  moisture  from  the  dark  mass 
by  rolling  on  a  slab  and  warming  before 
the  fire  occasionally  so  as  to  keep  it  soft. 
When  quite  dry  add  2J  times  its  weight 
of  turpentine  and  put  it  over  a  small 
flame  for  about  2  hours;  then  slightly  in- 
crease the  heat  for  another  hour  and  a 
half.  Allow  this  to  stand  about  24  hours, 
and  then  take  a  glazed  bowl  and  spread 
over  the  bottom  of  it  1,760  parts,  by 
weight,  of  finely  powdered  bismuth;  pour 
the  prepared  gold  over  it  in  several 
places.  Now  take  a  vessel  containing 
water  and  place  inside  the  other  vessel 
containing  the  gold,  and  heat  it  so  as  to 
cause  the  water  to  boil  for  3  hours;  allow 
it  to  remain  until  settled  and  pour  off 
the  gold  from  the  settlings  of  the  bis- 
muth, and  try  it;  if  not  quite  right  con- 
tinue the  last  process  with  bismuth  until 
good;,  the  bismuth  causes  the  gold  to 
adhere. 

Preparation  of  Balsam  of  Sulphur. — 
Take  16  parts  oil  of  turpentine;  2i  parts 
spirits  of  turpentine;  8  parts  flour  of 
sulphur. 

Place  all  in  a  chemical  pot  and  heat 
until  it  boils;  continue  the  boiling  until 
no  sulphur  can  be  seen  in  it;  now  remove 
from  the  heat  and  thin  it  with  turpentine 
until  about  the  thickness  of  treacle,  then 
warm  it  again,  stirring  well;  allow  it  to 
cool  until  it  reaches  45°  F.,  then  test  it 
with  the  hydrometer,  and  if  specific 
gravity  is  not  995  continue  the  addition  of 
turpentine  and  warming  until  correct, 
let  it  thoroughly  cool,  then  bottle,  keep- 
ing it  air-tight. 

To  Purify  Bismuth. — Take  6  parts 
bismuth  metal,  £  part  saltpeter.  Melt 
together  in  a  biscuit  cup,  pour  out  on  to 
a  slab,  and  take  away  all  dirt,  then  grind 
into  a  fine  powder. 

To  Recover  the  Gold  from  the  Re- 
mains of  the  Foregoing  Process. — Put 
all  the  "watery"  solutions  into  a  large 
vessel  and  mix  with  a  filtered  saturated 
solution  of  copperas;  this  will 


GOLD 


381 


a  precipitate  of  pure  metallic  gold  to 
gradually  subside;  wash  it  with  cold 
water  and  dry  in  an  evaporating  dish. 

All  rags  and  settlings  that  are  thick 
should  be  burnt  in  a  crucible  until  a 
yellow  mass  is  seen;  then  take  this  and 
dissolve  it  in  2  parts  muriatic  acid  and  1 
part  nitric  acid.  Let  it  remain  in  a  porce- 
lain dish  until  it  begins  to  thicken,  and 
crystals  form  on  the  sides.  Add  a  little 
nitric  acid,  and  heat  until  crystals  again 
form.  Now  take  this  and  mix  with  cold 
water,  add  a  solution  of  copperas  to  it 
and  allow  it  to  settle;  pour  off  the  water, 
and  with  fresh  water  wash  till  quite  free 
from  acid.  The  gold  may  then  be  used 
again,  and  if  great  care  is  exercised 
almost  one-half  the  original  quantity 
may  be  recovered. 

The  quantities  given  in  the  recipe 
should  produce  about  13  to  15  parts  of 
the  liquid  gold.  It  does  not  in  use  require 
any  burnishing,  and  should  be  fired  at  rose- 
color  heat.  If  desired  it  can  be  fluxed 
with  Venice  turpentine,  oil  of  lavender, 
or  almonds. 

Treatment  of  Brittle  Gold.— L— Add 
to  every  100  parts,  by  weight,  5  to  8  parts, 
by  weight,  of  cupric  chloride  and  melt  un- 
til the  oily  layer  which  forms  has  disap- 
peared. Then  pour  out,  and  in  most 
cases  a  perfectly  pliable  gold  will  have 
been  obtained.  If  this  should  not  be  the 
case  after  the  first  fusion,  repeat  the  oper- 
ation with  the  same  quantity  of  cupric 
chloride.  The  cupric  chloride  must  be 
kept  in  a  well-closed  bottle,  made  tight 
with  paraffine,  and  in  a  dry  place. 

II. — Pass  chlorine  gas  through  the 
molten  gold,  by  which  treatment  most  of 
the  gold  which  has  otherwise  been  set 
aside  as  unfit  for  certain  kinds  of  work 
may  be  redeemed. 

Assaying  of  Gold. — To  determine  the 
presence  of  gold  in  ores,  etc.,  mix  a 
small  quantity  of  the  finely  powdered 
ore  in  a  flask  with  an  equal  volume  of 
tincture  of  iodine,  shake  repeatedly  and 
well,  and  leave  in  contact  about  1  hour, 
with  repeated  shaking.  Next  allow  the 
mixture  to  deposit  and  dip  a  narrow 
strip  of  filtering  paper  into  the  solution. 
Allow  the  paper  to  absorb,  next  to  dry; 
then  dip  it  again  into  the  solution,  re- 
peating this  5  to  6  times,  so  that  the 
filtering  paper  is  well  saturated  and  im- 
pregnated. The  strip  is  now  calcined, 
as  it  were,  and  the  ashes,  if  gold  is 
present,  show  a  purple  color.  The 
coloring  disappears  immediately  if  the 
ashes  are  moistened  with  bromine  water. 
The  same  test  may  also  be  modified 
as  follows:  Cover  the  finely  pulverized 


ore  with  bromine  water,  shake  well  and 
repeatedly  during  about  1  hour  of  the 
contact,  and  filter.  Now  add  to  the 
solution  stannic  protochloride  in  solution, 
whereby,  in  case  gold  is  present,  a  purple 
color  (gold  purple  of  Cassius)  will  at 
once  appear.  In  case  the  ore  to  be 
assayed  contains  sulphides,  it  is  well  to 
roast  the  ore  previously,  and  should  it 
contain  lime  carbonate,  it  is  advisable  to 
calcine  the  ore  before  in  the  presence  of 
ammonium  carbonate. 

Gold  Welding.— Gold  may  be  welded 
together  with  any  metal,  if  the  right 
methods  are  employed,  but  best  with 
copper.  Some  recipes  for  welding  agents 
are  here  given. 

I. — Two  parts  by  weight  (16  ounces 
equal  1  pound)  of  green  vitriol;  1  part 
by  weight  (16  ounces  equal  1  pound)  of 
saltpeter;  6  parts  by  weight  (16  ounces 
equal  1  pound)  of  common  salt;  1  part 
by  weight  (16  ounces  equal  1  pound)  of 
black  manganic  oxide  or  pulverized, 
and  mixed  with  48  parts  by  weight  (16 
ounces  equal  1  pound)  of  good  welding 
sand. 

II. — Filings  of  the  metal  to  be  used  in 
welding  are  mixed  with  melted  borax  in 
the  usual  proportion.  To  be  applied  in 
the  thickness  desired. 

III.— A  mixture  of  338  parts  of 
sodium  phosphate  and  124  parts  of 
boracic  acid  is  used  when  the  metal  is 
at  dark-red  heat.  The  metal  is  then  to  be 
brought  to  a  bright-red  heat,  and  ham- 
mered at  the  same  time.  The  metal 
easily  softens  at  a  high  temperature,  and 
a  wooden  mallet  is  best.  All  substances 
containing  carbon  should  be  removed 
from  the  surface,  as  success  depends  upon 
the  formation  of  a  fusible  copper  phos- 
phate, which  dissolves  a  thin  layer  of 
oxide  on  the  surface,  and  keeps  the  latter 
in  good  condition  for  welding. 

To  Recover  Gold-Leaf  Waste.— To  re- 
cover the  gold  from  color  waste,  gold 
brushes,  rags,  etc.,  they  are  burned  up  to 
ashes.  The  ashes  are  leached  with 
boiling  water  containing  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  auriferous  residuum  is  then 
boiled  with  aqua  regia  (1  part  nitric 
acid  and  3  parts  hydrochloric  acid), 
whereby  the  gold  is  dissolved  and  gold 
chloride  results.  After  filtration  and 
evaporation  to  dryness  the  product  is 
dissolved  in  water  and  precipitated  with 
sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron.  The  pre- 
cipitated gold  powder  is  purified  with 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Gold  from  Acid  Coloring  Baths. — I.— 
Different  lots  are  to  be  poured  together 


882 


GOLD 


and  the  gold  in  them  recovered.  The 
following  method  is  recommended: 
Dissolve  a  handful  of  phosphate  of  iron 
in  boiling  water,  to  which  liquor  add 
the  coloring  baths,  whereby  small 
particles  of  gold  are  precipitated.  Then 
draw  off  the  water,  being  careful  not  to 
dissolve  the  auriferous  sediment  at  the 
bottom.  Free  this  from  all  traces  of  acid 
by  washing  with  plenty  of  boiling  water; 
it  will  require  3  or  4  separate  washings, 
with  sufficient  time  between  each  to 
allow  the  water. to  cool  and  the  sediment 
to  settle  before  pouring  off  the  water. 
Then  dry  in  an  iron  vessel  by  the  fire  and 
fuse  in  a  covered  skittlepot  with  a  flux. 

II. — The  collected  old  coloring  baths 
are  poured  into  a  sufficiently  large  pot, 
an  optional  quantity  of  nitro-muriatic 
acid  is  added,  and  the  pot  is  placed  over 
the  fire,  during  which  time  the  fluid  is 
stirred  with  a  wooden  stick.  It  is  taken 
from  the  fire  after  a  while,  diluted  largely 
with  rain  water  and  filtered  through 
coarse  paper.  The  gold  is  recovered 
from  the  filtered  solution  with  a  solution 
of  green  vitriol  which  is  stored  in  air- 
tight bottles,  then  freshened  with  hot 
water,  and  finally  smelted  with  borax 
and  a  little  saltpeter. 

Parting  with  Concentrated  Sulphuric 
Acid. — It  is  not  necessary  scrupulously  to 
observe  the  exact  proportion  of  the  gold 
to  the  silver.  After  haying  prepared  the 
auriferous  silver,  place  it  in  a  quantity  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  contained  in 
a  porcelain  vessel,  and  let  it  come  to  a 
violent  boil.  When  the  acid  has  either  be- 
come saturated  and  will  dissolve  no  more, 
or  when  solution  is  complete,  remove 
the  dissolving  vessel  from  the  fire,  let  it  cool, 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  clarifying,  pour 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  into  the  solution. 
The  dissolved  silver  is  next  carefully 
decanted  from  the  gold  sediment  upon 
the  bottom,  another  portion  of  con- 
centrated acid  is  poured  in,  and  the  gold 
is  well  boiled  again,  as  it  will  still  contain 
traces  of  silver;  this  operation  may  be 
repeated  as  often  as  is  deemed  necessary. 
The  solution,  poured  into  the  glass  jars, 
is  well  diluted  with  water,  and  the  silver 
is  then  precipitated  by  placing  a  sheet 
of  copper  in  the  solution.  The  precipi- 
tate is  then  freshened  with  hot  water, 
which  may  also  be  done  by  washing  upon 
the  filter;  the  granulated  silver  (sulphate 
of  silver)  is  pressed  out  in  linen,  dried 
and  smelted.  The  freshened  gold,  after 
drying,  is  first  smelted  with  bisulphate  of 
soda,  in  order  to  convert  the  last  traces 
of  silver  into  sulphate,  and  then  smelted 
with  borax  and  a  little  saltpeter. 


To  Remove  Gold  from  Silver.— I.— 
Gold  is  taken  from  the  surface  of  silver 
by  spreading  over  it  a  paste,  made  of 
powdered  sal  ammoniac  with  aqua  fortis 
and  heating  it  till  the  matter  smokes  and 
is  nearly  dry,  when  the  gold  may  be 
separated  by  rubbing  it  with  the  scratch 
brush. 

II. — The  alloy  is  to  be  melted  and 
poured  from  a  height  into  a  vessel  of 
cold  water,  to  which  a  rotary  motion  is 
imparted,  or  else  it  is  to  be  poured 
through  a  broom.  By  this  means  the 
metal  is  reduced  to  a  fine  granular  con- 
dition. The  metallic  substance  is  then 
treated  with  nitric  acid,  and  gently 
heated.  Nitrate  of  silver  is  produced, 
which  can  be  reduced  by  any  of  the 
ordinary  methods;  while  metallic  gold 
remains  as  a  black  sediment,  which  must 
be  washed  and  melted. 

Simple  Specific  Gravity  Test.— A  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  metal  is  taken  and 
drawn  out  into  a  wire,  which  is  to  be 
exactly  of  the  same  length  as  one  from 
fine  silver;  of  course,  both  must  have 
been  drawn  through  the  same  hole, 
silver  being  nearly  A  lighter  than  gold, 
it  is  natural  that  the  one  of  fine  silver 
must  be  lighter,  and  the  increased  weight 
of  the  wire  under  test  corresponds  to  the 
percentage  of  gold  contained  in  it. 

To  Make  Fat  Oil  Gold  Size.— First  thin 
up  the  fat  oil  with  turpentine  to  workable 
condition;  then  mix  a  little  very  finely 
ground  pigment  with  the  gold  size,  about 
as  much  as  in  a  thin  priming  coat.  Make 
the  size  as  nearly  gold  color  as  is  con- 
venient; chrome  yellow  tinted  with  ver- 
milion is  as  good  as  anything  for  this  pur- 
pose. Then  thin  ready  for  the  brush  with 
turpentine,  and  it  will  next  be  in  order  to 
run  the  size  through  a  very  fine  strainer. 
Add  japan,  as  experience  or  experiment 
may  teach,  to  make  it  dry  tacky  about 
the  time  the  leaf  is  to  be  laid.  Dry  slow- 
ly, because  the  slower  the  size  dries,  the 
longer  it  will  hold  its  proper  tackiness 
when  it  is  once  in  that  condition. 

To  Dissolve  Copper  from  Gold  Articles. 
— Take  2  ounces  of  proto-sulphate  of 
iron  and  dissolve  it  in  £  a  pint  of  water, 
then  add  to  it  in  powder  2  ounces  of 
nitrate  of  potash;  boil  the  mixture  for 
some  time,  and  afterwards  pour  it  into  a 
shallow  vessel  to  cool  and  crystallize; 
then  to  every  part  of  the  crystallized  salt 
add  8  ounces  of  muriatic  acid,  and 
preserve  in  a  bottle  for  use.  Equal 
parts  of  the  above  preparation  and  of 
boiling  water  is  a  good  proportion  to  use 
in  dissolving  copper,  or  1  part  by  weight 


GOLD 


of  nitric  acid  may  be  used  to  4  parts  by 
weight  of  boiling  water  as  a  substitute. 

GOLD  PURPLE. 

I. — The  solution  of  stannous  chloride 
necessary  for  the  preparation  of  gold 
purple  is  produced  by  dissolving  pure  tin 
in  pure  hydrochloric  acid  (free  from  iron), 
in  such  a  manner  that  some  of  the  tin  re- 
mains undissolved,  and  evaporating  the 
solution,  into  which  a  piece  of  tin  is  laid, 
to  crystallization. 

II. — Recipe  for  Pale  Purple. — Dis- 
solve 2  parts  by  weight  of  tin  in  boiling 
aqua  regia,  evaporate  the  solution  at  a 
moderate  heat  until  it  becomes  solid, 
dissolve  in  distilled  water  and  add  2 
parts  by  weight  of  a  solution  of  stannous 
chloride  (specific  gravity  1.7)  dilute  with 
9,856  parts  by  weight  of  water,  stir  into 
the  liquid  a  solution  of  gold  chloride 
prepared  from  0.5  parts  by  weight  of 
gold  and  containing  no  excess  of  acid 
(the  latter  being  brought  about  Jby 
evaporating  the  solution  of  gold  chloride 
to  dryness  and  heating  for  some  time  to 
about  320°  F.).  This  liquid  is  dimmed 
by  the  admixture  of  50  parts  by  weight 
of  liquid  ammonia  which  eliminates  the 
purple.  The  latter  is  quickly  filtered  off, 
washed  out  and  while  still  moist  rubbed 
up  with  the  glass  paste.  This  consists  of 
enamel  of  lead  20  parts  by  weight; 
quartzose  sand,  1  part  by  weight;  red 
lead,  2  parts  by  weight;  and  calcined 
borax,  1  part  by  weight,  with  silver 
carbonate,  3  parts  by  weight. 

III.— Recipe  for  Dark  Gold  Purple.— 
Gold  solution  of  0.5  parts  by  weight  of 
gold,  solution  of  stannous  chloride 
(specific  gravity  1.7)  7.5  parts  by  weight; 
thin  with  9,856  parts  by  weight  of  water, 
separate  the  purple  by  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  acid,  wash  out  the  purple  and 
mix  same  with  enamel  of  lead  10  parts  by 
weight  and  silver  carbonate,  0.5  parts 
by  weight. 

IV.— Recipe  for  Pink  Purple.— Gold 
solution  of  1  part  by  weight  of  gold; 
solution  of  50  parts  by  weight  of  alum  in 
19,712  parts  by  weight  of  water;  add  1.5 
parts  by  weight  of  stannous  chloride  so- 
lution (specific  gravity  1.7)  and  enough 
ammonia  until  no  more  precipitate  is 
formed;  mix  the  washed  out  precipitate, 
while  still  moist,  with  70  parts  by  weight 
of  enamel  of  lead  and  2.5  parts  by  weight 
of  silver  carbonate.  According  to  the 
composition  of  the  purple  various  reds 
are  obtained  in  fusing  it  on;  the  latter 
may  still  be  brightened  up  by  a  suitable 
increase  of  the  flux. 


To  Render  Pale  Gold  Darker.— Take 
verdigris,  50  parts  by  weight  and  very 
strong  vinegar,  100  parts  by  weight. 
Dissolve  the  verdigris  in  the  vinegar,  rub 
the  pieces  with  it  well,  heat  them  and  dip 
them  in  liquid  ammonia  diluted  with 
water.  Repeat  the  operation  if  the  de- 
sired shade  does  not  appear  the  first  time. 
Rinse  with  clean  water  and  dry. 

To  Color  Gold. — Gilt  objects  are  im- 
proved by  boiling  in  the  following  solu- 
tion: Saltpeter,  2  parts  by  weight;  cook- 
ing salt,  1  part  by  weight;  alum,  1  part 
by  weight;  water,  24  parts  by  weight; 
hydrochloric  acid,  1  part  by  weight  (1.12 
specific  gravity).  In  order  to  impart  a 
rich  appearance  to  gilt  articles,  the  fol- 
lowing paste  is  applied:  Alum,  3  parts  by 
weight;  saltpeter,  2  parts  by  weight; 
zinc  vitriol,  1  part  by  weight;  cooking 
salt,  1  part  by  weight;  made  into  a  paste 
with  water.  Next,  heat  until  black,  on 
a  hot  iron  plate,  wash  with  water,  scratch 
with  vinegar  and  dry  after  washing. 

Gold -Leaf  Striping. — To  secure  a  good 
job  of  gilding  depends  largely  for  its 
beauty  upon  the  sizing.  Take  tube 
chrome  yellow  ground  in  oil,  thin  with 
wearing  body  varnish,  and  temper  it 
ready  for  use  with  turpentine.  Apply 
in  the  evening  with  an  ox-tail  striper,  and 
let  it  stand  until  the  next  morning,  when, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  will  be 
ready  for  the  gold  leaf,  etc.  After  the 
gilding  is  done,  let  the  job  stand  24 
hours  before  varnishing. 

Composition  of  Aqua  Fortis  for  the 
Touch -Stone. — Following  are  the  three 
compositions  mostly  in  use:  I. — Nitric 
acid,  30  parts;  hydrochloric  acid,  3  parts; 
distilled  water,  20  parts. 

II.— Nitric  acid,  980  parts  by  weight; 
hydrochloric  acid,  20  parts  by  weight. 

III. — Nitric  acid,  123  parts  by  weight; 
hydrochloric  acid,  2  parts  by  weight. 

To  Remove  Soft  Solder  from  Gold. — 
Place  the  work  in  spirits  of  salts  (hydro- 
chloric acid)  or  remove  as  much  as  pos- 
sible with  the  scraper,  using  a  gentle 
heat  to  remove  the  solder  more  easily. 

Tipping  Gold  Pens. — Gold  pens  are 
usually  tipped  with  iridium.  This  is 
done  by  soldering  very  small  pieces  to 
the  points  and  filing  to  the  proper  shape. 

To  Recognize  Whether  an  Article  is 
Gilt. — Simply  touch  the  object  with  a 
glass  rod  previously  dipped  into  a  solu- 
tion of  bichloride  of  copper.  If  the 
article  has  been  gilt  the  spot  touched 
should  remain  intact,  while  it  presents  a 


384 


GOLD— GRAIN 


brown    stain   if   no   gold   has   been   de- 
posited on  its  surface. 

To  Burnish  Gilt  Work.— Ale  has 
proved  a  very  good  substitute  for  soap 
and  water  in  burnishing  gilt  as  it  in- 
creases the  ease  and  smoothness  with 
which  it  is  accomplished.  Vinegar  is  a 
somewhat  poorer  substitute  for  ale. 

White -Gold  Plates  Without  Solder.— 
The  gold  serving  as  a  background  for 
white-gold  is  rolled  in  the  desired 
dimensions  and  then  made  perfectly 
even  under  a  powerful  press.  It  is  then 
carefully  treated  with  a  file  until  a  per- 
fectly smooth  surface  is  obtained.  After 
a  white-gold  plate  of  the  required  thick- 
ness has  been  produced  in  the  same 
manner,  the  surfaces  of  the  two  plates 
to  be  united  are  coated  with  borax  and 
then  pressed  together  by  machine,  which 
causes  the  harder  metal  to  be  squeezed 
slightly  into  the  surface  of  the  other, 
furnishing  a  more  solid  and  compact 
mass.  The  metals,  now  partially  united, 
are  firmly  fastened  together  by  means  of 
strong  iron  wire  and  a  little  more  borax 
solution  is  put  on  the  edges.  Then  heat 
to  the  temperature  necessary  for  a  com- 
plete adhesion,  but  the  heat  must  not  be 
so  great  as  to  cause  an  alloyage  by  fusing. 
The  whole  is  finally  rolled  out  into  the 
required  thickness. 

To  Fuse  Gold  Dust.— Use  such  a 
crucible  as  is  generally  used  for  melting 
brass;  heat  very  hot;  then  add  the  gold 
dust  mixed  with  powdered  borax;  after 
some  time  a  scum  or  slag  will  be  on  top, 
which  may  be  thickened  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  lime  or  bone  ash.  If  the  dust 
contains  any  of  the  more  oxidizable 
metals,  add  a  little  niter,  and  skim  off 
the  slag  or  scum  very  carefully;  when 
melted,  grasp  the  crucible  with  strong 
iron  tongs,  and  pour  off  immediately 
into  molds,  slightly  greased.  The  slag 
and  crucibles  may  be  afterwards  pulver- 
ized, and  the  auriferous  matter  recovered 
from  the  mass  through  cupellation  by 
means  of  lead. 


GOLD  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

GOLD,  EXTRACTION  OF,  BY  AMAL- 
GAMATION: 

See  Amalgams. 

GOLD  LETTERS  ON  GLASS,  CEMENTS 
FOR  AFFIXING: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Sign-Letter  Cem- 
ents. 


GOLD,  REDUCTION  OF  OLD  PHOTO- 
GRAPHIC: 

See  Photography. 

GOLD  FOIL  SUBSTITUTES  AND  GOLD 

LEAF: 
See  Metal  Fo''I. 

GOLD-LEAF  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

GOLD  LEAF  AND  ITS  APPLICATION: 

See  Paints. 

GOLD  PLATING: 

See  Plating. 

GOLD,  RECOVERY  OF  WASTE: 

See  Jewelers'   Formulas. 

GOLD  RENpVATOR: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

GOLD,  SEPARATION  OF  PLATINUM 
FROM: 

See  Platinum. 

GOLD  SOLDERS: 

See  Solders. 

GOLD  TESTING: 

See  Jewelers'  Formulas. 

GOLD  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

GOLDWASSER : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

GONG  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

GRAIN. 

Formalin  Treatment  of  Seed  Grain 
for  Smut. — Smut  is  a  parasitic  fungus, 
and  springs  from  a  spore  (which  cor- 
responds to  a  seed  in  higher  plants). 
This  germinates  when  the  grain  is 
seeded  and,  penetrating  the  little  grain 
plant  when  but  a  few  days  old,  grows  up 
within  the  grain  stem.  After  entering 
the  stem  there  is  no  evidence  of  its 
presence  until  the  grain  begins  to  head. 
At  this  time  the  smut  plant  robs  the 
developing  kernels  of  their  nourishment 
and  ripens  a  mass  of  smut  spores. 

These  spores  usually  ripen  before  the 
grain,  and  are  blown  about  the  field, 
many  spores  becoming  lodged  on  the 
ripening  grain  kernels.  The  wholesale 
agent  of  infection  is  the  threshing 
machine.  For  this  reason  the  safest 
plan  is  to  treat  all  seed  wheat  and  oats 
each  year. 

Secure  a  40  per  cent  solution  of 
formalin  (the  commercial  name  for 
formaldehyde  gas  held  in  a  water  so- 
lution). About  1  ounce  is  required  for 
every  5  bushels  of  grain  to  be  treated. 


GRAIN— GREASE   ERADlCATORS 


385 


Clean  off  a  space  on  the  barn  floor  or 
sweep  a  clean  space  on  the  hard  level 
ground  and  lay  a  good-sized  canvas 
down,  on  which  to  spread  out  the  wheat. 
See  that  the  place  where  the  grain  is  to 
be  treated  is  swept  clean  and  thoroughly 
sprinkled  with  the  formalin  solution 
before  placing  the  seed  grain  there. 

Prepare  the  formalin  solution  im- 
mediately before  use,  as  it  is  volatile, 
and  if  kept  may  disappear  by  evapora- 
tion. 

Use  4  ounces  of  formalin  for  10  gallons 
of  water.  This  is  sufficient  for  600 
pounds  of  grain.  Put  the  solution  in  a 
barrel  or  tub,  thoroughly  mixing. 

The  solution  can  be  applied  with  the 
garden  sprinkler.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  moisten  the  grain  thoroughly.  Sprinkle, 
stir  the  grain  up  thoroughly  and  sprinkle 
again,  until  every  kernel  is  wet. 

After  sprinkling,  place  the  grain  in 
a  conical  pile  and  cover  with  horse- 
blankets,  gunny  sacks,  etc.  The  smut 
that  does  the  damage  lies  just  under  the 
glume  of  the  oats  or  on  the  basal  hairs 
of  the  wheat.  Covering  the  treated  grain 
holds  the  gas  from  the  formalin  within 
the  pile,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  kernels,  killing  such  smut  spores  as 
may  have  survived  the  previous  treat- 
ment. After  the  grain  has  remained  in  a 
covered  pile  2  to  4  hours,  spread  it  out 
again  where  the  wind  can  blow  over  it, 
to  air  and  dry. 

As  soon  as  the  grain  can  be  taken  in 
the  hand  without  the  kernels  sticking 
together,  it  can  be  sown  in  the  field. 
The  grain  may  be  treated  in  the  forenoon 
and  seeded  in  the  afternoon. 

Since  this  treatment  swells  the  kernels 
it  hastens  germination  and  should  be 
done  in  the  spring  just  before  seeding 
time. 

While  the  copper  sulphate  or  blue- 
stone  treatment  is  valuable  in  killing 
smut,  the  formalin  treatment  can  be 
given  in  less  time,  is  applied  so  easily 
and  is  so  effectual  that  it  is  recommended 
as  a  sure  and  ready  means  of  killing 
smut  in  wheat  and  oats. 

GRAINING  CRAYONS: 

See  Crayons. 

GRAINING  COLORS: 

See  Pigments. 

GRAINING  WITH  PAINTr 
See  Paint. 

GRAINING,  PALISANDER: 

See  Palisander. 

GRAPE  JUICE,  PRESERVATION  OF: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


GRAPHITE  AS  A  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricants. 


GRAVEL  WALKS. 

For  cleaning  gravel  walks  any  of  the 
following  may  be  used  :  I. — Gas-tar 
liquor. 

II.— Rock  salt  (cattle  salt). 

III. — Hydrochloric  acid. 

IV. — Sulphuric  acid. 

V. — Fresh  limewater.  The  gas -tar 
liquor  must  be  poured  out  a  few  times 
in  succession,  and  must  not  touch  the 
tree  roots  and  borders  of  the  paths.  This 
medium  is  cheap.  Cattle  salt  must  like- 
wise be  thrown  out  repeatedly.  The  use 
of  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids  is 
somewhat  expensive.  Mix  60  parts  of 
water  with  10  parts  of  unslaked  lime  and 
1  part  of  sulphuric  acid  in  a  kettle,  and 
sprinkle  the  hot  or  cold  mixture  on  the 
walks  by  means  of  a  watering  pot.  If 
limewater  is  used  alone  it  must  be  fresh 
— 1  part  of  unslaked  lime  in  10  parts  of 
water. 

GRAVERS: 

To  Prepare  Gravers  for  Bright-Cutting. 
— Set  the  gravers  after  the  sharpening 
on  the  oilstone  on  high-grade  emery 
(tripoli)  paper.  Next,  hone  them  further 
on  the  rouge  leather,  out  without  tearing 
threads  from  it.  In  this  manner  the  sil- 
ver and  aluminum  engravers  grind  their 
gravers.  A  subsequent  whetting  of  the 
graver  on  the  touchstone  is  not  advisable, 
since  it  is  too  easily  injured  thereby.  A 
graver  prepared  as  described  gives  excel- 
lent bright  engraving  and  never  fails. 

In  all  bright-cutting  the  graver  must 
be  highly  polished;  but  when  bright- 
cutting  aluminum  a  lubricant  like  coal- 
oil  or  vaseline  is  generally  employed  with 
the  polished  tool;  a  mixture  of  vaseline 
and  benzine  is  also  used  for  this  purpose. 
Another  formula  which  may  be  recom- 
mended for  bright-cutting  aluminum  is 
composed  of  the  following  ingredients: 
Mix  4  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  1 

fart   of  rum  with  1  ounce   of   stearine. 
mmerse  the  grayer  in  any  of  the  mix- 
tures before  making  the  bright-cut. 

GREASES: 

See  Lubricants. 

GREASE  ERADlCATORS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


386 


GRINDSTONES— GUMS 


GREASE  PAINTS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

GREEN,     TO      DISTINGUISH     BLUE 
FROM,  AT  NIGHT: 

See  Blue. 

GREEN  GILDING: 
See  Plating. 

GRENADES: 

See  Fire  Extinguishers. 

GRINDING: 

See  Tool  Setting. 

GRINDER    DISK    CEMENT,  SUBSTI- 
TUTE FOR: 

See  Adhesives. 

GRINDSTONES: 

To  Mend  Grindstones. — The  mending 
of  defective  places  in  grindstones  is  best 
done  with  a  mass  consisting  of  earth- 
wax  (so-called  stone-pitch),  5  parts,  by 
weight;  tar,  1  part;  and  powdered  sand- 
stone or  cement,  3  parts,  which  is  heated 
to  the  boiling  point  and  well  stirred  to- 
gether. Before  pouring  in  the  mass  the 
places  to  be  mended  must  be  heated  by 
laying  red-hot  pieces  of  iron  on  them. 
The  substance  is,  in  a  tough  state,  poured 
into  the  hollows  of  the  stone,  and  the 
pouring  must  be  continued,  when  it  com- 
mences to  solidify,  until  even  with  the 
surface. 

Treatment  of  the  Grindstone.— The 
stone  should  not  be  left  with  the  lower 
part  in  the  water.  This  will  render  it 
brittle  at  this  spot,  causing  it  to  wear  off 
more  quickly  and  thus  lose  its  circu- 
larity. It  is  best  to  moisten  the  stone 
only  when  in  use,  drop  by  drop  from  a 
vessel  fixed  above  it  and  to  keep  it  quite 
dry  otherwise.  If  the  stone  is  no  longer 
round,  it  should  be  made  so  again  by 
turning  by  means  of  a  piece  of  gas  pipe  or 
careful  trimming,  otherwise  it  will  com- 
mence to  jump,  thus  becoming  useless. 
It  is  important  to  clean  all  tools  and 
articles  before  grinding,  carefully  re- 
moving all  grease,  fat,  etc.,  as  the  pores 
of  the  stone  become  clogged  with  these 
impurities,  which  destroy  its  grain  and 
diminish  its  strength.  Should  one  side 
of  the  grindstone  be  lighter,  this  ir- 
regularity can  be  equalized  by  affixing 
pieces  of  lead,  so  as  to  obtain  a  uniform 
motion  of  the  stone.  It  is  essential  that 
the  stone  should  be  firm  on  the  axis  and 
not  move  to  and  fro  in  the  bearings. 

Grindstone  Oil. — Complaints  are  often 
heard  that  grindstones  are  occasionally 
harder  on  one  side  than  the  other,  the 
softer  parts  wearing  away  in  hollows, 


which  render  grinding  difficult,  and  soon 
make  the  stone  useless.  This  defect  can 
be  remedied  completely  by  means  of 
boiled  linseed  oil.  When  the  stone  is 
thoroughly  dry,  the  soft  side  is  turned 
uppermost,  and  brushed  over  with  boiled 
oil,  which  sinks  into  the  stone,  until  the 
latter  is  saturated.  The  operation  takes 
about  3  to  4  hours  in  summer.  As  soon 
as  the  oil  has  dried,  the  stone  may  be 
damped,  and  used  without  any  further 
delay.  Unlike  other  similar  remedies, 
this  one  does  not  prevent  the  stone  from 
biting  properly  in  the  oiled  parts,  and  the 
life  of  the  stone  is  considerably  length- 
ened, since  it  does  not  have  to  be  dressed 
so  often. 

GROUNDS  FOR  GRAINING  COLORS: 

See  Pigments. 

GUMS: 

(See  also  Adhesives,  under  Mucilages.) 
Gums,  their  Solubility  in  Alcohol. — 
The  following  table  shows  the  great  range 
of  solubility  of  the  various  gums,  and  of 
various  specimens  of  the  same  gum,  in 
60  per  cent  alcohol: 

Acajon .    . .    6.94  to  42.92 

Aden 0.60  to  26.90 

Egyptian 46.34 

Yellow  Amrad 26.90  to  32.16 

White  Amrad 0.54  to     1.50 

Kor.dofan 1.40  to     6.06 

Australian 10.67  to  20.85 

Bombay 22.06  to  46.14 

Cape 1.67  to     1.88 

Embavi 25.92 

Gedda 1.24  to     1.30 

Ghatti 31.60  to  70.32 

Gheziereh 1.50  to  12.16 

Halebi 3.70  to  22.60 

La  Plata 9.65 

Mogadore 27.66 

East  Indian 3.24  to  74.84 

Persian 1.74  to  17.34 

Senegal 0.56  to  14.30 

Substitute  for  Gum  Arabic. — Dissolve 
250  parts  of  glue  in  1,000  parts  of  boiling 
water  and  heat  this  gjue  solution  on  the 
water  bath  with  a  mixture  of  about  10 

Sarts  of  barium  peroxide  of  75  per  cent 
aO2  and  5  parts  of  sulphuric  acid 
(66°)  mixed  with  115  parts  of  water,  for 
about  24  hours.  After  the  time  has 
elapsed,  pour  off  from  the  barium  sul- 
phate, whereby  a  little  sulphurous  acid 
results  owing  to  reduction  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  has  a  bleaching  action 
and  makes  the  glue  somewhat  paler. 
If  this  solution  is  mixed,  with  stirring, 
and  dried  upon  glass  plates  in  the  drying- 
room,  a  product  which  can  hardly  be 


GUNPOWDER   STAINS— GYPSUM 


distinguished  from  gum  arabic  is  ob- 
tained. An  envelope  sealed  with  this 
mucilage  cannot  be  opened  by  moisten- 
ing the  envelope.  The  traces  of  free 
acid  which  it  contains  prevent  the  in- 
vasion of  bacteria,  hence  all  putrefaction. 
The  adhesive  power  of  the  artificial 
gum  is  so  enormous  that  the  use  of  cork 
stoppers  is  quite  excluded,  since  they 
crumble  off  every  time  the  bottle  is 
opened,  so  that  finally  a  perfect  wreath 
around  the  inner  neck  of  the  bottle  is 
formed.  Only  metallic  or  porcelain 
stoppers  should  be  used. 

GUM  ARABIC,  INCREASING  ADHE- 
SION OF: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Mucilages. 

GUM  BICHROMATE  PROCESS: 

See  Photography. 

GUM  DROPS: 

See  Confectionery. 

GUM-LAC: 
See  Oil. 

GUMS  USED  IN  MAKING  VARNISH : 

See  Varnishes. 

GUN  BARRELS,  TO  BLUE : 

See  Steel. 

GUN  BRONZE: 

See  Alloys,  under  Phosphor  Bronze. 

GUN  COTTON: 
See  Explosives. 

GUN  LUBRICANTS: 
See  Lubricants. 

GUNPOWDER: 

See  Explosives. 

GUNPOWDER  STAINS. 

A  stain  produced  by  the  embedding 
of  grains  of  gunpowder  in  the  skin  is 
practically  the  same  thing  as  a  tattoo 
mark.  The  charcoal  of  the  gunpowder 
remains  unaffected  by  the  fluids  of  the 
tissues,  and  no  way  is  known  of  bring- 
ing it  into  solution  there.  The  only 
method  of  obliterating  such  marks  is 
to  take  away  with  them  the  skin  in 
which  they  are  embedded.  This  has 
been  accomplished  by  the  application 
of  an  electric  current,  and  by  the  use 
of  caustics.  When  the  destruction  of 
the  true  skin  has  been  accomplished, 
it  becomes  a  foreign  body,  and  if  the 
destruction  has  extended  to  a  sufficient 
depth,  the  other  foreign  body,  the  color- 
ing matter  which  has  been  tattooed  in, 
may  be  expected  to  be  cast  off  with  it. 

Recently  pepsin  and  papain  have  been 
proposed  as  applications  to  remove  the 
cuticle.  A  glycerole  of  either  is  tattooed 


into  the  skin  over  the  disfigured  part; 
and  it  is  said  that  the  operation  has 
proved  successful. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that 
suppuration  is  likely  to  follow  such  treat- 
ment, and  that  there  is  risk  of  scarring. 
In  view  of  this  it  becomes  apparent  that 
any  such  operation  should  be  under- 
taken only  by  a  surgeon  skilled  in 
dermatological  practice.  An  amateur 
might  not  only  cause  the  patient  suffer- 
ing without  success  in  removal,  but  add 
another  disfigurement  to  the  tattooing. 

Carbolic  acid  has  been  applied  to 
small  portions  of  the  affected  area  at  a 
time,  with  the  result  that  the  powder  and 
skin  were  removed  simultaneously  and, 
according  to  the  physician  reporting  the 
case,  with  little  discomfort  to  the  patient. 

Rubbing  the  affected  part  with 
moistened  ammonium  chloride  once  or 
twice  a  day  has  been  reported  as  a  slow 
but  sure  cure. 

GUTTA-PERCHA. 

Gutta-Percha  Substitute.— I.— A  de- 
coction of  birch  bark  is  first  prepared, 
the  external  bark  by  preference,  being 
evaporated.  The  thick,  black  residue 
hardens  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  is 
said  to  possess  the  properties  of  gutta- 
percha  without  developing  any  cracks. 
It  can  be  mixed  with  50  per  cent  of  India 
rubber  or  gutta-percha.  The  com- 
pound is  said  to  be  cheap,  and  a  good 
non-conductor  of  electricity.  Whether 
it  possesses  all  the  good  qualities  of 
gutta-percha  is  not  known. 

II. — A  new  method  of  making  gutta- 
percha  consists  of  caoutchouc  and  a  rosin 
soap,  th-  latter  compounded  of  100  parts 
of  rosin,  100  parts  of  Carnauba  wax,  and 
40  parts  of  gas-tar,  melted  together  and 

Eassed  through  a  sieve.  They  are 
eated  to  about  355°  to  340°  F.,  and 
slowly  saponified  by  stirring  with  75 
parts  of  lime  water  of  specific  gravity 
1.06.  The  product  is  next  put  into  a 
kneading  machine  along  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  caoutchouc  cuttings,  and 
worked  in  this  machine  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  195°  F.  or  o\er.  When  suffi- 
ciently kneaded,  the  mass  can  be  rolled 
to  render  it  more  uniform. 

GUTTER  CEMENT: 

See  Cement  and  Putty. 

GYPSUM: 

See  also  Plaster. 

Method  of  Hardening  Gypsum  and 
Rendering  it  Weather-Proof. — Gypsum 
possesses  only  a  moderate  degree  of 
strength  even  after  complete  hardening, 


GYPSUM— HAIR   PREPARATIONS 


and  pieces  are  very  liable  to  be  broken 
off.  Various  methods  have  been  tried, 
with  a  view  to  removing  this  defect  and 
increasing  the  hardness  of  gypsum.  Of 
these  methods,  that  of  Wachsmuth,  for 
hardening  articles  made  of  gypsum  and 
rendering  them  weather-proof,  deserves 
special  notice.  All  methods  of  hardening 
articles  made  of  gypsum  have  this  in 
common:  the  gypsum  is  first  deprived  of 
its  moisture,  and  then  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  certain  salts,  such  as  alum, 
green  vitriol,  etc.  Articles  treated  by 
the  methods  hitherto  in  vogue  certainly 
acquire  considerable  hardness,  but  are 
no  more  capable  of  resistance  to  the 
effects  of  water  than  crude  gypsum. 
The  object  of  Wachsmuth's  process  is 
not  merely  to  harden  the  gypsum,  but  to 
transform  it  on  the  surface  into  insoluble 
combinations.  The  process  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  article  is  first  put  into  the  re- 
quired shape  by  mechanical  means,  and 
then  deprived  of  its  moisture  by  heating 
to  212°  to  302°  F.  It  is  then  plunged 
into  a  heated  solution  of  barium  hydrate, 
in  which  it  is  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  its 
strength.  When  this  part  of  the  process 
is  complete,  the  article  is  smoothed  by 
grinding,  etc.,  and  then  placed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  about  10  per  cent  of  oxalic  acid 
in  water.  In  a  few  hours  it  is  taken  out, 
dried,  and  polished.  It  then  possesses 
a  hardness  surpassing  that  of  marble, 
and  is  impervious  to  the  action  of  water. 
Nor  does  the  polish  sustain  any  injury 
from  contact  with  water,  whereas  gypsum 
articles  hardened  by  the  usual  methods 
lose  their  polish  after  a  few  minutes' 
immersion  in  water.  Articles  treated  by 
the  method  described  have  the  natural 
color  of  gypsum,  but  it  is  possible  to 
add  a  color  to  the  gypsum  during  the 
hardening  process.  This  is  done  by 
plunging  the  gypsum,  after  it  has  been 
deprived  of  its  moisture,  and  before  the 
treatment  with  the  barium  solution, 
into  a  solution  of  a  colored  metallic 
sulphate,  such  as  iron,  copper,  or  chrome 
sulphate,  or  into  a  solution  of  some 
coloring  matter.  Pigments  soluble  in 
the  barium  or  oxalic-acid  solutions  may 
also  be  added  to  the  latter. 

Gypsum  may  be  hardened  and 
rendered  insoluble  by  ammonium  borate 
as  follows:  Dissolve  boric  acid  in  hot 
water  and  add  sufficient  ammonia  water 
to  the  solution  that  the  borate  at  first 
separated  is  redissolyed.  The  gypsum 
to  be  cast  is  stirred  in  with  this  liquid, 
and  the  mass  treated  in  the  ordinary 
way.  Articles  already  cast  are  simply 
washed  with  the  liquid,  which  is  quickly 


absorbed.  The  articles  withstand  the 
weather  as  well  as  though  they  were  of 
stone. 

GYPSUM  FLOWERS: 

See  Flowers. 

GYPSUM,  PAINT  FOR: 
See  Paint. 

HAIR  FOR  MOUNTING. 

The  microscopist  or  amateur,  who 
shaves  himself,  need  never  resort  to  the 
trouble  of  embedding  and  cutting  hairs 
in  the  microtome  in  order  to  secure  very 
thin  sections  of  the  hair  of  the  face.  If 
he  will  first  shave  himself  closely  "with 
the  hair,"  as  the  barbers  say  (i.  e.,  in  the 
direction  of  the  natural  growth  of  the 
hair),  and  afterwards  lightly  "against 
the  hair"  (in  the  opposite  direction  to 
above),  he  will  find  in  the  "scrapings" 
a  multitude  of  exceedingly  thin  sections. 
The  technique  is  very  simple.  The  lather 
and  "scrapings"  are  put  into  a  saucer  or 
large  watch-glass  and  carefully  washed 
witn  clean  water.  This  breaks  down 
and  dissolves  the  lather,  leaving  the  hair 
sections  lying  on  the  bottom  of  the  glass. 
The  after-treatment  is  that  usually  em- 
ployed in  mounting  similar  objects. 

Hair  Preparations 

DANDRUFF  CURES. 

The  treatment  of  that  condition  of  the 
scalp  which  is  productive  of  dandruff 
properly  falls  to  the  physician,  but  un- 
fortunately the  subject  has  not  been  much 
studied.  One  cure  is  said  to  be  a  sulphur 
lotion  made  by  placing  a  little  sublimed 
sulphur  in  water,  shaking  well,  then  al- 
lowing to  settle,  and  washing  the  head 
every  morning  with  the  clear  liquid. 

Sulphur  is  said  to  be  insoluble  in 
water;  yet  a  sulphur  water  made  as 
above  indicated  has  long  been  in  use  as  a 
hair  wash.  A  little  glycerine  improves 
the  preparation,  preventing  the  hair 
from  becoming  harsh  by  repeated  wash- 
ings. 

The  exfoliated  particles  of  skin  or 
"scales"  should  be  removed  only  when 
entirely  detached  from  the  cuticle.  They 
result  from  an  irritation  which  is  in- 
creased by  forcible  removal,  and  hence 
endeavors  to  clean  the  hair  from  them 
by  combing  or  brushing  it  in  such  a  way 
as  to  scrape  the  scalp  are  liable  to  be 
worse  than  useless.  It  follows  that 
gentle  handling  of  the  hair  is  important 
when  dandruff  is  present. 


HAIR   PREPARATIONS 


389 


I. — Chloral  hydrate 2  ounces 

Resorcin 1  ounce 

Tannin 1  ounce 

Alcohol 8  ounces 

Glycerine 4  ounces 

Rose  water  to  make  .  4  pints 

II. — White  wax 3*  drachms 

Liquid  petrolatum  .  .    2£  ounces 

Rose  water 1     ounce 

Borax 15     grains 

Precipitated  sulphur.    3 £  drachms 

Pine-Tar  Dandruff  Shampoo.— 

Pine  tar 4  parts 

Linseed  oil 40  parts 

Heat  these  to  140°  F.;  make  solution 
of  potassa,  U.  S.  P.,  10  parts,  and  water, 
45  parts;  add  alcohol,  5  parts,  and 
gradually  add  to  the  heated  oils,  stirring 
constantly.  Continue  the  heat  until 
saponified  thoroughly;  and  make  up 
with  water  to  128  parts.  When  almost 
cool,  add  ol.  lavender,  ol.  orange,  and  ol. 
bergamot,  of  each  2  parts. 

HAIR-CURLING  LIQUIDS. 

It  is  impossible  to  render  straight  hair 
curly  without  the  aid  of  the  iron  or  paper 
and  other  curlers.  But  it  is  possible,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  make  artificial  curls 
more  durable  and  proof  against  outside 
influences,  such  as  especially  dampness 
of  the  air.  Below  are  trustworthy  re- 
cipes: 

I  II 

Water 70  80 

Spirit  of  wine 30  20 

Borax 2 

Tincture  of  benzoin  . .      • —  3 

Perfume ad.  lib.     ad.  lib. 

HAIR  DRESSINGS  AND  WASHES: 
Dressings  for  the  Hair. — 
I. — Oil  of  wintergreen  .        20  drops 
Oil   of  almond,   es- 
sential          35  drops 

Oil  of  rose,  ethereal  1  drop 

Oil  of  violets 30  drops 

Tincture  of  canthar- 

ides 50  drops 

Almond  oil 2,000  drops 

Mix. 

Hair  Embrocation. — 
II. — Almond  oil,  sweet  .    280  parts 
Spirit    of    sal    am- 
moniac     280  parts 

Spirit  of  rosemary. .    840  parts 

Honey  water 840  parts 

Mix.  Rub  the  scalp  with  it  every 
morning  by  means  of  a  sponge. 


Hair  Restorer.— 
III. — Tincture     of     can- 

tharides 7      pa.  is 

Gall  tincture 7      parts 

Musk  essence 1      part 

Carmine 0.5  part 

Rectified    spirit    of 

wine 28      parts 

Rose  water 140      parts 

To  be  used  at  night. 

Rosemary  Water. — 

IV. — Rosemary  oi: 1^  parts 

Rectified    spirit    of 

wine. 7     parts 

Magnesia 7     parts 

Distilled  water 1,000     parts 

Mix  the  oil  with  the  spirit  of  wine  and 
rub  up  with  the  magnesia  in  a  mortar; 
gradually  add  the  water  and  finally  filter. 

Foamy  Scalp  Wash. — Mix  2  parts  of 
soap  spirit,  1  part  of  borax-glycerine 
(1+2),  6  parts  of  barium,  and  7  parts 
of  orange-flower  water. 

Lanolin  Hair  Wash. — Extract  4  parts 
quillaia  bark  with  36  parts  water  for 
several  days,  mix  the  percolate  with  4 
parts  alcohol,  and  filter  after  having 
settled.  Agitate  40  parts  of  the  filtraie 
at  a  temperature  at  which  wool  grease 
becomes  liquid,  with  12  parts  anhydrous 
lanolin,  and  fill  up  with  water  to  which  15 
per  cent  spirit  of  wine  has  been  added, 
to  300  parts.  Admixture,  such  as  cin- 
chona extract,  Peru  balsam,  quinine, 
tincture  of  cantharides,  bay-oil,  am- 
monium carbonate,  menthol,  etc.,  may 
be  made.  The  result  is  a  yellowish- 
white,  milky  liquid,  with  a  cream-like  fat 
layer  floating  on  the  top,  which  is  finely 
distributed  by  agitating. 

Birch  Water. — Birch  water,  which  has 
many  cosmetic  applications,  especially 
as  a  hair  wash  or  an  ingredient  in  hair 
washes,  may  be  prepared  as  follows: 

Alcohol,  96  per  cent .  .3,500  parts 

Water 700  parts 

Potash  soap 200  parts 

Glycerine 150  parts 

Oil  of  birch  buds 50  parts 

Essence      of      spring 

flowers 100  parts 

Chlorophyll,  q.  s.  to  color. 

Mix  the  water  with  700  parts  of  the 
alcohol,  and  in  the  mixture  dissolve  the 
soap.  Add  the  essence  of  spring  flowers 
and  birch  oil  to  the  remainder  of  the 
alcohol,  mix  well,  and  to  the  mixture 
add,  little  by  little,  and  with  constant 
agitation,  the  soap  mixture.  Finally 


390 


HAIR   PREPARATIONS 


add  the  glycerine,  mix  thoroughly,  and 
set  aside  for  8  days,  filter  and  color  the 
filtrate  with  chlorophyll,  to  which  add  a 
little  tincture  of 'saffron.  To  use,  add  an 
equal  volume  of  water  to  produce  a 
lather. 

Petroleum  Hair  Washes. — I. — Deodor- 
ized pale  petroleum,  10  parts;  citronella 
oil,  10  parts;  castor  oil,  5  parts;  spirit  of 
wine,  90  per  cent,  50  parts;  water,  75 
parts. 

II. — Quinine  sulphate,  10  parts;  acetic 
acid,  4  parts;  tincture  of  cantharides,  30 
parts;  tincture  of  quinine,  3  parts;  spirit 
of  rosemary,  60  parts;  balm  water,  90 
parts;  barium,  120  parts;  spirit  of  wine, 
150  parts;  water,  1,000  parts. 

III. — Very  pure  petroleum,  1  part; 
almond  oil,  2  parts. 

Brilliantine. — I. — Olive  oil,  4  parts: 
glycerine,  3  parts;  alcohol,  3  parts;  scent 
as  desired.  Shake  before  use. 

II. — Castor  oil,  1  part;  alcohol,  2 
parts;  saffron  to  dye  yellow.  Scent  as 
desired. 

III. — Lard,  7  parts;  spermaceti,  7 
parts;  almond  oil,  7  parts;  white  wax, 
1  part. 

A  Cheap  Hair  Oil. — I. — Sesame  oil  or 
sunflower  oil,  1,000  parts;  lavender  oil, 
15  parts;  bergamot  oil,  10  parts;  and 
geranium  oil,  5  parts. 

II. — Sesame  oil  or  sunflower  oil,  1,000 
parts;  lavender  oil,  12  parts;  lemon  oil, 
20  parts;  rosemary  oil,  5  parts;  and 
geranium  oil,  2  parts. 

HAIR  DYES. 

There  is  no  hair  dye  which  produces  a 
durable  coloration;  the  color  becomes 
gradually  weaker  in  the  course  of  time. 
Here  are  some  typical  formulas  in  which 
a  mordant  is  employed: 

I. — Nitrate  of  silver J  ounce 

Distilled  water 3    ounces 

Mordant: 

Sulphuret  of  potas- 
sium   |  ounce 

Distilled  water 3    ounces 

II.— 

(a)  Nitrate  of  silver  (crys- 
tal)       1$  ounces 

Distilled  water 12    ounces 

Ammonia  water  suf- 
ficient to  make  a 
clear  solution. 

Dissolve  the  nitrate  of  silver  in  the 
water  and  add  the  ammonia  water  until 
the  precipitate  is  redissolved. 


(6)  Pyrogallic  acid 2  drachms 

Gallic  acid 2  drachms 

Cologne  water 2  ounces 

Distilled  water 4  ounces 

III. — Nitrate  of  silver 20  grains 

Sulphate  of  copper.  .      2  grains 
Ammonia,  quantity  sufficient. 
Dissolve  the  salts  in  ^  ounce  of  water 
and  add  ammonia  until  the  precipitate 
which  is  formed  is  redissolved.      Then 
make  up  to  1  ounce  with  water.      Apply 
to  the  hair  with  a  brush.      This  solution 
slowly  gives  a  brown  shade.      For  darker 
shades,   apply  a   second   solution,   com- 
posed of : 

IV. — Yellow  sulphide  am- 
monium   2  drachms 

Solution  of  ammonia  1  drachm 

Distilled  water 1  ounce 

Black  Hair  Dye  without  Silver.— 
V.—  Pyrogallic  acid  ....       3.5  parts 

Citric  acid 0.3  parts 

Boro-glycerine.  ...      11      parts 

Water 100      parts 

If  the  dye  does  not  impart  the  desired 
intensity  of  color,  the  amount  of  pyro- 
gallic  acid  may  be  increased.  The  wash 
is  applied  evenings,  followed  in  the  morn- 
ing by  a  weak  ammoniacal  wash. 

One  Bottle  Preparation. — 
VI. — Nitrate  of  copper  ..    360  grains 
Nitrate  of  silver.  . .        7  ounces 
Distilled  water.  ...      60  ounces 
Water  of  ammonia,  a  sufficiency. 
Dissolve  the  salts  in  the  water  and  add 
the  water  of  ammonia  carefully  until  the 
precipitate  is  all  redissolved.      This  solu- 
tion, properly  applied,  is  said  to  produce 
a   very   black   color;  a  lighter   shade  is 
secured  by  diluting  the  solution.      Cop- 
per sulphate  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
nitrate. 

Brown  Hair  Dyes. — A  large  excess  of 
ammonia  tends  to  produce  a  brownish 
dye.  Various  shades  of  brown  may  be 
produced  by  increasing  the  amount  of 
water  in  the  silver  solution.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  hair  must,  pre- 
viously to  treatment,  be  washed  with  warm 
water  containing  sodium  carbonate,  well 
rinsed  with  clear  water,  and  dried. 

I. — Silver  nitrate 480  grains 

Copper  nitrate  ...      90  grains 
Distilled  water.  .  .        8  fluidounces 
Ammonia  water,  sufficient. 
Dissolve  the  two  salts  in  the  distilled 
water  and  add  the  ammonia  water  until 
the  liquid  becomes  a  clear  fluid. 

In  using  apply  to  the  hair  carefully 


HAIR  PREPARATIONS 


S91 


with  a  tooth-brush,  after  thoroughly 
cleansing  the  hair,  and  expose  the  latter 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

II. — Silver  nitrate 30  parts 

Copper    sulphate, 

crystals 20  parts 

Citric  acid 20  parts 

Distilled  water 950  parts 

Ammonia    water, 
quantity   sufficient 
to  dissolve  the  pre- 
cipitate first  formed. 
Various  shades  of  brown  may  be  pro- 
duced by  properly  diluting  the  solution 
before  it  be  applied. 

Bismuth    subni- 

trate 200  grains 

Water 2  fluidounces 

Nitric  acid,   suffi- 
cient to  dissolve, 

or  about 420  grains 

Use  heat  to  effect  solution.     Also: 
Tartaric  acid  ....    150  grains 
Sodium  bicarbon- 
ate      168  grains 

Water 32  fluidounces 

When  effervescence  of  the  latter  has 
ceased,  mix  the  cold  liquids  by  pouring 
the  latter  into  the  former  with  constant 
stirring.  Allow  the  precipitate  to  sub- 
side; transfer  it  to  a  filter  or  strainer,  and 
wash  with  water  until  free  from  the 
sodium  nitrate  formed. 

Chestnut  Hair  Dye.— 

Bismuth  nitrate.  . .    230  grains 

Tartaric  acid 75  grains 

Water 100  minims 

Dissolve  the  acid  in  the  water,  and  to 
the  solution  add  the  bismuth  nitrate  and 
stir  until  dissolved.  Pour  the  resulting 
solution  into  1  pint  of  water  and  collect 
the  magma  on  a  filter.  Remove  all  traces 
of  acid  from  the  magma  by  repeated 
washings  with  water;  then  dissolve  it  in: 

Ammonia  water.  .    2  fluidrachms 
And  add: 

Glycerine 20  minims 

Sodium  hyposul- 
phite     75  grains 

Water,  enough  to 

make 4  fluidounces. 

HAIR  RESTORERS  AND  TONICS: 

Falling  of  the  Hair. — After  the  scalp 
has  been  thoroughly  cleansed  by  the 
shampoo,  the  following  formula  is  to  be 
used: 

Salicylic  acid 1     part 

Precipitate  of  sulphur.     2  J  parts 

Rose  water 25     parts 

The  patient  is  directed  to  part  the  hair, 


and  then  to  rub  in  a  small  portion  of  the 
ointment  along  the  part,  working  it  well 
into  the  scalp.  Then  another  part  is 
made  parallel  to  the  first,  and  more  oint- 
ment rubbed  in.  Thus  a  series  of  first, 
longitudinal,  and  then  transverse  parts 
are  made,  until  the  whole  scalp  has  Ibeen 
well  anointed.  Done  in  this  way,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  smear  up  the  whole 
shaft  of  the  hair,  but  only  to  reach  the 
hair  roots  and  the  sebaceous  glands, 
where  the  trouble  is  located.  This  proc- 
ess is  thoroughly  performed  for  six  suc- 
cessive nights,  and  the  seventh  night  an- 
other shampoo  is  taken.  The  eighth 
night  the  inunctions  are  commenced 
again,  and  this  is  continued  for  six  weeks. 
In  almost  every  case  the  production  of 
dandruff  is  checked  completely  after  six 
weeks'  treatment,  and  the  hair,  which 
may  have  been  falling  out  rapidly  before, 
begins  to  take  firmer  root.  To  be  sure, 
many  hairs  which  are  on  the  point  of 
falling  when  treatment  is  begun  will  fall 
anyway,  and  it  may  even  seem  for  a  time 
as  if  the  treatment  were  increasing  the 
hair-fall,  on  account  of  the  mechanical 
dislodgment  of  such  hairs,  but  this  need 
never  alarm  one. 

After  six  weeks  of  such  treatment  the 
shampoo  may  be  taken  less  frequently. 

Next  to  dandruff,  perhaps,  the  most 
common  cause  of  early  loss  of  hair  is 
heredity.  In  some  families  all  of  the 
male  members,  or  all  who  resemble  one 
particular  ancestor,  lose  their  hair  early. 
Dark-haired  families  and  races,  as  a 
rule,  become  bald  earlier  than  those  with 
light  hair.  At  first  thought  it  would 
seem  as  though  nothing  could  be  done  to 
prevent  premature  baldness  when  hered- 
ity is  the  cause,  but  this  is  a  mistake. 
Careful  hygiene  of  the  scalp  will  often 
counterbalance  hereditary  predisposition 
for  a  number  of  years,  and  even  after  the 
hair  has  actually  begun  to  fall  proper 
stimulation  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  and 
for  a  limited  time,  often  restore  to  the  hair 
its  pristine  thickness  and  strength.  Any 
of  the  rubefacients  may  be  prescribed 
for  this  purpose  for  daily  use,  such  as 
croton  oil,  1J  per  cent;  tincture  of  can- 
tharides,  15  per  cent;  oil  of  cinnamon,  40 
per  cent;  tincture  of  capsicum,  15  per 
cent;  oil  of  mustard,  1  per  cent;  or  any 
one  of  a  dozen  others.  Tincture  of  cap- 
sicum is  one  of  the  best,  and  for  a  routine 
prescription  the  following  has  served 
well: 

Resorcin 5  parts 

Tincture  capsicum. .      15  parts 

Castor  oil 10  parts 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Oil  of  roses,  sufficient. 


392 


HAIR   PREPARATIONS 


It  is  to  be  recommended  that  the  stim- 
ulant be  changed  from  time  to  time,  so 
as  not  to  rely  on  any  one  to  the  exclusion 
of  others.  Jaborandi,  oxygen  gas,  qui- 
nine, and  other  agents  have  enjoyed  a 
great  reputation  as  hair-producers  for  a 
time,  and  have  then  taken  their  proper 
position  as  aids,  but  not  specifics,  in  re- 
storing the  hair. 

It  is  well  known  that  after  many 
fevers,  especially  those  accompanied  by 
great  depression,  such  as  pneumonia, 
typhoid,  puerperal,  or  scarlet  fever,  the 
hair  is  liable  to  fall  out.  This  is  brought 
about  in  a  variety  of  ways:  In  scarlatina, 
the  hair  papilla  shares  in  the  general 
desquamation;  in  typhoid  and  the  other 
fevers  the  baldness  may  be  the  result 
either  of  the  excessive  seborrhea,  which 
often  accompanies  these  diseases,  or 
may  be  caused  by  the  general  lowering  of 
nutrition  of  the  body.  Unless  the  hair- 
fall  be  accompanied  by  considerable 
dandruff  (in  which  case  the  above-men- 
tioned treatment  should  be  vigorously 
employed),  the  ordinary  hygiene  of  the 
scalp  will  result  in  a  restoration  of  the 
hair  in  most  cases,  but  the  employment 
of  moderate  local  stimulation,  with  the 
use  of  good  general  tonics,  will  hasten 
this  end.  It  seems  unwise  to  cut  the 
hair  of  women  short  in  these  cases,  be- 
cause the  baldness  is  practically  never 
complete,  and  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  hairs  will  retain  firm  root.  These 
may  be  augmented  by  a  switch  made  of 
the  hair  which  has  fallen  out,  until  the 
new  hair  shall  have  grown  long  enough 
to  do  up  well.  In  this  way  all  of  that 
oftentimes  most  annoying  short-hair 
period  is  avoided. 

For  Falling  Hair. — 

I. — Hydrochloric  acid        75  parts 

Alcohol 2,250  parts 

The  lotion  is  to  be  applied  to  the  scalp 
every  evening  at  bedtime. 

II. — Tincture  of  cinchona     1  part 
Tincture     of     rose- 
mary       1  part 

Tincture    of    jabor- 

andi 1  part 

Castor  oil 2  parts 

Rum 10  parts 

Mix. 

Jaborandi  Scalp  Waters  for  Increasing 
the  Growth  of  Hair. — First  prepare  a 
Jaborandi  tincture  from  Jaborandi  leaves, 
200  parts;  spirit,  95  per  cent,  700  parts; 
and  water,  300  parts.  After  digesting 
for  a  week,  squeeze  out  the  leaves  and 
filter  the  liquid.  The  hair  wash  is  now 
prepared  as  follows: 


I. — Jaborandi  tincture,  1,000  parts: 
spirit,  95  per  cent,  700  parts;  water,  300 
parts;  glycerine,  150  parts;  scent  essence, 
100  parts;  color  with  sugar  color. 

II. — Jaborandi  tincture,  1,000  parts: 
spirit,  95  per  cent,  1,500  parts;  quinine 
tannate,  4  parts;  Peru  balsam,  20  parts; 
essence  heliotrope,  50  parts.  Dissolve 
the  quinine  and  the  Peru  balsam  in  the 
spirit  and  then  add  the  Jaborandi  tinc- 
ture and  the  heliotrope  essence.  Filter 
after  a  week.  Rub  into  the  scalp  twice 
a  week  before  retiring. 


POMADES: 
I. — Cinchona  Pomade.— 

Ox  marrow 

Lard 

Sweet  almond  oil. ... 

Peru  balsam 

Quinine  sulphate.  . . 

Clover  oil 

Rose  essence 

II. — Cantharides  Pomade. 

Ox  marrow 

White  wax 

Mace  oil 

Clove  oil 

Rose  essence  or  ge- 
ranium oil 

Tincture  of  canthar- 
ides. . 


100  drachms 

70  drachms 

17  drachms 

1  drachm 

1  drachm 

2  drachms 
25  drops 


300  drachms 
30  drachms 
1  drachm 
1  drachm 

25  drops 
8  drachms 


Pinaud  Eau  de  Quinine. — The  com- 
position of  this  nostrum  is  not  known. 
Dr.  Tsheppe  failed  to  find  in  it  any  con- 
stituent of  cinchona  bark.  The  absence 
of  quinine  from  the  mixture  probably 
would  not  hurt  it,  as  the  "tonic"  effect  of 
quinine  on  the  hair  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  myth. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  stated 
that  this  preparation  contains: 

Quinine  sulphate.  .  .  2  parts 
Tincture  of  krameria  4  parts 
Tincture  of  canthar- 

ides 2  parts 

Spirit  of  lavender.  . .      10  parts 

Glycerine 15  parts 

Alcohol 100  parts 

SHAMPOOS : 

A  Hair  Shampoo  is  usually  a  tincture 
of  odorless  soft  soap.  It  is  mostly  per- 
fumed with  lavender  and  colored  with 
green  aniline.  Prepared  the  same  as  tr. 
sapon.  virid.  (U.  S.  P.),  using  an  inexpen- 
sive soft  soap,  that  is  a  good  foam  pio- 
ducer.  Directions:  Wet  the  hair  well  in 
warm  water  and  rub  in  a  few  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  the  following  formulas.  No.  I  is 
considered  the  best: 


HAIR   PREPARATIONS— HAT   WATERPROOFING       393 


I      II    III  IV 

Parts  used 

Cottonseed  oil —     24  26  14 

Linseed  oil.  . . 20     —  —  — 

Malaga  olive  oil ....  20     —  —  — 

Caustic  potash 9£     8  6  3 

Alcohol 5        4i  5  2 

Water 30     26  34  16£ 

Warm  the  mixed  oils  on  a  large  water 
bath,  then  the  potash  and  water  in  an- 
other vessel,  heating  both  to  158°  F.,  and 
adding  the  latter  hot  solution  to  the  hot 
oil  while  stirring  briskly.  Now  add  and 
thoroughly  mix  the  alcohol.  Stop  stir- 
ring, keeping  the  heat  at  158°  F.,  until 
the  mass  becomes  clear  and  a  small  quan- 
tity dissolves  in  boiling  water  without 
globules  of  oil  separating.  If  stirred 
after  the  alcohol  has  been  mixed  the 
soap  will  be  opaque.  Set  aside  for  a  few 
days  in  a  warm  place  before  using  to 
make  liquid  shampoo. 

Liquid  Shampoos. — 

I.— Fluid    extract   of 

soap-bark 10  parts 

Glycerine 5  parts 

Cologne  water 10  parts 

Alcohol 20  parts 

Rose  water 30  parts 

II.— Soft  soap 24  parts 

Potassium   carbon- 
ate          5  parts 

Alcohol 48  parts 

Water     enough     to 

make 400  parts 

Shampoo  Pastes. — 
I. — White  castile  soap, 

in  shavings  ....      2  ounces 
Ammonia  water.  .      2  fluidounces 
Bay   rum,    or   co- 
logne water.  ...      1  fluidounce 

Glycerine 1  fluidounce 

Water 12  fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  by 
means  of  heat;  when  nearly  cold  stir  in 
the  other  ingredients. 

II. — Castile  soap,  white.    4  ounces 
Potassium   carbon- 
ate       1  ounce 

Water 6  fluidounces 

Glycerine 2  fluidounces 

Oil  of  lavender 

flowers 5  drops 

Oil  of  bergamot.  .  .  10  drops 
To  the  water  add  the  soap,  in  shav- 
ings, and  the  potassium  carbonate,  and 
heat  on  a  water  bath  until  thoroughly 
softened;  add  the  glycerine  and  oils.  If 
necessary  to  reduce  to  proper  consist- 
ency,, more  water  may  be  added. 


Egg  Shampoo. — 

Whites  of 2    eggs 

Water 5     fluidounces 

Water  of  ammonia.   3    fluidounces 

Cologne  water £  fluidounce 

Alcohol 4     fluidounces 

Beat  the  egg  whites  to  a  froth,  and  add 
the  other  ingredients  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  named,  with  a  thorough 
mixing  after  each  addition. 

Imitation  Egg  Shampoos. — Many  of 
the  egg  shampoos  are  so  called  from 
their  appearance.  They  usually  con- 
tain no  egg  and  are  merely  preparations 
of  perfumed  soft  soap.  Here  are  some 
formulas: 

I. — White  castile  soap. ...  4  ounces 

Powdered  curd  soap. .  2  ounces 

Potassium  carbonate.  1  ounce 

Honey 1  ounce 

Make  a  homogeneous  paste  by  heating 
with  water. 

II. — Melt  3£  pounds  of  lard  over  a 
salt-water  bath  and  run  into  it  a  lye 
formed  by  dissolving  8  ounces  of  caustic 
potassa  in  1^  pints  of  water.  Stir  well 
until  saponification  is  effected  and  per- 
fume as  desired.  • 


HAIR  REMOVERS: 

See  Depilatories. 

HAMBURG  BITTERS: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

HAMMER  HARDENING: 

See  Steel. 

HAND  CREAMS: 
See  Cosmetics. 

HANDS,  TO  REMOVE  STAINS  FROM 
THE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations. 

HARE-LIP  OPERATION,  ANTISEPTIC 

PASTE   FpR: 
See  Antiseptics. 

HARNESS   DRESSINGS  AND  PREPA- 
RATIONS: 

See  Leather  Dressings. 

HARNESS  WAX: 

See  Waxes. 

HAT -CLEANING  COMPOUNDS: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

HAT  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 


394 


HATS— HERBARIUM    SPECIMENS 


HATS: 

Dyeing  Straw  Hats. — The  plan  gen- 
erally followed  is  that  of  coating  the  hats 
with  a  solution  of  varnish  in  which  a 
suitable  aniline  dye  has  dissolved.  The 
following  preparations  are  in  use: 

I. — For  dark  varnishes  prepare  a 
basis  consisting  of  orange  shellac,  900 
parts;  sandarac,  225  parts;  Manila  copal, 
225  parts;  castor  oil,  55  parts;  and  wood- 
spirit,  9,000  parts.  To  color,  add  to  the 
foregoing  amount  alcohol-soluble,  coal- 
tar  dyes  as  follows:  Black,  55  parts  of 
soluble  ivory-black  (modified  by  blue  or 
green).  Olive-brown,  15  parts  of  bril- 
liant-green, 55  parts  of  Bismarck  brown 
R,  8  parts  of  spirit  blue.  Olive-green,  28 
parts  of  brilliant-green,  28  parts  of  Bis- 
marck-brown R.  Walnut,  55  parts  of 
Bismarck-brown  R,  15  parts  of  nigrosin. 
Mahogany,  28  parts  of  Bismarck-brown 
R,  which  may  be  deepened  by  a  little 
nigrosin. 

II. — For  light  colors  prepare  a  var- 
nish as  follows:  Sandarac,  1,350  parts; 
elemi,  450  parts;  rosin,  450  parts;  castor 
oil,  110  parts;  wood-spirit,  9,000  parts. 
For  this  amount  use  dyes  as  follows: 
Gold,  55  parts  of  chrysoidin,  55  parts  of 
aniline-yellow.  Light  green,  55  parts  of 
brilliant-green,  7  parts  of  aniline-yellow. 
Blue,  55  parts  of  spirit  blue.  Deep  blue, 
55  parts  of  spirit  blue,  55  parts  of  in- 
dulin.  Violet,  28  parts  of  methyl-violet, 
3  B.  Crimson,  55  parts  of  safranin.  Chest- 
nut, 55  parts  of  safranin,  15  parts  of  in- 
dulin. 

III. — Shellac 4  ounces 

Sandarac 1  ounce 

Gum  thus 1   ounce 

Methyl  spirit 1  pint 

In  this  dissolve  aniline  dyes  of  the 
requisite  color,  and  apply.  For  white 
straw,  white  shellac  must  be  used. 

To  Extract  Shellac  from  Fur  Hats.— 
Use  the  common  solvents,  as  carbon 
bisulphide,  benzine,  wood  alcohol,  tur- 
pentine, and  so  forth,  reclaiming  the 
spirit  and  shellac  by  a  suitable  still. 

HEADACHE  REMEDIES: 

See  also  Pain  Killers. 

Headache  Cologne. — As  a  mitigant 
of  headache,  cologne  water  of  the  farina 
type  is  refreshing. 

Oil  of  neroli 6  drachms 

Oil  of  rosemary 3  drachms 

Oil  of  bergamot 3  drachms 

Oil  of  cedrat 7  drachms 

Oil  of  orange  peel ....   7  drachms 
Deodorized  alcohol . .    1  gallon 


To  secure  a  satisfactory  product  from 
the  foregoing  formula  it  is  necessary  to 
look  carefully  to  the  quality  of  the  oils. 
Oil  of  cedrat  is  prone  to  change,  and  oil 
of  orange  peel,  if  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere for  a  short  time,  becomes  worth- 
less, and  will  spoil  the  other  materials. 

A  delightful  combination  of  the  acetic 
odor  with  that  of  cologne  water  may  be 
had  by  adding  to  a  pint  of  the  foregoing, 
2  drachms  of  glacial  acetic  acid.  The 
odor  so  produced  may  be  more  grateful 
to  some  invalids  than  the  neroli  and 
lemon  bouquet. 

Still  another  striking  variation  of  the 
cologne  odor,  suitable  for  the  use  in- 
dicated, may  be  made  by  adding  to  a 
pint  of  cologne  water  an  ounce  of  am- 
moniated  alcohol. 

Liquid  Headache  Remedies. — 

Acetanilid 60  grains 

Alcohol 4  fluidrachms 

Ammonium  carbon- 
ate  30  grains 

Water 2  fluidrachms 

Simple      elixir       to 

make 2  fluidounces 

Dissolve  the  acetanilid  in  the  alcohol, 
the  ammonium  carbonate  in  the  water, 
mix  each  solution  with  a  portion  of  the 
simple  elixir,  and  mix  the  whole  together. 

HEAT -INDICATING  PAINT: 

See  Paint. 

HEAT   INSULATION: 

See  Insulation. 

HEAT,  PRICKLY: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

HEAT-RESISTANT   LACQUERS: 

See  Lacquers. 

HEAVES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

HEDGE   MUSTARD. 

Hedge  mustard  (erysimum)  was  at 
one  time  a  popular  remedy  in  France  for 
hoarseness,  and  is  still  used  in  country 
districts,  but  is  not  often  prescribed. 

Liquid  ammonia 10     drops 

Syrup  of  erysimum 1J  ounces 

Infusion  of  lime  flowers.     3     ounces 
To  be  taken  at  one  dose. 

HERBARIUM    SPECIMENS,    MOUNT- 
ING. 

A  matter  of  first  importance,  after 
drying  the  herbarium  specimens,  is  to 
poison  them,  to  prevent  the  attacks  of 
insects.  This  is  done  by  brushing  them 
over  on  both  sides,  using  a  camel's-hair 
pencil,  with  a  solution  of  2  grains  of 


HERBARIUM   SPECIMENS— HECTOGRAPH   PADS       395 


corrosive  sublimate  to  an  ounce  of  me- 
thylated spirit.  In  tropical  climates 
the  solution  is  generally  used  of  twice 
this  strength.  There  are  several  methods 
of  mounting  them.  Leaves  with  a  waxy 
surface  and  coriaceous  texture  are  best 
stitched  through  the  middle  after  they 
have  been  fastened  on  with  an  adhesive 
mixture.  Twigs  of  leguminous  trees 
will  often  throw  off  their  leaflets  in  dry- 
ing. This  may,  in  some  measure,  be 
prevented  by  dipping  them  in  boiling 
water  before  drying,  or  if  the  leaves  are 
not  very  rigid,  by  using  strong  pressure 
at  first,  without  the  use  of  hot  water.  If 
the  specimens  have  to  be  frequently 
handled,  the  most  satisfactory  prepara- 
tion is  Lepage's  fish  glue,  but  a  mixture 
of  glue  and  paste,  with  carbolic  acid 
added,  is  used  in  some  large  herbaria. 
The  disadvantage  of  using  glue,  gum,  or 
paste  is  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  some 
of  the  leaves  turned  over  so  as  to  show 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  some 
of  the  flowers  and  seeds  placed  loose  in 
envelopes  on  the  same  sheet  for  purposes 
of  comparison  or  microscopic  exami- 
nation. Another  plan  is  to  use  narrow 
slips  of  gummed  stiff  but  thin  paper,  such 
as  very  thin  parchment  paper.  These 
strips  are  either  gummed  over  the  stems, 
etc.,  and  pinched  in  round  the  stem  with 
forceps,  or  passed  through  slits  made 
in  the  sheet  and  fastened  at  the  back. 
If  the  specimens  are  mounted  on  cards 
and  protected  in  glass  frames,  stitching 
in  the  principal  parts  with  gray  thread 
produces  a  very  satisfactory  appearance. 

Hectograph  Pads  and  Inks 

The  hectograph  is  a  gelatin  pad  used 
for  duplicating  letters,  etc.,  by  transfer. 
The  pad  should  have  a  tough  elastic 
consistency,  similar  to  that  of  a  printer's 
roller.  The  letter  or  sketch  to  be  dupli- 
cated is  written  or  traced  on  a  sheet  of 
heavy  paper  with  an  aniline  ink  (which 
has  great  tinctorial  qualities).  When 
dry  this  is  laid,  inked  side  down,  on 
the  pad  and  subjected  to  moderate  and 
uniform  pressure  for  a  few  minutes.  It 
may  then  be  removed,  when  a  copy  of 
the  original  will  be  found  on  the  pad 
which  has  absorbed  a  large  quantity  of 
the  ink.  The  blank  sheets  are  laid  one 
by  one  on  the  pad,  subjected  to  moderate 
pressure  over  the  whole  surface  with  a 
wooden  or  rubber  roller,  or  with  the 
hand,  and  lifted  off  by  taking  hold  of 
the  corners  and  stripping  them  gently 
with  an  even  movement.  If  this  is  done 
too  quickly  the  composition  may  be  torn. 
Each  succeeding  copy  thus  made  will 


be  a  little  fainter  than  its  predecessor. 
From  40  to  60  legible  copies  may  be 
made.  When  the  operation  is  finished 
the  surface  of  the  pad  should  be  gone 
over  gently  with  a  wet  sponge  and  the 
remaining  ink  soaked  out.  The  super- 
fluous moisture  is  then  carefully  wiped 
off,  when  the  pad  will  be  ready  for 
another  operation. 

The  pad  or  hectograph  is  essentially 
a  mixture  of  glue  (gelatin)  and  glycerine. 
This  mixture  has  the  property  of  remain- 
ing soft  yet  firm  for  a  long  time  and  of 
absorbing  and  holding  certain  coloring 
matters  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  them 
up  slowly  or  in  layers,  so  to  speak,  on 
pressure. 

Such  a  pad  may  be  made  by  melting 
together  1  part  of  glue,  2  parts  of  water 
and  4  parts  of  glycerine  (all  by  weight, 
of  course),  evaporating  some  of  the  water 
and  tempering  the  mixture  with  more 
glue  or  glycerine  if  the  season  or  climate 
require.  The  mass  when  of  proper  con- 
sistency, which  can  be  ascertained  by 
cooling  a  small  portion,  is  poured  into  a 
shallow  pan  and  allowed  to  set.  Clean 
glue  must  be  used  or  the  mixture  strained; 
and  air  bubbles  should  be  removed  by 
skimming  the  surface  with  a  piece  of 
card-board  or  similar  appliance. 

Variations  of  this  formula  have  been 
proposed,  some  of  which  are  appended: 

I. — Glycerine 12     ounces 

Gelatin 2     ounces 

Water 7t  ounces 

Sugar 2     ounces 

II. — Water 10     ounces 

Dextrin 1^  ounces 

Sugar 2     ounces 

Gelatin 15     ounces 

Glycerine 15     ounces 

Zinc  oxide 1J  ounces 

III. — Gelatin 10  ounces 

Water 40  ounces 

Glycerine 120  ounces 

Barium  sulphate  .  .  8  ounces 
The  Tokacs  patent  composition,  be- 
sides the  usual  ingredients,  such  as  gela- 
tin, glycerine,  sugar,  and#gum,  contains 
soap,  and  can  therefore  be  washed  off 
much  easier  for  new  use.  The  smooth- 
ness of  the  surface  is  also  increased, 
without  showing  more  sticking  capacity 
with  the  first  impressions. 

Hectograph  Inks  (see  also  Inks). — The 
writing  to  be  copied  by  means  of  the 
hectograph  is  done  on  good  paper  with 
an  aniline  ink.  Formulas  for  suitable 
ones  are  appended.  It  is  said  that  more 
copies  can  be  obtained  from  writing  with 
the  purple  ink  than  with  other  kinds: 


396 


HECTOGRAPH   INKS— HORN 


Purple.— 

I. — Methyl  violet 2  parts 

Alcohol 2  parts 

Sugar 1  part 

Glycerine 4  parts 

Water 24  parts 

Dissolve  the  violet  in  the  alcohol 
mixed  with  the  glycerine;  dissolve  the 
sugar  in  the  water;  mix  both  solutions. 

II. — A  good  purple  hectograph  ink  is 
made  as  follows:  Dissolve  1  part  methyl 
violet  in  8  parts  of  water  and  .add  1  part 
of  glycerine.  Gently  warm  the  solution 
for  an  hour,  and  add,  when  cool,  J  part 
alcohol.  Or  take  methyl  violet,  1  part; 
water,  7  parts;  and  glycerine,  2  parts. 

Black.— 

Methyl  violet 10  parts 

Nigrosin 20  parts 

Glycerine 30  parts 

Gum  arabic 5  parts 

Alcohol 60  parts 

Blue.— 

Resorcin  blue  M 10  parts 

Dilute  acetic  acid  ....  1  part 

Water. 85  parts 

Glycerine 4  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Dissolve  by  heat. 

Red.— 

Fuchsin 10  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Glycerine 10  parts 

Water 50  parts 

Green. — 

Aniline   green,    water 

soluble 15  parts 

Glycerine 10  parts 

Water 50  parts 

Alcohol 10  parts 

Repairing  Hectographs. — Instead  of 
remelting  the  hectograph  composition, 
which  is  not  always  successful,  it  is 
recommended  to  pour  alcohol  over  the 
surface  of  the  cleaned  mass  and  to  light 
it.  After  solidifying,  the  surface  will 
be  again  ready  for  use. 

HEMORRHOIDS: 

See  Piles. 

HERB  VINEGAR: 

See  Vinegar. 

HIDES: 

See  Leather. 

HIDE   BOUND: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

HIDE-CLEANING  PROCESSES: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


HOARHOUND  CANDY: 

See  Confectionery. 

HOARSENESS,     CREAM     BON-BONS 
FOR: 

See  Confectionery. 

HOARSENESS,  REMEDY  FOR: 

See  Cough  and  Cold  Mixtures  and  Tur- 
pentine. 


HONEY: 

Honey  Clarifier.— For  3,000  parts  of 
fresh  honey,  take  875  parts  of  water,  150 
parts  of  washed,  dried,  and  pulverized 
charcoal,  70  parts  of  powdered  chalk, 
and  the  whites  of  3  eggs  beaten  in  90 
parts  of  water.  Put  the  honey  and 
the  chalk  in  a  vessel  capable  of  contain- 
ing £  more  than  the  mixture  and  boil  for 
3  minutes;  then  introduce  the  charcoal 
and  stir  up  the  whole.  Add  the  whites 
of  the  eggs  while  continuing  to  stir,  and 
boil  again  for  3  minutes.  Take  from  the 
fire,  and  after  allowing  the  liquid  to  cool 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  filter,  and  to 
secure  a  perfectly  clear  liquid  refilter  on 
flannel. 

Detecting  Dyed  Honey.— For  the  de- 
tection of  artificial  yellow  dyestuff  in 
honey,  treat  the  aqueous  yellow  solution 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  as  well  as  with 
ammonia;  also  extract  the  dyestuff  from 
the  acid  or  ammoniacal  solution  by  sol- 
vents, such  as  alcohol  or  ether,  or  con- 
duct the  Arata  wool  test  in  the  following 
manner:  Dissolve  10  parts  of  honey  in 
50  parts  of  water,  mix  with  10  parts  of  a 
10  per  cent  potassium-bisulphate  solu- 
tion and  boil  the  woolen  thread  in  this 
liquid  for  10  minutes. 

HONEY  WINE: 
See  Mead. 

HONING: 

See  Whetstones. 

HOOF  SORES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

HOP  BITTER  BEER: 

See  Beverages. 

HOP  SYRUP: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

HORN: 

Artificial  Horn. — To  prepare  artificial 
horn  from  compounds  of  nitro-cellulose 
and  casein,  by  hardening  them  and  re- 
moving their  odor  of  camphor,  the  com- 
pounds are  steeped  in  formaldehyde 
from  several  hours  to  as  many  days, 


HORN— HOUSEHOLD   FORMULAS 


397 


according  to  the  thickness  of  the  object 
treated.  When  the  formaldehyde  has 
penetrated  through  the  mass  and  dis- 
solved the  camphor,  the  object  is  taken 
out  of  the  liquid  and  dried.  Both  the 
camphor  extracted  and  the  formalde- 
hyde used  can  be  recovered  by  distilla- 
tion, and  used  over  again,  thus  cheapen- 
ing the  operation. 

Dehorners  or  Horn  Destroyers. — The 
following  are  recommended  by  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  of  Great  Britain: 

Clip  the  hair  from  the  top  of  the  horn 
when  the  calf  is  from  2  to  5  days  old. 
Slightly  moisten  the  end  of  a  stick  of 
caustic  potash  with  water  or  saliva  (or 
moisten  the  top  of  the  horn  bud)  and 
rub  the  tip  of  each  horn  firmly  with  the 
potash  for  about  a  quarter  of  a  minute, 
or  until  a  slight  impression  has  been 
made  on  the  center  of  the  horn.  The 
horns  should  be  treated  in  this  way  from 
2  to  4  times  at  intervals  of  5  minutes.  If, 
during  the  interval  of  5  minutes  after  one 
or  more  applications,  a  little  blood  ap- 
pears in  the  center  of  the  horn,  it  will 
then  only  be  necessary  to  give  another 
very  slight  rubbing  with  the  potash. 

The  following  directions  should  be 
carefully  observed:  The  operation  is 
best  performed  when  the  calf  is  under  5 
days  old,  and  should  not  be  attempted 
after  the  ninth  day.  When  not  in  use 
the  caustic  potash  should  be  kept  in  a 
stoppered  glass  bottle  in  a  dry  place,  as  it 
rapidly  deteriorates  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  One  man  should  hold  the  calf  while 
an  assistant  uses  the  caustic.  Roll  a 
piece  of  tin  foil  or  brown  paper  round 
the  end  of  the  stick  of  caustic  potash, 
which  is  held  by  the  fingers,  so  as  not  to 
injure  the  hand  of  the  operator.  Do 
not  moisten  the  stick  too  much,  or  the 
caustic  may  spread  to  the  skin  around 
the  horn  and  destroy  the  flesh.  For  the 
same  reason  keep  the  calf  from  getting 
wet  for  some  days  after  the  operation. 
Be  careful  to  rub  on  the  center  of  the 
horn  and  not  around  the  side  of  it. 

Staining  Horns. — A  brown  stain  is 
given  to  horns  by  covering  them  first 
with  an  aqueous  solution  of  potassium 
ferrocyanide,  drying  them,  and  then 
treating  with  a  hot  dilute  solution  of 
copper  sulphate.  A  black  stain  can  be 
produced  in  the  following  manner: 

After  having  finely  sandpapered  the 
horns,  dissolve  50  to  60  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  in  1  ounce  of  distilled  water.  It 
will  be  colorless.  Dip  a  small  brush  in, 
and  paint  the  horns  where  they  are  to  be 
black.  When  dry,  put  them  where  the 
sun  can  shine  on  them,  and  you  will  find 


that  they  will  turn  jet  black,  and  may 
then  be  polished. 

To  Soften  Horn. — Lay  the  horn  for  10 
days  in  a  solution  of  water,  1  part;  nitric 
acid,  3  parts;  wood  vinegar,  2  parts; 
tannin,  5  parts;  tartar,  2  parts;  and  zinc 
vitriol,  2.5  parts. 

HORN  BLEACHES: 

See  Bone  and  Ivory. 

HORN,   UNITING  GLASS  WITH: 

See  Adhesives. 

HORSES,  THE  TREATMENT  OF  THEIR 
DISEASES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

Household  Formulas 

How  to  Lay  Galvanized  Iron  Roofing. 
— The  use  of  galvanized  iron  for  general 
roofing  work  has  increased  greatly  dur- 
ing the  past  few  years.  It  has  many 
features  which  commend  it  as  a  roofing 
material,  but  difficulties  have  been  ex- 
perienced by  beginners  as  to  the  proper 
method  of  applying  it  to  the  roof.  The 
weight  of  material  used  is  rather  heavy 
to  permit  of  double  seaming,  but  a  meth- 
od has  been  evolved  that  is  satisfac- 
tory. Galvanized  iron  roofing  can  be 
put  on  at  low  cost,  so  as  to  be  water-tight 
and  free  from  buckling  at  the  joints. 
The  method  does  away  with  double 
seaming,  and  is  considered  more  suitable 
than  the  latter  for  roofing  purposes 
wherever  it  can  be  laid  on  a  roof  steeper 
than  1  to  12. 

Galvanized  iron  of  No.  28  and  heavier 
gauges  is  used,  the  sheets  being  lap- 
seamed  and  soldered  together  in  strips 
in  the  shop  the  proper  length  to  apply  to 
the  roof.  After  the  sheets  are  fastened 
together  a  1^-inch  edge  is  turned  up  the 
entire  length  of  one  side  of  the  sheet,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  1.  This  operation  is 


FIG.  1 


FIG.  3 


FIG.  2 


CLEAT 

S./ 


FIG.  4 

CLEAT 


FIG.  5  FIG.  6 

done  with  tongs  having  gauge  pins  set 
at  the  proper  point.     The  second  oper- 


398 


HOUSEHOLD  FORMULAS 


ation  consists  in  turning  a  strip  \  inch 
wide  toward  the  sheet,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  sheet  is  then  laid  on  the  roof,  and  a 
cleat  about  8  inches  long  and  1  inch 
wide,  made  of  galvanized  iron,  is  nailed 
to  the  roof  close  to  the  sheet  and  bent 
over  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

A  second  sheet  having  1|  inches 
turned  up  is  now  brought  against  the 
first  sheet  and  bent  over  both  sheet  and 
cleat,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  cleat  is 
then  bent  backward  over  the  second 
sheet  and  cut  off  close  to  the  roof,  as  in 
Fig.  5,  after  which  the  seams  are  drawn 
together  by  double  seaming  tools,  as  the 
occasion  demands,  and  slightly  ham- 
mered with  a  wooden  mallet.  The  fin- 
ished seam  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  second  sheet  of  galvan- 
ized iron,  cut  \  inch  longer  than  the  first, 
laps  over  the  former,  making  a  sort  of 
bead  which  prevents  water  from  driving 
in.  Cleats  hold  both  sheets  firmly  to  the 
roof  and  are  nailed  about  12  inches 
apart.  Roofs  of  this  character,  when 
laid  with  No.  28  gauge  iron,  cost  very 
little  more  than  the  cheaper  grades  of 
tin,  and  do  not  have  to  be  painted. 

Applications  for  Prickly  Heat. — Many 
applications  for  this  extremely  annoying 
form  of  urticaria  have  been  suggested 
and  their  efficacy  strongly  urged  by  the 
various  correspondents  of  the  medical 
press  who  propose  them,  but  none  of 
them  seem  to  be  generally  efficacious. 
Thus,  sodium  bicarbonate  in  strong, 
aqueous  solution,  has  long  been  a  domes- 
tic remedy  in  general  use,  but  it  fails 
probably  as  often  as  it  succeeds.  A 
weak  solution  of  copper  sulphate  has 
also  been  highly  extolled,  only  to  disap- 
point a  very  large  proportion  of  those 
who  resort  to  it.  And  so  we  might  go 
on  citing  remedies  which  may  sometimes 
give  relief,  but  fail  in  the  large  proportion 
of  cases.  In  this  trouble,  as  in  almost 
every  other,  the  idiosyncrasies  of  the 
patient  play  a  great  part  in  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  any  remedy.  It  is  caused, 
primarily  by  congestion  of  the  capillary 
vessels  of  the  skin,  and  anything  that 
tends  to  relieve  this  congestion  will  give 
relief,  at  least  temporarily.  Among  the 
newer  suggestions  are  the  following: 

Alcohol 333  parts 

Ether 333  parts 

Chloroform 333  parts 

Menthol 1  part 

Mix.  Directions:  Apply  occasion- 
ally with  a  sponge. 

Among  those  things  which  at  least 
assist  one  in  bearing  the  affliction  is  fre- 


quent change  of  underwear.  The  under- 
garments worn  during  the  day  should 
never  be  worn  at  night.  Scratching  or 
rubbing  should  be  avoided  where  pos- 
sible. Avoid  stimulating  food  and 
drinks,  especially  alcohol,  and  by  all 
means  keep  the  bowels  in  a  soluble  con- 
dition. 

Cleaning  and  Polishing  Linoleum. — 
Wash  the  linoleum  with  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  milk  and  water,  wipe  dry, 
and  rub  in  the  following  mixture  by 
means  of  a  cloth  rag:  Yellow  wax,  5 
parts;  turpentine  oil,  11  parts;  varnish, 
5  parts.  As  a  glazing  agent,  a  solution 
of  a  little  yellow  wax  in  turpentine  oil  is 
also  recommended.  Other  polishing 
agents  are: 

I. — Palm  oil,  1  part;  paraffine,  18;  ker- 
osene, 4. 

II. — Yellow  wax,  1  part;  carnauba 
wax,  2;  turpentine  oil,  10;  benzine,  5. 

Lavatory  Deodorant. — 

Sodium  bicarbonate. .      5     ounces 

Alum 5 1  ounces 

Potassium  bromide.. .      4     ounces 
Hydrochloric  acid  enough. 
Water  enough  to  make    4    pints. 
To  3  parts  of  boiling  water  add  the 
alum  and  then  the  bicarbonate.     Intro- 
duce enough   hydrochloric  acid  to  dis- 
solve   the    precipitate    of   aluminum  hy- 
drate   which   forms   and   then    add    the 
potassium  bromide.     Add  enough  water 
to  bring  the  measure  of  the  finished  prod- 
uct up  to  4  pints. 

Removal  of  Odors  from  Wooden 
Boxes,  Chests,  Drawers,  etc. — This  is 
done  by  varnishing  them  with  a  solution 
of  shellac,  after  the  following  manner: 
Make  a  solution  of  shellac,  1,000  parts; 
alcohol,  90  per  cent  to  95  per  cent,  1,000 
parts;  boric  acid,  50  parts;  castor  oil,  50 
parts.  The  shellac  is  first  dissolved  in 
the  alcohol  and  the  acid  and  oil  added 
afterwards.  For  the  first  coating  use  1 
part  of  the  solution  cut  with  from  1  to  2 
parts  of  alcohol,  according  to  the  porosity 
of  the  wood — the  more  porous  the  less 
necessity  for  cutting.  When  the  first 
coat  is  absorbed  and  dried  in,  repeat  the 
application,  if  the  wood  is  very  porous, 
with  the  diluted  shellac,  but  if  of  hard, 
dense  wood,  the  final  coating  may  be 
now  put  on,  using  the  solution  without 
addition  of  alcohol.  If  desired,  the  solu- 
tion may  be  colored  with  any  of  the 
alcohol  soluble  aniline  colors.  The  shel 
lac  solution,  by  the  way,  may  be  applied 
to  the  outside  of  chests,  etc.,  and  finished 
off  after  the  fashion  of  "French  polish." 


HOUSEHOLD  FORMULAS 


899 


When  used  this  way,  a  prior  application 
of  2  coats  of  linseed  oil  is  advisable. 

Stencil  Marking  Ink  that  will  Wash 
Out. — Triturate  together  1  part  of  fine 
soot  and  2  parts  of  Prussian  blue,  with  a 
little  glycerine;  then  add  3  parts  of  gum 
arabic  and  enough  glycerine  to  form  a 
thin  paste. 

Washing  Fluid. — Take  1  pound  sal 
soda,  \  pound  good  stone  lime,  and  5 
quarts  of  water;  boil  a  short  time,  let  it 
settle,  and  pour  off  the  clear  fluid  into  a 
stone  jug,  and  cork  for  use;  soak  the 
white  clothes  overnight  in  simple  water, 
wring  out  and  soap  wristbands,  collars, 
and  dirty  or  stained  places.  Have  the 
boiler  half  filled  with  water  just  begin- 
ning to  boil,  then  put  in  1  common  tea- 
cupful  of  fluid,  stir  and  put  in  your 
clothes,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour,  then 
rub  lightly  through  one  suds  only,  and 
all  is  complete. 

Starch  Luster. — A  portion  of  stearine, 
the  size  of  an  old-fashioned  cent,  added 
to  starch,  J  pound,  and  boiled  with  it  for 
2  or  3  minutes,  will  add  greatly  to  the 
beauty  of  linen,  to  which  it  may  be  ap- 
plied. 

To  Make  Loose  Nails  in  Walls  Rigid.— 
As  soon  as  a  nail  driven  in  the  wall  be- 
comes loose  and  the  plastering  begins 
to  break,  it  can  be  made  solid  and  firm 
by  the  following  process:  Saturate  a  bit 
of  wadding  with  thick  dextrin  or  glue; 
wrap  as  much  of  it  around  the  nail  as 
possible  and  reinsert  the  latter  in  the 
hole,  pressing  it  home  as  strongly  as 
possible.  Remove  the  excess  of  glue  or 
dextrin,  wiping  it  cleanly  off  with  a  rag 
dipped  in  clean  water;  then  let  dry.  The 
nail  will  then  be  firmly  fastened  in  place. 
If  the  loose  plastering  be  touched  with 
the  glue  and  replaced,  it  will  adhere  and 
remain  firm. 

How  to  Keep  Lamp  Burners  in  Order. 
— In  the  combustion  of  coal  oil  a  car- 
bonaceous residue  is  left,  which  attaches 
itself  very  firmly  to  the  metal  along  the 
edge  of  the  burner  next  the  flame.  This 
is  especially  true  of  round  burners, 
where  the  heat  of  the  flame  is  more  in- 
tense than  in  flat  ones,  and  the  deposit  of 
carbon,  where  not  frequently  removed, 
soon  gets  sufficiently  heavy  to  interfere 
seriously  with  the  movement  of  the  wick 
up  or  down.  The  deposit  may  be 
scraped  off  with  a  knife  blade,  but  a 
much  more  satisfactory  process  of  get- 
ting rid  of  it  is  as  follows:  Dissolve  so- 
dium carbonate,  1  part,  in  5  or  6  parts  of 
water,  and  in  this  boil  the  burner  for  5 


minutes  or  so.  When  taken  out  the 
burner  will  look  like  a  new  one,  and  acts 
like  one,  provided  that  the  apparatus 
for  raising  and  lowering  the  wick  nas  not 
previously  been  bent  and  twisted  by  at- 
tempting to  force  the  wick  past  rough 
deposits. 

To  Remove  the  Odor  from  Pasteboard. 
— Draw  the  pasteboard  through  a  3  per 
cent  solution  of  viscose  in  water.  The 
pasteboard  must  be  calendered  after  dry- 
ing. 

To  Remove  Woody  Odor — To  get  rid 
cf  that  frequently  disagreeable  smell  in 
old  chests,  drawers,  etc.,  paint  the  sur- 
face over  with  the  following  mixture: 

Acetic  ether 100  parts 

Formaldehyde 6  parts 

Acid,  carbolic 4  parts 

Tincture  of  eucalyp- 
tus leaves 60  parts 

Mix.  After  applying  the  mixture  ex- 
pose the  article  to  the  open  air  in  the  sun- 
light. 

To  Keep  Flies  Out  of  a  House. — Never 
allow  a  speck  of  food  to  remain  uncov- 
ered in  dining  room  or  pantry  any  length 
of  time  after  meals.  Never  leave  rem- 
nants of  food  exposed  that  you  intend 
for  cat  or  hens.  Feed  at  once  or  cover 
their  food  up  a  distance  from  the  house. 
Let  nothing  decay  near  the  house.  Keep 
your  dining  room  and  pantry  windows 
open  a  few  inches  most  of  the  time. 
Darken  your  room  and  pantry  when  not 
in  use.  If  there  should  be  any  flies  they 
will  go  to  the  window  when  the  room  is 
darkened,  where  they  are  easily  caught, 
killed,  or  brushed  out. 

An  Easy  Way  to  Wash  a  Heavy  Com- 
fortable.— Examine  the  comfortable,  and 
if  you  find  soiled  spots  soap  them  and 
scrub  with  a  small  brush.  Hang  the 
comfortable  on  a  strong  line  and  turn 
the  hose  on.  When  one  side  is  washed 
turn  and  wash  the  other.  The  water 
forces  its  way  through  cotton  and  cover- 
ing, making  the  comfortable  as  light  and 
fluffy  as  when  new.  Squeeze  the  corners 
and  ends  as  dry  as  possible. 

Preservation  of  Carpets. — Lay  sheets 
of  brown  paper  under  the  carpet.  This 
gives  a  soft  feeling  to  the  foot,  and  by 
diminishing  the  wear  adds  longer  life  to 
the  carpet;  at  the  same  time  it  tends  to 
keep  away  the  air  and  renders  the  apart- 
ments warm. 

To  Do  Away  with  Wiping  Dishes.— 
Make  a  rack  by  putting  a  shelf  over  the 
kitchen  sink,  slanting  it  so  that  the  water 


400 


HOUSEHOLD   FORMULAS 


will  drain  off  into  the  sink.  Put  a  lattice 
railing  about  6  inches  high  at  the  front 
and  ends  of  the  shelf  so  that  dishes  can 
be  set  against  it  on  their  edges  without 
falling  out.  Have  2  pans  of  hot  water. 
Wash  the  dishes  in  one  and  rinse  them  in 
the  other.  Set  them  on  edge  in  the  rack 
and  leave  until  dry. 

A  Convenient  Table.— 

Ten  common-sized  eggs  weigh  1 
pound. 

Soft  butter,  the  size  of  an  egg,  weighs 
1  ounce. 

One  pint  of  coffee  and  of  sugar  weighs 
12  ounces. 

One  quart  of  sifted  flour  (well  heaped) 
weighs  1  pound. 

One  pint  of  best  brown  sugar  weighs 
12  ounces. 

How  to  Make  a  Cellar  Waterproof.— 
The  old  wall  surface  should  be  roughened 
and  perfectly  cleaned  before  plastering 
is  commenced.  It  may  be  advisable  to 
put  the  first  coat  on  not  thicker  than  J 
inch,  and  after  this  has  set  it  may  be 
cut  and  roughened  by  a  pointing  trowel. 
Then  apply  a  second  J-inch  coat  and 
finish  this  to  an  even  and  smooth  sur- 
face. Proportion  of  plaster:  One-half 
part  slaked  lime,  1  part  Portland  ce- 
ment, part  fine,  sharp  sand,  to  be  mixed 
well  and  applied  instantly. 

Removing  Old  Wall  Paper. — Some 
paper  hangers  remove  old  paper  from 
walls  by  first  dampening  it  with  water  in 
which  a  little  baking  soda  has  been  dis- 
solved, the  surface  being  then  gone  over 
with  a  "scraper"  or  other  tool.  How- 
pver,  the  principle  object  of  any  method 
is  to  soften  the  old  paste.  This  may  be 
readily  accomplished  by  first  wetting  a 
section  of  the  old  paper  with  cold  or 
tepid  water,  using  a  brush,  repeating  the 
wetting  until  the  paper  and  paste  are 
soaked  through,  when  the  paper  may 
easily  be  pulled  off,  or,  if  too  tender,  may 
be  scraped  with  any  instrument  of  a 
chisel  form  shoved  between  the  paper 
and  the  wall.  The  wall  should  then  be 
washed  with  clean  water,  this  operation 
being  materially  assisted  by  wetting  the 
wall  ahead  of  the  washing. 

Stained  Ceilings. — Take  unslaked  white 
lime,  dilute  with  alcohol,  and  paint  the 
spots  with  it.  When  the  spots  are  dry — 
which  will  be  soon,  as  the  alcohol  evapo- 
rates and  the  lime  forms  a  sort  of  in- 
sulating layer — one  can  proceed  painting 
with  size  color,  and  the  spots  will  not 
show  through  again. 

To  Overcome  Odors  in  Freshly  Papered 
Rooms. — After  the  windows  and  doors  of 


such  rooms  have  been  closed,  bring  in 
red-hot  coal  and  strew  on  this  several 
handfuls  of  juniper  berries.  About  12 
hours  later  open  all  windows  and  doors, 
so  as  to  admit  fresh  air,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  the  bad  smell  has  entirely 
disappeared. 

Treatment  of  Damp  Walls.— I. — A 
good  and  simple  remedy  to  obviate  this 
evil  is  caoutchouc  glue,  which  is  pre- 
pared from  rubber  hose.  The  walls  to 
be  laid  dry  are  first  to  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  brushing  and  rubbing  off; 
then  the  caoutchouc  size,  which  has  been 
previously  made  liquid  by  heating,  is  ap- 
plied with  a  broad  brush  in  a  uniform 
layer — about  8  to  12  inches  higher  than 
the  wall  appears  damp  —  and  finally 
paper  is  pasted  over  the  glue  when  the 
latter  is  still  sticky.  The  paper  will  at 
once  adhere  very  firmly.  Or  else,  apply 
the  liquefied  glue  in  a  uniform  layer 
upon  paper  (wall  paper,  caoutchouc  paper, 
etc.).  Upon  this,  size  paint  may  be  ap- 
plied, or  it  may  be  covered  with  wall 
paper  or  plaster. 

If  the  caoutchouc  size  is  put  on  with 
the  necessary  care — i.  e.,  if  all  damp 
spots  are  covered  with  it — the  wall  is 
laid  dry  for  the  future,  and  no  peeling  off 
of  the  paint  or  the  wall  paper  needs  to  be 
apprehended.  In  cellars,  protection 
from  dampness  can  be  had  in  a  like 
manner,  as  the  caoutchouc  glue  adheres 
equally  well  to  all  surfaces,  whether 
stone,  glass,  metal,  or  wood. 

II. — The  walls  must  be  well  cleaned 
before  painting.  If  the  plaster  should 
be  worn  and  permeated  with  saltpeter 
in  places  it  should  be  renewed  and 
smoothed.  These  clean  surfaces  are 
coated  twice  with  a  water-glass  solution, 
1.1,  using  a  brush  ana  allowed  to  dry 
well.  Then  they  are  painted  3  times 
with  the  following  mixture:  Dissolve 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  mastic  in  10 
parts  of  absolute  alcohol;  pour  1,000 
parts  of  water  over  200  parts  of  isinglass; 
allow  to  soak  for  6  hours;  heat  to  solution 
and  add  100  parts  of  alcohol  (50  per 
cent).  Into  this  mixture  pour  a  not 
solution  of  50  parts  of  ammonia  in  250 
parts  of  alcohol  (50  per  cent),  stir  well, 
and  subsequently  add  the  mastic  solu- 
tion and  stand  aside  warm,  stirring  dili- 
gently. After  5  minutes  take  away 
from  the  fire  and  painting  may  be  com- 
menced. Before  a  fresh  application, 
however,  the  solution  should  be  removed. 

When  this  coating  has  dried  complete- 
ly it  is  covered  with  oil  or  varnish  paint, 
preferably  the  latter.  In  the  same  man- 
ner the  exudation  of  so-called  saltpeter 


HOUSEHOLD   FORMULAS— HYDROMETER 


401 


in  fresh  masonry  or  on  the  exterior  of 
facades,  etc.,  may  be  prevented,  size 
paint  or  lime  paint  being  employed  in- 
stead of  the  oil-varnish  paint.  New 
walls  which  are  to  be  painted  will  give 
off  no  more  saltpeter  after  2  or  3  appli- 
cations of  the  isinglass  solution,  so  that 
the  colors  of  the  wall  paper  will  not  be 
injured  either.  Stains  caused  by  smoke, 
soot,  etc.,  on  ceilings  of  rooms,  kitchens, 
or  corridors  which  are  difficult  to  cover 
up  with  size  paint,  may  also  be  com- 
pletely isolated  by  applying  the  warm 
isinglass  solution  2  or  3  times.  The 
size  paint  is,  of  course,  put  on  only  after 
complete  drying  of  the  ceilings. 

To  Protect  Papered  Walls  from  Ver- 
min.— It  is  not  infrequent  that  when  the 
wall  paper  becomes  defective  or  loose  in 
papered  rooms,  vermin,  bed  bugs,  ants, 
etc.,  will  breed  behind  it.  In  order  to 
prevent  this  evil  a  little  colocynth  powder 
should  be  added  to  the  paste  used  for 
hanging  the  paper,  in  the  proportion  of 
50  or  60  parts  for  3,000  parts. 

Care  of  Refrigerators. — See  that  the 
sides  or  walls  of  all  refrigerators  are  oc- 
casionally scoured  with  soap,  or  soap 
and  slaked  lime. 

Dust  Preventers. — Against  the  bene- 
ficial effects  to  be  observed  in  the  use 
of  most  preparations  we  must  place  the 
following  bad  effects:  The  great  smooth- 
ness and  slipperiness  of  the  boards  dur- 
ing the  first  few  days  after  every  appli- 
cation of  the  dressing,  which  forbids  the 
use  of  the  latter  on  steps,  floors  of  gymna- 
sia, dancing  floors,  etc.  The  fact  that 
the  oil  or  grease  penetrates  the  soles  of 
the  boots  or  shoes,  the  hems  of  ladies' 
dresses,  and  things  accidentally  falling 
to  the  floor  are  soiled  and  spotted.  Be- 
sides these  there  is,  especially  during  the 
first  few  days  after  application,  the  dirty 
dark  coloration  which  the  boards  take 
on  after  protracted  use  of  the  oils. 
Finally,  there  is  the  considerable  cost  of 
any  process,  especially  for  smaller  rooms 
and  apartments.  In  schoolrooms  and 
railroad  waiting  rooms  and  other  places 
much  frequented  by  children  and  others 
wearing  shoes  set  with  iron,  the  boards 
soon  become  smooth  from  wear,  and  for 
such  places  the  process  is  not  suited. 

According  to  other  sources  of  infor- 
mation, these  evil  tendencies  of  the  appli- 
cation vanish  altogether,  or  are  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  if  (1)  entirely  fresh,  or  at 
least,  not  rancid  oils  be  used;  (2)  if,  after 
each  oiling,  a  few  days  be  allowed  to 
elapse  before  using  the*  chamber  or  hall, 
and  finally  (3),  if  resort  is  not  had  to 


costly  foreign  special  preparations,  but 
German  goods,  procurable  at  wholesale 
in  any  quantity,  and  at  very  low  figures. 

The  last  advice  (to  use  low-priced 
preparations)  seems  sensible  since  accord- 
ing to  recent  experiments,  none  of  the 
oils  experimented  upon  possess  any  es- 
pecial advantages  over  the  others. 

An  overwhelming  majority  of  the 
laboratories  for  examination  have  given 
a  verdict  in  favor  of  oil  as  a  dust-sup- 
pressing application  for  floors,  and  have 
expressed  a  desire  to  see  it  in  universal 
use.  The  following  is  a  suggestion  put 
forth  for  the  use  of  various  preparations: 

This  dust-absorbing  agent  has  for  its 
object  to  take  up  the  dust  in  sweeping 
floors,  etc.,  and  to  prevent  its  develop- 
ment. The  production  is  as  follows: 
Mix  in  an  intimate  manner  12  parts,  by 
weight,  of  mineral  sperm  oil  with  88 
parts,  by  weight,  of  Roman  or  Portland 
cement,  adding  a  few  drops  of  mirbane 
oil.  Upon  stirring  a  uniform  paste  forms 
at  first,  which  then  passes  into  a  greasy, 
sandy  mass.  This  mass  is  sprinkled 
upon  the  surface  to  be  swept  and  cleaned 
of  dust,  next  going  over  it  with  a  broom 
or  similar  object  in  the  customary  man- 
ner, at  which  operation  the  dust  will 
mix  with  the  mass.  The  preparation 
can  be  used  repeatedly. 


HUNYADI  WATER: 

See  Water. 

HYDROCHINON  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

HYDROGEN,  AMALGAMS    AS    A 

SOURCE  OF  NASCENT: 
See  Amalgams. 

HYDROGEN  PEROXIDE  AS  A  PRE- 
SERVATIVE: 
See  Preserving. 

HYDROMETER  AND  ITS  USE. 

Fill  the  tall  cylinder  or  test  glass  with 
the  spirit  to  be  tested  and  see  that  it  is  of 
the  proper  temperature  (60°  P.).  Should 
the  thermometer  indicate  a  higher  tem- 
perature wrap  the  cylinder  in  cloths 
which  have  been  dipped  in  cold  water 
until  the  temperature  falls  to  the  required 
degree.  If  too  low  a  temperature  is 
indicated,  reverse  the  process,  using 
warm  instead  of  cold  applications. 
When  60°  is  reached  note  the  specific 

Sravity    on     the     floating     hydrometer, 
ave  the  cylinder  filled  to  the  top  and  look 
across  the  top  of  the  liquid  at  the  mark  on 
the  hydrometer.     This  is  to  preclude  an 


402 


HYGROMETERS— ICE 


incorrect  reading  by  possible  refraction 
in  the  glass  cylinder. 

HYGROMETERS        AND         HYGRO- 
SCOPES: 

Paper  Hygrometers. — Paper  hygrom- 
eters are  made  by  saturating  white  blot- 
ting paper  with  the  following  liquid  and 
then  hanging  up  to  dry: 

Cobalt  chloride 1     ounce 

Sodium  chloride £  ounce 

Calcium  chloride 75    grains 

Acacia ^  ounce 

Water 3    ounces 

The  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmos- 
phere is  roughly  indicated  by  the  chang- 
ing color  of  the  papers,  as  follows: 

Rose  red rain 

Pale  red very  moist 

Bluish  red moist 

Lavender  blue  ....    nearly  dry 
Blue very  dry 

Colored  Hygroscopes. — These  instru- 
ments are  often  composed  of  a  flower  or 
a  figure,  of  light  muslin  or  paper,  im- 
mersed in  one  of  the  following  solutions: 

I. — Cobalt  chloride 1  part 

Gelatin 10  parts 

Water 100  parts 

The  normal  coloring  is  pink;  this  color 
changes  into  violet  in  medium  humid 
weather  and  into  blue  in  very  dry 
weather. 

II. — Cupric  chloride.  . .        1  part 

Gelatin 10  parts 

Water 100  parts 

The  color  is  yellow  in  dry  weather. 

III.— Cobalt  chloride..  . .        1  part 

Gelatin 20  parts 

Nickel  oxide 75  parts 

Cupric  chloride. ...      25  parts 

Water 200  parts 

The  color  is  green  in  dry  weather. 

HYOSCYAMUS,  ANTIDOTE  TO: 

See  Atropine. 


ICE: 

See  also  Refrigeration. 

Measuring  the  Weight  of  Ice.  —  A 
close  estimate  of  the  weight  of  ice  can 
be  reached  by  multiplying  together  the 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness  of  the 
block  in  inches,  and  dividing  the  product 
by  30.  This  will  be  very  closely  the 
weight  in  pounds.  Thus,  if  a  block  is 
10x10x9,  the  product  is  900,  and  this 
divided  by  30  gives  30  pounds  as  correct 


weight.  A  block  10x10x6  weighs  £9 
pounds.  This  simple  method  can  be 
easily  applied,  and  it  may  serve  to  re- 
move unjust  suspicions,  or  to  detect 
short  weight. 

To  Keep  Ice  in  Small  Quantities.— To 
keep  ice  from  melting,  attention  is  called 
to  an  old  preserving  method.  The  ice 
is  cracked  with  a  hammer  between  2 
layers  of  a  strong  cloth.  Tie  over  a  com- 
mon unglazed  flower-pot,  holding  about 
2  to  4  quarts  and  placed  upon  a  porce- 
lain disn,  a  piece  of  white  flannel  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  is  turned  down  funnel- 
like  into  the  interior  of  the  pot  without 
touching  the  bottom.  Placed  in  this 
flannel  funnel  the  cracked  ice  keeps  for 
days. 

ICE  FLOWERS. 

Make  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  the  best 
clear  gelatin  in  distilled  water,  filter,  and 
flood  the  filtrate  over  any  surface  which 
it  is  desired  to  ornament.  Drain  off 
slightly,  and  if  the  weather  is  sufficiently 
cold,  put  the  plate,  as  nearly  level  as  pos- 
sible, out  into  the  cold  air  to  freeze.  In 
freezing,  water  is  abstracted  from  the 
colloidal  portion,  which  latter  then  as- 
sumes an  efflorescent  form,  little  flowers, 
with  exuberant,  graceful  curves  of  crys- 
tals, showing  up  as  foliage,  from  all  over 
the  surface.  To  preserve  in  permanent 
form  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  flood  them 
with  absolute  alcohol.  This  treatment 
removes  the  ice,  thus  leaving  a  lasting 
framework  of  gelatin  which  may  be 
preserved  indefinitely.  In  order  to  do 
this,  as  soon  as  the  gelatin  has  become 
quite  dry  it  should  be  either  varnished, 
flowed  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  clear 
shellac,  or  the  gelatin  may  be  rendered 
insoluble  by  contact,  for  a  few  moments, 
with  a  solution  of  potassium  bichromate, 
and  subsequent  exposure  to  sunlight. 


IMOGEN  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

INCENSE: 

See  Fumigants. 

INCRUSTATION,   PREVENTION  OF; 

See  Boiler  Compounds. 

INDIGO : 
See  Dyes. 

INFANT  FOODS: 

See  Foods. 

INFLUENZA  IN  CATTLE: 
See  Veterinary  FormulaSo 


IGNITING   COMPOSITION— INKS 


403 


INK  ERADICATORS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

IGNITING  COMPOSITION. 

Eight  parts  of  powdered  manganese, 
10  parts  of  amorphous  phosphorus,  and 
5  parts  of  glue.  The  glue  is  soaked  in 
water,  dissolved  in  the  heat,  and  the 
manganese  and  the  phosphorus  stirred  in, 
so  that  a  thinly  liquid  paste  results,  which 
is  applied  by  means  of  a  brush.  Allow 
to  dry  well.  This,  being  free  from  sul- 
phur, can  be  applied  on  match-boxes. 

Inks 

BLUEPRINT  INKS. 

I. — For  red-writing  fluids  for  blue- 
prints, take  a  piece  01  common  washing 
soda  the  size  of  an  ordinary  bean,  and 
dissolve  it  in  4  tablespoonf uls  of  ordinary 
red-writing  ink,  to  make  a  red  fluid. 
To  keep  it  from  spreading  too  much,  use 
a  fine  pen  to  apply  it  with,  and  write  fast 
so  as  not  to  allow  too  much  of  the  fluid 
to  get  on  the  paper,  for  it  will  continue 
eating  until  it  is  dry. 

II. — For  red  and  white  solutions  for 
writing  on  blueprints,  dissolve  a  crystal 
of  oxalate  of  potash  about  the  size  of 
a  pea  in  an  ink-bottle  full  of  water. 
This  will  give  white  lines  on  blueprints; 
other  potash  solutions  are  yellowisTi.  If 
this  shows  a  tendency  to  run,  owing  to 
too  great  strength,  add  more  water  and 
thicken  slightly  with  mucilage.  Mix 
this  with  red  or  any  other  colored  ink 
rbout  half  and  half,  and  writing  may  be 
done  on  the  blueprints  in  colors  corre- 
sponding to  the  inks  used. 

III. — Add  to  a  small  bottle  of  water 
enough  washing  soda  to  make  a  clear 
white  line,  then  add  enough  gum  arabic 
to  it  to  prevent  spreading  and  making 
ragged  lines.  To  make  red  lines  dip  the 
pen  in  red  ink  and  then  add  a  little  of 
the  solution  by  means  of  the  quill. 

IV. — For  white  ink,  grind  zinc  oxide 
fine  on  marble  and  incorporate  with  it 
a  mucilage  made  with  gum  tragacanth. 
Thin  a  little  for  use.  Add  a  little  oil  of 
cloves  to  prevent  mold,  and  shake  from 
time  to  time. 

V. — A  fluid  which  is  as  good  as  any 
for  writing  white  on  blueprints  is  made 
of  equal  parts  of  sal  soda  and  water. 

VI. — Mix  equal  parts  of  borax  and 
water. 

Both  these  fluids,  V  and  VI,  must  be 
used  with  a  fine-pointed  pen;  a  pen  with 
a,  blunt  point  will  not  work  well. 


DRAWING  INKS: 

Blue  Ruling  Ink.— Good  vitriol,  4 
ounces;  indigo,  1  ounce.  Pulverize  the 
indigo,  add  it  to  the  vitriol,  and  let  it 
stand  exposed  to  the  air  for  6  days,  or 
until  dissolved;  then  fill  the  pots  with 
chalk,  add  fresh  gall,  |  gill,  boiling  it 
before  use. 

Black  Ruling  Ink. — Take  good  black 
ink,  and  add  gall  as  for  blue.  Do  not 
cork  it,  as  this  prevents  it  from  turning 
black. 

Carbon  Ink. — Dissolve  real  India  ink 
in  common  black  ink,  or  add  a  small 
quantity  of  lampblack  previously  heated 
to  redness,  and  ground  perfectly  smooth, 
with  a  small  portion  of  the  ink. 

Carmine. — The  ordinary  solution  of 
carmine  in  ammonia  water,  after  a  short 
time  in  contact  with  steel,  becomes  black- 
ish red,  but  an  ink  may  be  made  that 
will  retain  its  brilliant  carmine  color  to 
the  last  by  the  following  process,  given  by 
Dingier:  Triturate  1  part  of  pure  car- 
mine with  15  parts  of  acetate  of  ammonia 
solution,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  dis- 
tilled water  in  a  porcelain  mortar,  and 
allow  the  whole  to  stand  for  some  time. 
In  this  way,  a  portion  of  the  alumina, 
which  is  combined  with  the  carmine  dye, 
is  taken  up  by  the  acetic  acid  of  the  am- 
monia salt,  and  separates  as  a  precipi- 
tate, while  the  pure  pigment  of  the 
cochineal  remains  dissolved  in  the  half- 
saturated  ammonia.  It  is  now  filtered 
and  a  few  drops  of  pure  white  sugar 
syrup  added  to  thicken  it.  A  solution  of 
gum  arabic  cannot  be  used  to  thicken  it, 
since  the  ink  still  contains  some  acetic 
acid,  which  would  coagulate  the  bas- 
sorine,  one  of  the  constituents  of  the 
gum. 

Liquid  Indelible  Drawing  Ink. — Dis- 
solve, by  boiling,  2  parts  of  blond  (golden 
yellow)  shellac  in  1.6  parts,  by  weight, 
of  sal  ammoniac,  16°,  with  10  parts,  by 
weight,  of  distilled  water,  and  filter  the 
solution  through  a  woolen  cloth.  Now 
dissolve  or  grind  0.5  parts,  by  weight,  of 
shellac  solution  with  0.01  part,  by 
weight,  of  carbon  black.  Also  dissolve 
.03  parts  of  nigrosin  in  0.4  parts  of 
distilled  water  and  pour  both  solutions 
together.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to 
settle  for  2  days  and  the  ready  ink  is 
drawn  off  from  the  sediment. 

GLASS,     CELLULOID,    AND     METAL 
INKS: 

See  also  Etching. 

Most  inks  for  glass  will  also  write  on 
celluloid  and  the  metals.  The  following 


404 


INKS 


I  and  II  are  the  most  widely  known 
recipes: 

I. — In  500  parts  of  water  dissolve  36 
parts  of  sodium  fluoride  and  7  parts  of 
sodium  sulphate.  In  another  vessel 
dissolve  in  the  same  amount  of  water  14 
parts  of  zinc  chloride  and  to  the  solution 
add  56  parts  of  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid.  To  use,  mix  equal  vol- 
umes of  the  two  solutions  and  add  a  little 
India  ink;  or,  in  the  absence  of  this,  rub 
up  a  little  lampblack  with  it.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  mix- 
ture should  not  be  put  in  glass  containers, 
unless  they  are  well  coated  internally 
with  paraffine,  wax,  gutta-percha,  or 
some  similar  material.  To  avoid  the 
inconvenience  of  keeping  the  solutions  in 
separate  bottles,  mix  them  and  preserve 
in  a  rubber  bottle.  A  quill  pen  is  best  to 
use  in  writing  with  this  preparation,  but 
metallic  pens  may  be  used,  if  quite  clean 
and  new. 

II. — In  150  parts  of  alcohol  dissolve 
20  parts  of  rosin,  and  add  to  this,  drop 
by  drop,  stirring  continuously,  a  solution 
of  35  parts  of  borax  in  250  parts  of  water. 
This  being  accomplished,  dissolve  in  the 
solution  sufficient  methylene  blue  to  give 
it  the  desired  tint. 

Ink  for  Writing  on  Glazed  Cardboard. 
—The  following  are  especially  recom- 
mended for  use  on  celluloid: 

I. — Dissolve  4  drachms  of  brown 
shellac  in  4  ounces  of  alcohol.  Dissolve 
7  drachms  of  borax  in  6  ounces  of  dis- 
tilled water.  Pour  the  first  solution 
slowly  into  the  second  and  carefully  mix 
them,  after  which  add  12  grains  of 
aniline  dye  of  the  desired  color.  Violet, 
blue,  green,  red,  yellow,  orange,  or 
black  aniline  dyes  can  be  used. 

Such  inks  may  be  used  for  writing  on 
bottles,  and  the  glass  may  be  cleaned 
with  water  without  the  inscription  being 
impaired. 

II. — Ferric  chloride  ....      10  parts 

Tannin 15  parts 

Acetone 100  parts 

Dissolve  the  ferric  chloride  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  acetone  and  the  tannin  in  the 
residue,  and  mix  the  solutions. 

III. — Dissolve  a  tar  dyestuff  of  the 
desired  color  in  anhydrous  acetic  acid. 

Indelible  Inks  for  Glass  or  Metal.— 
Schobel  recommends  the  following  inks 
for  marking  articles  of  glass,  glass  slips 
for  microscopy,  reagent  flasks,  etc.,  in 
black: 

I. — Sodium  silicate 1  to  2  parts 

Liquid  India  ink 1  part 


For  white: 

II. — Sodium  water  glass  3  to  4  parts 
Chinese  white 1  part 

Instead  of  Chinese  white,  a  sufficient 
amount  of  the  so-called  permanent 
white  (barium  sulphate)  may  be  used. 
The  containers  for  these  inks  should  be 
kept  air-tight.  The  writing  in  either  case 
is  not  attacked  by  any  reagent  used  in 
microscopical  technique  but  may  be 
readily  scraped  away  with  a  knife.  The 
slips  or  other  articles  should  be  as  near 
chemically  clean  as  possible,  before  at- 
tempting to  write  on  them. 

According  to  Schuh,  a  mixture  of  a 
shellac  solution  and  whiting  or  precipi- 
tated chalk  answers  very  well  for  mark- 
ing glass.  Any  color  may  be  mixed  with 
the  chalk.  If  the  glass  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  with  alcohol  or  ether,  either  a 
quill  pen  or  a  camel's-hair  pencil  (or  a 
fresh,  clean  steel  pen)  may  be  used. 

Ink  on  Marble. —Ink  marks  on  marble 
may  be  removed  with  a  paste  made  by 
dissolving  an  ounce  of  oxalic  acid  and 
half  an  ounce  of  butter  of  antimony  in  a 
pint  of  rain  water,  and  adding  sufficient 
flour  to  form  a  thin  paste.  Apply  this  to 
the  stains  with  a  brush;  allow  it  to  re- 
main on  3  or  4  days  and  then  wash  it  off. 
Make  a  second  application,  if  necessary. 

Perpetual  Ink. — I. — Pitch,  3  pounds; 
melt  over  the  fire,  and  add  of  lampblack, 
f  pound;  mix  well. 

II. — Trinidad  asphaltum  and  oil  of 
turpentine,  equal  parts.  Used  in  a 
melted  state  to  fill  in  the  letters  on  tomb- 
stones, marbles,  etc.  Without  actual 
violence,  it  will  endure  as  long  as  the 
stone  itself. 

Ink  for  Steel  Tools. — Have  a  rubber 
stamp  made  with  white  letters  on  a  black 
ground.  Make  up  an  ink  to  use  with  this 
stamp,  as  follows: 

Ordinary  rosin,  £  pound;  lard  oil,  1 
tablespoonful;  lampblack,  2  tablespoon- 
fuls;  turpentine,  2  tablespoonfuls.  Melt 
the  rosin,  and  stir  in  the  other  ingredients 
in  the  order  given.  When  the  ink  is  cold 
it  should  look  like  ordinary  printers'  ink. 
Spread  a  little  of  this  ink  over  the  pad 
and  ink  the  rubber  stamp  as  usual,  and 
press  it  on  the  clean  steel — saw  blade, 
for  instance.  Have  a  rope  of  soft  putty, 
and  make  a  border  of  putty  around  the 
stamped  design  as  close  up  to  the  letter- 
ing as  possible,  so  that  no  portion  of  the 
steel  inside  the  ring  of  putty  is  exposed 
but  the  lettering.  Then  pour  into  the 
putty  ring  the  etching  mixture,  composed 
of  1  ounce  of  nitric  acid,  1  ounce  of  muri- 


INKS 


405 


atic  acid,  and  12  ounces  of  water.  Allow 
it  to  rest  for  only  a  minute,  draw  off  the 
acid  with  a  glass  or  rubber  syringe,  and 
soak  up  the  last  trace  of  acid  with  a 
moist  sponge.  Take  off  the  putty,  and 
wipe  off  the  design  with  potash  solution 
first,  and  then  with  turpentine,  and  the 
job  is  done. 

Writing  on  Ivory,  Glass,  etc.  —  Nitrate 
of  silver,  3  parts;  gum  arabic,  20  parts; 
distilled  water,  30  parts.  Dissolve  the 
gum  arabic  in  two-thirds  of  the  water, 
and  the  nitrate  of  silver  in  the  other 
third.  Mix  and  add  the  desired  color. 

Writing  on  Zinc  (see  also  Horti- 
cultural Inks).  —  Take  1  part  sulphate  of 
copper  (copper  vitriol),  1  part  chloride 
of  potassium,  both  dissolved  in  35  parts 
water.  With  this  blue  liquid,  writing  or 
drawing  may  be  done  with  a  common 
steel  pen  upon  zinc  which  has  been 
polished  bright  with  emery  paper.  After 
the  writing  is  done  the  plates  are  put 
in  water  and  left  in  it  for  some  time, 
then  taken  out  and  dried.  The  writing 
will  remain  intact  as  long  as  the  zinc. 
If  the  writing  or  drawing  should  be 
brown,  1  part  sulphate  of  iron  (green 
vitriol)  is  added  to  the  above  solution. 
The  chemicals  are  dissolved  in  warm 
water  and  the  latter  must  be  cold  before 
it  can  be  used. 

GOLD  INK. 

I.  —  The  best  gold  ink  is  made  by  rub- 
bing up  gold  leaf  as  thoroughly  as  pos- 
sible witn  a  little  honey.     The  honey  is 
then  washed  away  with  water,  and  the 
finely  powdered  gold  leaf  left  is  mixed  to 
the  consistency  of  a  writing  ink  with  weak 
gum  water.      Everything  depends  upon 
the  fineness  of  the  gold  powder,  i.  e., 
upon  the  diligence  with  which  it  has  been 
worked    with    the    honey.      Precipitated 

old  is  finer  than  can  be  got  by  any  rub- 
ing, but  its  color  is  wrong,  being  dark, 

brown.     The  above  gold  ink  should  be 

used  with  a  quill  pen. 

II.  —  An  imitation  gold  or  bronze  ink 
is  composed  by  grinding  1,000  parts  of 
powdered    bronze    of    handsome    color 
with  a  varnish  prepared  by  boiling  to- 
gether 500  parts  of  nut  oil,  200  parts  of 
garlic,  500  parts  of  cocoanutoil,  100  parts 
of  Naples  yellow,  and  as  much  of  sienna. 

HORTICULTURAL  INK. 

I.  —  Chlorate  of  platinum,  f  ounce; 
soft  water,  1  pint.  Dissolve  and  pre- 
serve it  in  glass.  Used  with  a  clean 
quill  to  write  on  zinc  labels.  It  almost 
immediately  turns  black,  and  cannot  be 


g 
b 


removed  by  washing.  The  addition  of 
gum  and  lampblack,  as  recommended  in 
certain  books,  is  unnecessary,  and  even 
prejudicial  to  the  quality  of  the  ink. 

II. — Verdigris  and  sal  ammoniac,  of 
each  |  ounce;  levigated  lampblack,  £ 
ounce;  common  vinegar,  |  pint;  mix 
thoroughly.  Used  as  the  last,  for  either 
zinc,  iron,  or  steel. 

III. — Blue  vitriol,  1  ounce;  sal  am- 
moniac, \  ounce  (both  in  powder);  vine- 
gar, \  pint;  dissolve.  A  little  lamp- 
black or  vermilion  may  be  added,  but 
it  is  not  necessary.  Use  No.  I,  for  iron, 
tin,  or  steel  plate. 

INDELIBLE  INKS. 

These  are  also  frequently  called  water- 
proof, incorrodible,  or  indestructible 
inks.  They  are  employed  for  writing 
labels  on  bottles  containing  strong  acids 
and  alkaline  solutions.  They  may  be 
employed  with  stamps,  types  or  stencil 
plates,  by  which  greater  neatness  will  be 
secured  than  can  be  obtained  with  either 
a  brush  or  pen. 

The  following  is  a  superior  prepara- 
tion for  laundry  use: 

Aniline  oil 85  parts 

Potassium  chlorate.  .  .      5  parts 

Distilled  water 44  parts 

Hydrochloric  acid, 
pure  (specific  grav- 
ity, 1.124).. 68  parts 

Copper  chloride,  pure  6  parts 
Mix  the  aniline  oil,  potassium  chlor- 
ate, and  26  parts  of  the  water  and  heat 
in  a  capacious  vessel,  on  the  water  bath, 
at  a  temperature  of  from  175°  to  195°  F., 
until  the  chlorate  is  entirely  dissolved, 
then  add  one-half  of  the  hydrochloric 
and  continue  the  heat  until  the  mixture 
begins  to  take  on  a  darker  color.  Dis- 
solve the  copper  chloride  in  the  residue 
of  the  water,  add  the  remaining  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  the  solution,  and  add  the 
whole  to  the  liquid  on  the  water  bath, 
and  heat  the  mixture  until  it  acquires  a 
fine  red-violet  color.  Pour  into  a  flask 
with  a  well-fitting  ground-glass  stopper, 
close  tightly  and  set  aside  for  several 
days,  or  until  it  ceases  to  throw  down  a 
precipitate.  When  this  is  the  case,  pour 
off  the  clear  liquid  into  smaller  (one 
drachm  or  a  drachm  and  a  half)  con- 
tainers. 

This  ink  must  be  used  with  a  quill  pen, 
and  is  especially  good  for  linen  or  .cotton 
fabrics,  but  does  not  answer  so  well  for 
silk  or  woolen  goods.  When  first  used, 
it  appears  as  a  pale  red,  but  on  washing 
with  soap  or  alkalies,  or  on  exposure  to 


406 


INKS 


the  air,  becomes  a  deep,  dead  black. 
The  following  is  a  modification  of  the 
foregoing: 

Blue  Indelible  Ink.— This  ink  has  the 
reputation  of  resisting  not  only  water 
and  oil,  but  alcohol,  oxalic  acid,  alkalies, 
the  chlorides,  etc.  It  is  prepared  as  fol- 
lows: Dissolve  4  parts  of  gum  lac  in  36 
parts  of  boiling  water  carrying  2  parts 
of  borax.  Filter  and  set  aside.  Now 
dissolve  2  parts  of  gum  arabic  in  4  parts 
of  water  and  add  the  solution  to  the 
filtrate.  Finally,  after  the  solution  is 
quite  cold,  add  2  parts  of  powdered 
indigo  and  dissolve  by  agitation.  Let 
stand  for  several  hours,  then  decant,  and 
put  in  small  bottles. 

Red  Indelible  Inks. — By  proceeding 
according  to  the  following  formula,  an 
intense  purple-red  color  may  be  pro- 
duced on  fabrics,  which  is  indelible  in 
the  customary  sense  of  the  word: 

1. — Sodium  carbonate  . .      3  drachms 

Gum  arabic 3  drachms 

Water 12  drachms 

2. — Platinic  chloride. ...      1  drachm 
Distilled  water 2  ounces 

3. — Stannous  chloride. ..      1  drachm 

Distilled  water 4  drachms 

Moisten  the  place  to  be  written  upon 
with  No.  1  and  rub  a  warm  iron  over  it 
until  dry;  then  write  with  No.  2,  and, 
when  dry,  moisten  with  No.  3.  An 
intense  and  beautiful  purple-red  color  is 
porduced  in  this  way.  A  very  rich 
purple  color — the  purple  of  Cassius — • 
may  be  produced  by  substituting  a  solu- 
tion of  gold  chloride  for  the  platinic 
chloride  in  the  above  formula. 

Crimson  Indelible  Ink. — 
The  following  formula  makes  an  indelible 
crimson  ink: 

Silver  nitrate 50  parts 

Sodium      carbonate, 

crystal 75  parts 

Tartaric  acid 16  parts 

Carmine 1  part 

Ammonia    water, 

strongest 288  parts 

Sugar,  white,  crystal- 
lized        36  parts 

Gum    arabic,    pow- 
dered        60  parts 

Distilled       water, 
quantity  sufficient 

to  make 400  parts 

Dissolve  the  silver  nitrate  and  the 
sodium  carbonate  separately,  each  in  a 
portion  of  the  distilled  water,  mix  the 
solutions,  collect  the  precipitate  on  a 


filter,  wash,  and  put  the  washed  precipi- 
tate, still  moist,  into  a  mortar.  To  this 
add  the  tartaric  acid,  and  rub  together 
until  effervescence  ceases.  Now,  dis- 
solve the  carmine  in  the  ammonia  water 
(which  latter  should  be  of  specific  grav- 
ity .882,  or  contain  34  per  cent  of  am- 
monia), filter,  and  add  the  filtrate  to  the 
silver  tartrate  magma  in  the  mortar. 
Add  the  sugar  and  gum  arabic,  rub  up 
together,  and  add  gradually,  with  con- 
stant agitation,  sufficient  distilled  water 
to  make  400  parts. 

Gold  Indelible  Ink. — Make  two  solu- 
tions as  follows: 

1. — Chloride  of  gold  and 

sodium 1  part 

Water 10  parts 

Gum 2  parts 

2. — Oxalic  acid .      1  part 

Water 5  parts 

Gum 2  parts 

The  cloth  or  stuff  to  be  written  on 
should  be  moistened  with  liquid  No.  2. 
Let  dry,  and  then  write  upon  the  pre- 
pared place  with  liquid  No.  1,  using 
preferably  a  quill  pen.  Pass  a  hot  iron 
over  the  mark,  pressing  heavily. 

INDIA,  CHINA,  OR  JAPAN  INK. 

Ink  by  these  names  is  based  on  lamp- 
black, and  prepared  in  various  ways. 
Many  makes  flow  less  easily  from  the 
pen  than  other  inks,  and  are  less  durable 
than  ink  that  writes  paler  and  afterwards 
turns  black.  The  ink  is  usually  unfitted 
for  steel  pens,  but  applies  well  with  a 
brush. 

I. — Lampblack  (finest)  is  ground 
to  a  paste  with  very  weak  liquor  of 
potassa,  and  this  paste  is  then  diffused 
through  water  slightly  alkalized  with  po- 
tassa, after  which  it  is  collected,  washed 
with  clean  water,  and  dried;  the  dry 
powder  is  next  levigated  to  a  smooth, 
stiff  paste,  with  a  strong  filtered  decoc- 
tion of  carrageen  or  Irish  moss,  or  of 
quince  seed,  a  few  drops  of  essence  of 
musk,  and  about  half  as  much  essence 
of  ambergris  being  added,  by  way  of 
perfume,  toward  the  end  of  the  process; 
the  mass  is,  lastly,  molded  into  cakes, 
which  are  ornamented  with  Chinese 
characters  and  devices,  as  soon  as  they 
are  dry  and  hard. 

II. — A  weak  solution  of  fine  gelatin 
is  boiled  at  a  high  temperature  in  a 
digester  for  2  hours,  and  then  in  an  open 
vessel  for  1  hour  more.  The  liquid  is 
next  filtered  and  evaporated  to  a  proper 
consistency,  either  in  a  steam-  or  salt- 


INKS 


407 


water  bath.  It  is,  lastly,  made  into  a 
paste,  as  before,  with  lampblack  which 
has  been  previously  heated  to  dull  red- 
ness in  a  well-closed  crucible.  Neither 
of  the  above  gelatinizes  in  cold  weather, 
like  the  ordinary  imitations. 

To  Keep  India  Ink  Liquid. — If  one  has 
to  work  with  the  ink  for  some  time,  a 
small  piece  should  be  dissolved  in  warm 
water  and  the  tenth  part  of  glycerine 
added,  which  mixes  intimately  with  the 
ink  after  shaking  for  a  short  time.  India 
ink  thus  prepared  will  keep  very  well  in 
a  corked  bottle,  and  if  a  black  jelly 
should  form  in  the  cold,  it  is  quickly  dis- 
solved by  heating.  The  ink  flows  well 
from  the  pen  and  does  not  wipe. 

INK  POWDERS  AND  LOZENGES. 

Any  of  these  powders  may,  by  the  ad- 
dition of  mucilage  of  gum  arabic,  be 
made  into  lozenges  or  buttons — the  "ink 
buttons"  or  "ink  stones"  in  use  abroad 
and  much  affected  by  travelers. 

The  following  makes  a  good  service- 
able black  ink,  on  macerating  the  pow- 
der in  100  times  its  weight  of  rain  or 
distilled  water  for  a  few  days : 

I. — Powdered  gallnuts  .  .    16  parts 

Gum  arabic 8  parts 

Cloves 1  part 

Iron  sulphate 10  parts 

Put  into  an  earthenware  or  glass 
vessel,  cover  with  100  parts  of  rain  or 
distilled  water,  and  set  aside  for  10  days 
or  2  weeks,  giving  an  occasional  shake 
the  first  3  or  4  days.  Decant  and  bottle 
for  use. 

The  following  is  ready  for  use  instant- 
ly on  being  dissolved  in  water: 

II. — Aleppo  gallnuts 84  parts 

Dutch  Madder 6  parts 

Powder,  mix,  moisten,  and  pack  into 
the  percolator.  Extract  with  hot  water, 
filter,  and  press  out.  To  the  filtrate  add 
4  parts  of  iron  acetate  (or  pyroacetate) 
and  2i  parts  of  tincture  of  indigo.  Put 
into  the  water  bath  and  evaporate  to  dry- 
ness  and  powder  the  dry  residue. 

LITHOGRAPHIC  INKS. 

These  are  for  writing  on  lithographic 
stones  or  plates: 

I. — Mastic  (in  tears),  8  ounces;  shel- 
lac, 12  ounces;  Venice  turpentine,  1 
ounce.  Melt  together,  add  wax,  1 
pound;  tallow,  6  ounces.  When  dis- 
solved, add  hard  tallow  soap  (in  shay- 
ings),  6  ounces;  and  when  the  whole  is 
perfectly  combined,  add  lampblack,  4 
ounces.  Mix  well,  cool  a  little,  and  then 


pour  it  into  molds,  or  upon  a  slab,  and 
when  cold  cut  it  into  square  pieces. 

II.  (Lasteyrie). — Dry  tallow  soap, 
mastic  (in  tears),  and  common  soda  (in 
fine  powder),  of  each,  30  parts;  shellac, 
150  parts;  lampblack,  12  parts.  Mix  as 
indicated  in  Formula  I. 

MARKING  OR  LABELING  INKS: 

Black  Marking  Inks. —     • 

I. — Borax 60  parts 

Shellac 180  parts 

Boiling  water 1,000  parts 

Lampblack,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Dissolve  the  borax  in  the  water,  add 
the  shellac  to  the  solution  and  stir  until 
dissolved.  Rub  up  a  little  lampblack 
with  sufficient  of  the  liquid  to  form  a 
paste,  and  add  the  rest  of  the  solution  a 
little  at  a  time  and  with  constant  rubbing. 
Test,  and  if  not  black  enough,  repeat  the 
operation.  To  get  the  best  effect — a 
pure  jet-black — the  lampblack  should  be 
purified  and  freed  from  the  calcium 
phosphate  always  present  in  the  com- 
mercial article  to  the  extent,  frequently, 
of  85  to  87  per  cent,  by  treating  with 
hydrochloric  acid  and  washing  with 
water. 

II. — An  ink  that  nothing  will  bleach  is 
made  by  mixing  pyrogallic  acid  and  sul- 
phate of  iron  in  equal  parts.  Particu- 
larly useful  for  marking  labels  on  bottles 
containing  acids.  Varnish  the  label 
after  the  ink  is  dry  so  that  moisture  will 
not  affect  it. 

COLORED   MARKING  INKS: 
Eosine  Red. — 

Eosine  B 1  drachm 

Solution    of   mercuric 

chloride 2  drachms 

Mucilage  of  acacia.  .  .      2  drachms 

Rectified  spirit 4  ounces 

Oil  of  lavender 1  drop 

Distilled  water 8  ounces 

Dissolve  the  eosine  in  the  solution  and 
2  ounces  of  water,  add  the  mucilage,  and 
mix,  then  the  oil  dissolved  in  the  spirit, 
and  finally  make  up. 

Orange. — 

Aniline  orange 1  drachm 

Sugar 2  drachms 

Distilled  water  to ....  4  ounces 

Blue.— 

I. — Resorcin  blue 1  drachm 

Distilled  water 6  drachms 

Mix  and  agitate  occasionally  for  2 
hours,  then  add : 


408 


INKS 


Hot  distilled  water.  ..    24    ounces 

Oxalic  acid 10    grains 

Sugar \  ounce 

Shake  well.  This  and  other  aniline 
inks  can  be  perfumed  by  rubbing  up  a 
drop  of  attar  of  rose  with  the  sugar  be- 
fore dissolving  it  in  the  hot  water. 

II. — A  solid  blue  ink,  or  marking 
paste,  to  be  used  with  a  brush  for  sten- 
ciling, is  made  as  follows:  Shellac,  2 
ounces;  borax,  2  ounces;  water,  25 
ounces;  gum  arabic,  2  ounces;  and  ul- 
tramarine, sufficient.  Boil  the  borax 
and  shellac  in  some  of  the  water  till  they 
are  dissolved,  and  withdraw  from  the 
fire.  When  the  solution  has  become 
cold,  add  the  rest  of  the  25  ounces  of 
water,  and  the  ultramarine.  When  it  is 
to  be  used  with  the  stencil,  it  must  be 
made  thicker  than  when  it  is  to  be 
applied  with  a  marking  brush. 

III. — In  a  suitable  kettle  mix  well, 
stirring  constantly,  50  parts  of  liquid 
logwood  extract  (80  per  cent)  with  3 
parts  of  spirit  previously  mingled  with  1 
part  of  hydrochloric  acid,  maintaining  a 
temperature  of  68°  F.  Dissolve  5  parts 
of  potassium  chromate  in  15  parts  of 
boiling  water;  to  this  add  10  parts  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  pour  this  mixture, 
after  raising  the  temperature  to  about 
86°  F.,  very  slowly  and  with  constant 
stirring  into  the  kettle.  Then  heat  the 
whole  to  185°  F.  This  mass,  which  has 
now  assumed  the  nature  of  an  extract,  is 
stirred,  a  little  longer,  and  next  15  parts  of 
dextrin  mixed  with  10  parts  of  fine 
white  earth  (white  bole)  are  added. 
The  whole  is  well  stirred  throughout. 
Transfer  the  mass  from  the  kettle  into  a 
crusher,  where  it  is  thoroughly  worked 
through. 

PRINTING  INKS. 

Black  printing  inks  owe  their  color  to 
finely  divided  carbon  made  from  lamp- 
black, pine-wood,  rosin  oil,  etc.,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  ink  desired. 
The  finest  inks  are  made  from  flame- 
lampblack.  There  are,  however,  cer- 
tain requirements  made  of  all  printing 
inks  alike,  and  these  are  as  follows: 
The  ink  must  be  a  thick  and  homoge- 
neous liquid,  it  must  contain  no  solid 
matter  but  finely  divided  carbon,  and 
every  drop  when  examined  microscopic- 
ally must  appear  as  a  clear  liquid  con- 
taining black  grains  uniformly  distrib- 
uted. 

The  consistency  of  a  printing  ink  must 
be  such  that  it  passes  on  to  the  printing 
rollers  at  the  proper  rate.  It  will  be 


obvious  that  various  consistencies  are 
demanded  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
machine  used  by  the  printer.  For  a 
rotary  machine  which  prints  many  thou- 
sands of  copies  an  hour  a  much  thinner 
ink  will  be  necessary  than  that  required 
for  art  printing  or  for  slow  presses.  As 
regards  color,  ordinary  printing  ink 
should  be  a  pure  black.  For  economy's 
sake,  however,  newspaper  printers  often 
use  an  ink  so  diluted  that  it  does  not  look 
deep  black,  but  a  grayish  black,  espe- 
cially in  large  type. 

The  question  of  the  time  that  the  ink 
takes  to  dry  on  the  paper  is  a  very  impor- 
tant one,  especially  with  ink  used  for 
printing  newspapers  which  are  folded 
and  piled  at  one  operation.  If  then  the 
ink  does  not  dry  very  quickly,  the  whole 
impression  smudges  and  "sets  off"  so 
much  that  it  becomes  illegible  in  places. 
Although  it  is  essential  to  have  a  quick 
drying  ink  for  this  purpose,  it  is  danger- 
pus  to  go  too  far,  for  a  too  quickly  drying 
ink  would  make  the  paper  stick  to  the 
forms  and  tear  it.  A  last  condition  which 
must  be  fulfilled  by  a  good  printing  ink 
is  that  it  must  be  easy  of  removal  from 
the  type,  which  has  to  be  used  again. 

No  one  composition  will  answer  every 
purpose  and  a  number  of  different  inks 
are  required.  Makers  of  printing  inks 
are  obliged,  therefore,  to  work  from  de- 
finite recipes  so  as  to  be  able  to  turn 
out  exactly  the  same  ink  again  and  again. 
They  make  newspaper  ink  for  rotary 
presses,  book-printing  inks,  half-tone 
inks,  art  inks,  etc.  As  the  recipes  have 
been  attained  only  by  long,  laborious, 
and  costly  experiments,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  makers  are  not  disposed  to  commu- 
nicate them,  and  the  recipes  that  are 
offered  and  published  must  be  looked 
upon  with  caution,  as  many  of  them  are 
of  little  or  no  value.  In  the  recipes 
given  below  for  printing  inks,  the  only 
intention  is  to  give  hints  of  the  general 
composition,  and  the  practical  man  will 
easily  discover  what,  if  any,  alterations 
have  to  be  made  in  the  recipe  for  his 
special  purpose. 

Many  different  materials  for  this  man- 
ufacture are  given  in  recipes,  so  many, 
in  fact,  that  it  is  impossible  to  discover 
what  use  they  are  in  the  ink.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  articles  commonly 
in  use  for  the  manufacture  of  printing 
ink: 

Boiled  linseed  oil,  boiled  without 
driers. 

Rosin  oil  from  the  dry  distillation  of 
rosin. 

Rosin  itself,  especially  American  pine 


INKS 


409 


Soap,  usually  rosin-soap,  but  occa- 
sionally ordinary  soap. 

Lampblack  and  various  other  pig- 
ments. 

By  the  most  time-honored  method, 
linseed  oil  was  very  slowly  heated  over 
an  open  fire  until  it  ignited.  It  was 
allowed  to  burn  for  a  time  and  then  ex- 
tinguished by  putting  a  lid  on  the  pot. 
In  this  way  a  liquid  was  obtained  of  a 
dark  brown  or  black  color  with  par- 
ticles of  carbon,  and  with  a  consistency 
varying  with  the  period  of  heating,  being 
thicker,  the  longer  the  heating  was  con- 
tinued. If  necessary,  the  liquid  was 
then  thinned  with  unboiled,  or  only  very 
slightly  boiled,  linseed  oil.  Lampblack 
in  the  proper  quantity  was  added  and  the 
mixture  was  finally  rubbed  up  on  a  stone 
in  small  quantities  at  a  time  to  make  it 
uniform. 

Boiling  the  Linseed  Oil.  — This  process, 
although  it  goes  by  the  name  of  boiling, 
is  not  so  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word, 
but  a  heating  having  for  its  object  an 
initial  oxidation  of  the  oil,  so  that  it  will 
dry  better.  Linseed  oil  is  a  type  of  the 
drying  oils,  those  which  when  exposed  in 
thin  coats  to  the  air  absorb  large  quan- 
tities of  oxygen  and  are  thereby  cow- 
verted  into  tough,  solid  sheets  having 
properties  very  similar  to  those  of  soft 
I ndia  rubber.  The  process  goes  on  much 
faster  with  the  aid  of  heat  than  at  the  or- 
dinary temperature,  and  the  rate  at 
which  the  boiled  oil  will  dry  in  the  ink 
can  be  exactly  regulated  by  heating  it  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  time.  Prolonged 
heating  gives  an  oil  which  will  dry  very 
quickly  on  exposure  in  thin  coats  to  the 
air,  the  shorter  the  heating  the  more 
slowly  will  the  ink  afterwards  made  with 
the  oil  dry. 

Linseed  oil  must  always  be  boiled  in 
vessels  where  it  has  plenty  of  room,  as 
the  oil  soon  swells  up  and  it  begins  to  de- 
compose so  energetically  at  a  particular 
temperature  that  there  is  considerable 
risk  of  its  boiling  over  and  catching  fire. 
Various  contrivances  have  been  thought 
out  for  boiling  large  quantities  of  the  oil 
with  safety,  such  as  pans  with  an  outlet 
pipe  in  the  side,  through  which  the  oil 
escapes  when  it  rises  too  high  instead  of 
over  the  edge  of  the  pan,  and  fires  built 
on  a  trolley  running  on  rails,  so  that  they 
can  at  once  be  moved  from  under  the 
pan  if  there  is  any  probability  of  the 
fatter  boiling  over.  The  best  apparatus 
for  preparing  thickened  linseed  oil  is 
undoubtedly  one  in  which  the  oil  offers  a 
very  large  surface  to  the  air,  and  on  that 
account  requires  to  be  moderately  heated 


only.  The  oil  soon  becomes  very  thick 
under  these  conditions  and  if  necessary 
can  be  diluted  to  any  required  consist- 
ency with  unboiled  oil. 

In  boiling  linseed  oil  down  to  the 
proper  thickness  by  the  old  method  there 
are  two  points  demanding  special  atten- 
tion. One  is  the  liability  of  the  oil  to  boil 
over,  and  the  other  consists  in  the  devel- 
opment of  large  quantities  of  vapor,  most- 
ly of  acroleine,  which  have  a  most  power- 
ful and  disagreeable  smell,  and  an  intense 
action  upon  the  eyes.  The  attendant 
must  be  protected  from  these  fumes,  and 
the  boiling  must  therefore  be  done  where 
there  is  a  strong  draught  to  take  the 
fumes  as  fast  as  they  are  produced. 
There  are  various  contrivances  to  cope 
with  boiling  over. 

Savage's  Printing  Ink. — Pure  balsam 
of  copaiba,  9  ounces;  lampblack,  3  ounces; 
indigo  and  Prussian  blue,  each  5  drachms; 
drachms;  Indian  red,  £  ounce;  yellow 
soap,  3  ounces.  Mix,  and  grind  to  the 
utmost  smoothness. 

Toning  Black  Inks. — Printers'  inks 
consisting  solely  of  purified  lampblack 
and  vehicle  give,  of  course,  impressions 
which  are  pure  black.  It  is,  however, 
well  known  that  a  black  which  has  to  a 
practiced  eye  a  tinge  of  blue  in  it  looks 
much  better  than  a  pure  black.  To 
make  such  an  ink  many  makers  mix  the 
lampblack  with  a  blue  pigment,  which  is 
added  in  very  fine  powder  before  the  first 
grinding.  Prussian  blue  is  the  pigment 
usually  chosen  and  gives  very  attractive 
results.  Prussian  blue  is,  however,  not 
a  remarkable  stable  substance,  and  is 
very  apt  to  turn  brown  from  the  forma- 
tion of  ferric  oxide.  Hence  an  ink  made 
with  Prussian  blue,  although  it  may  look 
very  fine  at  first,  often  assumes  a  dull 
brown  hue  in  the  course  of  time.  Ex- 
cellent substitutes  for  Prussian  blue  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Induline  blues.  These 
are  very  fast  dyes,  and  inks  tinted  with 
them  do  not  change  color.  As  pure  in- 
digo is  now  made  artificially  and  sold  at 
a  reasonable  price,  this  extremely  fast 
dye  can  also  be  used  for  tinting  inks  made 
with  purified  lampblack. 

To  Give  Dark  Inks  a  Bronze  or 
Changeable  Hue. — Dissolve  1|  pounds 
gum  shellac  in  1  gallon  65  per  cent 
alcohol  or  cologne  spirits  for  24  hours. 
Then  add  14  ounces  aniline  red.  Let  it 
stand  a  few  hours  longer,  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use.  Add  this  to  good  blue, 
black,  or  other  dark  ink,  as  needed  in 
quantities  to  suit,  when  if  carefully  done 


410 


INKS 


they  will  be  found  to  have  a  rich  bronze 
or  changeable  hue. 

Quick  Dryer  for  Inks  Used  on  Book- 
binders' Cases. — Beeswax,  1  ounce; 
gum  arabic  (dissolved  in  sufficient  acetic 
acid  to  make  a  thin  mucilage),  \  ounce; 
brown  japan,  £  ounce.  Incorporate 
with  1  pound  of  good  cut  ink. 

INKS  FOR  STAMP  PADS. 

The  ink  used  on  vulcanized  rubber 
stamps  should  be  such  that  when  ap- 
plied to  a  suitable  pad  it  remains  suffi- 
ciently fluid  to  adhere  to  the  stamp.  At 
the  same  time  the  fluidity  should  cease 
by  the  time  the  stamp  is  pressed  upon  an 
absorbing  surface  such  as  paper.  For- 
merly these  inks  were  made  by  rubbing 
up  pigments  in  fat  to  a  paste.  Such  inks 
can  hardly  be  prevented,  however,  from 
making  impressions  surrounded  by  a 
greasy  mark  caused  by  the  fat  spreading 
in  the  pores  of  the  paper.  Now,  most 
stamping  inks  are  made  without  grease 
and  a  properly  prepared  stamping  ink 
contains  nothing  but  glycerine  and  coal- 
tar  dye.  As  nearly  all  these  dyes  dis- 
solve in  hot  glycerine  the  process  of 
manufacture  is  simple  enough.  The 
dye,  fuchsine,  methyl  violet,  water  blue, 
emerald  green,  etc.,  is  put  into  a  thin 
porcelain  dish  over  which  concentrated 
glycerine  is  poured,  and  the  whole  is 
heated  to  nearly  212°  F.  with  constant 
stirring.  It  is  important  to  use  no  more 
glycerine  than  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
dye  dissolved  when  the  ink  is  cold.  If 
the  mass  turns  gritty  on  cooling  it  must 
be  heated  up  with  more  glycerine  till 
solution  is  perfect. 

In  dealing  with  coal-tar  dyes  insoluble 
in  glycerine,  or  nearly  so,  dissolve  them 
first  in  the  least  possible  quantity  of 
strong,  hot  alcohol.  Then  add  the  glyc- 
erine and  heat  till  the  spirit  is  evapo- 
rated. 

To  see  whether  the  ink  is  properly 
made  spread  some  of  it  on  a  strip  of 
cloth  and  try  it  with  a  rubber  stamp. 
On  paper,  the  separate  letters  must  be 
quite  sharp  and  distinct.  If  they  run 
at  the  edges  there  is  too  much  glycerine 
in  the  ink  and  more  dye  must  be  added 
to  it.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  impres- 
sion is  indistinct  and  weak,  the  ink  is  too 
thick  and  must  be  diluted  by  carefully 
adding  glycerine. 

Aniline  colors  are  usually  employed 
as  the  tinting  agents.  The  following  is 
a  typical  formula,  the  product  being  a 
black  ink: 

I. — Nigrosin 3  parts 

Water.... 15  parts 


Alcohol 15  parts 

Glycerine 70  parts 

Dissolve  the  nigrosin  in  the  alcohol, 
add  the  glycerine  previously  mixed  with 
the  water,  and  rub  well  together. 

Nigrosin  is  a  term  applied  to  several 
compounds  of  the  same  series  which 
differ  in  solubility.  In  the  place  of 
these  compounds  it  is  probable  that  a 
mixture  would  answer  to  produce  black 
as  suggested  by  Hans  Wilder  for  making 
writing  ink.  His  formula  for  the  mix- 
ture is: 

II. — Methyl  violet 3  parts 

Bengal  green 5  parts 

Bismarck  green 4  parts 

A  quantity  of  this  mixture  should  be 
taken  equivalent  to  the  amount  of  nigro- 
sin directed.  These  colors  are  freely 
soluble  in  water,  arid  yield  a  deep  green- 
ish-black solution. 

The  aniline  compound  known  as 
brilliant  green  answers  in  place  of  Bengal 
green.  As  to  the  permanency  of  color  of 
this  or  any  aniline  ink,  no  guarantee  is 
offered.  There  are  comparatively  few 
coloring  substances  that  can  be  con- 
sidered permanent  even  in  a  qualified 
sense.  Among  these,  charcoal  takes  a 
foremost  place.  Lampblack  remains 
indefinitely  unaltered.  This,  ground 
very  finely  with  glycerine,  would  yield 
an  ink  which  would  perhaps  prove  serv- 
iceable in  stamping;  but  it  would  be 
liable  to  rub  off  to  a  greater  extent  than 
soluble  colors  which  penetrate  the  paper 
more  or  less.  Perhaps  castor  oil  would 
prove  a  better  vehicle  for  insoluble  color- 
ing matters.  Almost  any  aniline  color 
may  be  substituted  for  nigrosin  in  the 
foregoing  formula,  and  blue,  green,  red, 
purple,  and  other  inks  obtained.  In- 
soluble pigments  might  also  be  made  to 
answer  as  suggested  for  lampblack. 

The  following  is  said  to  be  a  cushion 
that  will  give  color  permanently.  It 
consists  of  a  box  filled  with  an  elastic 
composition,  saturated  with  a  suitable 
color.  The  cushion  fulfils  its  purpose  for 
years  without  being  renewed,  always  con- 
tains sufficient  moisture,  which  is  drawn 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  continues  to 
act  as  a  color  stamp  cushion  so  long  as  a 
remnant  of  the  mass  or  composition 
remains  in  the  box  or  receptacle.  This 
cushion  or  pad  is  too  soft  to  be  self-sup- 
porting, but  should  be  held  in  a  low,  flat 
pan,  and  have  a  permanent  cloth  cover. 

III. — The  composition  consists  pref- 
erably of  1  part  gelatin,  1  part  water, 
6  parts  glycerine,  and  6  parts  coloring 
matter.  A  suitable  black  color  can  be 


INKS 


made  from  the  following  materials:  One 
part  gelatin  glue,  3  parts  lampblack, 
aniline  black,  or  a  suitable  quantity  of 
logwood  extract,  10  parts  of  glycerine, 
1  part  absolute  alcohol,  2  parts  water, 

1  part  Venetian   soap,   £   part   salicylic 
acid.      For  red,  blue,  or  violet:     One  part 
gelatin  glue,    2   parts  aniline  of   desired 
color,   1  part  absolute  alcohol,  10  parts 
glycerine,    1   part  Venetian  soap,  and  ^ 
part  salicylic  acid. 

The  following  are  additional  recipes 
used  for  this  purpose: 

IV. — Mix  and  dissolve  2  to  4  drachms 
aniline  violet,  15  ounces  alcohol,  15 
ounces  glycerine.  The  solution  is  poured 
on  the  cushion  and  rubbed  in  with 
a  brush.  The  general  method  of  pre- 
paring the  pad  is  to  swell  the  gelatin 
with  cold  water,  then  boil  and  add  the 
glycerine,  etc. 

V. — Mix  well  16  pounds  of  hot  lin- 
seed oil,  3  ounces  of  powdered  indigo,  or 
a  like  quantity  of  Berlin  blue,  and  8 
pounds  of  lampblack.  For  ordinary 
sign-stamping  an  ink  without  the  indigo 
might  be  used.  By  substituting  ultra- 
marine or  Prussian  blue  for  the  lamp- 
black, a  blue  "ink"  or  paint  would 
result. 

Inks  for  Hand  Stamps. — As  an  excip- 
ient  for  oily  inks,  a  mixture  of  castor 
oil  and  crude  oleic  acid,  in  parts  varying 
according  to  the  coloring  material  used, 
is  admirable.  The  following  are  ex- 
amples: 

Black. — Oil  soluble  nigrosin  and  crude 
oleic  acid  in  equal  parts.  Add  7  to  8 
parts  of  castor  oil. 

Red. — Oil  soluble  aniline  red,  2  parts; 
crude  oleic  acid,  3  parts;  castor  oil, 
from  30  to  60  parts,  according  to  the  in- 
tensity of  color  desired. 

Red. — Dissolve  £  ounce  of  carmine  in 

2  ounces  strong  water  of  ammonia,  and 
add  1  drachm  of  glycerine  and  f  ounce 
dextrin. 

Blue. — Rub  1  ounce  Prussian  blue  with 
enough  water  to  make  a  perfectly  smooth 
paste;  then  add  1  ounce  dextrin,  incor- 
porate it  well,  and  finally  add  sufficient 
water  to  bring  it  to  the  proper  consis- 
tency. 

Blue. — Oil  soluble  aniline  blue,  1  part; 
crude  oleic  acid,  2  parts;  castor  oil,  30 
to  32  parts. 

Violet. — Alcohol,  15  ounces;  glycer- 
ine, 15  ounces;  aniline  violet,  2  to  4 
drachms.  Mix,  dissolve,  pour  the  solu- 
tion on  the  cushion,  and  dab  on  with  a 
brush, 


Color  Stamps  for  Rough  Paper. — It 
has  hitherto  been  impossible  to  get  a 
satisfactory  application  for  printing  with 
rubber  stamps  on  rough  paper.  Fatty 
vehicles  are  necessary  for  such  paper, 
and  they  injure  the  India  rubber.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  if  the  rubber  is  first 
soaked  in  a  solution  of  glue,  and  then  in 
one  of  tannin,  or  bichromate  of  potash, 
it  becomes  impervious  to  the  oils  or  fats. 
Gum  arabic  can  be  substituted  for  the 
glue. 

Indelible  Hand-Stamp  Ink.— 
I- — Copper  sulphate. ...    20  parts 
Aniline  chlorate  ....    20  parts 
Rub  up  separately  to  a  fine  powder, 
then  carefully  mix,  and  add  10  parts  of 
dextrin  and  incorporate.      Add   5    parts 
of  glycerine  and  rub  up,  adding  water,  a 
little   at   a   time,    until    a   homogeneous 
viscid    mass    is    obtained.     An    aniline 
color  is  produced  in  the  material,  which 
boiling  does  not  destroy. 

II. — Sodium  carbonate  .  .    22  parts 

Glycerine. 85  parts 

Gum  arabic,  in  pow- 
der.     20  parts 

Silver  nitrate 11  parts 

Ammonia  water.  ...  20  parts 
Venetian  turpentine  10  parts 
Triturate  the  carbonate  of  sodium, 
gum  arabic,  and  glycerine  together.  In 
a  separate  flask  dissolve  the  silver  nitrate 
in  the  ammonia  water,  mix  the  solution 
with  the  triturate,  and  heat  to  boiling, 
when  the  turpentine  is  to  be  added,  with 
constant  stirring.  After  stamping,  ex- 
pose to  the  sunlight  or  use  a  hot  iron. 
The  quantity  of  glycerine  may  be  varied 
to  suit  circumstances. 

White  Stamping  Ink  for  Embroidery. — 

Zinc  white 2  drachms 

Mucilage 1  drachm 

Water 6  drachms 

Triturate  the  zinc  white  with  a  small 
quantity  of  water  till  quite  smooth,  then 
add  the  mucilage  and  the  remainder  of 
the  water. 

STENCIL  INKS. 

I. — Dissolve  1  ounce  of  gum  arabic  in 
6  ounces  water,  and  strain.  This  is  the 
mucilage.  For  Black  Color  use  drop 
black,  powdered,  and  ground  with  the 
mucilage  to  extreme  fineness;  for  Blue, 
ultramarine  is  used  in  the  same  manner; 
for  Green,  emerald  green;  for  White, 
flake  white;  for  Red,  vermilion,  lake,  or 
carmine;  for  Yellow,  chrome  yellow. 
When  ground  too  thick  they  are  thinned 


412 


INKS 


with  a  little  water.     Apply  with  a  small 
brush. 

II. — Triturate  together  1  pint  pine 
soot  and  2  pints  Prussian  blue  with  a 
little  glycerine,  then  add  3  pints  gum 
arabic  and  sufficient  glycerine  to  form  a 
thin  paste. 

Blue  Stencil  Inks.— The  basis  of  the 
stencil  inks  commonly  used  varies  to 
some  extent,  some  preferring  a  mixture 
of  pigments  with  oils,  and  others  a 
watery  shellac  basis.  The  basis: 

I. — Shellac 2     ounces 

Borax 1£  ounces 

Water 10    ounces 

Boil  together  until  10  ounces  of  solu- 
tion is  obtained.  The  coloring: 

Prussian  blue 1     ounce 

China  clay \  ounce 

Powdered  acacia ...        \  ounce 

Mix  thoroughly  and  gradually  incor- 
porate the  shellac  solution. 

II. — Prussian  blue 2    ounces 

Lampblack 1     ounce 

Gum  arabic 3     ounces 

Glycerine,  sufficient. 

Triturate  together  the  dry  powders 
and  then  make  into  a  suitable  paste  with 
glycerine. 

Indelible  Stencil  Inks.— I.— Varnish 
such  as  is  used  for  ordinary  printing  ink, 
1  pound;  black  sulphuret  of  mercury,  1 
pound;  nitrate  of  silver,  1  ounce;  sul- 
phate of  iron,  1  ounce;  lampblack,  2 
tablespoonfuls.  Grind  all  well  together; 
thin  with  spirits  turpentine  as  desired. 

II. — Sulphate  of  manganese,  2  parts; 
lampblack,  1  part;  sugar,  4  parts;  all  in 
fine  powder  and  triturated  to  a  paste  in 
a  little  water. 

III. — Nitrate  of  silver,  \  ounce;  water, 
f  ounce.  Dissolve,  add  as  much  of  the 
strongest  liquor  of  ammonia  as  will 
dissolve  the  precipitate  formed  on  its 
first  addition.  Then  add  of  mucilage, 
\\  drachms,  and  a  little  sap  green,  syrup 
of  buckthorn,  or  finely  powdered  indigo, 
to  color.  This  turns  black  on  being 
held  near  the  fire,  or  touched  with  a  hot 
iron. 

SYMPATHETIC  INKS: 

Table  of  Substances  Used  in  llaking 
Sympathetic  Inks. — 

For  writing  and  for  bringing  out  the 
writing: 

Cobalt  chloride,  heat. 

Cobalt  acetate  and  a  little  saltpeter, 
heat. 


Cobalt  chloride  and  nickel  chloride 
mixed,  heat. 

Nitric  acid,  heat. 

Sulphuric  acid,  heat. 

Sodium  chloride,  heat. 

Saltpeter,  heat. 

Copper  sulphate  and  ammonium 
chloride,  heat. 

Silver  nitrate,  sunlight. 

Gold  trichloride,  sunlight. 

Ferric  sulphate,  infusion  of  gallnuts 
or  ferrocyanide  of  potassium. 

Copper  sulphate,  ferrocyanide  of 
potassium. 

Lead  vinegar,  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Mercuric  nitrate,  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Starch  water,  tincture  of  iodine  or 
iodine  vapors. 

Cobalt  nitrate,  oxalic  acid. 

Fowler's  solution,  copper  nitrate. 

Soda  lye  or  sodium  carbonate,  phenol- 
phthaleine. 

A  sympathetic  ink  is  one  that  is  in- 
visible when  written,  but  which  can  be 
made  visible  by  some  treatment.  Com- 
mon milk  can  be  used  for  writing,  and 
exposure  to  strong  heat  will  scorch  and 
render  the  dried  milk  characters  visible. 

The  following  inks  are  developed  by 
exposure  to  the  action  of  reagents: 

I. — Upon  writing  with  a  very  clear 
solution  of  starch  on  paper  that  contains 
but  little  sizing,  and  submitting  the  dry 
characters  to  the  vapor  of  iodine  (or 
passing  over  them  a  weak  solution  of 
potassium  iodide),  the  writing  becomes 
blue,  and  disappears  under  the  action 
of  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda 
(1  in  1,000). 

II. — Characters  written  with  a  weak 
solution  of  the  soluble  chloride  of  plati- 
num or  iridium  become  black  when  the 
paper  is  submitted  to  mercurial  vapor. 
This  ink  may  be  used  for  marking  linen, 
as  it  is  indelible. 

III. — Sulphate  of  copper  in  very  dilute 
solution  will  produce  an  invisible  writing, 
which  may  be  turned  light  blue  by  vapors 
of  ammonia. 

IV. — Soluble  compounds  of  antimony 
will  become  red  by  hydrogen  sulphide 
vapor. 

V. — Soluble  compounds  of  arsenic 
and  of  peroxide  of  tin  will  become  yellow 
by  the  same  vapor. 

VI. — An  acid  solution  of  iron  chloride 
is  diluted  until  the  writing  is  invisible 
when  dry.  This  writing  has  the  prop- 
erty of  becoming  red  by  sulphocyanide 
vapors  (arising  from  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  on  potassium  sulphocyanide 
in  a  long-necked  flask),  and  it  disappears 


INKS 


413 


by  ammonia,  and  may  alternately  be 
made  to  appear  and  disappear  by  these 
two  vapors. 

VII. — Write  with  a  solution  of  paraf- 
fine  in  benzol.  When  the  solvent  has 
evaporated,  the  paraffine  is  invisible,  but 
becomes  visible  on  being  dusted  with 
lampblack  or  powdered  graphite  or 
smoking  over  a  candle  flame. 

VIII.— Dissolve  1  part  of  a  lead  salt, 
0.1  part  of  uranium  acetate,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  bismuth  citrate  in  100  parts 
of  water.  Then  add,  drop  by  drop,  a 
solution  of  sal  ammoniac  until  the  whole 
becomes  transparent.  Afterwards,  mix 
with  a  few  drops  of  gum  arabic.  To 
reveal  the  characters  traced  with  this  ink, 
expose  them  to  the  fumes  of  sulphuric 
acid,  which  turns  them  immediately  to  a 
dark  brown.  The  characters  fade  away 
in  a  few  minutes,  but  can  be  renewed  by 
a  slight  washing  with  very  dilute  nitric 
acid. 

TYPEWRITER  RIBBON  INKS. 

I. — Take  vaseline  (petrolatum)  of  high 
boiling  point,  melt  it  on  abater  bath  or 
slow  fire,  and  incorporate  by  constant 
stirring  as  much  lamp  or  powdered  drop 
black  as  it'will  take  up  without  becom- 
ing granular.  If  the  vaseline  remains 
in  excess,  the  print  is  liable  to  have  a 
greasy  outline;  if  the  color  is  in  excess, 
the  print  will  not  be  clear.  Remove  the 
mixture  from  the  fire,  and  while  it  is 
cooling  mix  equal  parts  of  petroleum, 
benzine,  and  rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  in 
which  dissolve  the  fatty  ink,  introduced 
in  small  portions,  by  constant  agitation. 
The  volatile  solvents  should  be  in  such 
quantity  that  the  fluid  ink  is  of  the  con- 
sistence of  fresh  oil  paint.  One  secret  of 
success  lies  in  the  proper  application  of 
the  ink  to  the  ribbon.  Wind  the  ribbon 
on  a  piece  of  cardboard,  spread  on  a 
table  several  layers  of  newspaper,  then 
unwind  the  ribbon  in  such  lengths  as 
may  be  most  convenient,  and  lay  it  flat 
on  the  paper.  Apply  the  ink,  after  agi- 
tation, by  means  of  a  soft  brush,  and 
rub  it  well  into  the  interstices  of  the  rib- 
bon with  a  toothbrush.  Hardly  any  ink 
should  remain  visible  on  the  surface. 
For  colored  inks  use  Prussian  blue,  red 
lead,  etc.,  and  especially  the  aniline 
colors. 

II. — Aniline  black *  ounce 

Pure  alcohol 15     ounces 

Concentrated  glycer- 
ine      15     ounces 

Dissolve  the  aniline  black  in  the  alco- 
hol, and  add  the  glycerine.  Ink  as  be- 


fore.    The  aniline  inks  containing  glyc- 
erine are  copying  inks. 

III. — Alcohol .      2    ounces 

Aniline  color \  ounce 

Water 2     ounces 

Glycerine 4     ounces 

Dissolve  the  aniline  in  the  alcohol  and 

add  the  water  and  glycerine. 

IV. — Castor  oil 2     ounces 

Cassia  oil \  ounce 

Carbolic  acid \  ounce 

Warm  them  together  and  add  1  ounce 
of  aniline  color.  Indelible  typewriter 
inks  may  be  made  by  using  lampblack 
in  place  of  the  aniline,  mixing  it  with  soft 
petrolatum  and  dissolving  the  cooled 
mass  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ben- 
zine and  turpentine. 

COLORING  AGENTS: 
Red.— 

I. — Bordeaux  red,  O.  S.  15  parts 
Aniline  red,  O.  S.. .  .  15  parts 
Crude  oleic  acid.  ...  45  parts 
Castor  oil  enough  to  make  1,000 

parts 

Rub  the  colors  up  with  the  oleic  acid, 
add  the  oil,  warming  the  whole  to  100° 
to  110°  F.  (not  higher),  under  constant 
stirring.  If  the  color  is  not  sufficiently 
intense  for  your  purposes,  rub  up  a  trifle 
more  of  it  with  oleic  acid,  and  add  it  to 
the  ink.  By  a  little  experimentation  you 
can  get  an  ink  exactly  to  your  desire  in 
the  matter. 

Blue -Black.— 

II. — Aniline  black,  O.  S..      5  parts 
Oleic  acid,  crude. ...      5  parts 
Castor    oil,  quantity   sufficient    to 
100  parts. 

Violet.— 

III.— Aniline  violet,  O.  S..  3  parts 
Crude  oleic  acid.  ...  5  parts 
Castor  oil,  quantity  sufficient  to 

100  parts. 

The  penetration  of  the  ink  may  be 
increased  ad  libitum  by  the  addition  of  a 
few  drops  of  absolute  alcohol,  or,  better, 
of  benzol. 

Reinking. — For  reinking  ribbons  use 
the  following  recipe  for  black:  One  ounce 
aniline  black;  15  ounces  pure  grain 
alcohol;  15  ounces  concentrated  glyc- 
erine. Dissolve  the  aniline  black  in 
the  alcohol  and  then  add  the  glycerine. 
For  blue  use  Prussian  blue,  and  for  red 
use  red  lead  instead  of  the  aniline  black. 
This  ink  is  also  good  for  rubber  stamp 
pads. 


414 


INKS 


WRITING  INKS. 

The  common  writing  fluids  depend 
mostly  upon  galls,  logwood,  or  aniline 
for  coloring.  There  are  literally  thou- 
sands of  formulas.  A  few  of  the  most  re- 
liable have  been  gathered  together  here: 

I. — Aleppo  galls  (well  bruised),  4 
ounces;  clean  soft  water,  1  quart;  mac- 
erate in  a  clean  corked  bottle  for  10 
days  or  a  fortnight  or  longer,  with  fre- 
quent agitation;  then  add  of  gum  arabic 
(dissolved  in  a  wineglassful  of  water), 

Jounces;  lump  sugar,  £  ounce.     Mix 
11,    and    afterwards    further    add    of 
phate  of  iron  (green  copperas  crushed 
all),  1£  ounces.      Agitate  occasionally 
2  or  3  days,  when  the  ink  may  be 
canted   for    use,    but  is   better   if   the 

whole  is  left  to  digest  together  for  2  or  3 
weeks.  When  time  is  an  object,  the 
whole  of  the  ingredients  may  at  once  be 
put  into  a  bottle,  and  the  latter  agitated 
daily  until  the  ink  is  made;  and  boiling 
water  instead  of  cold  water  may  be  em- 
ployed. Product,  1  quart  of  excellent 
ink,  writing  pale  at  first,  but  soon  turn- 
ing intensely  black. 

II. — Aleppo  galls  (bruised),  12  pounds; 
soft  water,  6  gallons.  Boil  in  a  copper 
vessel  for  1  hour,  adding  more  water 
to  make  up  for  the  portion  lost  by  evap- 
oration; strain,  and  again  boil  the  galls 
with  water,  4  gallons,  for  J  hour;  strain 
off  the  liquor,  and  boil  a  third  time 
with  water,  2?  gallons,  and  strain.  Mix 
the  several  liquors,  and  while  still  hot 
add  of  green  copperas  (coarsely  pow- 
dered), 4J  pounds;  gum  arabic  (bruised 
small),  4  pounds.  Agitate  until  dis- 
solved, and  after  defecation  strain  through 
a  hair  sieve,  and  keep  in  a  bunged  cask 
for  use.  Product,  12  gallons. 

III. — Aleppo  galls  (bruised),  14 
pounds;  gum,  5  pounds.  Put  them  in  a 
small  cask,  and  add  boiling  soft  water, 
15  gallons.  Allow  the  whole  to  macer- 
ate, with  frequent  agitation,  for  a  fort- 
night, then  further  add  of  green  cop- 
peras, 5  pounds,  dissolved  in  water,  7 
pints.  Again  mix  well,  and  agitate  the 
whole  once  daily  for  2  or  3  weeks.  Prod- 
uct, 15  gallons. 

Brown  Ink. — I. — To  make  brown  ink, 
use  for  coloring  a  strong  decoction  of 
catechu;  the  shade  may  be  varied  by  the 
cautious  addition  of  a  little  weak  solution 
of  bichromate  of  potash. 

II. — A  strong  decoction  of  logwood, 
with  a  very  little  bichromate  of  potash. 

Blue  Ink. — To  make  blue  ink,  sub- 
stitute for  the  black  coloring  sulphate  of 


indigo  and  dilute  it  with  Water  till  it  pro- 
duces the  required  color. 

Anticorrosive  or  Asiatic  Ink. — I. — 
Galls,  4  pounds;  logwood,  2  pounds; 
pomegranate  peel,  2  pounds;  soft  water, 
5  gallons.  Boil  as  usual;  then  add  to 
the  strained,  decanted  cold  liquor,  1 
pound  of  gum  arabic,  lump  sugar  or  sugar 
candy,  \  pound;  dissolved  in  water,  3 
pints.  Product,  4$-  gallons.  Writes  pale, 
but  flows  well  from  the  pen,  and  soon 
darkens. 

II. — Bruised  galls,  14  pounds;  gum, 
5  pounds.  Put  them  in  a  small  cask, 
and  add  of  boiling  water,  15  gallons, 
Allow  the  whole  to  macerate,  with  fre- 
quent agitation,  for  2  weeks,  then 
further  add  green  copperas,  5  pounds, 
dissolved  in  7  pints  water.  .Again  mix 
well,  and  agitate  the  whole  daily  for  2  or 
3  weeks. 

Blue -Black  Ink. — Blue  Aleppo  galls 
(free  from  insect  perforations),  4 1  ounces ; 
bruised  cloves,  1  drachm;  cold  water, 
40  ounces;  purified  sulphate  of  iron, 
1$  ounces ;  pure  sulphuric  acid  (by 
measure),  35  minims;  sulphate  of  in- 
digo (in  the  form  of  a  paste),  which 
should  be  neutral,  or  nearly  so,  1  ounce. 
The  weights  used  are  avoirdupois,  and 
the  measures  apothecaries'.  Place  the 
galls,  then  bruised  with  the  cloves,  in  a 
50-ounce  bottle,  pour  upon  them  the 
water,  and  digest,  often  daily  shaking 
for  a  fortnight.  Then  filter  through 
paper  in  another  50-ounce  bottle.  Get 
out  also  the  refuse  galls,  and  wring  out 
of  it  the  remaining  liquid  through  a 
strong,  clean  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  into 
the  filter,  in  order  that  as  little  as  possible 
may  be  lost.  Next  put  in  the  iron,  dis- 
solve completely,  and  filter  through 
paper.  Then  the  acid,  and  agitate 
briskly.  Lastly,  the  indigo,  and  thor- 
oughly mix  by  shaking.  Pass  the  whole 
through  paper;  just  filter  out  of  one  bot- 
tle into  another  until  the  operation  is 
finished. 

NOTE. — No  gum  or  sugar  is  proper 
and  on  no  account  must  the  acid  be 
omitted.  When  intended  for  copying, 
5 A  ounces  of  galls  is  the  quantity.  On 
the  large  scale  this  fine  ink  is  made  by 
percolation. 

Colored  Inks. — Inks  of  various  colors 
may  be  made  from  a  strong  decoction  of 
the  ingredients  used  in  dyeing,  mixed 
with  a  little  alum  or  other  substance  used 
as  a  mordant,  and  gum  arabic.  Any  of 
the  ordinary  water-color  cakes  employed 
in  drawing  diffused  through  water  may 
also  be  used  for  colored  ink. 


INKS 


415 


COPYING  INK. 

This  is  usually  prepared  by  adding  a 
little  sugar  to  ordinary  black  ink.  which 
for  this  purpose  should  be  very  rich  in 
color,  and  preferably  made  galls  pre- 
pared by  heat.  Writing  executed  with 
this  ink  may  be  copied  within  the  space 
of  5  or  6  hours,  by  passing  it  through  a 
copying  press  in  contact  with  thin,  un- 
sized paper,  slightly  damped,  enclosed 
between  2  sheets  of  thick  oiled  or  waxed 
paper,  when  a  reversed  transcript  will  be 
obtained,  which  will  read  in  proper  order 
when  the  back  of  the  copy  is  turned  up- 
wards. In  the  absence  of  a  press  a  copy 
may  be  taken,  when  the  ink  is  good  and 
the  writing  very  recent,  by  rolling  the 
sheets,  duly  arranged  on  a  ruler,  over  the 
surface  of  a  flat,  smooth  table,  employing 
as  much  force  as  possible,  and  avoiding 
any  slipping  or  crumbling  of  the  paper. 
Another  method  is  to  pass  a  warm  flat- 
iron  over  the  paper  laid  upon  the  writ- 
ing. The  following  proportions  are  em- 
ployed: 

I. — Sugar  candy  or  lump  sugar,  1 
ounce;  or  molasses  or  moist  sugar,  1£ 
ounces;  rich  black  ink,  1J  pints;  dis- 
solve. 

II. — Malt  wort,  1  pint;  evaporate  it  to 
the  consistence  of  a  syrup,  and  then  dis- 
solve it  in  good  black  ink,  1J  pints. 

III. — Solazza  juice,  2  ounces;  mild 
ale,  ^  pint;  dissolve,  strain,  and  triturate 
with  lampblack  (previously  heated  to 
dull  redness  in  a  covered  vessel),  |  ounce; 
when  the  mixture  is  complete,  add  of 
strong  black,  li  pints;  mix  well,  and  in 
2  or  3  hours  decant  the  clear. 

After  making  the  above  mixtures, 
they  must  be  tried  with  a  common  steel 
pen,  and  if  they  do  not  flow  freely,  some 
more  unprepared  ink  should  be  added 
until  they  are  found  to  do  so. 

Alizarine  Blue. — In  20  parts  of  fuming 
sulphuric  acid  dissolve  5  parts  of  indigo, 
and  to  the  solution  add  100  parts  of  ex- 
tract of  aqueous  myrobalpus  and  10.5 
parts  iron  filings  or  turning  shavings. 
Finally  add : 

Gum  arabic 1.5  parts 

Sugar 7.5  parts 

Sulphuric  acid,  66° 

B 10.5  parts 

Aniline  blue 1.5  parts 

Carbolic  acid 0.5  parts 

Mirobalan    extract   to    make    1,000 

parts. 

This  ink  when  first  used  has  a  bluish 
tint,  afterwards  becoming  black. 

Alizarine  Green. — In  100  parts  of 
aqueous  extract  of  gall  apples  dissolve: 


Iron  sulphate 30  parts 

Copper  sulphate 0.5  parts 

Sulphuric  acid 2  parts 

Sugar.  . 8  parts 

Wood   vinegar,   recti- 
fied   50  parts 

Indigo  carmine 30  parts 

Copying  Ink  for  Copying  Without  a 
Press. — An  ordinary  thin-paper  copying 
book  may  be  used,  and  the  copying  done 
by  transferrence.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  place  the  page  of  writing  in  the  letter 
book,  just  as  one  would  use  a  leaf  of  blot- 
ting paper.  The  superfluous  ink  that 
would  go  into  the  blotting  paper  goes  on 
to  the  leaf  of  the  letter  book,  and  show- 
ing through  the  thin  paper  gives  on  the 
other  side  of  the  leaf  a  perfect  transcript 
of  the  letter.  Any  excess  of  ink  on  the 
page,  either  of  the  letter  or  of  the  copy- 
ing paper,  is  removed  by  placing  a  sheet 
of  blotting  paper  between  them,  and  run- 
ning one's  hand  firmly  over  the  whole  in 
the  ordinary  manner.  This  ready  tran- 
scription is  accomplished  by  using  ink 
which  dries  slowly.  Obviously  the  ink 
must  dry  sufficiently  slowly  for  the 
characters  at  the  top  of  a  page  of  writing 
to  remain  wet  when  the  last  line  is  being 
written,  while  it  must  dry  sufficiently  to 
preclude  any  chance  of  the  copied  page 
being  smeared  while  subsequent  pages 
are  being  covered.  The  drying  must 
also  be  sufficiently  rapid  to  prevent  the 
characters  "setting  ,off,"  as  printers  term 
it,  from  one  page  on  to  another  after 
folding.  The  formula  for  the  requisite 
ink  is  very  simple: 

Reduce  by  evaporation  10  volumes  of 
any  good  ink  to  6,  then  add  4  volumes 
of  glycerine.  Or  manufacture  some  ink 
of  nearly  double  strength,  and  add  to  any 
quantity  of  it  nearly  an  equal  volume  of 
glycerine. 

Gold  Ink. — Mosaic  gold,  2  parts;  gum 
arabic,  1  part;  rubbed  up  to  a  proper 
condition. 

Green   Ink. — A    good,    bright    green, 
aniline  ink  may  be  made  as  follows: 
Aniline  green   (solu- 
ble)          2  parts 

Glycerine 16  parts 

Alcohol 112  parts 

Mucilage  of  gum  ara- 
bic          4  parts 

Dissolve  the  aniline  in  the  alcohol,  and 
add  the  other  ingredients.  Most  of  the 
gum  arabic  precipitates,  but  according 
to  the  author  of  the  formula  (Nelson)  it 
has  the  effect  of  rendering  the  ink  slow- 
flowing  enough  to  write  with.  Filter. 


416 


INKS 


Hectograph  Inks  (see  also  Hectograph). 
—I.— Black.— Methyl   violet,   10  parts; 
nigrosin,    20    parts;   glycerine,  30  parts; 
gum  arabic,  5  parts;  alcohol,  60  parts. 
II. — Blue. — Resorein  blue  M,  10  parts. 
Dissolve  by  means  of  heat  in  a  mix- 
ture of: 

Dilute  acetic  acid  ....      1  part 

Distilled  water 85  parts 

Glycerine 4  parts 

Alcohol,  90  per  cent .  .    10  parts 

III.  — Green.  — Aniline  green,  water 
solution,  15  parts;  glycerine,  10  parts; 
Water,  50  parts;  alcohol,  10  parts. 

Paste  Ink  to  Write  with  Water.— I.  — 
Black.  — Take  4  parts  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  25 
parts  of  acetio  acid;  50  parts  of  liquid 
extract  of  logwood;  J  part  of  picric  acid; 
10  parts  of  pulverized  sal  sorrel;  10  parts 
of  mucilage;  and  \  part  of  citrate  of  iron, 
and  mix  well.  The  liquid  extract  of 
logwood  is  prepared  by  mixing  3  parts  of 
an  extract  of  common  commercial  qual- 
ity with  2  parts  of  water. 

II. — Red. — Take  1  part  of  red  aniline 
mixed  with  10  parts  of  acetic  acid;  5 
parts  of  citric  acid,  and  25  parts  of 
mucilage,  all  well  mixed.  For  use,  mix 
1  part  of  the  paste  with  16  parts  of 
water. 

III. — Blue. — Take  2  parts  of  aniline 
blue  mixed  with  10  parts  of  acetic  acid; 
5  parts  of  citric  acid,  and  40  parts  of 
mucilage,  all  well  mixed.  For  use,  mix 
1  part  of  the  paste  with  8  parts  of  water. 

IV. — Violet. — Use  the  same  ingre- 
dients in  the  same  proportions  as  blue, 
with  the  difference  that  violet  aniline  is 
used  instead  of  blue  aniline. 

V. — Green. — Take  1  part  of  aniline 
blue;  3  parts  of  picric  acid,  mixed  with 
10  parts  of  acetic  acid;  3  parts  of  citric 
acid,  and  80  parts  of  mucilage.  For 
use,  1  part  of  this  paste  is  mixed  with  8 
parts  of  water. 

yi. — Copying. — Take  6  parts  of  pul- 
verized bichromate  of  potash,  mixed 
with  10  parts  of  acetic  acid  and  240 
parts  of  liquid  extract  of  logwood,  and 
add  a  pulverized  mixture  of  35  parts  of 
alum,  20  parts  of  sal  sorrel,  and  20  parts 
mucilage.  Mix  well.  For  use,  1  part 
of  this  paste  is  mixed  with  4  parts  of  hot 
water. 

Purple  Ink. — I. — A  strong  decoction 
of  logwood,  to  which  a  little  alum  or 
chloride  of  tin  has  been  added. 

II.  (Normandy). — To  12  pounds  of 
Campeachy  wood  add  as  many  gallons 


of  boiling  water.  Pour  the  solution 
through  a  funnel  with  a  strainer  made  of 
coarse  flannel,  or  1  pound  of  hydrate,  or 
acetate  .of  deutoxide  of  copper  finely 
powdered  (having  at  the  bottom  of  the 
funnel  a  piece  of  sponge);  then  add 
immediately  14  pounds  of  alum,  and  for 
every  340  gallons  of  liquid  add  80 
pounds  of  gum  arabic  or  gum  Senegal. 
Let  these  remain  for  3  or  4  days,  and  a 
beautiful  purple  color  will  be  produced. 

Red  Ink. — Brazil  wood,  ground,  4 
ounces;  white  wine  vinegar,  hot,  1 J  pints. 
Digest  in  a  glass  or  a  well-tinned  copper 
or  enamel  saucepan,  until  the  next  day; 
then  gently  simmer  for  half  an  hour, 
adding  toward  the  end  gum  arabic  and 
alum,  of  each,  \  ounce. 

Inks  for  Shading  Pen.— The  essential 
feature  in  the  ink  for  use  with  a  shading 
pen  is  simply  the  addition  of  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  acacia  or  other  mucilaginous 
substance  to  impart  a  proper  degree  of 
consistency  to  the  ink.  A  mixture  of  2 
parts  of  mucilage  of  acacia  with  8  of  ink 
gives  about  the  required  consistency. 
The  following  formulas  will  probably  be 
found  useful: 

I. — Water-soluble  nigro- 
sin ..  1  part 

Water 9  parts 

Mucilage  acacia. ...      1  part 

II. — Paris  violet 2  parts 

Water 6  parts 

Mucilage  acacia ....      2  parts 

III.— Methyl  violet 1  part 

Distilled  water 7  parts 

Mucilage  acacia. ...      2  parts 

IV. — Bordeaux  red 3  parts 

Alcohol 2  parts 

Water :.  20  parts 

Mucilage  acacia. ...  2  parts 

V. — Rosaniline  acetate  .  .      2  parts 

Alcohol 1  part 

Water 10  parts 

Mucilage  acacia ....      2  parts 

Silver  Ink. — I. — Triturate  in  a  mortar 
equal  parts  of  silver  foil  and  sulphate  of 
potassa,  until  reduced  to  a  fine  powder; 
then  wash  the  salt  out,  and  mix  the  resi- 
due with  a  mucilage  of  equal  parts  of 
gum  arabic  water. 

II. — Make  as  gold  ink,  but  use  silver 
leaf  or  silver  bronze  powder. 

III. — Oxide  of  zinc 30  grains 

Mucilage 1  ounce 

Spirit  of  wine 40  drops 

Silver  bronze 3  drachms 

Rub  together,  until  perfectly  smooth, 


INKS— INSECT   BITES 


417 


the  zinc  and  mucilage,  then  add  the 
spirit  of  wine  and  silver  bronze  and  make 
up  the  quantity  to  2  ounces  with  water. 

Violet  Ink.— I.— For  2  gallons,  heat 
2  gills  of  alcohol  on  a  water  bath.  Add 
to  the  alcohol  2  ounces  of  violet  aniline, 
and  stir  till  dissolved;  then  add  the  mix- 
ture to  2  gallons  of  boiling  water;  mix 
well,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Smaller 
quantities  in  proportion. 

II. — Another  good  violet  ink  is  made 
by  dissolving  some  violet  aniline  in  water 
to  which  some  alcohol  has  been  added. 
It  takes  very  little  aniline  to  make  a  large 
quantity  of  the  ink. 

White  Ink  (for  other  White  Inks  see 
Blueprint  Inks). — So-called  white  inks 
are,  properly  speaking,  white  paints,  as  a 
white  solution  cannot  be  made.  A  paint 
suitable  for  use  as  an  "ink"  may  be  made 
by  grinding  zinc  oxide  very  fine  on  a  slab 
with  a  little  tragacanth  mucilage,  and 
then  thinning  to  the  required  consistency 
to  flow  from  the  pen.  The  mixture  re- 
quires shaking  or  stirring  from  time  to 
time  to  keep  the  pigment  from  separating. 
The  "ink"  may  be  preserved  by  adding  a 
little  oil  of  cloves  or  other  antiseptic  to 
prevent  decomposition  of  the  mucilage. 

White  marks  may  sometimes  be  made 
on  colored  papers  by  the  application  of 
acids  or  alkalies.  The  result,  of  course, 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  coloring 
matter  in  each  instance,  and  any  "ink" 
of  this  kind  would  be  efficacious  or  other- 
wise, according  to  the  coloring  present  in 
the  paper. 

Yellow  Ink. — I. — Gamboge  (in  coarse 
powder),  1  ounce;  hot  water,  5  ounces. 
Dissolve,  and  when  cold,  add  of  spirit, 
f  ounce. 

II. — Boil  French  berries,  £  pound, 
and  alum,  1  ounce,  in  rain  water,  1 
quart,  for  £  an  hour,  or  longer,  then 
strain  and  dissolve  in  the  hot  liquor  gum 
arabic,  1  ounce. 

Waterproof  Ink  (see  also  Indelible 
Inks). — Any  ordinary  ink  may  be  made 
waterproof  by  mixing  with  it  a  little 
ordinary  glue.  After  waterproofing  ink 
in  this  way  it  is  possible  to  wash  draw- 
ings with  soap  and  water,  if  necessary, 
without  the  ink  running  at  all. 

White  Stamping  Ink. — 

Zinc  white 2  drachms 

White  precipitate  ....      5  grains 

Mucilage 1  drachm 

Water 6  drachms 

Triturate  the  zinc  white  with  a  small 
quantity  of  water  till  quite  smooth,  then 


add  the  mucilage  and  the  remainder  of 
the  water. 

INK  FOR  THE  LAUNDRY: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

INK  FOR  LEATHER  FINISHERS: 
See  Leather. 

INKS  FOR  TYPEWRITERS: 

See  Typewriter  Ribbons. 

INK  FOR  WRITING  ON  GLASS: 

See  Etching  and  Glass. 


INLAYING  BY  ELECTROLYSIS. 

See  also  Electro-etching,  under  Etching. 

The  process  consists  in  engraving  the 
design  by  means  of  the  sand-blast  and 
stencils  on  the  surface  of  the  article. 
The  design  or  pattern  is  rendered  con- 
ductive and  upon  this  conductive  surface 
a  precipitate  of  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
etc.,  is  applied,  and  fills  up  the  hollows. 
Subsequently  the  surface  is  ground 
smooth. 

Insect  Bites 

REMEDIES  FOR  INSECT  BITES. 

I. — Carbolic  acid 15     grains 

Glycerine 2    drachms 

Rose  water 4     ounces 

II. — Salicylic  acid 15     grains 

Collodion 2^  drachms 

Spirit  of  ammonia  . .      5|  drachms 

III. — Fluid    extract    rhus 

toxicodendron. ...      1     drachm 
Water 8     ounces 

IV. — Ipecac,  in  powder. .      1     drachm 

Alcohol 1     ounce 

Ether 1     ounce 

V. — Betanaphthol 30     grains 

Camphor 30     grains 

Lanolin  cold  cream.      1     ounce 

VI. — Spirit  of  sal  ammoniac,  whose 
favorable  action  upon  fresh  insect  bites 
is  universally  known,  is  often  unavail- 
able. A  simple  means  to  alleviate  the 
pain  and  swelling  due  to  such  bites,  when 
still  fresh,  is  cigar  ashes.  Place  a  little 
ashes  upon  the  part  stung,  add  a  drop  of 
water — in  case  of  need  beer,  wine,  or  cof- 
fee may  be  used  instead — and  rub  the 
resulting  paste  thoroughly  into  the  skin. 
It  is  preferable  to  use  fresh  ashes  of 
tobacco,  because  the  recent  heat  offers 
sufficient  guarantee  for  absolute  freedom 
from  impurities.  The  action  of  the  to- 
bacco ashes  is  due  to  the  presence  of 


418 


INSECTICIDES 


potassium  carbonate,  which,  like  spirit 
of  sal  ammoniac,  deadens  the  effect  of 
the  small  quantities  of  acid  (formic  acid, 
etc.)  which  have  been  introduced  into  the 
small  wound  by  the  biting  insect. 

Insecticides 

(See  also  Petroleum.) 

The  Use  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas  for 
Exterminating  Household  Insects. — Re- 
cent successful  applications  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  for  the  extermination  of 
insects  infecting  greenhouse  plants  have 
suggested  the  use  of  the  same  remedy  for 
household  pests.  It  is  now  an  established 
fact  that  1J  grains  of  98  per  cent  pure 
cyanide  of  potassium  volatilized  in  a 
cubic  foot  of  space,  will,  if  allowed  to 
remain  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  3 
hours,  kill  all  roaches  and  similar  in- 
sects. 

It  may  be  stated  that  a  dwelling, 
office,  warehouse,  or  any  building  may 
be  economically  cleared  of  all  pests, 
provided  that  the  local  conditions  will 
permit  the  use  of  this  gas.  It  probably 
would  be  dangerous  to  fumigate  a 
building  where  groceries,  dried  fruits, 
meats,  or  prepared  food  materials  of  any 
kind  are  stored.  Air  containing  more 
than  25  per  cent  of  the  gas  is  inflam- 
mable; therefore  it  would  be  well  to  put 
out  all  fire  in  an  inclosure  before  fumi- 
gating. Hydrocyanic  acid,  in  all  its 
forms,  is  one  of  the  most  violent  poisons 
known,  and  no  neglect  should  attend  its 
use.  There  is  probably  no  sure  remedy 
for  its  effects  after  it  has  once  entered  the 
blood  of  any  of  the  higher  animals. 
When  cyanide  of  potassium  is  being  used 
it  should  never  be  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  skin,  and  even  a  slight 
odor  of  the  gas  should  be  avoided. 
Should  the  operator  have  any  cut  or 
break  in  the  skin  of  the  hands  or  face 
it  should  be  carefully  covered  with  court- 
plaster  to  prevent  the  gas  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  flesh,  or  a  small  particle 
of  the  solid  compound  getting  into  the 
cut  might  cause  death  by  poisoning  in  a 
few  minutes'  time. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  should  not  be  used 
in  closely  built  apartments  with  single 
walls  between,  as  more  or  less  of  the  gas 
will  penetrate  a  brick  wall.  An  inexpe- 
rienced person  should  never  use  cyanide 
of  potassium  for  any  purpose,  and  if  it  be 
found  practicable  to  treat  buildings  in 
general  for  the  extermination  of  insects, 
the  work  should  be  done  only  under  the 
direction  of  competent  officials.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  that  a  smaller 


dose  and  a  shorter  period  of  exposure  are 
required  to  kill  mice  than  for  roaches  and 
household  insects  generally,  and  it  read- 
ily follows  that  the  larger  animals  and 
human  beings  would  be  more  quickly 
overcome  than  mice,  since  a  smaller 
supply  of  pure  air  would  be  required  to 
sustain  life  in  mice,  and  small  openings 
are  more  numerous  than  large  ones. 

The  materials  employed  and  the  meth- 
od of  procedure  are  as  follows:  After 
ascertaining  the  cubic  content  of  the 
inclosure,  provide  a  glass  or  stoneware 
(not  metal)  vessel  of  2  to  4  gallons  capac- 
ity for  each  5,000  cubic  feet  of  space  to 
be  fumigated.  Distribute  the  jars  ac- 
cording to  the  space,  and  run  a  smooth 
cord  from  each  jar  to  a  common  point 
near  an  outside  door  where  they  may  all 
be  fastened;  support  the  cord  above  the 
jar  by  means  of  the  back  of  a  chair  or 
other  convenient  object  in  such  a  position 
that  when  the  load  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium is  attached  it  will  hang  directly 
over  the  center  of  the  jar.  Next  weigh 
out  upon  a  piece  of  soft  paper  about  17 
ounces  of  98  per  cent  pure  cyanide  of 
potassium,  using  a  large  pair  of  forceps 
for  handling  the  lumps;  wrap  up  and 
place  in  a  paper  bag  and  tie  to  the  end  of 
the  cord  over  the  jar.  After  the  load 
for  each  jar  has  been  similarly  provided, 
it  is  well  to  test  the  working  of  the  cords 
to  see  that  they  do  not  catch  or  bind. 
Then  remove  the  jar  a  short  distance 
from  under  the  load  of  cyanide  and  place 
in  it  a  little  more  than  a  quart  of  water, 
to  which  slowly  add  It  pints  of  commer- 
cial sulphuric  acid,  stirring  freely.  The 
action  of  the  acid  will  bring  the  temper- 
ature of  the  combination  almost  to  the 
boiling  point.  Replace  the  jars  beneath 
the  bags  of  cyanide,  spreading  a  large 
sheet  of  heavy  paper  on  the  floor  to  catch 
any  acid  that  may  possibly  fly  over  the 
edge  of  the  jar  when  the  cyanide  is 
dropped,  or  as  a  result  of  the  violent 
chemical  action  which  follows.  Close 
all  outside  openings  and  open  up  the 
interior  of  the  apartment  as  much  as 
possible,  in  order  that  the  full  strength  of 
the  gas  may  reach  the  hiding  places  of 
the  insects.  See  that  all  entrances  are 
locked  or  guarded  on  the  outside  to  pre- 
vent persons  entering;  then  leave  the 
building,  releasing  the  cords  as  you  go. 
The  gas  will  all  be  given  off  in  a  few 
minutes,  and  should  remain  in  the 
building  at  least  3  hours. 

When  the  sulphuric  acid  comes  in 
contact  with  the  cyanide  of  potassium 
the  result  is  the  formation  of  sulphate  of 
potash,  which  remains  in  the  jar,  and  the 
hydrocyanic  acid  is  liberated  and  es- 


INSECTICIDES 


419 


capes  into  the  air.  The  chemical  action 
is  so  violent  as  to  cause  a  sputtering,  and 
frequently  particles  of  the  acid  are 
thrown  over  the  sides  of  the  jar;  this  may 
be  prevented  by  supporting  a  sheet  of 
stiff  paper  over  the  jar  by  means  of  a 
hole  in  the  center,  through  which  the 
cord  supporting  the  cyanide  01  potassium 
is  passed,  so  that  when  the  cord  is  re- 
leased the  paper  will  descend  with  the 
cyanide  and  remain  at  rest  on  the  top  of 
the  jar,  but  will  not  prevent  the  easy 
descent  of  the  cyanide  into  the  acid. 
The  weight  of  this  paper  will  in  no  way 
interfere  with  the  escape  of  the  gas. 

At  the  end  of  the  time  required  for 
fumigation,  the  windows  and  doors 
should  be  opened  from  the  outside  and 
the  gas  allowed  to  escape  before  anyone 
enters  the  building.  A  general  cleaning 
should  follow,  as  the  insects  leave  their 
hiding  places  and,  dying  on  the  floors, 
are  easily  swept  up  and  burned.  The 
sulphate  of  potash  remaining  in  the  jars 
is  poisonous  and  should  be  immediately 
buried  and  the  jars  themselves  filled 
with  earth  or  ashes.  No  food  that  has 
remained  during  fumigation  should  be 
used,  and  thorough  ventilation  should 
be  maintained  for  several  hours.  After 
one  of  these  experiments  it  was  noted 
that  ice  water  which  had  remained  in  a 
closed  cooler  had  taken  up  the  gas,  and 
had  both  the  odor  and  taste  of  cyanide. 

For  dwellings  one  fumigation  each 
year  would  be  sufficient,  but  for  storage 
nouses  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  an 
application  every  3  or  4  months  to  keep 
them  entirely  free  from  insect  pests. 
The  cost  of  materials  for  one  application 
is  about  50  cents  for  each  5,000  cubic 
feet  of  space  to  be  treated.  The  cyanide 
of  potassium  can  be  purchased  at  about 
35  cents  per  pound,  and  the  commercial 
sulphuric  acid  at  about  4  cents  per  pound. 
The  strength  of  the  dose  may  be  in- 
creased and  the  time  of  exposure  some- 
what shortened,  but  this  increases  the 
cost  and  does  not  do  the  work  so  thor- 
oughly. In  no  case,  however,  should  the 
dose  remain  less  than  1  hour. 

The  application  of  this  method  of 
controlling  household  insects  and  pests 
generally  is  to  be  found  in  checking  the 
advance  of  great  numbers  of  some  par- 
ticular insect,  or  in  eradicating  them 
where  they  have  become  thoroughly 
established.  This  method  will  be  found 
very  advantageous  in  clearing  old  build- 
ings and  ships  of  cockroaches. 

APPLICATIONS  FOR  CATTLE,  POUL- 
TRY, ETC.: 

See  also  Veterinary  Formulas. 


Fly  Protect! ves  for  Animals. — 

I. — Oil  of  cloves 3  parts 

Bay  oil 5  parts 

Eucalyptus  tincture       5  parts 

Alcohol 150  parts 

Water 200  parts 

II.— Tar  well  diluted  with  grease  of 
any  kind  is  as  effective  an  agent  as  any 
for  keeping  flies  from  cattle.  The  mix- 
ture indicated  has  the  advantage  of  being 
cheap.  Applying  to  the  legs,  neck,  and 
ears  will  usually  be  sufficient. 

Cattle  Dip  for  Ticks.— Dr.  Noorgard  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  finds  the 
following  dip  useful,  immersion  lasting 
one  minute: 

Sulphur 86  pounds 

Extra  dynamo  oil .  .  1,000  gallons 

Insecticides  for  Animals. — 

I.— Bay  oil 500  1 

Naphthalene 100 

Camphor 60          Parts 

Animal  oil 25   }•       by 

II.— Bay  oil,  pressed.  ..  400       weight' 

Naphthalene 100 

Crude  carbolic  acid  10  J 

For  Dogs,  Cats,  etc. — The  following  is 
an  excellent  powder  for  the  removal  of 
fleas  from  cats  or  dogs: 

Naphthalene  ....      4  av.  ounces 
Starch 12  av.  ounces 

Reduce  to  fine  powder.  A  few  grains 
of  lampblack  added  will  impart  a  light 
gray  color,  and  if  desirable  a  few  drops 
of  oil  of  pennyroyal  or  eucalyptus  will 
disguise  the  naphthalene  odor. 

Rub  into  the  skin  of  the  animal  and 
let  the  powder  remain  for  a  day  or  two, 
when  the  same  can  be  removed  by  comb- 
ing or  giving  a  bath,  to  which  some 
infusion  of  quassia  or  quassia  chips  has 
been  added.  This  treatment  is  equally 
efficient  for  lice  and  ticks. 

Poultry  Lice  Destroyer. — I. — Twenty 
pounds  sublimed  sulphur;  8  pounds 
fuller's  earth;  2  pounds  powdered  naph- 
thalene; $  ounce  liquid  carbolic  acid. 
Mix  thoroughly  and  put  up  in  half- 
pound  tins  or  boxes.  Sprinkle  about 
the  nest  for  use. 

II. — Oil  of  eucalyptus  smeared  about 
the  coop  will  cause  the  parasites  to  leave. 
To  drive  them  out  of  the  nests  of  sitting 
hens,  place  in  the  nest  an  egg  that  has 
been  emptied,  and  into  which  has  been 
inserted  a  bit  of  sponge  imbibed  in 
essence  of  eucalyptus.  There  may  be 
used  also  a  concentrate.d  solution  of 
extract  of  tobacco,  to  which  phenol  has 
been  added. 


420 


INSECTICIDES 


HI.  — Cover  the  floor  or  soil  of  the  house 
with  ground  or  powdered  plaster,  taken 
from  old  walls,  etc. 

ANT  DESTROYERS: 

A  most  efficacious  means  of  getting  rid 
of  ants  is  spraying  their  resorts  with  pe- 
troleum. The  common  oil  is  worth  more 
for  this  purpose  than  the  refined.  Two 
thorough  sprayings  usually  suffice. 

In  armoires,  dressing  cases,  etc.,  oil  of 
turpentine  should  be  employed.  Pour 
it  in  a  large  plate,  and  let  it  evaporate 
freely.  Tobacco  juice  is  another  effect- 
ive agent,  but  both  substances  have  the 
drawback  of  a  very  penetrating  and  dis- 
agreeable odor. 

Boiling  water  is  deadly  to  ants  wherever 
it  can  be  used  (as  in  the  garden,  or  yard 
around  the  house).  So  is  carbon  disul- 
phide  injected  into  the  nests  by  aid  of  a 
good,  big  syringe.  An  emulsion  of  pe- 
troleum and  water  (oil,  1  part;  water,  3 
parts)  poured  on  the  eartn  has  proven 
very  efficacious,  when  plentifully  used 
(say  from  1  ounce  to  3  ounces  to  the 
square  yard).  A  similar  mixture  of  cal- 
cium sulphide  and  water  (calcium  sul- 
phide, 100  parts;  water,  1,000  parts;  and 
the  white  of  1  egg  to  every  quart  of  water) 
poured  into  their  holes  is  also  effective. 

A  weak  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
is  very  deadly  to  ants.  Not  only  does  it 
kill  them  eventually,  but  it  seems  to 
craze  them  before  death,  so  that  ants  of 
the  same  nest,  after  coming  into  contact 
with  the  poison,  will  attack  each  other 
with  the  greatest  ferocity. 

Where  ants  select  a  particular  point 
for  their  incursions  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
surround  it  with  a  "fortification"  of  ob- 
noxious substance.  Sulphur  has  been 
used  successfully  in  this  way,  and  so  has 
coal  oil.  The  latter,  however,  is  not  a 
desirable  agent,  leaving  a  persistent  stain 
and  odor. 

The  use  of  carbon  disulphide  is  rec- 
ommended to  destroy  ants'  nests  on 
lawns.  A  little  of  the  disulphide  is 
poured  into  the  openings  of  the  hills, 
stepping  on  each  as  it  is  treated  to  close 
it  up.  The  volatile  vapors  of  the  disul- 
phide will  penetrate  the  chambers  of  the 
nest  in  every  direction,  and  if  sufficient 
has  been  used  will  kill  not  only  the  adult 
insects  but  the  larvae  as  well.  A  single 
treatment  is  generally  sufficient. 

Formulas  to  Drive  Ants  Away.— 
I.— Water 1     quart 

Cape  aloes 4    ounces 

Boil  together  and  add: 

Camphor    in    small 

pieces 1£  ounces 


II. — Powdered  cloves. ...      1     ounce 
Insect  powder 1     ounce 

Scatter  around  where  ants  infest. 

III. — Cape  aloes |  pound 

Water 4     pints 

Boil  together  and  add  camphor  gum, 
3  ounces.  Sprinkle  around  where  the 
ants  infest. 

BEDBUG  DESTROYERS. 

A  good  bug  killer  is  benzine,  pure  and 
simple,  or  mixed  with  a  little  oil  of  mirbane. 
It  evaporates  quickly  and  leaves  no  stain. 
The  only  trouble  is  the  inflammability  of 
its  vapor. 

The  following  is  a  popular  prepara- 
tion: To  half  a  gallon  of  kerosene  oil 
add  a  quart  of  spirit  of  turpentine  and  an 
ounce  of  oil  of  pennyroyal.  This  mix- 
ture is  far  less  dangerous  than  benzine. 
The  pennyroyal  as  well  as  the  turpentine 
are  not  only  poisonous  but  exceedingly 
distasteful  to  insects  of  all  kinds.  The 
kerosene  while  less  quickly  fatal  to  bugs 
than  benzine  is  cheaper  and  safer,  and 
when  combined  with  the  other  ingre- 
dients becomes  as  efficient. 

Where  the  wall  paper  and  wood  work 
of  a  room  have  become  invaded,  the 
usual  remedy  is  burning  sulphur.  To 
be  efficient  the  room  must  have  every 
door,  window,  crevice,  and  crack  closed. 
The  floor  should  be  wet  in  advance  so 
as  to  moisten  the  air.  A  rubber  tube 
should  lead  from  the  burning  sulphur  to 
a  key-hole  or  auger-hole  and  through  it, 
and  by  aid  of  a  pair  of  bellows  air  should 
be  blown  to  facilitate  the  combustion  of 
the  sulphur. 

Pastes. — Some  housewives  are  partial 
to  corrosive  sublimate  for  bedbugs;  but 
it  is  effective  only  if  the  bug  eats  the  poison. 
The  corrosive  sublimate  cannot  penetrate 
the  waxy  coat  of  the  insect.  But  inas- 
much as  people  insist  on  having  this  a 
few  formulas  are  given. 

I. — Common  soap 1  av.  ounce 

Ammonium        chlo- 
ride      3  av.  ounces 

Corrosive  sublimate    3  av.  ounces 
Water   enough  to  make  32  fluid- 
ounces. 

Dissolve  the  salts  in  the  water  and  add 
the  soap. 

This  will  make  a  paste  that  can  be 
painted  with  a  brush  around  in  the 
cracks  and  crevices.  Besides,  it  will 
make  an  excellent  filling  to  keep  the 
cracks  of  the  wall  and  wainscoting  free 
from  bugs  of  all  kinds.  The  formula 
could  be  modified  so  as  to  permit  the  use 


INSECTICIDES 


of  Paris  green  or  London  purple,  if  de- 
sired. A  decoction  of  quassia  could  be 
used  to  dissolve  the  soap.  The  latter 
paste  would,  of  course,  not  be  poisonous, 
and  in  many  instances  it  would  be  pre- 
ferred. It  is  possible  to  make  a  cold  in- 
fusion of  white  hellebore  of  25  per  cent 
strength,  and  in  1  quart  of  infusion  dis- 
solve 1  ounce  of  common  soap.  The  ad- 
vantage of  the  soap  paste  is  simply  to 
keep  the  poisonous  substance  thoroughly 
distributed  throughout  the  mass  at  all 
times.  The  density  of  the  paste  can  be 
varied  to  suit.  Kerosene  oil  or  turpentine 
could  replace  6  ounces  or  8  ounces  of  the 
water  in  making  the  paste,  and  either  of 
these  would  make  a  valuable  addition. 

Another  paste  preparation  which  will 
meet  with  hearty  recommendation  is 
blue  ointment.  This  ointment,  mixed 
with  turpentine  or  kerosene  oil,  can  be 
used  to  good  advantage;  especially  so  as 
the  turpentine  is  so  penetrating  that  both 
it  and  the  mercury  have  a  chance  to  act 
more  effectually.  It  can  be  said  that 
turpentine  will  kill  the  bedbug  if  the  two 
come  in  contact;  and  kerosene  is  not  far 
behindhand  in  its  deadly  work. 

II. — Blue  ointment 1  ounce 

Turpentine 3  ounces 

Stir  well  together. 

Liquid  Bedbug  Preparations. — There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  liquid  form  is  the 
best  to  use;  unlike  a  powder,  or  even  a 
paste,  it  will  follow  down  a  crack  into 
remote  places  where  bugs  hide,  and  will 
prevent  their  escape,  and  it  will  also  kill 
the  eggs  and  nits.  The  following  sub- 
stances are  the  most  employed,  and  are 
probably  the  best:  Kerosene,  turpentine, 
benzine,  carbolic  acid,  corrosive  subli- 
mate solution,  oil  pennyroyal,  and  strong 
solution  of  soap.  Here  are  several  good 
formulas  that  can  be  depended  upon: 

I. — Oil  of  pennyroyal ...      1  drachm 

Turpentine 8  ounces 

Kerosene  oil,   enough  to  make   1 

gallon. 

Put  up  in  8-ounce  bottles  as  a  bedbug 
exterminator. 

II. — Oil  of  eucalyptus.  . .      1  drachm 
Eucalyptus  leaves. . .      1  ounce 

Benzine 2  ounces 

Turpentine 2  ounces 

Kerosene     enough    to    make     16 

ounces. 

Mix  the  turpentine,  benzine,  and 
kerosene  oil,  and  macerate  the  eucalyp- 
tus leaves  in  it  for  24  hours;  then  strain 
and  make  up  the  measure  to  1  pint,  hav- 
ing first  added  the  oil  of  eucalyptus. 


FLY-KILLERS. 

A  fly  poison  that  is  harmless  to  man 
may  be  made  from  quassia  wood  as  fol- 
lows: 

Quassia 1,000  parts 

Molasses 150  parts 

Alcohol 50  parts 

Water 5,750  parts 

Macerate  the  quassia  in  500  parts  of 
water  for  24  hours,  boil  for  half  an  hour, 
set  aside  for  24  hours,  then  press  out  the 
liquid.  Mix  this  with  the  molasses  and 
evaporate  to  200  parts.  Add  the  alcohol 
and  the  remaining  750  parts  of  water, 
and  without  filtering,  saturate  absorbent 
paper  with  it. 

This  being  set  out  on  a  plate  with  a 
little  water  attracts  the  flies,  which  are 
killed  by  partaking  of  the  liquid. 

Sticky  Preparations. — 

I. — Rosin 150  parts 

Linseed  oil 50  parts 

Honey 18  parts 

Melt  the  rosin  and  oil  together  and  stir 
in  the  honey. 

II.— Rapeseed  oil 70  parts 

Rosin 30  parts 

Mix  and  melt  together. 

III.— Rosin 60  parts 

Linseed  oil 38  parts 

Yellow  wax 2  parts 

IV.— Rosin 10  parts 

Turpentine 5  parts 

Rapeseed  oil 5  parts  v 

Honey 1  part 

Sprinkling  Powders  for  Flies.— 
I. — Long   peppers,   pow- 
dered        5  parts 

Quassia   wood,   pow- 
dered       5  parts 

Sugar,  powdered  ....    10  parts 
Mix,  moisten  the  mixture  with  4  parts 
of  alcohol,  dry,  and  again  powder.    Keep 
the  powder  in  closely  stoppered  jars,  tak- 
ing out  a  sufficient  quantity  as  desired. 

II. — Orris  root,  powdered     4  parts 

Starch,  powdered 15  parts 

Eucalyptol 1  part 

Mix.     Keep  in  a  closely  stoppered  jar 

or    box.     Strew    in    places    affected    by 

flies. 

Fly  Essences. — 

L— Eucalyptol 10  parts 

Bergamot  oil 3  parts 

Acetic  ether 10  parts 

Cologne  water 50  parts 

Alcohol,  90  per  cent.  100  parts 

Mix.     One  part  of  this  "essence"  is 


422 


INSECTICIDES 


to  be  added  to  10  parts  of  water  and 
sprayed  around  the  rooms  frequently. 

II. — Eucalyptol 10  parts 

Acetic  ether 5  parts 

Cologne  water 40  parts 

Tincture    of   insect 

powder  (1 :5) 50  parts 

REMEDIES  AGAINST  HUMAN  PARA- 
SITES: 

By  weight 

I. — Yellow  wax 85  parts 

Spermaceti 60  parts 

Sweet  oil 500  parts 

Melt  and  add: 

Boiling   distilled 

water 150  parts 

After  cooling  add: 

Clove  oil 2  parts 

Thyme  oil 3  parts 

Eucalyptus  oil ....  4  parts 

II. — Bay  oil,  pressed.  . .  100  parts 

Acetic  ether 12  parts 

Clove  oil 4  parts 

Eucalyptus  oil 3  parts 

For  Head  Lice  in  Children.— One  of 
the  best  remedies  is  a  vinegar  of  sabadilla. 
This  is  prepared  as  follows:  Sabadilla 
seed,  5  parts;  alcohol,  5  parts;  acetic  acid, 

9  parts;  and  water,  36  parts.      Macerate 
for  3  days,  express  and  filter.      The  direc- 
tions are:     Moisten  the  scalp  and  hair 
thoroughly   at   bedtime,  binding  a  cloth 
around  the  head,   and  let  remain  over- 
night.     If  there  are  any  sore  spots  on  the 
scalp,  these  should  be  well  greased  be- 
fore applying  the  vinegar. 

To  Exterminate  Mites. — Mix  together 

10  parts  of  naphthalene,  10  parts  of  phenic 
acid,  5  parts  of  camphor,  5  parts  of  lemon 
oil,  2  parts  of  thyme  oil,  2  parts  of  oil  of 
lavender,  and  2  parts  of  the  oil  of  juniper, 
in  500  parts  of  pure  alcohol. 

Vermin  Killer.— 

Sabadilla,  powder. .      2    av.  ounces 

Acetic  acid ^  fluidounco 

Wood  alcohol 2    fluidounces 

Water    sufficient   to    make  16  fluid 

ounces. 

Mix  the  acetic  acid  with  14  fluidounces 
of  water  and  boil  the  sabadilla  in  this 
mixture  for  5  to  10  minutes,  and  when 
nearly  cold  add  the  alcohol,  let  stand, 
and  decant  the  clear  solution  and  bottle. 
Directions:  Shake  the  bottle  and  apply 
lo  the  affected  parts  night  and  morning. 

INSECTICIDES  FOR  PLANTS. 

Two  formulas  for  insecticides  with 
especial  reference  to  vermin  which 
attack  plants: 


I. — Kerosene 2    gallons 

Common  soap \  pound 

Water 1     gallon 

Heat  the  solution  of  soap,  add  it  boil- 
ing hot  to  the  kerosene  and  churn  until 
it  forms  a  perfect  emulsion.  For  use 
upon  scale  insects  it  is  diluted  with  9 
parts  of  water;  upon  other  ordinary 
insects  with  15  parts  of  water,  and  upon 
soft  insects,  like  plant  lice,  with  from  20 
to  25  parts  of  water. 

For  lice%  etc.,  which  attack  the  roots  of 
vines  and  trees  the  following  is  recom- 
mended: 

II. — Caustic  soda 5  pounds 

Rosin 40  pounds 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  soda  in  4  gallons  of  water, 
by  the  aid  of  heat,  add  the  rosin  and 
after  it  is  dissolved  and  while  boiling  add, 
slowly,  enough  water  to  make  50  gallons. 
For  use,  1  part  of  this  mixture  is  diluted 
with  10  parts  of  water  and  about  5  gal- 
lons of  the  product  poured  into  a  depres- 
sion near  the  root  of  the  vine  or  tree. 

For  Cochineal  Insects. — An  emulsion 
for  fumagine  (malady  of  orange  trees 
caused  by  the  cochineal  insect)  and  other 
diseases  caused  by  insects  is  as  follows: 

Dissolve,  hot,  4  parts  of  black  soap  in 
15  parts  of  hot  water.  Let  cool  to  104° 
F.,  and  pour  in  10  parts  of  ordinary 
petroleum,  shaking  vigorously.  Thus 
an  emulsion  of  cafe  au  lait  color  is  ob 
tained,  which  may  be  preserved  in- 
definitely. For  employment,  each  part 
of  the  emulsion  is  diluted,  according  to 
circumstances,  with  from  10  to  20  parts 
of  water. 

For  Locusts. — Much  trouble  is  ex- 
perienced in  the  Transvaal  and  Natal 
with  locust  pests,  the  remedies  used 
being  either  a  soap  spray,  containing  1 
p3imd  ordinary  household  soap  in  5 
gallons  of  water,  or  arsenite  of  soda,  the 
latter  being  issued  by  the  government  for 
the  purpose,  and  also  used  for  the  de- 
struction of  prickly  pear,  and  as  a  basis 
of  tick  dips.  A  solution  of  1  pound  in 
10  gallons  of  water  is  employed  for  full- 
grown  insects,  and  of  1  pound  in  20 
gallons  of  water  for  newly  hatched  ones, 
1  ,pound  of  sugar  being  added  to  each 
pound  of  arsenite  dissolved.  The  solu- 
tion sometimes  causes  sores  on  the  skin, 
and  the  natives  employed  in  its  use  are 
given  grease  to  rub  over  themselves  as  a 
measure  of  protection.  An  advantage 
of  the  arsenite  solution  over  soap  is  that 
much  less  liquid  need  be  used. 

A  composition  for  the  destruction  of 
pear  blight,  which  has  been  patented  in 


INSECTICIDES 


the  United  States,  is  as  follows:  Pepper- 
mint oil,  16  parts;  ammonia  water,  60 
parts;  calomel,  30  parts;  and  linseed  oil, 
1,000  parts. 

For  Moths  and  Caterpillars. — 
I.  —  Venice  turpentine     200  parts 

Rosin 1,000  parts 

Turpentine 140  parts 

Tar 80  parts 

Lard 500  parts 

Rape  oil. 240  parts 

Tallow .WO  parts 

II. — Rosin 50  parts 

Lard 40  parts 

Stearine  oil 40  parts 

For  Non-Masticating  Insects  . — For 
protection  against  all  non-masticating 
arid  many  mandibulate  insects,  kerosene 
oil  is  much  used.  It  is  exhibited  in  the 
form  of  emulsion,  which  may  be  made  as 
follows: 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

Common  soap 8  ounces 

Water 1  gallon 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  by  the 
aid  of  heat,  bring  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  add  the  kerosene  in  portions,  agitat- 
ing well  after  each  addition.  This  is 
conveniently  done  by  means  of  the  pump 
to  be  used  for  spraying  the  mixture. 

For  Scale  Insects. — For  destroying 
scale  insects  dilute  the  cochineal  emul- 
sion (see  above)  with  9  times  its  volume 
of  water;  in  the  case  of  most  others,  ex- 
cept lice,  dilute  with  14  volumes,  and  for 
the  latter  with  20  to  25  volumes. 

For  the  extermination  of  scale  insects, 
resinous  preparations  are  also  em- 
ployed, which  kill  by  covering  them  with 
an  impervious  coating.  Such  a  wash 
may  be  made  as  follows: 

Rosin 3£  pounds 

Caustic  soda 1     pound 

Fish  oil 8     ounces 

Water 20     gallons 

Boil  the  rosin,  soda,  and  oil  with  a 
small  portion  of  the  water,  adding  the 
remainder  as  solution  is  effected. 

For  the  San  Jose  scale  a  stronger 
preparation  is  required,  the  proportion 
of  water  being  decreased  by  half,  but 
such  a  solution  is  applied  only  when  the 
tree  is  dormant. 

Scale  Insects  on  Orange  Trees.— Scale 
insect  enemies  of  orange  trees  are  direct- 
ly controlled  in  two  ways:  (1)  By  spray- 
ing the  infested  trees  with  some  liquid 
insecticide,  and  (2)  by  subjecting  them  to 
the  fumes  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  com- 
monly designated  as  "gassing."  The 


latter  method  is  claimed  to  be  the  most 
effective  means  known  of  destroying  scale 
insects.  In  practice  the  method  con- 
sists in  closing  a  tree  at  night  with  a  tent 
and  filling  the  latter  with  the  poisonous 
fumes  generated  by  treating  refined 
potassium  cyanide  (98  per  cent)  with 
commercial  sulphuric  acid  (66  per  cent) 
and  water.  The  treatment  should  con- 
tinue from  30  to  40  minutes,  the  longer 
time  being  preferable.  The  work  is 
done  at  night  to  avoid  the  scalding  which 
follows  day  applications,  at  least  in  bright 
sunshine. 

The  oily  washes  are  said  to  be  the 
best  for  the  use  by  the  spraying  method. 
"Kerosene  emulsion"  is  a  type  of  these 
washes.  A  formula  published  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture follows:  Kerosene,  2  gallons;  whale- 
oil  soap,  ^  pound;  water,  1  gallon.  The 
soap  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  the  kero- 
sene added,  and  the  whole  thoroughly 
emulsified  by  means  of  a  power  pump 
until  a  rather  heavy,  creamy  emulsion  is 
produced.  The  quantity  of  soap  may 
be  increased  if  desired.  The  insecti- 
cide is  applied  by  spraying  the  infected 
tree  with  an  ordinary  force  pump  with 
spraying  nozzle. 

Coating  Against  the  Plant  Louse. — 
(a) — Mix  75  parts  of  green  soap,  50 
parts  of  linseed  oil,  and  25  parts  of  car- 
bolic acid.  Afterwards  mix  the  mass 
with  15,000  parts  of  water. 

(6)  Mix  4  parts  of  carbolic  acid  with 
100  parts  water  glass. 

Louse  Washes. — 

Unslaked  lime 18       parts 

Sulphur 9        parts 

Salt 6.75  parts 

Mix  as  follows:  A  fourth  part  of  the 
lime  is  slaked  and  boiled  for  f  of  an  hour 
with  the  sulphur  in  22.6  parts  of  water. 
The  remainder  of  the  lime  is  then  slaked 
and  added  with  the  salt  to  the  hot  mix- 
ture. The  whole  is  burned  for  another 
half  hour  or  an  hour,  and  then  diluted  to 
353  parts.  The  fluid  is  applied  luke- 
warm when  the  plants  are  not  in  active 
growth. 

For  Slugs  on  Roses.— 

Powdered  pyrethrum.  8  ounces 

Powdered  colocynth..  4  ounces 

Powdered  hellebore  .  .  16  ounces 

Flea  Powder. — 

Naphthalene 4  ounces 

Talcum 10  ounces 

Tobacco  dust 2  ounces 


424 


INSECT   POWDERS 


To  Keep  Flaxseed  Free  from  Bugs. — 
As  a  container  use  a  tin  can  with  a  close- 
fitting  top.  At  the  bottom  of  the  can 
place  a  small  vial  of  chloroform  with  a 
loose-fitting  cork  stopper.  Then  pour 
the  flaxseed,  whole  or  ground,  into  the 
can,  covering  the  vial.  Enough  of  the 
chloroform  will  escape  from  the  vial  to 
kill  such  insects  as  infest  the  flaxseed. 

INSECT  POWDERS. 

Pyrethrum,  whale  oil  (in  the  form  of 
soap),  fish  oil  (in  the  form  of  soap),  soft 
soap,  paraffine,  Prussic  acid,  Paris  green, 
white  lead,  sulphur,  carbon  bisulphide, 
acorus  calamus,  camphor,  Cayenne 
pepper,  tobacco,  snuff,  asafetida,  white 
hellebore,  eucalyptol,  quassia,  borax, 
acetic  ether  are  most  important  substances 
used  as  insecticides,  alone,  or  in  combi- 
nation of  two  or  more  of  them.  The 
Prussic  acid  and  Paris  green  are  dan- 
gerous poisons  and  require  to  be  used 
with  extreme  care: 

Insect  powder  is  used  for  all  small  in- 
sects and  as  a  destroyer  of  roaches.  The 
observations  of  some  experimenters  seem 
to  show  that  the  poisonous  principle  of 
these  flowers  is  non-volatile,  but  the 
most  favorable  conditions  under  which 
to  use  them  are  in  a  room  tightly  closed 
and  well  warmed.  There  may  be  two 
poisonous  principles,  one  of  which  is  vola- 
tile. Disappointment  sometimes  arises 
in  their  use  from  getting  powder  either 
adulterated,  or  which  has  been  exposed 
to  the  air  and  consequently  lost  some  of 
its  efficiency. 

The  dust  resulting  from  the  use  of 
insect  powder  sometimes  proves  irri- 
tating to  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
one  applying  the  powder.  This  is  best 
avoided  by  the  use  of  a  spray  atomizer. 

Persistence  in  the  use  of  any  means  is 
an  important  element  in  the  work  of 
destroying  insects.  A  given  poison  may 
be  employed  and  no  visible  result  follow 
at  first,  when  in  reality  many  may  have 
been  destroyed,  enough  being  left  to  de- 
ceive the  observer  as  to  numbers.  They 
multiply  very  rapidly,  too,  it  must  be 
remembered,  and  vigorous  work  is  re- 
quired to  combat  this  increase.  Where 
they  can  easily  migrate  from  one  house- 
holder's premises  to  those  of  another,  as 
in  city  "flats,"  it  requires  constant  vigi- 
lance to  keep  them  down,  and  entire 
extermination  is  scarcely  to  be  expected. 

The  ordinary  insect  powder  on  the 
market  is  made  from  pyrethrum  car- 
neum,  pyrethrum  roseum,  and  pyrethrum 
cinerarise-folium.  The  first  two  are 
generally  ground  together  and  are  com- 
mercially called  Persian  insect  powder; 


while  the  third  is  commonly  called 
Dalmatian  insect  powder.  These  pow- 
ders are  sold  in  the  stores  under  many 
names  and  in  combination  with  other 
powders  under  proprietary  names. 

The  powder  is  obtained  by  crushing  the 
dried  flowers  of  the  pellitory  (pyrethrum). 
The  leaves,  too,  are  often  used.  They 
are  cultivated  in  the  Caucasus,  whence 
the  specific  name  Caucasicum  some- 
times used.  Pyrethrum  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  compositse,  and  is  closely 
allied  to  the  chrysanthemum.  The 
active  principle  is  not  a  volatile  oil,  as 
stated  by  some  writers,  but  a  rosin, 
which  can  be  dissolved  out  from  the  dry 
flowers  by  means  of  ether.  The  leaves 
also  contain  this  rosin  but  in  smaller 
proportions  than  the  flowers.  Tincture 
of  pyrethrum  is  made  by  infusing  the 
dried  flowers  in  five  times  their  weight 
of  rectified  spirit  of  wine.  Diluted  with 
water  it  is  used  as  a  lotion. 

Borax  powder  also  makes  a  very  good 
insectifuge.  It  appears  to  be  particu- 
larly effective  against  the  common  or 
kitchen  cockroach.  Camphor  is  sometimes 
used,  and  the  powdered  dried  root  of 
acorus  calamus,  the  sweet  flag.  A  mix- 
ture of  white  lead  with  four  times  its 
weight  of  chalk  is  also  highly  recom- 
mended. The  fish-oil  soaps  used  in  a 
powdered  form  are  made  from  various 
recipes,  of  which  the  following  is  a  typi- 
cal example: 


Powdered  rosin.  .  .  . 

Caustic  soda 

Fish  or  whale  oil .  . 


2  pounds 
8  ounces 
4  ounces 


Boil  together  in  a  gallon  of  water  for 
at  least  an  hour,  replacing  some  of  the 
water  if  required. 

The  following  insect-powder  formulas 
are  perfectly  safe  to  use.  In  each  in- 
stance insect  powder  relates  to  either  one 
of  the  pyrethrum  plants  powdered,  or  to 
a  mixture: 

I. — Insect  powder.  ...  8  ounces  av. 
Powdered  borax. .  8  ounces  av. 
Oil  of  pennyroyal .  2  fluidrachms 

II. — Insect  powder 8  ounces  av. 

Borax 8  ounces  av. 

Sulphur 4  ounces  av. 

Oil  of  eucalyptus .    2  fluidrachms 
This   formula   is   especially   good   for 
cockroaches: 

III. — Insect  powder 14  ounces  av. 

Quassia  in  fine 

powder 6  ounces  av. 

White  hellebore, 

powdered 2  ounces  av. 


INSECT   POWERS— INSULATION 


425 


Beetle  Powder.— 

Cocoa  powder 4  ounces 

Starch 8  ounces 

Borax 37  ounces 

Mix  thoroughly. 

Remedies  Against  Mosquitoes. — A  rem- 
edy to  keep  off  mosquitoes,  etc.,  is  com- 
posed as  follows:  Cinnamon  oil,  1  part; 
patchouli  oil,  1  part;  sandal  oil,  4  parts; 
alcohol,  400  parts.  This  has  a  pleasant 
odor. 

Oil  of  pennyroyal  is  commonly  used 
to  keep  mosquitoes  away.  Some  form 
of  petroleum  rubbed  on  the  skin  is  even 
more  efficient,  but  unpleasant  to  use, 
and  if  left  on  long  enough  will  burn  the 
skin. 

A  40  per  cent  solution  of  formaldehyde 
for  mosquito  bites  gives  remarkably 
quick  and  good  results.  It  should  be 
applied  to  the  bites  as  soon  as  possible 
with  the  cork  of  the  bottle,  and  allowed 
to  dry  on.  Diluted  ammonia  is  also 
used  to  rub  on  the  bites. 

Roach  Exterminators.— Borax,  starch, 
and  cocoa  are  said  to  be  the  principal  in- 
gredients of  some  of  the  roach  foods  on 
the  market.  A  formula  for  a  poison  of 
this  class  is  as  follows: 

Borax 37  ounces 

Starch 9  ounces 

Cocoa 4  ounces 

Moth  Exterminators. — Cold  storage  is 
the  most  effective  means  of  avoiding  the 
ravages  o£  moths.  Where  this  is  imprac- 
ticable, as  in  bureau  drawers,  camphor 
balls  may  be  scattered  about  with  satis- 
factory result.  The  following  is  also  ef- 
fective: 

Spanish  pepper 100  parts 

Turpentine  oil 50  parts 

Camphor 25  parts 

Clove  oil 10  parts 

Alcohol,  96  per  cent.  900  parts 
Cut  the  Spanish  pepper  into  little  bits, 
and  pour  over  them  the  alcohol  and  oil  of 
turpentine.  Let  stand  2  or  3  days,  then 
decant,  and  press  out.  To  the  liquid 
thus  obtained  add  the  camphor  and 
clove  oil,  let  stand  a  few  days,  then  filter 
and  fill  into  suitable  bottles.  To  use, 
imbibe  bits  of  bibulous  paper  in  the 
liquid  and  put  them  in  the  folds  of 
clothing  to  be  protected. 

Protecting  Stuffed  Furniture  from 
Moths. — The  stuffing,  no  matter  whether 
consisting  of  tow,  hair,  or  fiber,  as  well 
as  the  covering,  should  be  coated  with  a 
10  per  cent  solution  of  sulphur  in  carbon 
sulphide.  The  carbon  sulphide  dis- 


solves the  sulphur  so  as  to  cause  a  very 
fine  division  and  to  penetrate  the  fibers 
completely. 

Powder  to  Keep  Moths  Away. — 

Cloves 2  ounces 

Cinnamon 2  ounces 

Mace 2  ounces 

Black  pepper 2  ounces 

Orris  root 2  ounces 

Powder  coarsely  and  mix  well  together. 

Book-Worms. — When  these  insects 
infest  books  they  are  most  difficult  to 
deal  with,  as  the  ordinary  destructive 
agents  injuriously  affect  the  paper  of  the 
book.  The  books  should  be  well  beaten 
and  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  a  rag  moist- 
ened with  formalin  passed  through  the 
binding  and  the  covers  where  possible. 
In  other  cases  the  bottom  edge  of  the 
binding  should  be  moistened  with  forma- 
lin before  putting  on  the  shelves,  so  that 
formaldehyde  vapor  can  be  diffused. 

INSECT  POWDERS: 

I        See  Insecticides. 

INSECT  TRAP. 

Into  a  china  wash-basin,  half  filled  with 
water,  pour  a  glass  of  beer;  cover  the 
basin  with  a  newspaper,  in  the  center  of 
which  a  small  round  hole  is  cut.  Place 
it  so  that  the  edges  of  the  paper  lie  on 
the  floor  and  the  hole  is  over  the  center  of 
the  basin.  At  night  beetles  and  other  in- 
sects, attracted  by  the  smell  of  beer,  climb 
the  paper  and  fall  through  the  hole  into 
the  liquid. 

INSTRUMENT  ALLOYS: 
See  Alloys. 

INSTRUMENT  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

INSTRUMENT  LACQUER: 
See  Lacquers. 

Insulation 

ELECTRIC  INSULATION: 

Insulating  Varnishes.  —  For  earth 
cables  and  exposed  strong  current 
wires: 

I. — Melt  2  parts  of  asphalt  together 
with  0.4  parts  of  sulphur,  add  5  parts  of 
linseed-oil  varnish,  linseed  oil  or  cotton- 
seed oil,  keep  at  320°  F.  for  6  hours; 
next  pour  in  oil  of  turpentine  as  required. 

II. — Maintain  3  parts  of  elaterite  with 
2  parts  of  linseed^oil  varnish  at  392°  F. 
for  5  to  6  hours;  next  melt  3  parts  of 
asphalt,  pour  both  substances  together, 
and  again  maintain  the  temperature  of 


426 


INSULATION 


392°  F.  for  3  to  4  hours,  and  then  add  1 
part  of  linseed-oil  varnish  and  oil  of 
turpentine  as  required. 

III. — Insulating  Varnish  for  Dynamos 
and  Conduits  with  Low  Tension.— Shellac, 
4  parts;  sandarac,  2  parts;  linoleic  acid, 
2  parts;  alcohol,  15  parts. 

IV. — An  insulating  material  which 
contains  no  caoutchouc  is  made  by  dis- 
solving natural  or  coal-tar  asphalt  in 
wood  oil,  adding  sulphur  and  vulcanizing 
at  572°  F.  The  mixture  of  asphalt  and 
wood  oil  may  also  be  vulcanized  with 
chloride  of  sulphur  by  the  ordinary  proc- 
ess used  for  caoutchouc.  Before  vul- 
canizing, a  solution  of  rubber  scraps  in 
naphthalene  is  sometimes  added  and  the 
naphthalene  expelled  by  a  current  of 
steam.  Substitutes  for  hard  rubber  are 
made  of  natural  or  artificial  asphalt  com- 
bined with  heavy  oil  of  tar  and  talc  or 
infusorial  earth. 

Most  of  the  insulating  materials  ad- 
vertised under  alluring  names  consist  of 
asphalt  combined  with  rosin,  tar,  and  an 
inert  powder  such  as  clay  or  asbestos. 
Some  contain  graphite,  which  is  a  good 
conductor  and  therefore  a  very  unde- 
sirable ingredient  in  an  insulator. 

INSULATION  AGAINST  HEAT. 

An  asbestos  jacket  is  the  usual  insu- 
lator for  boilers,  steampipes,  etc.  The 
thicker  the  covering  around  the  steam- 
pipe,  the  more  heat  is  retained.  A 
chief  requirement  for  such  protective 
mass  is  that  it  contains  air  in  fine  chan- 
nels, so  that  there  is  no  connection  with 
the  closed-in  air.  Most  substances 
suitable  for  insulating  are  such  that  they 
can  only  with  difficulty  be  used  for  a 
protective  mass.  The  most  ordinary 
way  is  to  mix  infusorial  earth,  kieselguhr, 
slag-wool,  hair,  ground  cork,  etc.,  with 
loam  or  clay,  so  that  this  plastic  mass  may 
be  applied  moist  on  the  pipes.  In  using 
such  substances  care  should  be  taken 
carefully  to  clean  and  heat  the  surfaces 
to  be  covered.  The  mass  for  the  first 
coating  is  made  into  a  paste  by  gradual 
addition  of  water  and  put  on  thick 
with  a  brush.  After  drying  each  time 
a  further  coating  is  applied.  This 
is  repeated  until  the  desired  thickness 
is  reached.  The  last  layer  put  on  is 
rubbed  smooth  with  the  flat  hand. 
Finally,  strips  of  linen  are  wound  around, 
which  is  coated  with  tar  or  oil  paint  as  a 
protection  against  outside  injuries.  Cork 
stones  consist  of  crushed  cork  with  a 
mineral  binding  agent,  and  are  sold 
pressed  into  various  shapes. 

Leather   Waste   Insulation. — Portions 


of  leather,  such  as  the  fibers  of  sole 
leather  of  any  size  and  form,  are  first 
rendered  soft.  The  surface  is  then 
carded  or  the  surface  fibers  scratched  or 
raised  in  such  a  manner  that  when  sev- 
eral pieces  are  pressed  together  their 
surface  fibers  adhere,  and  a  compact, 
durable  piece  of  leather  is  produced. 
The  carding  can  be  done  by  an  ordinary 
batting  machine,  the  action  of  which  is 
so  regulated  that  not  only  are  the  pieces 
of  leather  softened,  but  the  fibers  on 
their  surfaces  raised.  The  structure  of 
the  separate  pieces  of  leather  remains 
essentially  unaltered.  The  raised  fibers 
give  the  appearance  of  a  furry  substance 
to  the  leather.  The  batted  pieces  of 
leather  are  well  mixed  with  paste  or 
some  suitable  gum,  either  in  or  outside 
of  the  machine,  and  are  then  put  into 
specially  shaped  troughs,  where  they  are 
pressed  together  into  layers  of  the  re- 
quired size  and  thickness.  The  separate 
pieces  of  leather  adhere  and  are  matted 
together.  An  agglutinant,  if  accessible, 
will  contribute  materially  to  the  strength 
and  durability  of  the  product.  The 
layers  are  dried,  rolled,  and  are  then 
ready  for  use.  The  pieces  need  not 
be  packed  together  promiscuously.  If 
larger  portions  of  waste  can  be  secured, 
the  separate  pieces  can  be  arranged  one 
upon  another  in  rows.  The  larger  pieces 
can  also,  be  used  for  the  top  and  bottom 
of  a  leather  pad,  the  middle  portion  of 
which  consists  of  smaller  pieces. 

INSULATION    AGAINST    MOISTURE, 
WEATHER,  ETC. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  with  the 
aid  of  red  lead  a  very  serviceable,  resist- 
ive, and  weatherproof  insulation  material 
may  be  produced  from  inferior  fibers,  to 
take  the  place,  in  many  cases,  of  gutta- 
percha  and  other  substances  employed 
for  insulating  purposes,  and  particularly 
to  effect  the  permanent  insulation  of 
aerial  conductors  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  weather.  Hackethal  used  for  the 
purpose  any  vegetable  fiber  which  is 
wrapped  around  the  conductors  to  be 
insulated.  The  fiber  is  then  saturated 
with  liquid  red  lead.  The  latter  is  ac- 
complished in  the  proportion  of  4  to  5 
parts  of  red  lead,  by  weight,  to  1  part,  by 
weight,  of  linseed  oil,  by  the  hot  or  cold 
process,  by  mere  immersion  or  under 
pressure.  All  the  three  substances, 
fiber,  oil,  and  red  lead,  possess  in  them- 
selves a  certain  insulating  capacity,  but 
none  of  them  is  alone  of  utility  for  such 
purposes.  Even  the  red  lead  mixed  with 
linseed  oil  does  not  possess  in  the  liquid 
state  a  high  degree  of  insulating  power, 


IODINE   SOLVENT— IRON 


427 


Only  when  both  substances,  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  linseed  oil  capable  of  ab- 
sorbing oxygen  and  the  lead  oxide  rich  in 
oxygen,  oxidize  in  the  air,  a  new  gummy 
product  of  great  insulating  capacity 
results. 

INTENSIFIERS: 
See  Photography. 

IODINE  SOLVENT. 

Iodine  is  quickly  dissolved  in  oils  by 
first  rubbing  up  the  iodine  with  one- 
fourth  of  its  weight  of  potassium  iodide 
and  a  few  drops  of  glycerine,  then  adding 
a  little  oil  and  rubbing  up  again.  The 
addition  of  the  resultant  liquid  to  the  rest 
of  the  oil  and  a  sharp  agitation  finishes 
the  process. 

IODINE  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

IODOFORM  DEODORIZER. 

Rub  the  part  with  about  a  teaspoonful 
of  wine  vinegar,  after  a  previous  thor- 
ough washing  with  soap. 

Iron 

(See  also  Metals  and  Steel.) 

To  Color  Iron  Blue. — One  hundred 
and  forty  parts  of  hyposulphite  of  soda 
are  dissolved  in  1,000  parts  of  water;  35 
parts  of  acetate  of  lead  are  dissolved  in 
1,000  parts  of  water;  the  two  solutions 
are  mixed,  boiled,  and  the  iron  is  im- 
mersed therein.  The  metal  takes  a  blue 
color,  such  as  is  obtained  by  heating. 

To  Distinguish  Iron  from  Steel. — The 
piece  of  metal  to  be  tested  is  washed  and 
then  plunged  into  a  solution  of  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  with  the  addition  of 
considerable  sulphuric  acid.  In  half  a 
minute  or  a  minute  the  metal  can  be 
taken  out,  washed,  and  wiped.  Soft 
steels  and  cast  iron  assume  under  this 
treatment  an  ash-gray  tint.  Tempered 
steels  become  almost  black,  without  any 
metallic  reflection.  Puddled  and  re- 
fined irons  remain  nearly  white  and  al- 
ways have  metallic  reflections  on  the 
part  of  their  surface  previously  filed,  the 
remainder  of  the  surface  presenting  ir- 
regular blackish  spots,, 

Another  method  is  to  apply  a  magnet. 
Steel  responds  much  more  quickly  and 
actively  to  the  magnetic  influence  than 
does  iron. 

Powder  for  Hardening  Iron  and  Steel. 
—For  wrought  iron  place  in  the  charge 
20  parts,  by  weight,  of  common  salt;  2 
parts,  by  weight,  of  potassium  cyanide; 
0.3  parts,  by  weight,  of  potassium  bi- 


chromate; 0.15  parts,  by  weight,  of 
broken  glass;  and  0.1  part,  by  weight,  of 
potassium  nitrate  for  case-hardening. 
For  cooling  and  hardening  cast  iron:  To 
60  parts,  by  weight,  of  water  add  2.5 
parts,  by  weight,  of  vinegar;  3  parts,  by 
weight,  of  common  salt;  and  0.25  parts, 
by  weight,  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Preventing  the  Peeling  of  Coatings 
for  Iron. — To  obviate  the  scaling  of  coat- 
ings on  iron,  if  exposed  to  the  attacks  of 
the  weather,  it  is  advisable  to  wash  the 
iron  thoroughly  and  to  paint  it  next  with 
a  layer  of  boiling  linseed  oil.  If  thus 
treated,  the  paint  never  cracks  off.  If 
the  iron  objects  are  small  and  can  be 
heated,  it  is  advantageous  to  heat  them 
previously  and  to  dip  them  into  linseed 
oil.  The  boiling  oil  enters  all  the  pores 
of  the  metal  and  drives  out  the  moisture. 
The  coating  adheres  so  firmly  that  frost, 
rain,  nor  wind  can  injure  it. 

To  Soften  Iron  Castings. — To  soften 
hard  iron  castings,  heat  the  object  to  a 
high  temperature,  cover  it  over  with  fine 
coal  dust  or  some  similar  substance,  and 
allow  it  to  cool  gradually.  When  the 
articles  are  of  small  size,  a  number  of 
them  are  packed  in  a  crucible  with  sub- 
stances yielding  carbon  to  iron  at  a 
glowing  heat.  The  crucible  is  then 
tightly  closed,  and  placed  in  a  stove  or  on 
an  open  fire.  It  is  gradually  hea"ted  and 
kept  at  a  red  heat  for  several  hours,  and 
then  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  Cast-iron 
turnings,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  unre- 
fined sugar  are  recommended  as  sub- 
stances suitable  for  packing  in  the  cru- 
cible with  the  castings.  If  unrefined 
sugar  alone  is  added,  the  quantity  must 
not  be  too  small.  By  this  process  the 
iron  may  be  rendered  extremely  soft. 

To  Whiten  Iron. — Mix  ammoniacal 
salt  in  powder  with  an  equal  volume  of 
mercury.  This  is  dissolved  in  cold 
water  and  mixed  thoroughly.  Immerse 
the  metal,  heated  to  redness,  in  this  bath 
and  it  will  come  out  possessing  the  white- 
ness and  beauty  of  silver.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  overheat  the  article  and 
thus  burn  it. 

IRON,  BITING  OFF  RED  HOT: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

IRON,  CEMENTS  FOR: 
See  Adhesives. 

IRON,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

IRON  TO  CLOTH,  GLUING: 

See  Adhesives. 


428 


IRON— IVORY 


IRON,  HOW  TO  ATTACH  RUBBER  TO : 

See  Adhesives,  under  Rubber  Ce- 
ments. 

IRON  OXALATE  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

IRON  SOLDERS: 

See  Solders. 

IRONING  WAX: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

IRON  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

ITCH,  BARBERS': 

See  Ointments. 

Ivory 

(See  also  Bones,  Shell,  and  Horn.) 
TO  COLOR  IVORY: 

Red.— The  article  is  placed  for  24 
hours  in  water,  1,000  parts  of  which 
carry  100  parts  of  vinegar  (acetic  acid, 
6  per  cent),  and  from  1  to  5  parts  of 
aniline  red.  As  soon  as  it  acquires  the 
desired  color  pour  off  the  liquid,  let  the 
ivory  dry,  and  polish  with  Vienna  lime. 

Black. — Wash  the  article  first  in  pot- 
ash or  soda  lye  and  then  put  into  a 
neutral  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  Drain 
off  the  liquid  and  lay  in  the  direct  sun- 
shine. 

Red -Purple. — Put  the  article  in  a  weak 
solution  of  triple  gold  chloride  and  then 
into  direct  sunshine. 

Red. — For  a  different  shade  of  red 
(from  the  first  given),  place  the  article 
for  a  short  time  in  water  weakly  acidified 
with  nitric  acid  and  then  in  a  solution  of 
cochineal  in  ammonia. 

Yellow. — Leave  for  several  hours  in  a 
solution  of  lead  acetate,  rinse  and  dry. 
When  quite  dry  place  in  a  solution  of 
potassium  chromate. 

To  Color  Billiard  Balls  Red.— 

Fiery  Red. — Wash  the  article  first  in  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  then  plunge 
for  a  few  seconds  in  a  bath  of  equal  parts 
of  water  and  nitric  acid.  Remove, 
rinse  in  running  water:  then  put  in  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  fuch^ine  and  let  it 
remain  until  it  is  the  required  color. 

Cherry  Red. — Clean  by  washing  in  the 
sodium  carbonate  solution,  rinse  and  lay 
in  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  tin  chloride, 
for  a  few  moments,  then  boil  in  a  solution 
of  logwood.  Finally  lay  in  a  solution  of 
potassium  carbonate  until  it  assumes  the 
desired  color. 

Pale  Red. — Wash  in  soda  solution,  rinse 


and  lay  for  25  minutes  in  a  5  per  cent 
solution  of  nitric  acid,  rinse,  then  lay  for 
several  minutes  in  a  weak  solution  of  tin 
chloride.  Finally  boil  in  the  following 
solution:  Carmine,  2  parts;  sodium  car- 
bonate, 12  parts;  water,  200  parts;  acetic 
acid  enough  to  saturate. 

Broivn. — Apply  several  coats  of  an 
ammoiiiacal  solution  of  potassium  per- 
manganate. Similar  results  are  ob- 
tained if  the  solution  is  diluted  with  vin- 
egar, and  the  ivory  article  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  liquid  for  some  time. 

Etching  on  Ivory  (see  also  Etching). — 
Although  decorations  on  ivory  articles, 
such  as  umbrella  handles,  cuff-buttons, 
fans,  book-covers,  boxes,  etc.,  are  gen- 
erally engraved,  the  work  is  frequently 
done  by  etching.  The  patterns  must  be 
very  delicate,  and  are  executed  in  lines 
only.  The  simplest  way  is  to  cover  the 
surface  with  a  thin  rosin  varnish.  Then 
transfer  the  pattern  and  scratch  it  out  ac- 
curately ,with  a  pointed  needle.  Otherwise 
proceed  same  as  in  etching  on  metal  and 
stone,  making  an  edge  of  modeling  wax 
around  the  surface  to  be  etched  and  pour- 
ing on  the  acid,  which  consists,  in  this 
case,  of  sulphuric  acid,  1  part,  to  which 
5  to  6  parts  of  water  are  added.  It  acts 
very  quickly.  The  lines  turn  a  deep 
black.  If  brown  lines  are  desired,  dis- 
solve 1  part  of  silver  nitrate  in  5  parts  of 
water,  etch  for  a  short  time,  and  expose 
the  article  for  a  few  hours  to  the  light, 
until  the  design  turns  brown.  Very 
often  etchings  in  ivory  are  gilded.  For 
this  purpose,  fill  the  etched  patterns 
accurately  with  siccatives,  using  a  writ- 
ing pen,  dry,  and  dab  on  gold  leaf. 
After  a  few  hours  remove  the  superfluous 
gold  with  wadding,  and  the  design  will 
be  nicely  gilded.  Etched  ivory  articles 
present  a  very  handsome  appearance  if 
they  are  first  covered  with  a  silvery  gloss, 
the  design  being  gilded  afterwards.  For 
the  former  purpose  the  etched  object  is 
laid  in  the  above  described  solution  of 
silver  nitrate  until  it  has  acquired  a  dark 
yellow  color.  Then  rinse  it  off  in  clean 
water  and,  while  still  moist,  expose  to 
direct  sunlight.  After  3  to  4  hours  the 
surface  becomes  entirely  black,  but  will 
take  on  a  fine  sHvery  luster  if  rubbed 
with  soft  leather. 

Flexible  Ivory. — To  soften  ivory  and 
render  it  flexible  put  pure  phosphoric 
acid  (specific  gravity,  1.13)  into  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  or  jar  that  can  be  cov- 
ered, and  steep  the  ivory  in  this  until  it 
partially  loses  its  opacity;  then  wash  the 
ivory  in  cold,  soft  water  and  dry,  when 
the  ivory  will  be  found  soft  and  flexible. 


IVORY 


429 


It  regains  its  hardness  in  course  of  time 
when  freely  exposed  to  air,  although  its 
flexibility  can  be  restored  by  immersing 
the  ivory  in  hot  water. 

Another  softening  fluid  is  prepared  by 
mixing  1  ounce  of  spirit  of  niter  with  5 
ounces  of  water  and  steeping  the  ivory  in 
the  fluid  for  4  or  5  days. 

Hardened  Ivory. — To  restore  the  hard- 
ness to  ivory  that  has  been  softened  by 
the  above  methods,  wrap  it  in  a  sheet  of 
white  writing  paper,  cover  it  with  dry  de- 
crepitated salt,  and  let  it  remain  thus 
covered  for  24  hours.  The  decrepitated 
salt  is  prepared  by  strewing  common 
kitchen  salt  on  a  plate  or  dish  and  stand- 
ing same  before  a  fierce  fire,  when  the 
salt  loses  its  crystalline  appearance  and 
assumes  a  dense  opaque  whiteness. 

IMITATION  IVORY: 

See  also  Casein  and  Plaster. 

Manufacture  of  Compounds  Imitating 
Ivory,  Shell,  etc. — Casein,  as  known, 
may  act  the  part  of  an  acid  and  combine 
with  bases  to  form  caseinates  or  caseates; 
among  these  compounds,  caseinates  of 
potash,  of  soda,  and  of  ammonia  are  the 
only  ones  soluble  in  water;  all  the  others 
are  insoluble  and  may  be  readily  pre- 
pared by  double  decomposition.  Thus, 
for  example,  to  obtain  caseinate  of 
alumina,  it  is  sufficient  to  add  to  a  solu- 
tion of  casein  in  caustic  soda  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  alumina;  an  insoluble 
precipitate  of  casein,  or  caseinate  of 
alumina,  is  instantly  formed.  This  pre- 
cipitate ought  to  be  freed  from  the  sul- 
phate of  soda  (formed  by  double  de- 
composition) by  means  of  prolonged 
washing. 

When  pure,  ordinary  cellulose  may  be 
incorporated  with  it  by  this  process,  pro- 
ducing a  new  compound,  cheaper  than 
pure  cellulose,  although  possessing  the 
same  properties,  and  capable  of  replacing 
it  in  all  its  applications.  According  to 
the  results  desired,  in  transparency, 
color,  hardness,  etc.,  the  most  suitable 
caseinate  should  be  selected.  Thus,  if  a 
translucent  compound  is  to  be  obtained, 
the  caseinate  of  alumina  yields  the  best. 
If  a  white  compound  is  desired,  the  case- 
inate of  zinc  or  of  magnesia  should  be 
chosen;  and  for  colored  products  the  case- 
inates of  iron,  copper,  and  nickel  will 
give  varied  tints. 

The  process  employed  for  the  new 
products,  with  a  base  of  celluloid  and 
caseinate,  is  as  follows:  On  one  hand 
casein  is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  caus- 
tic soda  (100  of  water  for  10  to  25  of 
soda),  and  this  liquid  is  filtered,  to  sepa- 


rate the  matters  not  dissolved  and  the 
impurities. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  salt  (of  the  base 
of  which  the  caseinate  is  desired)  is  dis- 
solved, and  the  solution  filtered.  It  is 
well  not  to  operate  on  too  concentrated  a 
solution.  The  two  solutions  are  mixed 
in  a  reservoir  furnished  with  a  mechan- 
ical stirrer,  in  order  to  obtain  the  insol- 
uble caseinate  precipitate  in  as  finely 
divided  a  state  as  possible.  This  precip- 
itate should  be  washed  thoroughly  so  as 
to  free  it  from  the  soda  salt  formed  by 
double  decomposition,  but  on  account  of 
its  gummy  or  pasty  state,  this  washing 
presents  certain  difficulties,  and  should 
be  done  carefully.  After  the  washing  it 
should  be  freed  from  the.  greater  part  of 
water  contained  by  draining,  followed 
by  drying,  or  energetic  pressing;  then  it 
is  washed  in  alcohol,  dried  or  pressed 
again,  and  is  ready  to  be  incorporated  in 
the  mass  of  the  celluloid. 

For  the  latter  immersion  and  washing, 
it  has  been  found  that  an  addition  of  1  to 
5  per  cent  of  borax  is  advantageous,  for 
it  renders  the  mass  more  plastic,  and 
facilitates  the  operation  of  mixing.  This 
may  be  conducted  in  a  mixing  apparatus; 
but,  in  practice,  it  is  found  preferable  to 
effect  it  with  a  rolling  mill,  operated  as 
follows: 

The  nitro-cellulose  is  introduced  in 
the  plastic  state,  and  moistened  with  a 
solution  of  camphor  in  alcohol  (40  to  50 
parts  of  camphor  in  50  to  70  parts  of 
alcohol  for  100  parts  of  nitro-cellulose) 
as  it  is  practiced  in  celluloid  factories. 

This  plastic  mass  of  nitro-cellulose  is 
placed  in  a  rolling  mill,  the  cylinders  of 
which  are  slightly  heated  at  the  same 
time  as  the  caseinate,  prepared  as  above; 
then  the  whole  mass  is  worked  by  the 
cylinders  until  the  mixture  of  the  two  is 
perfectly  homogeneous,  and  the  final 
mass  is  sufficiently  hard  to  be  drawn  out 
in  leaves  in  the  same  way  as  practiced  for 
pure  celluloid.  These  leaves  are  placed 
in  hydraulic  presses,  where  they  are  com- 
pressed, first  hot,  then  cold,  and  the 
block  thus  formed  is  afterwards  cut  into 
leaves  of  the  thickness  desired.  These 
leaves  are  dried  in  an  apparatus  in  the 
same  way  as  ordinary  celluloid.  The 
product  resembles  celluloid,  and  has  all 
its  properties.  At  195°  to  215°  F.  it  be- 
comes quite  plastic,  and  is  easily  molded. 
It  may  be  sawed,  filed,  turned,  and 
carved  without  difficulty,  and  takes  on  a 
superb  polish.  It  burns  less  readily 
than  celluloid,  and  its  combustibility 
diminishes  in  proportion  as  the  per- 
centage of  caseinate  increases;  finally, 
the  cost  price  is  less  than  that  of  celluloid, 


430 


IVORY— JEWELERS1   FORMULAS 


and  by  using  a  large  proportion  of  case- 
inate,  products  may  be  manufactured  at 
an  extremely  low  cost. 

IVORY  AND  BONE  BLEACHES. 

If  simply  dirty,  scrub  with  soap  and 
tepid  water,  using  an  old  tooth  or  nail 
brush  for  the  purpose.  Grease  stains 
may  be  sometimes  removed  by  applying 
a  paste  of  chalk  or  whiting  and  benzol, 
covering  the  article  so  that  the  benzol  may 
not  dry  too  rapidly.  Carbon  disulphide 
(the  purified  article)  may  be  used  in  place 
ot  benzol.  When  dry,  rub  off  with  a  stiff 
brush.  If  not  removed  with  the  first 
application,  repeat  the  process.  Deli- 
cately carved  articles  that  show  a  ten- 
dency to  brittleness  should  be  soaked  for 
a  short  time  in  dilute  phosphoric  acid 
before  any  attempt  to  clean  them  is  made. 
This  renders  the  minuter  portions  almost 
ductile,  and  prevents  their  breaking  un- 
der cleaning. 

The  large  scratched  brush  should  be 
treated  as  follows:  If  the  scratches  are 
deep,  the  surface  may  be  carefully  rubbed 
down  to  the  depth  of  the  scratch,  using 
the  finest  emery  cloth,  until  the  depth  is 
nearly  reached,  then  substituting  crocus 
cloth. 

To  restore  the  polish  nothing  is  supe- 
rior to  the  genuine  German  putz  pomade, 
following  by  rubbing  first  with  chamois 
and  finishing  off  with  soft  old  silk.  The 
more  "elbow  grease"  put  into  the  rub- 
bing the  easier  the  task,  as  the  heat  gen- 
erated by  friction  seems  to  lend  a  sort  of 
ductility  to  the  surface.  To  remove  the 
yellow  hue  due  to  age,  proceed  as  follows: 
Make  a  little  tripod  with  wire,  to  hold 
the  object  a  few  inches  above  a  little 
vessel  containing  lime  chloride  moistened 
with  hydrochloric  acid;  put  the  object  on 
the  stand,  cover  the  whole  with  a  bell 
glass,  and  expose  to  direct  sunlight. 
When  bleached,  remove  and  wash  in  a 
solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  rinse  in 
clear  water  and  dry. 

Like  mother-of-pearl,  ivory  is  readily 
cleaned  by  dipping  in  a  bath  of  oxygen- 
ized water  or  immersing  for  15  minutes 
in  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  subsequently 
exposing  to  the  sun  for  3  cr  4  days.  For 
a  simple  cleaning  of  smooth  articles, 
wash  them  in  hot  water,  in  which  there 
has  been  previously  dissolved  100  parts 
(by  weight)  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  per 
1,000  parts  of  water.  To  clean  carved 
ivory  make  a  paste  of  very  fine,  damp 
sawdust,  and  put  on  this  the  juice  of  1 
or  2  lemons,  according  to  the  article  to  be 
treated.  Now  apply  a  layer  of  this  saw- 
dust on  the  ivory,  and  when  dry  brush 
it  off  and  rub  the  object  with  a  chamois. 


IVORY  TESTS. 

Many  years  ago  an  article  was  intro- 
duced in  the  industrial  world  which  in 
contradistinction  to  the  genuine  animal 
ivory,  has  its  origin  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, being  derived  from  the  nut  of  a 
palm-like  shrub  called  phytelephasma- 
crocarpa,  whose  fruit  reaches  the  size  of 
an  apple.  This  fruit  has  a  very  white, 
exceedingly  hard  kernel  which  can  be 
worked  like  ivory.  A  hundred  of  these 
fruits  only  costing  about  $1,  their  use 
offers  great  advantages.  Worked  on 
the  lathe  this  ivory  can  be  passed  off  as 
the  genuine  article,  it  being  so  much  like 
it  that  it  is  often  sold  at  the  same  price. 
It  can  also  be  colored  just  like  genuine 
ivory. 

To  distinguish  the  two  varieties  of 
ivory,  the  following  method  may  be 
employed:  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
applied  to  vegetable  ivory  will  cause  a 
pink  coloring  in  about  10  or  12  minutes, 
which  can  be  removed  again  by  washing 
with  water.  Applied  on  genuine  ivory, 
this  acid  does  not  affect  it  in  any  manner. 

IVORY  BLACK: 

See  Bone  Black. 

IVORY  CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives. 

IVORY  GILDING: 

See  Plating. 

IVORY  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

JAPAN  BLACK: 

See  Paints. 

JAPANNING  AND  JAPAN  TINNING: 

See  Varnishes. 

JASMINE   MILK: 
See  Cosmetics. 

JELLY  (FRUIT)  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

JEWELERS'   CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

JEWELERS'  CLEANING  PROCESSES: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

Jewelers7  Formulas 

(See  also  Gems,  Gold,  and  Watchmakers' 
Recipes.) 

Coloring  Gold  Jewelry. — Following  are 
several  recipes  for  coloring:  Saltpeter, 
40  parts;  alum,  30  parts;  sea  salt,  30 
parts;  or,  liquid  ammonia,  100  parts; 
sea  salt,  3  parts;  water,  100  parts.  Heat 
without  allowing  to  boil  and  plunge 


JEWELERS'   FORMULAS 


431 


the  objects  into  it  for  2  or  3  minutes, 
stirring  constantly;  rinse  in  alum  water 
and  then  in  clean  water.  Another 
recipe:  Calcium  bromide,  100  parts; 
bromine,  5  parts.  Place  the  articles 
in  this  solution,  with  stirring,  for  2  to  3 
minutes;  next  wash  in  a  solution  of 
hyposulphite  of  sodium  and  rinse  in 
clean  water.  Another:  Verdigris,  30 
parts;  sea  salt,  30  parts;  blood  stone, 
30  parts;  sal  ammoniac,  30  parts;  alum, 
5  parts.  Grind  all  and  stir  with  strong 
vinegar;  or,  verdigris,  100  parts;  hydro- 
chlorate  of  ammonia,  100  parts;  salt- 
peter, 65  parts;  copper  filings,  40  parts. 
Bray  all  and  mix  with  strong  vinegar. 

To  Widen  a  Jewel  Hole.— Chuck  the 
hole  in  a  lathe  with  cement.  Place  a 
spirit  lamp  underneath  to  prevent  the 
cement  from  hardening.  Hold  the 
pointed  bit  against  the  hole,  while  the 
lathe  is  running,  until  the  hole  is  true, 
when  the  lamp  should  be  removed.  The 
broach  to  widen  the  hole  should  be  made 
of  copper,  of  the  required  size  and  shape, 
and  the  point,  after  being  oiled,  should 
be  rolled  in  diamond  dust  until  it  is 
entirely  covered.  The  diamond  dust 
should  then  be  beaten  in  with  a  burnish- 
er, using  very  light  blows  so  as  not  to 
bruise  the  broach.  After  the  hole  is 
widened  as  desired,  it  requires  polishing 
with  a  broach  made  of  ivory  and  used 
with  oil  and  the  finest  diamond  dust, 
loose,  not  driven  into  the  broach. 

To  Clean  Jet  Jewelry.— Reduce  bread 
crumbs  into  small  particles,  and  intro- 
duce into  all  the  curves  and  hollows  of 
the  jewelry,  while  rubbing  with  a  flannel. 

Coloring  Common  Gold. — In  coloring 
gold  below  18  carat,  the  following  mix- 
ture may  be  used  with  success,  and  if 
carefully  employed,  even  12  carat  gold 
may  be  colored  by  it:  Take  nitrate  of 
potassa  (saltpeter),  4  parts,  by  weight; 
alum,  2  parts;  and  common  salt,  2  parts. 
Add  sufficient  warm  water  to  mix  the 
ingredients  into  a  thin  paste;  place  the 
mixture  in  a  small  pipkin  or  crucible 
and  allow  to  boil.  The  article  to  be 
colored  should  be  suspended  by  a  wire 
and  dipped  into  the  mixture,  where  it 
should  remain  from  10  to  20  minutes. 
The  article  should  then  be  removed  and 
well  rinsed  in  hot  water,  when  it  must  be 
scratch  brushed,  again  rinsed  and  re- 
turned to  the  coloring  salts  for  a  few 
minutes;  it  is  then  to  be  again  rinsed  in 
hot  water,  scratch  brushed,  and  finally 
brushed  with  soap  and  hot  water,  rinsed 
in  hot  water,  and  placed  in  boxwood 
sawdust.  The  object  being  merely  to 


remove  the  alloy,  as  soon  as  the  article 
has  acquired  the  proper  color  of  fine  gold 
it  may  be  considered  sufficiently  acted 
upon  by  the  above  mixture.  The  color- 
ing salts  should  not  be  used  for  gold  of  a 
lower  standard  than  12  carat,  and,  even 
for  this  quality  of  gold,  some  care  must 
be  taken  when  the  articles  are  of  a  very 
slight  make. 

Shades  of  Red,  etc.,  on  Matt  Gold 
Bijouterie. — For  the  production  of  the 
red  and  other  shades  on  matt  gold  arti- 
cles, the  so-called  gold  varnishes  are 
employed,  which  consist  of  shellac  dis- 
solved in  alcohol  and  are  colored  with 
gum  rosins.  Thus  a  handsome  golden 
yellow  is  obtained  from  shellac,  35  parts; 
seed-lac,  35  parts;  dragon's  blood,  50 
parts;  gamboge,  50  parts;  dissolved  in 
400  parts  of  alcohol;  the  clear  solution  is 
decanted  and  mixed  with  75  parts  of 
Venice  turpentine.  By  changing  the 
amounts  of  the  coloring  rosins,  shades 
from  bright  gold  yellow  to  copper  color 
are  obtained.  The  varnish  is  applied 
evenly  and  after  drying  is  wiped  off  from 
the  raised  portions  of  the  article  by 
means  of  a  pad  of  wadding  dipped  into 
alcohol,  whereby  a  handsome  patina- 
tion  effect  is  produced,  since  the  lacquer 
remains  in  the  cavities.  Chased  articles 
are  simply  rubbed  with  earth  colors 
ground  into  a  paste  with  turpentine  oil, 
lor  which  purpose  burnt  sienna,  fine 
ochers  of  a  golden  color,  golden  yellow, 
and  various  shades  of  green  are  employed. 

I. — Yellow  wax 32  parts 

Red  bole 3  parts 

Crystallized      verdi- 
gris    2  parts 

Alum 2  parts 

II. — Yellow  wax 95  parts 

Red  bole 64  parts 

Colcothar 2  parts 

Crystallized      verdi- 
gris     32  parts 

Copper  ashes 20  parts 

Zinc  vitriol 32  parts 

Green  vitriol 16  parts 

Borax 1  part 

The  wax  is  melted  and  the  finely  pow- 
dered chemicals  are  stirred  in,  in  rota- 
tion. If  the  gilt  bronze  goods  are  to 
obtain  a  lustrous  orange  shade,  apply  a 
mixture  of  ferric  oxide,  alum,  cooking 
salt,  and  vinegar  in  the  heated  articles 
by  means  of  a  brush,  heating  to  about 
266°  F.  until  the  shade  commences  to 
turn  black  and  water  sprinkled  on  will 
evaporate  with  a  hissing  sound,  then  cool 
in  water,  dip  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  of 
nitric  acid  with  40  parts  of  water,  rinse 


JEWELERS1  FORMULAS 


thoroughly,  dry,  and  polish.  For  the 
production  of  a  pale-gold  shade  use  a  wax 
preparation  consisting  of: 

III. — Yellow  wax 19  parts 

Zinc  vitriol 10  parts 

Burnt  borax 3  parts 

Green-gold  color  is  produced  by  a  mix- 
ture of: 

IV.— Saltpeter 6  parts 

Green  vitriol 2  parts 

Zinc  vitriol 1  part 

Alum 1  part 

To  Matt  Gilt  Articles.— If  it  is  desired 
to  matt  gilt  articles  partly  or  entirely,  the 
portions  which  are  to  remain  burnished 
are  covered  with  a  mixture  of  chalk, 
sugar,  and  mucilage,  heating  until  this 
"stopping-off"  covering  shows  a  black 
color.  On  the  places  not  covered  apply 
a  matting  powder  consisting  of: 

Saltpeter 40  parts 

Alum 25  parts 

Cooking  salt 35  parts 

Heat  the  objects  to  about  608°  F., 
whereby  the  powder  is  melted  and  ac- 

?uires  the  consistency  of  a  thin  paste, 
n  case  of  too  high  a  temperature  de- 
composition will  set  in. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Carats.— To 
find  the  number  of  carats  of  gold  in  an 
object,  first  weigh  the  gold  and  mix  with 
seven  times  its  weight  in  silver.  This 
alloy  is  beaten  into  thin  leaves,  and  nitric 
acid  is  added;  this  dissolves  the  silver 
and  copper.  The  remainder  (gold)  is 
then  fused  and  weighed;  by  comparing 
the  first  and  last  weights  the  number  of 
carats  of  pure  gold  is  found.  To  check 
repeat  several  times. 

Acid  Test  for  Gold.— The  ordinary 
ready  method  of  ascertaining  whether  a 
piece  of  jewelry  is  made  of  gold  consists 
in  touching  it  with  a  glass  stopper  wetted 
with  nitric  acid,  which  leaves  gold  un- 
touched, but  colors  base  alloys  blue  from 
the  formation  of  nitrate  of  copper. 

Imitation  Diamonds.  —  I.  —  Minium, 
75  parts  (by  weight);  washed  white  sand, 
50  parts;  calcined  potash,  18  parts;  cal- 
cined borax,  6  parts:  b''oxide  of  arsenic, 
1  part.  The  sand  mus',  oe  washed  in 
hydrochloric  acid  and  then  several  times 
in  clean  water.  The  specific  gravity  of 
this  crystal  glass  is  almost  the  same  as 
that  of  the  diamond. 

II.  — Washed  white  sand,  100  parts  (by 
weight):  minium,  35  parts;  calcined  pot- 
ash, 25  parts;  calcined  borax,  20  parts; 
nitrate  of  potash  (crystals).  10  parts: 
peroxide  of  manganese,  5  parts.  The 
sand  must  be  washed  as  above  stated. 


Diamantine. — This  substance  consists 
of  crystallized  boron,  the  basis  of  borax. 
By  melting  100  parts  of  boracic  acid  and 
80  parts  of  aluminum  crystals  is  ob- 
tained the  so-called  bort,  which  even 
attacks  diamond.  The  diamantine  of 
commerce  is  not  so  hard. 

To  Refine  Board  Sweepings.— The 
residue  resulting  from  a  jobbing  jew- 
eler's business,  such  as  board  sweepings 
and  other  residuum,  which  is  continually 
accumulating  and  which  invariably  con- 
sists of  all  mixed  qualities  of  standard, 
may  have  the  precious  metals  recovered 
therefrom  in  a  very  simple  manner,  as 
follows:  Collect  the  residue  and  burn  it 
in  an  iron  ladle  or  pan,  until  all  grease 
or  other  organic  matter  is  destroyed. 
When  cool  mix  with  ^  part  soda-ash,  and 
melt  in  a  clay  crucible.  When  the  metal 
is  thoroughly  melted  it  will  leave  the  flux 
and  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible; 
at  this  stage  the  flux  assumes  the  appear- 
ance of  a  thin  fluid,  and  then  is  the  time 
to  withdraw  the  pot  from  the  fire.  The 
metal  in  the  crucible — but  not  the  flux — 
may  now  be  poured  into  a  vessel  of  water, 
stirring  the  water  in  a  circular  direction 
while  the  metal  is  being  poured  in,  which 
causes  it  to  form  into  small  grains,  and 
so  prepares  it  for  the  next  process.  Dis- 
solve the  grains  in  a  mixture  of  nitric 
acid  and  water  in  equal  quantities.  It 
takes  about  four  times  the  quantity  of 
liquid  as  metal  to  dissolve.  The  gold 
remains  undissolved  in  this  mixture,  and 
may  be  recovered  by  filtering  or  decant- 
ing the  liquid  above  it  in  the  dissolving 
vessel;  it  is  then  dried,  mixed  with  a  little 
flux,  and  melted  in  the  usual  manner, 
whereupon  pure  gold  will  be  obtained. 
To  recover  the  silver,  dilute  the  solution 
which  has  been  withdrawn  from  the  gold 
with  six  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  add 
by  degrees  small  quantities  of  finely 
powdered  common  salt,  and  this  will 
throw  down  the  silver  into  a  white,  curdy 
powder  of  chloride  of  silver.  Continue  to 
add  salt  until  no  cloudiness  is  observed 
in  the  solution,  when  the  water  above 
the  sediment  may  be  poured  off;  the 
sediment  is  next  well  washed  with  warm 
water  several  times,  then  dried  and 
melted  in  the  same  manner  as  the  golu, 
and  you  will  have  a  lump  of  pure  silver. 

Restoration  of  the  Color  of  Tur- 
quoises.— After  a  certain  time  turquoises 
lose  a  part  of  their  fine  color.  It  is  easy 
to  restore  the  color  by  immersing  them 
in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda.  But 
it  seems  that  the  blue  cannot  be  restored 
anew  after  this  operation,  if  it  again 
becomes  dull.  The  above  applies  to 


JEWELERS  FORMULAS 


433 


common  turquoises,  and  not  to  those  of 
the  Orient,  of  which  the  color  does  not 
change. 

Colorings  for  Jewelers'  Work. — I. — 
Take  40  parts  of  saltpeter;  30  parts  of 
alum;  30  parts  of  sea  salt;  or  100  grams 
of  liquid  ammonia;  3  parts  sea  salt;  and 
100  parts  water.  This  is  heated  without 
bringing  it  to  a  boil,  and  the  articles 
dipped  into  it  for  from  2  to  3  minutes, 
stirring  the  liquid  constantly;  after  this 
bath  they  are  dipped  in  alum  water  and 
then  thoroughly  rinsed  in  clean  water. 

II. — One  hundred  parts  of  calcium  bro- 
mide and  2  parts  of  bromium.  The  ob- 
jects are  allowed  to  remain  in  this  solu- 
tion (which  must  be  also  constantly 
stirred)  for  from  2  to  3  minutes,  then 
washed  in  a  solution  of  sodium  hypo- 
sulphite, after  which  they  must  be  rinsed 
in  clean  water. 

III.— Thirty  parts  of  verdigris;  30  parts 
of  sea  salt;  30  parts  of  hematite;  30  parts 
of  sal  ammoniac,  and  5  parts  of  alum. 
This  must  be  all  ground  up  together  and 
mixed  with  strong  vinegar;  or  we  may 
also  use  100  parts  of  verdigris;  100  parts 
of  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia;  65  parts 
of  saltpeter,  and  40  parts  of  copper 
filings,  all  of  which  are  to  be  well  mixed 
with  strong  vinegar. 

22-Carat  Solder. — Soldering  is  a  proc- 
ess which,  by  means  of  a  more  fusible 
compound,  the  connecting  surfaces  of 
metals  are  firmly  secured  to  each  other, 
but,  for  many  practical  purposes,  it  is 
advisable  to  have  the  fusing  point  of  the 
metal  and  solder  as  near  each  other  as 
possible,  which,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
preserves  a  union  more  lasting,  and  the 
joint  less  distinguishable,  in  consequence 
of  the  similarity  of  the  metal  and  solder 
in  color,  which  age  does  not  destroy,  and 
this  is  not  the  case  with  solders  the  fusible 
points  of  which  are  very  low.  The 
metal  to  be  soldered  together  must  have 
an  affinity  for  the  solder,  otherwise  the 
union  will  be  imperfect;  and  the  solder 
should  likewise  act  upon  the  metal, 
partly  by  this  affinity  or  chemical  attrac- 
tion, and  partly  by  cohesive  force,  to 
unite  the  connections  soundly  and  firmly 
together.  Solders  should  therefore  be 
prepared  suitable  to  the  work  in  hand,  if 
a  good  and  lasting  job  is  to  be  made.  It 
should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
higher  the  fusing  point  of  the  gold  alloy 
— and  this  can  be  made  to  vary  consid- 
erably, even  with  any  specified  quality  — 
the  harder  solder  must  be  used,  for.  in 
the  case  of  a  more  fusible  mixture  of  gold, 
the  latter  would  melt  before  the  solder 


and  cause  the  work  to  be  destroyed.      A 

very  good  formula  for  the  first,  or  ordi- 
nary, 22-carat  alloy  is  this: 

dwts.  grs. 

Fine  gold 1  0 

Fine  silver 0  3 

Fine  copper 0  2 


This  mixture  will  answer  all  the  many 
purposes  of  the  jobber;  for  soldering 
high  quality  gold  wares  that  come  for 
repairs,  particularly  wedding  rings,  it 
will  be  found  admirably  suited.  If  an 
easier  solder  is  wanted,  and  such  is  very 
often  the  case  with  jobbing  jewelers,  es- 
pecially where  several  solderings  have  to 
be  accomplished,  it  is  as  well  to  have  at 
hand  a  solder  which  will  not  disturb  the 
previous  soldering  places,  for  if  this  is 
not  prevented  a  very  simple  job  is  made 
very  difficult,  and  a  lot  of  time  and 
patience  wholly  wasted.  To  guard 
against  a  thing  of  this  kind  the  following 
solder  may  be  employed  on  the  top  of 
the  previous  one: 

dwts.       grs. 

Fine  gold 1          0 

Fine  silver 0          3 

Yellow  brass 0          2 


1          5 

This  solder  is  of  the  same  value  as  the 
previous  one,  but  its  melting  point  is 
lower,  and  it  will  be  found  useful  for 
many  purposes  that  can  be  turned  to 
good"  account  in  a  jobbing  jeweler's 
business. 

JEWELERS5  ALLOYS: 

See  also  Alloys  and  Solders. 

i8-Carat  Gold  for  Rings. — Gold  coin, 
19  A  grains;  pure  copper,  3  grains;  pure 
silver,  1 J  grains. 

Cheap  Gold,  12  Carat. — Gold  coin, 
25  grains;  pure  copper,  13^  grains;  pure 
silver,  7^  grains. 

Very  Cheap  4-Carat  Gold.— Copper, 
18  parts;  gold,  4  parts;  silver,  2  parts. 

Imitations  of  Gold. — I. — Platina,  4 
pennyweights;  pure  copper,  2}  penny- 
weights; sheet  zinc,  1  pennyweight; 
block  tin,  If  pennyweights:  pure  lead, 
1£  pennyweight.  If  this  should  be 
found  too  hard  or  brittle  for  practical 
use,  remelting  the  composition  with  a 
little  sal  ammoniac  will  generally  render 
it  malleable  as  desired. 

II.  —  Platina,  2  parts:  silver,  1  part; 
copper.  3  parts.  These  compositions, 
when  properly  prepared,  so  nearly  resem- 
ble pure  gold  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 


434 


JEWELERS1  FORMULAS 


pennyweight.      The     best     composition 
known  for  th 


distinguish  them  therefrom.  A  little 
powdered  charcoal,  mixed  with  metals 
while  melting,  will  be  found  of  service. 

Best  Oreide  of  Gold.  —  Pure  copper,  4 
ounces;  sheet  zinc,  If  ounces;  magnesia, 
f  ounce;  sal  ammoniac,  •£•£  ounce;  quick- 
lime, -£*  ounce;  cream  tartar,  f  ounce. 
First  melt  the  copper  at  as  low  a  tem- 
perature as  it  will  melt;  then  add  the 
zinc,  and  afterwards  the  other  articles  in 
powder,  in  the  order  named.  Use  a 
charcoal  fire  to  melt  these  metals. 

Bushing  Alloy  for  Pivot  Holes,  etc.  — 
Gold  coin,  3  pennyweights;  silver,  1 
pennyweight,  20  grains;  copper,  3  pen- 
nyweights, 20  grains;  palladium,  1 
t.  The  best  co 
the  purpose  named. 

Gold  Solder  for  14-  to  i6-Carat  Work. 
—  Gold  coin,  1  pennyweight;  pure  silver, 
9  grains;  pure  copper,  6  grains;  brass, 
3  grains. 

Darker  Solder.  —  Gold  coin,  1  penny- 
weight; pure  copper,  8  grains;  pure 
silver,  5  grains;  brass,  2  grains.  Melt 
together  in  charcoal  fire. 

Solder  for  Gold.—  Gold,  6  penny- 
weights; silver,  1  pennyweight;  copper, 
2  pennyweights. 

Soft  Gold  Solder.—  Gold,  4  parts;  silver, 
1  part;  copper,  1  part. 

Solders  for  Silver  (for  the  use  of 
jewelers).  —  Fine  silver,  19  pennyweights; 
copper,  1  pennyweight;  sheet  brass,  10 
pennyweights. 

White  Solder  for  Silver.—  Silver,  1 
ounce;  tin,  1  ounce. 

Silver  Solder  for  Plated  Metal.—  Fine 
silver,  1  ounce;  brass,  10  pennyweights. 

Solders  for  Gold.—  I.—  Silver,  7  parts; 
copper,  1  part;  with  borax. 

II.  —  Gold,  2  parts;  silver,  1  part;  cop- 
per, 1  part. 

III.—  Gold,  3  parts;  silver,  3  parts; 
copper,  1  part;  zinc,  £  part. 

For  Silver.  —  Silver,  2  parts;  brass,  1 
part;  with  borax;  or,  silver,  4  parts; 
brass,  3  parts;  zinc,  -fa  part;  with  borax. 

Gold  Solders  (see  also  Solders).  —  I.  — 
Copper,  24.24  parts;  silver,  27.57  parts; 
gold,  48.19  parts. 

II.  —  Enamel  Solder.  —  Copper,  25  parts; 
silver,  7.07  parts;  gold,  67.93  parts. 

III.  —  Copper,  26.55  parts;  zinc,  6.25 
parts;  silver,  31.25  parts;  gold,  36  parts. 

IV.—  Enamel  Solder.—  Silver,  19.57 
parts;  gold,  80.43  parts, 


Solder  for  22-Carat  Gold.— Gold  of  22 
carats,  1  pennyweight;  silver,  2  grains; 
copper,  1  grain. 

For  i8-Carat  Gold.— Gold  of  18 
carats,  1  pennyweight;  silver,  2  grains; 
copper,  1  grain. 

For  Cheaper  Gold. — I. — Gold,  1  penny- 
weight; silver,  10  grains;  copper,  8 
grains. 

II. — Fine  gold,  1  pennyweight;  silver, 
1  pennyweight;  copper,  1  pennyweight. 

Silver  Solders  (see  also  Solders). — I. 
(Hard.)— Copper,  30  parts;  zinc,  12.85 
p^arts;  silver,  57.15  parts. 

II. — Copper,  23.33  parts;  zinc,  10 parts; 
silver,  66.67  parts. 

III.— Copper,  26.66  parts;  zinc,  10 
parts;  silver,  63.34  parts. 

IV.  (Soft.) — Copper,  14.75  parts;  zinc, 
8.50  parts;  silver,  77.05  parts. 

V. — Copper,  22.34  parts;  zinc,  10.48 
parts;  silver,  67.18  parts. 

VI.— Tin,  63   parts;    lead,    37    parts. 

FOR  SILVERSMITHS: 

I. — Sterling  Silver. — Fine  silver,  11 
ounces,  2  pennyweights;  fine  copper,  18 
pennyweights. 

II. — Equal  to  Sterling. — Fine  silver, 
1  ounce;  fine  copper,  1  pennyweight,  12 
grains.  . 

III. — Fine  silver,  1  ounce;  fine  copper, 
5  pennyweights. 

IV. — Common  Silver  for  Chains.  — Fine 
silver,  6  pennyweights;  fine  copper,  4 
pennyweights. 

V. — Solder. — Fine  silver,  16  penny- 
weights; fine  copper,  12  grains;  pin 
brass,  3  pennyweights,  12  grains. 

VI. — Alloy  for  Plating. — Fine  silver, 
1  ounce;  fine  copper,  10  pennyweights. 

VII.  —Silver  Solder.— Fine  silver,  1 
ounce;  pin  brass,  10  pennyweights;  pure 
spelter,  2  pennyweights. 

VIII.— Copper  Solder  for  Plating.— 
Fine  silver,  10  pennyweights;  fine  cop- 
per, 10  pennyweights. 

IX.— Common  Silver  Solder.— Fine 
silver,  10  ounces;  pin  brass,  6  ounces, 
12  pennyweights;  spelter,  12  penny- 
weights. 

X.— Silver  Solder  for  Enameling. — 
Fine  silver,  14  pennyweights;  fine  cop- 
per, 8  pennyweights. 

XL—  For  Filling  Signet  Rings.— Fine 
silver,  10  ounces;  fine  copper,  1  ounce, 
16  pennyweights;  fine  pin  brass,  6 
ounces,  12  pennyweights;  spelter,  12. 
pennyweights, 


JEWELERS  FORMULAS 


485 


XII.— Silver  Solder  for  Gold  Plating. 
— Fine  silver,  1  ounce;  fine  copper,  5 
pennyweights;  pin  brass,  5  pennyweights. 

XIII. — Mercury  Solder. — Fine  silver, 
1  ounce;  pin  brass,  10  pennyweights; 
bar  tin,  2  pennyweights. 

XIV. — Imitation  Silver. — Fine  silver, 
1  ounce;  nickel,  1  ounce,  11  grains;  fine 
copper,  2  ounces,  9  grains. 

XV. — Fine  silver,  3  ounces;  nickel,  1 
ounce,  11  pennyweights;  fine  copper,  2 
ounces,  9  grains;  spelter,  10  penny- 
Weights. 

XVI.— Fine  Silver  Solder  for  Filigree 
Work. — Fine  silver,  4  pennyweights, 
6  grains;  pin  brass,  1  pennyweight. 

Bismuth  Solder. — Bismuth,  3  ounces; 
lead,  3  ounces,  18  pennyweights;  tin,  5 
ounces,  6  pennyweights. 

BRASS: 

I.— Yellow  Brass  for  Turning.— (Com- 
mon article.) — Copper,  20  pounds;  zinc, 
10  pounds;  lead,  4  ounces. 

II. — Copper,  32  pounds;  zinc,  10 
pounds;  lead,  1  pound. 

III.— Red  Brass  Free,  for  Turning.— 
Copper,  100  pounds;  zinc,  50  pounds; 
lead,  10  pounds;  antimony,  44  ounces. 

IV.— Best  Red  Brass  for  Fine  Cast- 
ings.— Copper,  24  pounds;  zinc,  5 
pounds;  bismuth,  1  ounce. 

V. — Red  Tombac. — Copper,  10  pounds; 
zinc,  1  pound. 

VI.— Tombac.— Copper,  16  pounds; 
tin,  1  pound;  zinc,  1  pound. 

VII.— Brass  for  Heavy  Castings. — 
Copper,  6  to  7  parts;  tin,  1  part;  zinc,  1 
part. 

VIII.— Malleable  Brass.— Copper,  70.10 
parts;  zinc,  29.90  parts. 

IX. — Superior  Malleable  Brass. — Cop- 
per, 60  parts;  zinc,  40  parts. 

X. — Brass. — Copper,  73  parts;  zinc, 
27  parts. 

XI. — Copper,  65  parts;  zinc,  35  parts. 

XII. — Copper,  70  parts;  zinc,  30  parts. 

XIII.  —German  Brass.— Copper,  1 
pound;  zinc,  1  pound. 

XI V.— Watchmakers'  Brass.— Copper, 
1  part;  zinc,  2  parts. 

XV.— Brass  for  Wire.— Copper,  34 
parts;  calamine.  56  parts. 

XVI.— Brass  for  Tubes.— Copper,  2 
parts;  zinc,  1  part. 

XVII.— Brass  for  Heavy  Work.— 
Copper,  100  parts;  tin,  15  parts;  zinc, 
15  parts, 


XVIII.— Copper,  112  parts;  tin,  13 
parts;  zinc,  1  part. 

XIX.— Tombac  or  Red  Brass.— Cop- 
per, 8  parts;  zinc,  1  part. 

XX.— Brass.— Copper,  3  parts;  melt, 
then  add  zinc,  1  part. 

XXI. — Buttonmakers'  Fine  Brass. — 
Brass,  8  parts;  zinc,  5  parts. 

XXII. — Buttonmakers'  Common 
Brass. — Button  brass,  6  parts;  tin,  1 
part;  lead,  1  part.  Mix. 

XXIII.— Mallet's  Brass.— Copper, 
25.4  parts;  zinc,  74.6  parts.  Used  to  pre- 
serve iron  from  oxidizing. 

XXIV.— Best  Brass  for  Clocks.— 
Rose  copper,  85  parts;  zinc,  14  parts; 
lead,  1  part. 

GOLD  ALLOYS: 

See  also  Gold  Alloys,  under  Alloys. 

Gold  of  22  carats  fine  being  so  little 
used  is  intentionally  omitted. 

I.— Gold  of  18  Carats,  Yellow  Tint. 
— Gold,  15  pennyweights;  silver,  2  pen- 
nyweights, 18  grains;  copper,  2  penny- 
weights, 6  grains. 

II.— Gold  of  18  Carats,  Red  Tint.— 
Gold,  15  pennyweights;  silver,  1  penny- 
weight, 18  grains;  copper,  3  penny- 
weights, 6  grains. 

III.— Spring  Gold  of  16  Carats.— 
Gold,  1  ounce,  16  pennyweights;  silver, 
6  pennyweights;  copper,  12  penny- 
weights. This  when  drawn  or  rolled 
very  hard  makes  springs  little  inferior  to 
steel. 

IV.— Jewelers'  Fine  Gold,  Yellow 
Tint,  16  Carats  Nearly. — Gold,  1  ounce; 
silver,  7  pennyweights;  copper,  5  penny- 
weights. 

V.— Gold  of  Red  Tint,  16  Carats.— 
Gold,  1  ounce;  silver,  2  pennyweights; 
copper,  8  pennyweights. 

Sterling  Gold  Alloys. — I. — Fine  gold, 
18  pennyweights,  12  grains;  fine  silver, 
1  pennyweight;  fine  copper,  12  grains. 

II.— Dry  Colored  Gold  Alloys,  17 
Carat. — Fine  gold,  15  pennyweights; 
fine  silver,  1  pennyweight,  10  grains; 
fine  copper,  4  pennyweights,  17  grains. 

III. — 18  Carat. — Fine  gold,  1  ounce; 
fine  silver,  4  pennyweights,  10  grains; 
fine  copper,  2  pennyweights,  5  grains. 

IV.— 18  Carat.— Fine  gold,  15  penny- 
weights; fine  silver,  2  pennyweights,  4 
grains;  fine  copper,  2  pennyweights,  19 
grains. 

V. — 18  Carat. — Fine  gold,  18  penny- 
weights; fine  silver,  2  pennyweights,  18 


436     JEWELERS1   FORMULAS— KEROSENE   DEODORIZER 


grains;  fine  copper,  3  pennyweights,  18 
grains. 

VI.— 19  Carat.— Fine  gold,  1  ounce; 
fine  silver,  2  pennyweights,  6  grains;  fine 
copper,  3  pennyweights,  12  grains. 

VII. — 20  Carat. — Fine  gold,  1  ounce; 
fine  silver,  2  pennyweights;  fine  copper, 

2  pennyweights,  4  grains. 

VIII.— 22  Carat.— Fine  gold,  18  pen- 
nyweights; fine  silver,  12  grains;  fine  cop- 
per, 1  pennyweight,  3  grains. 

IX.— Gold  Solder  for  the  Foregoing 
Alloys. — Take  of  the  alloyed  gold  you 
are  using,  1  pennyweight;  fine  silver,  6 
grains. 

X.— Alloy  for  Dry  Colored  Rings. — 
Fine  gold,  1  ounce;  fine  silver,  4  penny- 
weights, 6  grains;  fine  copper,  4  penny- 
weights, 6  grains. 

XI. — Solder. — Scrap  gold,  2  ounces; 
fine  silver,  3  pennyweights;  fine  copper, 

3  pennyweights. 

XII.— Dry  Colored  Scrap  Reduced 
to  355.  Gold. — Colored  scrap,  1  ounce,  9 
pennyweights,  12  grains;  fine  silver,  2 
pennyweights;  fine  copper,  17  penny- 
weights, 12  grains;  spelter,  4  penny- 
weights. 

To  Quickly  Remove  a  Ring  from  a 
Swollen  Finger. — If  the  ring  is  of  gold, 
pull  the  folds  of  the  swollen  muscles 
apart,  so  that  it  can  be  seen,  then  drop 
on  it  a  little  absolute  alcohol  and  place 
the  finger  in  a  bowl  of  metallic  mercury. 
In  a  very  few  minutes  the  ring  will  snap 
apart.  If  the  ring  is  of  brass,  scrape  the 
surface  slightly,  or  put  on  a  few  drops  of 
a  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  or  even  strong 
vinegar,  let  remain  in  contact  for  a 
moment  or  two,  then  put  into  the  mer- 
cury, and  the  result  will  be  as  before. 

Soldering  a  Jeweled  Ring. — In  order 
to  prevent  the  bursting  of  the  jewels  of  a 
ring  while  the  latter  is  being  soldered, 
cut  a  juicy  potato  into  halves  and  make 
a  hollow  in  both  portions  in  which  the 
part  of  the  ring  having  jewels  may  fit 
exactly.  Wrap  the  jeweled  portion  in 
soft  paper,  place  it  in  the  hollow,  and 
bind  up  the  closed  potato  with  binding 
wire.  Now  solder  with  easy-flowing 
gold  solder,  the  potato  being  held  in  the 
nand.  Another  method  is  to  fill  a  small 
crucible  with  wet  sand,  bury  the  jeweled 
portion  in  the  sand,  and  solder  in  the 
usual  way. 

JEWELRY,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


Kalsomine 

Sodium  carbonate. . .  8  parts 

Linseed  oil 32  parts 

Hot  water 8  parts 

White  glue 12  parts 

Whiting 160  parts 

Dissolve  the  sodium  carbonate  in  the 
hot  water,  add  the  oil  and  saponify  by 
heating  and  agitation.  Cover  the  glue, 
broken  into  small  pieces,  with  cold 
water  and  let  soak  overnight.  In  the 
morning  pour  the  whole  on  a  stout  piece 
of  stuff  and  let  the  residual  water  drain 
off,  getting  rid  of  as  much  as  possible  by 
slightly  twisting  the  cloth.  Throw  the 
swelled  glue  into  a  capsule,  put  on  the 
water  bath,  and  heat  gently  until  it  is 
melted.  Add  the  sapDnified  oil  and  mix 
well;  remove  from  the  bath,  and  stir  in 
the  whiting,  a  little  at  a  time,  adding  hot 
water  as  it  becomes  necessary.  When 
the  whiting  is  all  stirred  in,  continue 
adding  hot  water,  until  a  liquid  is  ob- 
tained that  flows  freely  from  the  kalso- 
mining  brush. 

The  addition  of  a  little  soluble  blue  to 
the  mixture  increases  the  intensity  of  the 
white. 

Sizing  Walls  for  Kalsomine. — A  size 
to  coat  over  "hot  walls"  for  the  reception 
of  the  kalsomine  is  made  by  using 
shellac,  1  part;  sal  soda,  %  part.  Put 
these  ingredients  in  ^  gallon  of  water  and 
dissolve  by  steady  heat.  Another  size  is 
made  of  glue  size  prepared  in  the  usual 
way,  and  alum.  To  \  pound  of  white 
glue  add  f  pound  of  alum,  dissolving  the 
alum  in  hot  water  before  adding  it  to  the 
glue  size. 

KARATS,  TO  FIND  NUMBER  OF: 

See  Jewelers'  Formulas. 

KERAMICS: 
See  Ceramics. 

KERIT: 

See  Rubber. 

KEROCLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

KEROSENE   DEODORIZER: 

See  also  Benzine,  Oils,  and  Petro- 
leum. 

Various  processes  have  been  recom- 
mended for  masking  the  odor  of  kerosene 
such  as  the  addition  of  various  essential 


KEROSENE   DEODORIZER— LACQUERS 


437 


oils,  artificial  oil  of  mirbane,  etc.,  but 
none  of  them  seems  entirely  satisfactory. 
The  addition  of  amyl  acetate  in  the  pro- 
portion of  10  grams  to  the  liter  (1  per 
cent)  has  also  been  suggested,  several 
experimenters  reporting  very  successful 
results  therefrom.  Some  years  ago  Ber- 
inger  proposed  a  process  for  removing 
sulphur  compounds  from  benzine,  which 
would  presumably  be  equally  applicable 
to  kerosene.  This  process  is  as  follows: 

Potassium  permanga- 
nate        1    ounce 

Sulphuric  acid £  pint 

Water 3|  pints 

Mix  the  acid  and  water,  and  when  the 
mixture  has  become  cold  pour  it  into  a 
2-gallon  bottle.  Add  the  permanganate 
and  agitate  until  it  is  dissolved.  Then 
add  benzine,  1  gallon,  and  thoroughly 
agitate.  Allow  the  liquids  to  remain  in 
.contact  for  24  hours,  frequently  agitating 
the  mixture.  Separate  the  benzine  and 
wash  in  a  similar  bottle  with  a  mixture 
of 

Potassium  permanga- 
nate         I  ounce 

Caustic  soda \  ounce 

Water 2     pints 

Agitate  the  mixture  frequently  during 
several  hours;  then  separate  the  benzine 
and  wash  it  thoroughly  with  water.  On 
agitating  the  benzine  with  the  acid  per- 
manganate solution  an  emulsion-like 
mixture  is  produced,  which  separates  in 
a  few  seconds,  the  permanganate  slowly 
subsiding  and  showing  considerable  re- 
duction. In  the  above  process  it  is 
quite  probable  that  the  time  specified  (24 
hours)  is  greatly  in  excess  of  what  is 
necessary,  as  the  reduction  takes  place 
almost  entirely  in  a  very  short  time.  It 
has  also  been  suggested  that  if  the  proc- 
ess were  adopted  on  a  manufacturing 
scale,  with  mechanical  agitation,  the 
time  could  be  reduced  to  an  hour  or  two^ 

KEROSENE-CLEANING  COMPOUNDS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations,  under 
Miscellaneous  Methods. 

KEROSENE    EMULSIONS: 

See  Petroleum. 

KETCHUP    (ADULTERATED),  TESTS 
FOR: 

See  Foods. 

KHAKI  COLORS: 
See  Dyes. 

KID: 

See  Leather., 


KISSINGEN  SALTS: 

See  Salts  (Effervescent). 

KISSINGEN  WATER: 

See  Waters. 

KNIFE-SHARPENING  PASTES: 
See  Razor  Pastes. 

KNOCKENPLOMBE : 

See  Adhesives. 

KNOTS: 
See  Paint. 

KOLA  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

KOUMISS  SUBSTITUTE: 

See  also  Beverages. 

To  prepare  a  substitute  tor  koumiss 
from  cow's  milk:  Dissolve  i  ounce  grape 
sugar  in  3  fluid  ounces  water.  Mix  18 
grains  well  washed  and  pressed  beer 
yeast  with  2  fluid  ounces  of  cow's  milk. 
Mix  the  two  liquids  in  a  champagne 
bottle,  fill  with  milk,  stopper  securely, 
and  keep  for  3  to  4  days  at  a  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  50°  F.,  shaking  fre- 
quently. The  preparation  does  not  keep 
longer  than  4  to  5  days. 

KUMMEL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

KWASS : 

See  Beverages. 

LABEL  PASTES,  GLUES,  AND  MUCI- 
LAGES: 

See  Adhesives. 

LABEL  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

LACE  LEATHER: 

See  Leather. 

LACE,  TO  CLEAN  GOLD  AND  SILVER : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

LACES,   WASHING    AND    COLORING 
OF: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

Lacquers 

(See  alsoEnamels,  Glazes,  Paints,  Var- 
nishes, and  Waterproofing.) 

LAC  AND  THE  ART  OF  LACQUERING. 

The  art  of  lacquering  includes  various 
steps,  which  are  divulged  as  little  as 
possible.  Without  them  nothing  but  a 
varnish  of  good  quality  would  be  realized 
Thus  in  Tonkin,  where  the  abundant 


438 


LACQUERS 


production  is  the  object  of  an  important 
trade  with  the  Chinese,  it  is  so  used  only 
for  varnishing,  while  in  China  the  same 
product  from  the  same  sources  con- 
tributes to  most  artistic  applications. 

When  the  Annamites  propose  to  lac- 
quer an  object,  a  box,  for  example,  they 
first  stop  up  the  holes  and  crevices,  cov- 
ering all  the  imperfections  with  a  coating 
of  diluted  lac,  DV  means  of  a  flat,  close, 
short  brush.  Then  they  cover  the  whole 
with  a  thick  coating  of  lac  and  white  clay. 
This  clay,  oily  to  the  touch,  is  found  at 
the  bottom  of  certain  lakes  in  Tonkin; 
it  is  dried,  pulverized,  and  sifted  with  a 
piece  of  fine  silk  before  being  embodied 
with  the  lac.  This  operation  is  designed 
to  conceal  the  inequalities  of  the  wood 
and  produce  a  uniform  surface  which, 
when  completely  dry,  is  rendered  smooth 
with  pumice  stone. 

If  the  object  has  portions  cut  or  sunk 
the  clayey  mixture  is  not  applied,  for  it 
would  make  the  details  clammy,  but  in 
its  place  a  single,  uniform  layer  of  pure 
lac. 

In  any  case,  after  the  pumicing,  a 
third  coating,  now  pure  lac,  is  passed 
over  the  piece,  which  at  this  time  has  a 
mouse-gray  color.  This  layer,  known 
under  tne  name  of  sou  lot,  colors  the  piece 
a  brilliant  black.  As  the  lac  possesses 
the  remarkable  property  of  not  drying  in 
dry  air,  the  object  is  left  in  a  damp  place. 
When  perfectly  dried  the  piece  is  var- 
nished, and  the  desired  color  imparted 
by  a  single  operation.  If  the  metallic 
applications  are  excepted,  the  lac  is 
colored  only  black,  brown,  or  red. 

The  following  formulas  are  in  use: 

Black. — One  part  of  turpentine  is 
warmed  for  20  minutes  beyond  the  fus- 
ing point;  then  poured  into  3  parts  of  lac; 
at  the  same  time  pheu  deu  (copperas)  is 
added.  The  mixture  is  stirred  for  at 
least  a  day,  sometimes  more,  by  means 
of  a  large  paddle. 

Maroon. — This  is  prepared  by  a  process 
similar  to  the  preceding,  replacing  half 
of  the  copperas  by  an  equal  quantity  of 
China  vermilion. 

Red. — The  lac,  previously  stirred  for 
6  hours,  is  mixed  with  hot  oil  of  trau, 
and  the  whole  is  stirred  for  a  day,  after 
which  vermilion  is  added.  The  latter 
should  be  of  good  quality,  so  as  to  have 
it  brilliant  and  unchangeable. 

The  operation  of  lacquering  is  then 
ended,  but  there  are  parts  to  be  gilded. 
These  are  again  covered  with  a  mixture 
of  lac  and  oil  of  trau.  When  this  layer 
is  dry  the  metallic  leaves  are  applied, 
which  are  themselves  protected  by  a 


coating,  composed  also  of  lac  and  oil  of 
trau.  All  these  lac  and  oil  of  trau  mix- 
tures are  carefully  filtered,  which  the 
natives  effect  by  pressing  the  liquid  on  a 
double  filtering  surface  formed  of  wad- 
ding and  of  a  tissue  on  which  it  rests.  It 
can  only  be  applied  after  several  months 
when  the  metallic  leaf  is  of  gold.  In  the 
case  of  silver  or  tin  the  protecting  coat 
can  be  laid  on  in  a  few  days.  It  favor- 
ably modifies  the  white  tints  of  these  two 
metals  by  communicating  a  golden  color. 
The  hue,  at  first  reddish,  gradually  im- 
proves and  acquires  its  full  brilliancy  in 
a  few  months. 

Little  information  is  procurable  con- 
cerning the  processes  employed  by  the 
Chinese.  The  wood  to  be  lacquered 
should  be  absolutely  dry.  It  receives 
successive  applications,  of  which  the 
number  is  not  less  than  33  for  perfect 
work.  When  the  lac  coating  attains  the 
thickness  of  \  of  an  inch  it  is  ready  for. 
the  engravers.  The  Chinese,  like  the 
inhabitants  of  Tonkin,  make  use  of  oil  of 
trau  to  mix  with  the  lac,  or  oil  of  aleurites, 
and  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  in  the 
drying  of  the  different  layers.  The 
operation  is  conducted  in  dim-lighted 
rooms  specially  fitted  up  for  the  purpose; 
the  moisture  is  maintained  to  a  suitable 
extent  by  systematically  watering  the 
earth  which  covers  the  walls  of  this  "  cold 
stove." 

Lacquer  for  Aluminum. — Dissolve  100 
parts  of  gum  lac  in  300  parts  of  am- 
monia, and  heat  the  solution  for  about  1 
hour  moderately  on  the  water  bath.  Af- 
ter cooling,  the  mixture  is  ready  for  use. 
The  aluminum  to  be  coated  is  cleaned  in 
the  customary  manner.  After  it  has  been 
painted  with  the  varnish,  it  is  heated  in 
the  oven  to  about  572°  F.  The  coating 
and  heating  may  be  repeated. 

Lacquer  for  Brass. — 

Annatto £  ounce 

Saffron \  ounce 

Turmeric 1     ounce 

Seed  lac  in  coarse  pow- 
der        3     ounces 

Alcohol 1     pint 

Digest  the  annatto,  saffron,  and  tur- 
meric in  the  alcohol  for  several  days, 
then  strain  into  a  bottle  containing  the 
seed  lac;  cork  and  shake  until  dissolved. 

Lacquer  for  Bronze. — I. — The  follow- 
ing process  yields  a  protective  varnish 
for  bronze  articles  and  other  metallic 
objects  in  various  shadings,  the  lacquer 
produced  excelling  in  high  luster  and 
permanency:  Fill  40  parts  of  best  pale 
shellac;  12  parts  of  pulverized  Florentine 


LACQUERS 


439 


lake;  30  parts  gamboge;  and  6  parts  of 
dragon's  blood,  likewise  powdered,  into 
a  bottle  and  add  400  parts  of  spirit. 
Allow  this  mixture  to  form  a  solution 
preferably  by  heating  the  flask  on  the 
water  bath,  to  nearly  the  boiling  point  of 
the  water,  and  shaking  now  and  then 
until  all  has  dissolved.  After  the  cooling 
pour  off  the  liquid  from  the  sediment,  if 
any  is  present;  this  liquid  constitutes  a 
lacquer  of  dark-red  color.  In  a  second 
bottle  dissolve  in  the  same  manner  24 
parts  of  gamboge  in  400  parts  of  spirit, 
which  affords  a  lacquer  of  golden  yellow 
color.  According  to  the  desired  shade, 
the  red  lacquer  is  now  mixed  with  the 
yellow  one,  thus  producing  any  hue  re- 
quired from  the  deepest  red  to  a  golden 
tone.  If  necessary,  thin  with  spirit  of 
wine.  The  varnish  is  applied,  as  usual, 
on  the  somewhat  warmed  article,  a  cer- 
tain temperature  having  to  be  adhered 
to,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  trials 
and  is  easily  regulated  by  feeling. 

II. — The  following  is  equally  suitable 
for  boots  and  leather  goods  as  for  appli- 
cation on  iron,  stone,  glass,  paper,  cloth, 
and  other  surfaces.  The  inexperienced 
should  note  before  making  this  liquid 
that  it  does  not  give  a  yellowish  bronze 
like  gold  paint,  but  a  darkish  iridescent 
one,  and  as  it  is  a  pleasing  variation  in 
aids  to  home  decoration,  it  would 
doubtless  sell  well.  Some  pretty  effects 
are  obtained  by  using  a  little  phloxine 
instead  of  part  of  the  violet  aniline,  or 
phloxine  alone  will  produce  a  rich  red- 
dish bronze,  and  a  lustrous  peacock  green 
is  obtained  with  brilliant  aniline  green 
crystals. 

Quantities :  Flexile  methylated  col- 
lodion, 1  gallon;  pure  violet  aniline,  1 
pound.  Mix,  stand  away  for  a  few  days 
to  allow  the  aniline  to  dissolve  and  stir 
frequently,  taking  care  to  bung  down 
securely,  as  the  collodion  is  a  volatile 
liquid,  then  strain  and  bottle  off.  It  is 
applied  with  a  brush,  dries  rapidly,  and 
does  not  rub  off  or  peal. 

Celluloid  Lacquer. — -Dissolve  uncol- 
ored  celluloid  in  a  mixture  of  strong 
alcohol  and  ether.  The  celluloid  first 
swells  up  in  the  solvent,  and  after  vigor- 
ous shaking,  the  bottle  is  allowed  to  stand 
quietly  for  the  undissolved  portion  to  settle, 
when  the  clear,  supernatant  fluid  is 
poured  off.  The  latter  may  be  imme- 
diately used;  it  yields  a  colorless. glossy 
lacquer,  or  may  be  colored,  as  desired, 
with  aniline  colors. 

Colored  Lacquer. — Make  a  strong 
solution  of  any  coloring  matter  which  is 
soluble  in  methylated  spirit,  such  as 


cochineal,  saffron,  the  aniline  dyes,  etc. 
Filter  through  fine  cambric,  and  to  this 
filtered  solution  add  brown  shellac  in 
flakes  in  the  proportion  of  4  to  5  ounces 
of  shellac  to  each  pint  of  methylated 
spirit.  Shake  once  a  day  for  about  8 
days.  If  too  thick  it  may  be  thinned  by 
adding  more  colored  spirit  or  plain  spirit 
as  required,  and  any  lighter  shade  can  be 
obtained  by  mixing  with  plain  lacquer 
mixed  in  the  above  proportions.  Lac- 
quer works  best  in  a  warm,  dry  place, 
and  the  process  is  improved  by  slightly 
warming  the  articles,  which  must  be 
absolutely  free  from  grease,  dirt,  or 
moisture.  The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained by  applying  many  coats  of  thin, 
light-colored  lacquer,  each  coat  to  be 
thoroughly  dry  before  applying  the  next. 
Apply  with  a  soft  camel's-hair  brush; 
it  is  better  to  use  too  small  a  brush  than 
too  large.  When  complete,  warm  the 
articles  for  a  few  seconds  before  a  clear 
fire;  the  hotter  the  better;  if  too  hot, 
however,  the  colors  will  fade.  This 
makes  the  lacquer  adhere  firmly,  es- 
pecially to  metallic  surfaces.  Aniline 
green  works  very  well. 

Lacquer  for  Copper. — A  lacquer  which 
to  a .  certain  degree  resists  heat  and 
acid  liquids,  but  not  alkaline  ones,  is 
obtained  by  heating  fine,  thickly  liquid 
amber  varnish,  whereby  it  is  rendered 
sufficiently  liquid  to  be  applied  with  the 
brush.  The  copper  article  is  coated 
with  this  and  left  to  stand  until  the  lac- 
quer has  dried  perfectly.  Next,  the 
object  is  heated  until  the  lacquer  com- 
mences to  smoke  and  turns  brown.  If 
the  operation  is  repeated  twice,  a  coating 
is  finally  obtained,  which,  as  regards 
resisting  qualities  to  acid  bodies,  excels 
even  enamel,  but  which  is  strongly  at- 
tacked even  by  weakly  alkaline  liquids. 

Ebony  Lacquer. — The  ebony  lacquer 
recommended  by  the  well-known  Eng- 
lish authority,  Mr.  H.  C.  Standage,  con- 
sists of  £  ounce  aniline  hydrochloride, 
£  ounce  alcohol,  1  part  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, 100  parts  of  water.  The  aniline  dye 
is  dissolved  in  the  alcohol  and  the  copper 
sulphate  in  the  water.  The  wood  is  first 
coated  with  the  copper  sulphate  solution, 
and  after  this  coating  has  been  given 
plenty  of  time  to  dry  the  aniline  salt 
tincture  is  applied.  Shortly  the  copper 
salt  absorbed  by  the  wood  will  react  on 
the  aniline  hydrochloride,  developing  a 
deep,  rich  black  which  acids  or  alkalies 
are  powerless  to  destroy.  Coat  with 
shellac  and  give  a  French  polish,  thus 
bringing  the  ebony  finish  up  to  a  durable 
and  unsurpassed  luster. 


440 


LACQUERS 


GOLD  LACQUERS: 

I. — For  Brassware. — A  gold  lacquer 
to  improve  the  natural  color  of  brassware 
is  prepared  from  16  parts  gum  lac,  4 
parts  dragon's  blood,  and  1  part  curcuma 
powder  dissolved  in  320  parts  spirits  of 
wine  in  the  warmth  and  filtered  well. 
The  articles  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
by  burning,  grinding,  or  turning  either 
dull  or  burnished,  and  then  coated  with 
a  thin  layer  of  the  above  mixture,  applied 
with  a  soft  hair  brush  or  a  pad  of  wad- 
ding. If  the  objects  are  colored  the 
lacquer  must  be  laid  on  by  stippling. 
Should  the  color  be  too  dark,  it  may  be 
lightened  by  reduction  with  a  little  spirit 
until  the  correct  shade  is  produced.  The 
most  suitable  temperature  for  the  metal 
during  the  work  is  about  the  warmth  of 
the  hand;  if  too  hot  or  too  cold,  the  lac- 
quer may  smear,  and  will  then  have  to 
be  taken  off  again  with  spirit  or  hot 
potash  lye,  the  goods  being  dried  in 
sawdust  or  recleaned  as  at  first,  before 
applying  the  lacquer  again.  Round 
articles  may  be  fixed  in  the  lathe  and  the 
lacquer  laid  on  with  a  pad  of  wadding. 
In  order  to  color  brassware,  a  solution 
of  30  parts  caustic  soda;  10  parts  cupric 
carbonate;  200  parts  water  (or  200  parts 
ammonia  neutralized  by  acetic  .acid); 
100  parts  verdigris,  and  60  parts  sal 
ammoniac  is  employed,  into  which  the 
warmed  articles  are  dipped.  After 
having  dried  they  are  coated  with  color- 
less shellac  varnish. 

II. — For  Tin. — Transparent  gold  lac- 
quer for  tin  (all  colors)  may  be  made 
as  follows:  Take  £  pint  of  alcohol,  add 
1  ounce  gum  shellac;  |  ounce  turmeric;  1J 
ounce  red  sanders.  Set  the  vessel  in  a 
warm  place  and  shake  frequently  for 
half  a  day.  Then  strain  off  the  liquor, 
rinse  the  bottle  and  return  it,  corking 
tightly  for  use.  When  this  is  used,  it 
must  be  applied  to  the  work  freely  and 
flowed  on  full,  or  if  the  work  admits  it, 
it  may  be  dipped.  One  or  more  coats 
may  be  given  as  the  color  is  required 
light  or  dark.  For  rose  color  substitute 
£  ounce  of  finely  ground  lake  in  place  of 
the  turmeric.  For  blue,  substitute  Prus- 
sian blue.  For  purple,  add  a  little  of  the 
blue  to  the  turmeric. 

For  Bottle  Caps,  etc. — 

I. — Gum  gutta 10  parts 

Shellac 100  parts 

Turpentine 10  parts 

Alconol 450  parts 

1. — Gum  gutta 40  parts 

Dragon's  blood 5  parts 

Alcoholic   extract  of 

sandal  wood 5  parts 


Sandarac 75  parts 

Venice  turpentine.  ,.      25  parts 
Alcohol,  95  per  cent.    900  parts 
Mix  and  dissolve  by  the  aid  of  a  gentle 
heat. 

Liquid  Bottle  Lac. — Into  a  half-gallon 
bottle  put  8  ounces  of  shellac,  and  pour 
over  it  1^  pints  of  alcohol  of  94  per  cent, 
and  2|  ounces  of  sulphuric  ether.  Let 
stand,  with  occasional  shaking,  until  the 
shellac  is  melted,  and  then  add  4  ounces 
of  thick  turpentine  and  ^  ounce  of  boric 
acid.  Shake  until  dissolved.  To  color, 
use  the  aniline  colors  soluble  in  alcohol — 
for  red,  eosine;  blue,  phenol  blue;  black, 
negrosin;  green,  aniline  green;  violet, 
methyl  violet,  etc.  If  it  is  desired  to 
have  the  lac  opaque,  add  8  ounces  of 
pulverized  steatite,  but  remember  to 
keep  the  lac  constantly  stirred  while 
using,  as  otherwise  the  steatite  falls  to 
the  bottom. 

Lithographic  Lacquer. — Dissolve  15 
parts,  by  weight,  of  red  lithol  R  or  G  in 
paste  of  17  per  cent,  in  150  parts,  by 
weight,  of  hot  water.  Boil  for  2  minutes, 
shaking  with  2.5  parts,  by  weight,  of 
barium  chloride.  Dissolve  in  25  parts, 
by  weight,  of  water.  Add  to  the  mixture 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  aluminum  hy- 
drate of  about  4  per  cent.  Cool,  filter, 
and  dry. 

Lacquer  for  Microscopes,  Mathemat- 
ical Instruments,  etc.— Pulverize  160 
parts,  by  weight,  turmeric  root,  cover  it 
with  1,700  parts  alcohol,  digest  in  a 
warm  place  for  24  hours,  and  then  filter. 
Dissolve  80  parts  dragon's  blood,  80 
parts  sandarac,  80  parts  gum  elemi,  50 
parts  gum  gutta,  and  70  parts  seed  lac, 
put  in  a  retort  with  250  parts  powdered 

glass,  pour  over  them  the  colored  alco- 
ol  first  made,  and  hasten  solution  by 
warming    in    the    sand    or    water    bath. 
When  completely  dissolved,  filter. 

To  Fix  Alcoholic  Lacquers  on  Metallic 
Surfaces. — Dissolve  0.5  parts  of  crys- 
tallized boracic  acid  in  100  parts  of  the 
respective  spirit  varnish  wnereby  the 
latter  after  being  applied  forms  so  hard 
a  coating  upon  a  smooth  tin  surface 
that  it  cannot  be  scratched  off  even  with 
the  finger-nails.  The  aforementioned 
percentage  of  boracic  acid  should  not 
be  exceeded  in  preparing  the  solution; 
otherwise  the  varnish  will  lose  in  inten- 
sity of  color. 

Lacquer  for  Oil  Paintings. — Dilute 
100  parts  of  sulphate  of  baryta  with  600 
parts  of  water  containing  in  solution  60 
parts  of  red  lithol  R  or  G  in  paste  of  17 


LACQUERS—LAMPBLACK 


441 


per  cent.  Boil  the  mixture  for  several 
minutes  in  a  solution  of  10  parts  of  bar- 
ium chloride  in  100  parts  of  water.  Af- 
ter cooling,  filter  and  dry. 

Lacquers  for  Papers. — I. — With  base 
of  baryta:  Dissolve  30  parts  of  red  lithol 
R  or  G  in  paste  of  17  per  cent,  in  300 
parts  of  hot  water.  Add  an  emulsion 
obtained  by  mixing  10  parts  of  sulphate 
of  alumina  in  100  parts  of  water  and  5 
parts  of  calcined  soda  dissolved  in  50 
parts  of  water.  Precipitate  with  a  solu- 
tion of  17.5  parts  of  barium  chloride  in 
125  parts  of  water.  Cool  and  filter. 

II.— With  base  of  lime:  Dissolve  30 
parts  red  lithol  R  or  G  in  paste  of  17  per 
cent,  in  300  parts  of  hot  water.  Boil  for 
a  few  minutes  with  an  emulsion  pre- 
pared by  mixing  10  parts  sulphate  of 
alumina  with  100  parts  of  water  and  2.5 
parts  of  slaked  lime  in  100  parts  of  water. 
Filter  after  cooling. 

Lacquer  for  Stoves  and  other  Articles 
to  Withstand  Heat. — This  is  not  altered 
by  heat,  and  does  not  give  off  disagree- 
able odors  on  heating:  Thin  1  part  of 
sodium  water  glass  with  2  parts  of  water 
in  order  to  make  the  vehicle.  This  is 
to  be  thickened  with  the  following  ma- 
terials in  order  to  get  the  desired  color: 
White,  barium  sulphate  or  white  lead; 
yellow,  baryta  chromate,  ocher,  or  ura- 
nium yellow;  green,  chromium  oxide  or 
ultramarine  green;  brown,  cadmium 
oxide,  manganese  oxide,  or  sienna 
brown;  red,  either  iron  or  chrome  red. 
The  coloring  materials  must  be  free 
from  lumps,  and  well  ground  in  with  the 
vehicle.  Bronze  powders  may  also  be 
used  either  alone  or  mixed  with  other 
coloring  stuffs,  but  care  must  be  taken, 
in  either  instance,  to  secure  a  sufficient 
quantity.  The  colors  should  be  made 
up  as  wanted,  and  no  more  than  can 
conveniently  be  applied  at  the  time 
should  be  prepared.  An  excellent  way 
to  use  the  bronze  powders  is  to  lay  on  the 
coloring  matter,  and  then  to  dust  on  the 
powder  before  the  glass  sets.  Lines  or 
ornamentation  of  any  sort  may  be  put  on 
by  allowing  the  coating  of  enamel  to  dry, 
and  then  drawing  the  lines  or  any  desired 
design  with  a  fresh  solution  of  the  water 
glass  colored  to  suit  the  taste,  or  dusted 
over  with  bronze. 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES: 
Russian  Polishing  Lac. — 

I. — Sticklac 925  parts 

Sandarac    875  parts 

Larch  turpentine. .  .      270  parts 
Alcohol,  96  per  cent  3,500  parts 


The  sticklac  is  broken  up  and  mixed 
with  the  sandarac,  put  into  a  suitable 
container  with  a  wide  mouth,  the  spirit 
poured  over  it  and  set  aside.  After 
standing  for  a  week  in  a  warm  place, 
frequently  stirring  in  the  meantime  (best 
with  a  glass  rod)  and  fully  dissolving, 
stir  in  the  turpentine.  Let  stand  2  or 
3  days  longer,  then  filter  through  glass 
wool.  The  sandarac  dissolves  complete- 
ly in  the  spirit,  but  the  stick  leaves  a 
slight  residue  which  may  be  added  to  the 
next  lot  of  lac  made  up  and  thus  be 
treated  to  a  fresh  portion  of  spirit.  The 
larch  turpentine  should  be  of  the  best 
quality.  This  lac  is  used  by  woodcarvers 
and  turners  and  is  very  much  prized  by  them. 

Mastic  Lac. — 

II. — Mastic,  select 150  parts 

Sandarac 400  parts 

Camphor 15  parts 

Alcohol,  96  per  cent  1,000  parts 

Prepare  as  directed  in  the  first  recipe. 

Leather  Polish  Lac. — 

III.— Shellac 16  parts 

Venice  turpentine. .        8  parts 

Sandarac 4  parts 

Lampblack,  Swed- 
ish          2  parts 

Turpentine  oil ....  4  parts 
Alcohol,  96  per  cent  960  parts 
The  alcohol  and  turpentine  oil  are 
mixed  and  warmed  under  constant  stir- 
ring in  the  sand  or  water  bath.  The 
shellac  and  sandarac  are  now  stirred  in, 
the  stirring  being  maintained  until  both 
are  dissolved.  Finally  add  the  turpen- 
tine and  dissolve.  Stir  the  lampblack 
with  a  little  vinegar  and  then  add  and 
stir  in.  Instead  of  lampblack  125  to  150 
parts  of  nigrosin  may  be  used.  This 
lac  should  be  well  shaken  before  appli- 
cation. 

LACQUERED  WARE,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

LAKES: 
See  Dyes. 

LAMPBLACK: 

Production  of  Lampblack. — The  last 
oil  obtained  in  the  distillation  of  coal  tar, 
and  freed  from  naphthalene  as  far  as 
possible,  viz.,  soot  oil,  is  burned  in  a 
special  furnace  for  the  production  of 
various  grades  of  lampblack.  In  this 
furnace  is  an  iron  plate,  which  must 
always  be  kept  glowing;  upon  this  plate 
the  soot  oil  trickles  through  a  small  tube 
fixed  above  it.  It  is  decomposed  and 


442 


LAMPBLACK— LARD 


the  smoke  (soot)  rises  into  four  cham- 
bers through  small  apertures.  When 
the  quantity  of  oil  destined  for  decom- 
position has  been  used  up,  the  furnace  is 
allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  for  a  few 
days,  and  only  after  this  time  has  elapsed 
are  the  chambers  opened  by  windows 
provided  for  that  purpose.  In  the  fourth 
chamber  is  the  very  finest  lampblack, 
which  the  lithographers  use,  and  in  the 
third  the  fine  grade  employed  by  manu- 
facturers of  printers'  ink,  while  the  first 
and  second  contain  the  coarser  soot, 
which,  well  sifted,  is  sold  as  flame  lamp- 
black. 

From  grade  No.  1  the  calcined  lamp- 
black for  paper  makers  is  also  produced. 
For  preparing  this  black  capsules  of  iron 
plate  with  closing  lid  are  filled,  the  stuff 
is  stamped  firmly  into  them  and  the 
cover  smeared  up  with  fine  loam.  The 
capsules  are  next  placed  in  a  well  draw- 
ing stove  and  calcined,  whereby  the  em- 
pyreumatic  oils  evaporate  and  the  re- 
maining lampblack  becomes  odorless. 
Allow  the  capsules  to  cool  for  a  few  days 
before  opening  them,  as  the  soot  dries 
very  slowly,  and  easily  ignites  again  as 
soon  as  air  is  admitted  if  the  capsules  are 
opened  before.  This  is  semi-calcined 
lampblack. 

For  the  purpose  of  preparing  com- 
pletely calcined  lampblack,  the  semi- 
calcined  article  is  again  jammed  into 
fresh  capsules,  closing  them  up  well  and 
calcining  thoroughly  once  more.  After 
2  days  the  capsules  are  opened  contain- 
ing the  all-calcined  lampblack  in  com- 
pact pieces. 

For  the  manufacture  of  coal  soot  an- 
other furnace  is  employed.  Asphalt  or 
pitch  is  burned  in  it  with  exclusion  of 
air  as  far  as  practicable.  It  is  thrown 
in  through  the  doors,  and  the  smoke 
escapes  through  the  chimney  to  the  soot 
chambers,  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  assorting 
itself  there. 

When  the  amount  of  asphalt  pitch 
destined  for  combustion  has  burned  up 
completely,  the  furnace  is  left  alone  for 
several  days  without  opening  it.  After 
this  time  has  elapsed  the  outside  doors 
are  slowly  opened  and  some  air  is  ad- 
mitted. Later  on  they  can  be  opened 
altogether  after  one  is  satisfied  that  the 
soot  has  cooled  completely.  Chamber 
4  contains  the  finest  soot  black,  destined 
for  the  manufacture  of  leather  cloth  and 
oil  cloth.  In  the  other  chambers  is  fine 
and  ordinary  flame  black,  which  is  sifted 
and  packed  in  suitable  barrels.  Cal- 
cined lampblack  may  also  be  produced 
from  it,  the  operation  being  the  same  as 
for  oil  black. 


LAMP  BURNERS  AND  THEIR  CARE: 
See  Household  Formulas. 

LAMPS: 

Coloring  Incandescent  Lamps. — In- 
candescent light  globes  are  colored  by 
dipping  the  bulbs  into  a  thin  solution  of 
collodion  previously  colored  to  suit  with 
anilines  soluble  in  collodion.  Dip  and 
rotate  quickly,  bulb  down,  till  dry. 

For  office  desks,  room  lights,  and  in 
churches,  it  appears  often  desirable  to 
modify  the  glaring  yellowish  rays  of  the 
incandescent  light.  A  slight  collodion 
film  of  a  delicate  bluish,  greenish,  or 
pink  shade  will  do  that. 

For  advertising  purposes  the  bulbs  are 
often  colored  in  two  or  more  colors.  It 
is  also  easy  with  a  little  practice  to  paint 
words  or  pictures,  etc.,  on  the  bulbs  with 
colored  collodion  with  a  brush. 

Another  use  of  colored  collodion  in 
pharmacy  is  to  color  the  show  globes  on 
their  inside,  thus  avoiding  freezing  and 
the  additional  weight  of  the  now  used 
colored  liquids.  Pour  a  quantity  of  col- 
ored collodion  into  the  clean,  dry  globe, 
close  the  mouth  and  quickly  let  the  col- 
lodion cover  all  parts  of  the  inside.  Re- 
move the  balance  of  the  collodion  at 
once,  and  keep  it  to  color  electric  bulbs 
for  your  trade. 


LANOLINE  CREAMS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

LANOLINE   SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

LANTERN  SLIDES: 
See  Photography. 

LARD: 

Detection  of  Cottonseed  Oil  in  Lard. — 
Make  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  silver 
nitrate  in  distilled  water,  and  acidify  it 
by  adding  1  per  cent  of  nitrate  acid,  C.  P. 
Into  a  test  tube  put  a  sample  of  the  sus- 
pected lard  and  heat  gently  until  it  lique- 
fies. Now  add  an  equal  quantity  of  the 
silver  nitrate  solution,  agitate  a  little,  and 
bring  to  a  boil.  Continue  the  boiling 
vigorously  for  about  8  minutes.  If  the 
lard  remain  clear  and  colorless,  it  may 
be  accepted  as  pure.  The  presence  of 
cottonseed  oil  or  fat  will  make  itself 
known  by  a  coloration,  varying  from 
yellow,  grayish  green  to  brown,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  present. 

LATHE   LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricants. 


LAUNDRY   PREPARATIONS 


443 


LAUNDRY  INKS: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

Laundry  Preparations 

BLUING  COMPOUNDS: 

Laundry  Blue. — The  soluble  blue  of 
commerce,  when  properly  made,  dis- 
solves freely  in  water,  and  solutions  so 
made  are  put  up  as  liquid  laundry  blue. 
The  water  employed  in  making  the  solu- 
tion should  be  free  from  mineral  sub- 
stances, especially  lime,  or  precipitation 
may  occur.  If  rain  water  or  distilled 
water  and  a  good  article  of  blue  be  used, 
a  staple  preparation  ought  apparently  to 
result;  but  whether  time  alone  affects 
the  matter  of  solubility  it  is  impossible 
to  state.  As  it  is  essential  that  trie  solu- 
tion should  be  a  perfect  one,  it  is  best  to 
filter  it  through  several  thicknesses  of 
fine  cotton  cloth  before  bottling;  or  if 
made  in  large  quantities  this  method 
may  be  modified  by  allowing  it  to  stand 
some  days  to  settle,  when  the  top  portion 
can  be  siphoned  off  for  use,  the  bottom 
only  requiring  filtration. 

This  soluble  blue  is  said  to  be  potas- 
sium ferri-ferrocyanide,  and  is  prepared 
by  gradually  adding  to  a  boiling  solution 
of  potassium  ferricyanide  (red  prussiate 
of  potash)  an  equivalent  quantity  of  hot 
solution  of  ferrous  sulphate,  boiling  for 
2  hours  and  washing  the  precipitate  on  a 
filter  until  the  washings  assume  a  dark- 
blue  color;  the  moist  precipitate  can  then 
at  once  be  dissolved  by  the  further  ad- 
dition of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water. 
About  64  parts  of  the  iron  salt  are  neces- 
sary to  convert  100  parts  of  the  potassium 
salt  into  the  blue  compound. 

Leaf  bluing  for  laundry  use  may  be 
prepared  by  coating  thick  sized  paper 
with  soluble  blue  formed  into  a  paste 
with  a  mixture  of  dextrin  mucilage  and 
glycerine.  Dissolve  a  given  quantity 
of  dextrine  in  water  enough  to  make  a 
solution  about  as  dense  as  ordinary 
syrup,  add  about  as  much  glycerine  as 
there  was  dextrine,  rub  the  blue  smooth 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  this  vehicle 
and  coat  the  sheets  with  the  paint.  The 
amount  of  blue  to  be  used  will  depend 
of  course  on  the  intended  cost  of  the 
product,  and  the  amount  of  glycerine  will 
require  adjustment  so  as  to  give  a  mixture 
which  will  not  "smear"  after  the  water 
has  dried  out  and  yet  remain  readily  sol- 
uble. 

Ultramarine  is  now  very  generally  used 
as  a  laundry  blue  where  the  insoluble  or 
"bag  blue"  is  desired.  It  is  mixed  with 
glucose,  or  glucose  and  dextrine,  and 


pressed  into  balls  or  cakes.  When  glu- 
cose alone  is  used,  the  product  has  a 
tendency,  it  is  said,  to  become  soft  on 
keeping,  which  tendency  may  be  coun- 
teracted by  a  proper  proportion  of  dex- 
trin. Bicarbonate  of  sodium  is  added 
as  a  "filler"  to  cheapen  the  product,  the 
quantity  used  and  the  quality  of  the 
ultramarine  employed  being  both  regu- 
lated by  the  price  at  which  the  product 
is  to  sell. 

The  coal-tar  or  aniline  blues  are  not 
offered  to  the  general  public  as  laundry 
blues,  but  laundry  proprietors  have 
them  frequently  brought  under  their 
notice,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  solutions, 
usually  1  to  1£  per  cent  strong.  These 
dyes  are  strong  bluing  materials,  and, 
being  in  the  form  of  solution,  are  not 
liable  to  speck  the  clothes.  Naturally 
their  properties  depend  upon  the  par- 
ticular dye  used;  some  are  fast  to  acids 
and  alkalies,  others  are  fast  to  one  but 
not  to  another;  some  will  not  stand  iron- 
ing, while  others  again  are  not  affected 
by  the  operation;  generally  they  are  not 
fast  to  light,  but  this  is  only  of  minor  im- 
portance. The  soluble,  or  cotton,  blues 
are  those  most  favored;  these  are  made 
in  a  great  variety  of  tints,  varying  from  a 
reddish  blue  to  a  pure  blue  in  hue,  dis- 
tinguished by  such  brands  as  3R,  6B, 
etc.  Occasionally  the  methyl  violets 
are  used,  especially  the  blue  tints. 
Blackley  blue  is  very  largely  used  for  this 
purpose,  being  rather  faster  than  the 
soluble  blues.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  this  dye  is 
usually  strong  enough.  Unless  care  is 
taken  in  dissolving  these  dyes  they  are 
apt  to  produce  specks.  The  heat  to 
which  the  pure  blues  are  exposed  in  iron- 
ing the  clothes  causes  some  kinds  to 
assume  a  purple  tinge. 

The  cheapest  aniline  blue  costs  about 
three  times  as  much  as  soluble  blue,  yet 
the  tinctorial  power  of  the  aniline  colors 
is  so  great  that  possibly  they  might  be 
cheapened. 

Soluble  Blue. — I. — Dissolve  217  parts 
of  prussiate  of  potash  in  800  parts  of  hot 
water  and  bring  the  whole  to  1,000  parts. 
Likewise  dissolve  100  parts  of  ferric 
chloride  in  water  and  bring  the  solution 
also  to  1,000  parts.  To  each  of  these 
solutions  add  2,000  parts  of  cooking 
salt  or  Glauber's  salt  solution  saturated 
in  the  cold  and  mix  well.  The  solutions 
thus  prepared  of  prussiate  of  potash  arid 
ferric  chloride  are  now  mixed  together 
with  stirring.  Allow  to  settle  and  re- 
move by  suction  the  clear  liquid  con- 
taining undecomposed  ferrocyanide  of 


444 


LAUNDRY   PREPARATIONS 


potassium  and  Glauber's  salt;  this  is  kept 
and  used  for  the  next  manufacture  by 
boiling  it  down  and  allowing  the  salts  to 
crystalline  out.  The  percentage  of  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium  is  estimated  by 
analysis,  and  for  the  next  production 
proportionally  less  is  used,  employing 
that  obtained  by  concentration. 

After  siphoning  off  the  solution  the 
precipitate  is  washed  with  warm  water, 
placed  on  a  filter  and  washed  out  on  the 
latter  by  pouring  on  cold  water  until  the 
water  running  off  commences  to  assume 
a  strong  blue  color.  The  precipitate  is 
then  squeezed  out  and  dried  at  a  moder- 
ate heat  (104°  F.).  The  Paris  blue  thus 
obtained  dissolves  readily  in  water  and 
can  be  extensively  employed  in  a  similar 
manner  as  indigo  carmine. 

II. — Make  ordinary  Prussian  blue 
(that  which  has  been  purified  by  acids, 
chlorine,  or  the  hypochlorites)  into  a 
thick  paste  with  distilled  or  rain  water, 
and  add  a  saturated  solution  of  oxalic 
acid  sufficient  to  dissolve.  If  time  be  of 
no  consequence,  by  leaving  this  solution 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  in  the  course 
of  60  days  the  blue  will  be  entirely  pre- 
cipitated in  soluble  form.  Wash  with 
weak  alcohol  and  dry  at  about  100°  F. 
The  resultant  mass  dissolves  in  pure 
water  and  remains  in  solution  indefi- 
nitely. It  gives  a  deep,  brilliant  blue, 
and  is  not  injurious  to  the  clothing  or 
the  hands  of  the  washwoman. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by 
precipitating  the  soluble  blue  from  its 
oxide  solution  by  the  addition  of  alcohol 
of  95  per  cent,  or  with  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  sodium  sulphate.  Pour  off  the 
mother  liquid  and  wash  with  very  dilute 
alcohol;  or  throw  on  a  filter  and  wash 
with  water  until  the  latter  begins  to  come 
off  colored  a  deep  blue. 

Liquid  Laundry  Blue. — This  may  be 
prepared  either  with  liquid  Prussian  blue 
or  indigo  carmine.  Make  a  solution  of 
gum  dragon  (gum  tragacanth)  by  dis- 
solving 1  to  2  ounces  of  the  powdered 
gum  in  1  gallon  of  cold  water  in  which  \ 
ounce  oxalic  acid  has  been  dissolved. 
The  gum  will  take  several  days  to  dis- 
solve, and  will  require  frequent  stirring 
and  straining  before  use.  To  the  strained 
portion  add  as  much  Prussian  blue  in 
fine  powder  as  the  liquid  will  dissolve 
without  precipitating,  and  the  com- 
pound is  ready  for  use. 

Instead  of  powdered  Prussian  blue, 
soluble  Prussian  blue  may  be  used. 
This  is  made  by  dissolving  solid  Prus- 
sian blue  in  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  but 
as  the  use  of  oxalic  acid  is  to  be  depre- 


cated for  the  use  of  laundresses,  as  it 
would  set  up  blood  poisoning  should  it 
get  into  any  cuts  in  the  flesh,  it  is  best  to 
prepare  liquid  blue  by  making  a  solution 
of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  (ferrocya- 
nide  of  potassium)  with  water,  and  then 
by  adding  a  sufficient  quantity  of  chlor- 
ide of  iron  to  produce  a  blue,  but  not 
enough  to  be  precipitated. 

Ball  Blue. — The  ball  sold  for  laundry 
use  consists  usually,  if  not  always,  of 
ultramarine.  The  balls  are  formed  by 
compression,  starch  or  some  other  ex- 
cipient  of  like  character  being  added  to 
render  the  mass  cohesive.  Blocks  of 
blue  can,  of  course,  be  made  by  the  same 
process.  The  manufacturers  of  ultra- 
marine prepare  balls  and  cubes  of  the 
pigment  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  does 
not  seem  likely  that  there  would  be  a 
sufficient  margin  of  profit  to  justify  the 
making  of  them  in  a  small  way  from 
the  powdered  pigment.  Careful  experi- 
ments, however,  would  be  necessary  to 
determine  this  positively.  Ultramarine 
is  of  many  qualities,  and  it  may  be  ex- 
pected that  the  balls  will  vary  also  in  the 
amount  of  "filling"  according  to  the 
price  at  which  they  are  to  be  sold. 
Below  is  a  "filled"  formula: 

Ultramarine 6  ounces 

Sodium  carbonate..  .  .      4  ounces 

Glucose 1  ounce 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Make  a  thick  paste,  roll  into  sheets, 
and  cut  into  tablets.  The  balls  in  bulk 
can  be  obtained  only  in  large  packages 
of  the  manufacturers,  say  barrels  of  200 
pounds;  but  put  up  in  1-pound  boxes 
they  can  be  bought  in  cases  as  small  as  28 
pounds. 

Laundry  Blue  Tablets. — 

Ultramarine 6  ounces 

Sodium  carbonate..  .  .      4  ounces 

Glucose 1  ounce 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Make  a  thick  paste,  roll  into  sheets, 
and  cut  into  tablets. 

Polishes  or  Glazes  for  Laundry  Work. 
— I. — To  a  mixture  of  200  parts  each  of 
Japan  wax  and  paraffine,  add  100  parts 
of  stearic  acid,  melt  together,  and  cast  in 
molds.  If  the  heated  smoothing  iron  be 
rubbed  with  this  wax  the  iron  will  not 
merely  get  over  the  surface  much  more 
rapidly,  but  will  leave  a  handsome  polish. 

Laundry  Gloss  Dressing. — 

II. — Dissolve  white  wax,  5.0  parts,  in 
ether,  20.5  parts,  and  add  spirit,  75.0 
parts.  Shake  before  use. 

Heat  until  melted,  in  a  pot,  1,000  parts 


LAUNDRY   PREPARATIONS 


445 


of  wax  and  1,000  parts  of  stearine,  as  well 
as  a  few  drops  of  an  essential  oil.  To 
the  hot  liquid  add  with  careful  stirring 
250  parts  of  ammonia  lye  of  10  per  cent, 
whereby  a  thick,  soft  mass  results  im- 
mediately. Upon  further  heating  same 
turns  thin  again,  whereupon  it  is  diluted 
with  20,000  parts  of  boiling  water,  mixed 
with  100  parts  of  starch  and  poured  into 
molds. 

STARCHES. 

Most  laundry  starches  now  contain 
some  polishing  mixture  for  giving  a  high 
luster. 

I. — ^Dissolve  in  a  vessel  of  sufficient 
capacity,  42  parts  of  crystallized  mag- 
nesium chloride  in  30  parts  of  water. 
In  another  vessel  stir  12  parts  of  starch 
in  20  parts  of  water  to  a  smooth  paste. 
Mix  the  two  and  heat  under  pressure  until 
the  starch  is  fluidified. 

II. — Pour  250  parts,  by  weight,  of 
water,  over  5  parts,  by  weight,  of  pow- 
dered gum  tragacanth  until  the  powder 
swells  uniformly;  then  add  750  parts,  by 
weight,  of  boiling  water,  dissolve  50 
parts,  by  weight,  of  borax  in  it,  and  stir  50 
parts,  by  weight,  of  stearine  and  50  parts, 
by  weight,  of  talcum  into  the  whole. 
Of  this  fluid  add  250  parts  to  1,000  parts 
of  boiled  starch,  or  else  the  ironing  oil 
is  applied  by  means  of  a  sponge  on  the 
starched  wash,  which  is  then  ironed. 
By  weight 

III.— Starch 1,044  parts 

Borax 9  parts 

Common  salt 1  part 

Gum  arabic 8  parts 

Stearine 20  parts 

WASHING     FLUIDS,    BRICKS     AND 
POWDERS: 

Washing  Fluids. — Rub  up  75  parts  of 
milk  of  sulphur  with  125  parts  of  glycer- 
ine in  a  mortar,  next  add  50  parts  of 
camphorated  spirit  and  1  part  of  lav- 
ender oil,  and  finally  stir  in  250  parts  of 
rose  water  and  1,000  parts  of  distilled 
water.  The  liquid  must  be  stirred  con- 
stantly when  filling  it  into  bottles,  since 
the  sulphur  settles  rapidly  and  would 
thus  be  unevenly  distributed. 

Grosser's  Washing  Brick. — 

Water 54        parts 

Sodium  hydrate.  .  . .  38.21  parts 

Sodium  biborate.. ..  6.61  parts 

Sodium  silicate 1.70  parts 

Haenkel's  Bleaching  Solution. — 

Water 36.15  parts 

Sodium  hydrate.  .  .  .    40.22  parts 
Sodium  silicate 23.14  parts 


34.50  parts 
25.33  parts 
39.40  parts 


2  parts 
1  part 


6  parts 
3  parts 
1  part 

3  parts 
1  part 

Equal 
parts. 


Luhn's  Washing  Extract. 

Water 

Sodium  hydrate.  .  . . 
Soap 

Washing  Powders. — 
I. — Sodium  carbonate, 
partly  effloresced. 

O      J  L. 

boda  ash 

II. — Sodium     carbonate, 
partly  effloresced . 

Soda  ash 

Yellow  soap 

III. — Sodium     carbonate, 

partly    effloresced 

Soap  bark 

IV. — Sodium      carbonate, 
partly    effloresced 

Borax 

Yellow  soap 

V. — A  good  powder  can  be  made 
from  100  parts  of  crystal  soda,  25  parts 
of  dark-yellow  rosin-cured  soap,  and  5 
parts  of  soft  soap.  The  two  latter  are 
placed  in  a  pan,  along  with  one-half  the 
soda  (the  curd  soap  being  cut  into  small 
lumps),  and  slowly  heated,  with  con- 
tinual crutching,  until  they  are  thorough- 
ly melted — without,  however,  beginning 
to  boil.  The  fire  is  then  drawn  and  the 
remaining  soda  crutched  in  until  it,  too, 
is  melted,  this  being  effected  by  the  resid- 
ual heat  of  the  mass  and  the  pan.  The 
mass  will  be  fairly  thick  by  the  time  the 
soda  is  all  absorbed.  After  leaving  a 
little  longer,  with  occasional  stirring,  the 
contents  are  spread  out  on  several  thin 
sheets  of  iron  in  a  cool  room,  to  be  then 
turned  over  by  the  shovel  at  short  in- 
tervals, in  order  to  further  cool  and  break 
down  the  mixture.  The  soap  will  then 
be  in  a  friable  condition,  and  can  be 
rubbed  through  the  sieve,  the  best  re- 
sults being  obtained  by  passing  through 
a  coarse  sieve  first,  and  one  of  finer  mesh 
afterwards.  With  these  ingredients  a 
fine  yellow-colored  powder  will  be  ob- 
tained. White  stock  soap  may  also  be 
used,  and,  if  desired,  colored  with  pa'lm 
oil  and  the  same  colorings  as  are  used  for 
toilet  soaps.  The  object  of  adding  soft 
soap  is  to  increase  the  solubility  and 
softness  of  the  powder,  but  the  propor- 
tion used  should  not  exceed  one-third  of 
the  hard  soap,  or  the  powder  will  be 
smeary  and  handle  moist.  The  quality 
of  the  foregoing  product  is  good,  the 
powder  being  stable  and  not  liable  to 
ball,  even  after  prolonged  storage; 
neither  does  it  wet  the  paper  in  which  it 
is  packed,  nor  swell  up,  and  therefore 
the  packets  retain  their  appearance. 


446 


LAUNDRY   PREPARATIONS— LEAKS 


In  making  ammonia-turpentine  soap 
powder  the  ammonia  and  oil  of  turpen- 
tine are  crutched  into  the  mass  shortly 
before  removing  it  from  the  pan,  and  if 
the  powder  is  scented — for  which  pur- 
pose oil  of  mirbane  is  mostly  used — the 
perfume  is  added  at  the  same  stage. 

To  Whiten  Flannels. — Dissolve,  by  the 
aid  of  heat,  40  parts  of  white  castile  soap, 
shaved  fine,  in  1,200  parts  of  soft  water, 
and  to  the  solution,  wnen  cold,  gradually 
add,  under  constant  stirring,  1  part  of 
the  strongest  water  of  ammonia.  Soak 
the  goods  in  this  solution  for  2  hours, 
then  let  them  be  washed  as  usual  for  fine 
flannels.  A  better  process,  in  the  hands 
of  experts,  is  to  soak  the  goods  for  an 
hour  or  so  in  a  dilute  solution  of  sodium 
hyposulphite,  remove,  add  to  the  solution 
sufficient  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to  de- 
compose the  hyposulphite.  Replace  the 
goods,  cover  the  tub  closely,  and  let  re- 
main for  15  minutes  longer.  Then  re- 
move the  running  water,  if  convenient, 
and  if  not,  wring  out  quickly,  and  rinse 
in  clear  water.  One  not  an  expert  at 
such  work  must  be  very  careful  in  the 
rinsing,  as  care  must  be  taken  to  get  out 
every  trace  of  chemical.  This  is  best 
done  by  a  second  rinsing. 

Ink  for  the  Laundry. — The  following 
is  said  to  make  a  fine,  jet-black  laundry 
ink: 

a.    Copper  chloride,crys- 

tals 85  parts 

Sodium  chlorate.  .  .  .  106  parts 
Ammonium  chloride  53  parts 
Water,  distilled 600  parts 

6.    Glycerine 100  parts 

Mucilage  gum  arabic 
(gum,     1    part; 
water,  2  parts)..  . .    200  parts 
Aniline    hydrochlor- 

ate 200  parts 

Distilled  water 300  parts 

Make  solutions  a  and  b  and  preserve  in 
separate  bottles.  When  wanted  for  use, 
mix  1  part  of  solution  a  with  4  parts  of 
solution  6. 

Laces,  Curtains,  etc. — I. — To  give  lace 
curtains,  etc.,  a  cream  color,  take  1  part 
of  chrysoidin  and  mix  with  2  parts  of 
dextrin  and  dissolve  in  250  parts  of 
water.  The  articles  to  be  washed  clean 
are  plunged  in  this  solution.  About  an 
ounce  of  chrysoidin  is  sufficient  for  5 
curtains. 

II. —  Washing  curtains  in  coffee  will 
give  them  an  ecru  color,  but  the  simplest 
way  to  color  curtains  is  with  "Philadel- 


phia  yellow"    (G.   or    R.   of  the   Berlin 

Aktiengesellschaft's  scale). 

LAUNDRY  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

LAVATORY  DEODORANT: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

LAXATIVES   FOR    CATTLE   AND 
HORSES: 

See   Veterinary  Formulas. 

LEAD: 

See  also  Metals. 

Simple  Test  for  Red  Lead  and  Orange 
Lead. — Take  a  little  of  the  sample  in  a 
test  tube,  add  pure,  strong  nitric  acid  and 
heat  by  a  Bunsen  burner  until  a  white, 
solid  residue  is  obtained.  Then  add 
water,  when  a  clear,  colorless  solution 
will  be  obtained.  A  white  residue  would 
indicate  adulteration  with  barytes,  a  red 
residue  or  a  yellow  solution  with  oxide  of 
iron.  The  presence  of  iron  may  be  as- 
certained by  adding  a  few  drops  of  a 
solution  of  potassium  ferrocyanide  (yel- 
low prussiate  of  potash)  to  the  solution, 
when  a  blue  precipitate  will  be  obtained 
if  there  be  the  least  trace  of  iron  present. 

LEAD,  TO   TAKE   BOILING,  IN    THE 
MOUTH: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

LEAD  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

LEAD   PAPER: 
See  Paper. 

LEAD  PLATE,   TINNED: 

See  Plating. 

LEAKS,  IN  BOILERS,  STOPPING: 

See  Putties. 

LEAKS: 

To  Stop  Leakage  in  Iron  Hot-Water 
Pipes. — Take  some  fine  iron  borings  or 
filings  and  mix  with  them  sufficient  vine- 
gar to  form  a  sort  of  paste,  though  the 
mixture  is  not  adhesive.  With  this  mix- 
ture fill  up  the  cracks  where  the  leakage 
is  found,  having  previously  dried  the 


pipe.  It  must  be  kept  dry  until  the  paste 
has  become  quite  hard.  If  an  iron  pipe 
should  burst,  or  there  should  be  a  nole 


broken  into  it  by  accident,  a  piece  of  iron 
may  be  securely  fastened  over  it,  by  bed- 
ding it  on  in  paste  made  of  the  borings 
and  vinegar  as  above,  but  the  pipe  should 
not  be  disturbed  until  it  has  become  per- 
fectly dry. 

To    Prevent    Wooden    Vessels    from 
Leaking.      (See  also  Casks.)  —  Wooden 


LEATHER 


447 


vessels,  such  as  pails,  barrels,  etc.,  often 
become  so  dry  that  the  joints  do  not 
meet,  thus  causing  leakage.  In  order  to 
obviate  this  evil  stir  together  60  parts 
hog's  lard,  40  parts  salt,  and  33  parts 
wax,  and  allow  the  mixture  to  dissolve 
slowly  over  a  fire.  Then  add  40  parts 
charcoal  to  the  liquid  mass.  The  leaks 
in  the  vessels  are  dried  off  well  and  filled 
up  with  putty  while  still  warm.  When 
the  latter  has  become  dry,  the  barrels, 
etc.,  will  be  perfectly  tight.  If  any 
putty  is  left,  keep  in  a  dry  place  and 
heat  it  to  be  used  again. 

Leather 

(See  also  Shoes.) 

Artificial  Leather. — Pure  Italian  hemp 
is  cut  up  fine;  1  part  of  this  and  £  part  of 
coarse,  cleaned  wool  are  carded  together 
and  formed  into  wadding.  This  wad- 
ding is  packed  in  linen  and  felted  by 
treatment  with  hot  acid  vapors.  The 
resulting  felt  is  washed  out,  dried,  and 
impregnated  with  a  substance  whose 
composition  varies  according  to  the 
leather  to  be  produced.  Thus,  good 
sole  leather,  for  instance,  is  produced 
according  to  a  Danish  patent,  in  the 
following  manner:  Mix  together  50  parts 
of  boiled  linseed  oil;  20  parts  of  colo- 
phony; 25  parts  of  French  turpentine; 
10  parts  of  glycerine,  and  10  parts  of 
vegetable  wax,  and  heat  over  a  water 
bath  with  some  ammonia  water.  When 
the  mass  has  become  homogeneous,  add 
25  parts  of  glue,  soaked  in  water,  as  well 
as  a  casein  solution,  which  latter  is 
produced  by  dissolving  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  moist,  freshly  precipitated 
casein  in  i  saturated  solution  of  16  parts 
of  borax  and  adding  10  parts  of  potas- 
sium bichromate,  the  last  two  also  by 
weight.  Finally,  mineral  dyestuffs  as 
well  as  antiseptic  substances  may  be 
added  to  the  mass.  The  whole  mixture 
is  now  boiled  until  it  becomes  sticky  and 
the  felt  is  impregnated  with  it  by  im- 
mersion. The  impregnated  felt  is  dried 
for  24  hours  at  an  ordinary  tempera- 
ture; next  laid  into  a  solution  of  alumi- 
num acetate  and  finally  dried  completely, 
dyed,  and  pressed  between  hot  rollers. 

Black  Dye  for  Tanned  Leather. — This 
recipe  takes  the  place  of  the  ill-smelling 
iron  blacking,  and  is  not  injurious  to  the 
leather.  Gallnuts,  pulverized,  150  parts; 
vitriol,  green  or  black,  10  parts;  rock 
candy,  60  parts;  alum,  15  parts;  vinegar, 
250  parts;  cooking  salt,  20  parts.  Dissolve 
with  4,000  parts  of  distilled  water. 

Boil    this    solution    slowly    and    the 


blacking  is  done.  When  it  has  cooled 
and  settled,  pour  through  linen,  thus 
obtaining  a  pure,  good  leather  blacking. 

Bronze  Leather.— All  sorts  of  skins — 
sheepskins,  goatskins,  coltskins,  and 
light  calfskins — are  adapted  for  the 
preparation  of  bronze  leather.  In  this 
preparation  the  advantage  lies  not  only 
in  the  use  of  the  faultless  skins,  but  scari- 
fied skins  and  those  of  inferior  quality 
may  also  be  employed.  The  dressing 
of  the  previously  tanned  skin  must  be 
carried  out  with  the  greatest  care,  to  pre- 
vent the  appearance  of  spots  and  other 
faults.  After  tanning,  the  pelts  are  well 
washed,  scraped,  and  dried.  Then 
they  are  bleached.  For  coloring,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  employ  methyl  violet  which 
has  previously  been  dissolved  in  hot 
water,  taking  100  parts,  by  weight,  of 
the  aniline  color  to  8,000  parts,  by  weight, 
of  water.  If  in  the  leather-dressing 
establishment  a  line  of  steam  piping  be 
convenient,  it  is  advisable  to  boil  up  all 
the  coloring  dyes,  rather  than  simply  to 
dissolve  them;  for  in  this  way  complete 
solution  is  effected.  Where  steam  is 
used  no  special  appliance  is  required  for 
boiling  up  the  dyes,  for  this  may  take 
place  without  inconvenience  in  the 
separate  dye  vats.  A  length  of  steam 
hose  and  a  brass  nozzle  with  a  valve  is 
all  that  is  needed.  It  may  be  as  well  to 
add  here  that  the  violet  color  for  dyeing 
may  be  made  cheaper  than  as  above 
described.  To  3,000  parts,  by  weight, 
of  pretty  strong  logwood  decoction  add 
50  parts,  by  weight,  of  alum  and  100 
parts,  by  weight,  of  methyl  violet.  This 
compound  is  almost  as  strong  as  the 
pure  violet  solution,  and  instead  of  8,000 
parts,  by  weight,  we  now  have  30,000 
parts,  by  weight,  of  color. 

The  color  is  applied  and  well  worked 
in  with  a  stiff  brush,  and  the  skins  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  a  short  time,  sufficient 
to  allow  the  dye  to  penetrate  the  pores, 
when  it  is  fulled.  As  for  the  shade  of 
the  bronze,  it  may  be  made  reddish, 
bluish,  or  brownish,  according  to  taste. 

For  a  reddish  or  brownish  ground  the 
skins  are  simply  fulled  in  warm  water, 
planished,  fulled  again,  and  then  dyed. 
According  to  the  color  desired,  the  skins 
are  treated  with  cotton  blue  and  methyl 
violet  R,  whereupon  the  application  of 
the  bronze  follows. 

The  bronze  is  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
and  it  is  usual  to  take  200  parts,  by 
weight,  of  bronze  to  1,000  of  alcohol. 
By  means  of  this  mixture  the  peculiar 
component  parts  of  the  bronze  are  dis- 
solved. For  a  fundamental  or  thorough 


448 


LEATHER 


solution  a  fortnight  is  required.  All 
bronze  mixtures  are  to  be  well  shaken  or 
agitated  before  using.  Skins  may  be 
bronzed,  however,  without  the  use  of  the 
bronze  colors,  for  it  is  well  known  that 
all  the  aniline  dyes  present  a  bronze  ap- 
pearance when  highly  concentrated,  and 
this  is  particularly  the  case  with  the 
violet  and  red  dyes.  If,  therefore,  the 
violet  be  applied  in  very  strong  solutions, 
the  effect  will  be  much  the  same  as  when 
the  regular  bronze  color  is  employed. 

Bronze  color  on  a  brown  ground  is  the 
most  beautiful  of  all,  and  is  used  to  the 
greatest  advantage  when  it  is  desirable 
to  cover  up  defects.  Instead  of  warm 
clear  water  in  such  a  case,  use  a  decoc- 
tion of  logwood  to  which  a  small  quan- 
tity of  alum  has  been  added,  and  thus, 
during  the  fulling,  impart  to  the  skins  a 
proper  basic  tint,  which  may,  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  little  violet  or  bronze  color, 
be  converted  into  a  most  brilliant  bronze. 
By  no  means  is  it  to  be  forgotten  that  too 
much  coloring  matter  will  never  produce 
the  desired  results,  for  here,  as  with  the 
other  colors,  too  much  will  bring  out  a 
greenish  tint,  nor  will  the  gloss  turn  out 
so  beautiful  and  clear.  Next  rinse  the 
skins  well  in  clean  water,  and  air  them, 
after  which  they  may  be  dried  with  arti- 
ficial heat.  Ordinary  as  well  as  dam- 
aged skins  which  are  not  suitable  for 
chevreaux  (kid)  and  which  it  is  desirable 
to  provide  with  a  very  high  polish,  in 
order  the  more  readily  to  conceal  the 
defects  in  the  grain,  and  other  imperfec- 
tions, are,  after  the  drying,  coated  with  a 
mixture,  compounded  according  to  the 
following  simple  formula:  Stir  well  1 
pint  of  ox  blood  and  1  pint  of  unboiled 
milk  in  10  quarts  of  water,  and  with  a 
soft  sponge  apply  this  to  the  surface  of 
the  skin.  The  blood  has  no  damaging 
effect  upon  the  color.  Skins  thus  mois- 
tened must  not  be  laid  one  upon  another, 
but  must  be  placed  separately  in  a  thor- 
oughly well-warmed  chamber  to  dry. 
When  dry  they  are  glossed,  and  may  then 
be  pressed  into  shagreen  or  pebbled. 
The  thin  light  goatskins  are  worked  into 
kid  or  chevreaux.  Properly  speaking, 
they  are  only  imitation  chevreaux  (kid), 
for  although  they  are  truly  goatskins, 
under  the  term  chevreaux  one  under- 
stands only  such  skins  as  have  bee« 
cured  in  alum  and  treated  with  albumen 
and  flour. 

After  drying,  these  skins  are  drawn 
over  the  perching  stick  with  the  round 
knife,  then  glossed,  stretched,  glossed 
again,  and  finally  vigorously  brushed 
upon  the  flesh  side  with  a  stiff  brush. 
The  brushing  should  be  done  preferably 


by  hand,  for  the  brushing  machines 
commonly  pull  the  skins  out  of  all  shape. 
Brushing  is  intended  only  to  give  the 
flesh  side  more  of  a  flaky  appearance. 

During  the  second  glossing  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  pressure  is  light,  for 
the  object  is  merely  to  bring  the  skin 
back  into  its  proper  shape,  lost  in  the 
stretching;  the  glossing  proper  should 
have  been  accomplished  during  the  first 
operation. 

Cracked  Leather. — The  badly  cracked 
and  fissured  carriage  surface  greets  the 
painter  on  every  hand.  The  following 
is  the  recipe  for  filling  up  and  facing  over 
such  a  surface:  Finest  pumice  stone,  6 
parts;  lampblack  (in  bulk),  1  part;  com- 
mon roughstuff  filler,  3  parts.  Mix  to 
stiff  paste  in  good  coach  japan,  5  parts; 
hard  drying  rubbing  varnish,  1  part. 
Thin  to  a  brushing  consistency  with 
turpentine,  and  apply  1  coat  per  day. 
Put  on  2  coats  of  this  filler  and  then  2 
coats  Or  ordinary  roughstuff.  Rub  with 
lump  pumice  stone  and  water.  This 
process  does  not  equal  burning  off  in 
getting  permanently  rid  of  the  cracks, 
but  when  the  price  of  painting  forbids 
burning  off,  it  serves  as  an  effective  sub- 
stitute. Upon  a  job  that  is  well  cared 
for,  and  not  subjected  to  too  exacting 
service,  this  filler  will  secrete  the  cracks 
and  fissures  for  from  3  to  5  months. 

DRESSINGS  FOR  LEATHER: 

For  Carriage  Tops. — I. — Here  is  an 
inexpensive  and  quickly  prepared  dress- 
ing for  carriage  tops  or  the  like:  Take 
2  parts  of  common  glue;  soak  and  liquefy 
it  over  a  fire.  Three  parts  of  castile 
soap  are  then  dissolved  over  a  moderate 
heat.  Of  water,  120  parts  are  added 
to  dissolve  the  soap  and  glue,  after  which 
an  intimate  mixture  of  the  ingredients  is 
effected.  Then  4  parts  of  spirit  varnish 
are  added;  next,  2  parts  of  wheat  starch, 
previously  mixed  in  water,  are  thrown 
in.  Lampblack  in  a  sufficient  quantity 
to  give  the  mixture  a  good  coloring  power, 
without  killing  the  gloss,  is  now  added. 
This  preparation  may  be  used  as  above 
prepared,  or  it  may  be  placed  over  a 
gentle  fire  and  the  liquid  ingredients 
slowly  evaporated.  The  evaporated  mass 
is  then  liquefied  with  beer  as  shop  needs 
demand. 

II. — Shabby  dark  leather  will  look 
like  new  if  rubbed  over  with  either  lin- 
seed oil  or  the  well-beaten  white  of  an 
egg  mixed  with  a  little  black  ink.  Polish 
with  soft  dusters  until  quite  dry  and 
glossy. 

Polishes.  —  I. —  Dissolve   sticklac,  25 


LEATHER 


449 


parts;  shellac,  20  parts;  and  gum  ben- 
zoin, 4  parts,  all  finely  powdered,  in  a 
rolling  cask  containing  100  parts  of  96 
per  cent  alcohol;  perfume  with  1  part  of 
oil  of  rosemary.  Upon  letting  stand  for 
several  days,  filter  the  solution,  where- 
upon a  good  glossy  polish  for  leather, 
etc.,  will  be  obtained. 

II. — Dissolve  2  pounds  of  borax  in  4 
gallons  of  water  and  add  5  pounds  of 
shellac  to  the  boiling  liquid  in  portions, 
till  all  is  dissolved.  Then  boil  half  an 
hour,  and  finally  stir  in  5  pounds  of  sugar, 
2^  pounds  of  glycerine,  and  1^  pounds 
of  soluble  nigrosin.  When  cold  add  4 
pounds  of  95  per  cent  methylated  spirit. 

III.— Ox    blood,    fresh, 

clean 1,000  parts 

Commercial  glyc- 
erine         200  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine.      300  parts 
Pine      oil      (rosin 

oil) 5,000  parts 

Ox  gall 200  parts 

Formalin 15  parts 

Mix  in  the  order  named,  stirring  in 
each  ingredient.  When  mixed  strain 
through  linen. 

Kid  Leather  Dressings. — Creams  for 
reasing  fine  varieties  of  leather,  such  as 
id,  patent  leather,  etc.,  are  produced  as 
follows,  according  to  tried  recipes: 

White  Cream. — 

Lard 75  parts 

Glycerine,  technical  .      25  parts 
Mirbane  oil,  ad  libitum. 

Black  Cream. — 

Lard *  .  100  parts 

Yellow  vaseline 20  parts 

Glycerine,  technical.  10  parts 

Castor  oil,  technical.  10  parts 
Dye  black  with  lampblack  and  per- 
fume with  oil  of  mirbane. 

Colored  Cream. — 

Lard 100  parts 

Castor  oil 20  parts 

Yellow  wax 25  parts 

White  vaseline 30  parts 

Dye  with  any  desired   dyestuff,   e.  g., 

red  with  anchusine,  green  with  chloro- 

phyl.     In  summer  it  is  well  to  add  some 

wax  to  the  first  and  second  prescriptions. 

These  are  for  either  Morocco  or  kid: 

I.— Shellac 2  parts 

Benzoin 2  parts 

Yellow  wax 5  parts 

Soap  liniment 7  parts 

Alcohol 600  parts 

Digest  until  solution  is  effected,  then 


I 


allow  the  liquid  to  stand  in  a  cool  place 
for  12  hours  and  strain.  Apply  with  a 
bit  of  sponge  or  soft  rag;  spread  thinJy 
and  evenly  over  the  surface,  without 
rubbing  much.  If  dirty,  the  leather 
should  first  be  washed  with  a  little  soft 
soap  and  warm  water,  wiped  well,  and 
allowed  to  dry  thoroughly  before  the 
dressing  is  put  on. 

II. — Oil  of  turpentine. ...  8  ounces 

Suet 2  pounds 

Soft  soap 8  ounces 

Water 16  ounces 

Lampblack 4  ounces 

Patent  Leather  Dressings. — 

I. — Wax 22  parts 

Olive  oil 60  parts 

Oil  turpentine,  best .    20  parts 

Lavender  oil 10  parts 

With  gentle  heat,  melt  the  wax  in  the 
oil,  and  as  soon  as  melted  remove  from 
the  fire.  Add  the  turpentine  oil,  in- 
corporate, and  when  nearly  cold,  add 
and  incorporate  the  lavender  oil. 

II. — Wax 22  parts 

Olive  oil 60  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine. ...    30  parts 
With  gentle  heat,  melt  the  wax  in  the 
olive  oil,  and  as  soon  as  melted  remove 
from  the  fire.     When  nearly  cold  stir  in 
the  turpentine. 

Red  Russia  Leather  Varnish. — 

Shellac 1.20  parts 

Dammar  rosin,   pow- 
dered        0.15  parts 

Turpentine,  Venice  . .  0.60  parts 
Dissolve  with  frequent  shaking  in  12 
parts  of  alcohol  (95  per  cent),  add  1.8 
parts  of  powdered  red  sanders  wood,  let 
stand  for  3  days  and  filter.  The  object 
of  this  varnish  is  to  restore  the  original 
color  to  worn  Russia  leather  boots,  pre- 
viously cleaned  with  benzine. 

Russet  Leather  Dressing. — The  fol- 
lowing formulas  are  said  to  yield  effi- 
cient preparations  that  are  at  once  de- 
tersive and  polishing,  thus  rendering  the 
use  of  an  extra  cleaning  liquid  unneces- 
sary. 

I. — Soft  soap ...    2  parts 

Linseed  oil 3  parts 

Annatto  solution  (in 

oil) 8  parts 

Beeswax 3  parts 

Turpentine 8  parts 

Water 8  parts 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water,  and 
add  the  annatto;  melt  the  wax  in  the  oil 
and  turpentine,  and  gradually  stir  in  the 
soap  solution,  stirring  until  cold. 


450 


LEATHER 


II. — Palm  oil 16  parts 

Common  soap 48  parts 

Oleic  acid    32  parts 

Glycerine 10  parts 

Tannic  acid 1  part 

Melt  the  soap  and  palm  oil  together 

at  a  gentle  heat,  and  add  the  oleic  acid; 

dissolve  the  tannic  acid  in  the  glycerine, 

add  to  the  hot  soap  and  oil  mixture,  and 

stir  until  perfectly  cold. 

Shoe  Leather  Dressing. — Over  a  water 
bath  melt  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  oil  of 
turpentine;  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  olive 
oil;  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  train  oil;  40 
parts,  by  weight,  of  carnauba  wax;  15 
parts,  by  weight,  of  asphaltum;  and  2 
parts,  by  weight,  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 

DYEING  LEATHER. 

In  dyeing  leather,  aniline  or  coal-tar 
colors  are  generally  used.  These  dyes, 
owing  to  their  extremely  rapid  action  on 
organic  substances,  such  as  leather,  do 
not  readily  adapt  themselves  to  the 
staining  process,  because  a  full  brushful 
of  dye  liquor  would  give  a  much  deeper 
coloration  than  a  half-exhausted  brush 
would  give.  Consequently,  to  alter  and 
to  color  leather  by  the  staining  process 
results  in  a  patchy  coloration  of  the  skin. 
In  the  dyeing  operation  a  zinc  shallow 
trough,  4  to  6  inches  deep,  is  used,  into 
which  the  dye  liquor  is  put,  and  to  pro- 
duce the  best  results  the  contents  of  the 
trough  are  kept  at  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture by  means  of  a  heating  apparatus 
beneath  the  troligh,  such  as  a  gas  jet  or 
two,  which  readily  allows  of  a  heat  being 
regulated.  The  skins  to  be  dyed  are 
spread  out  flat  in  the  dye  trough,  one  at  a 
time,  each  skin  remaining  in  the  dye 
liquor  the  time  prescribed  by  the  recipe. 
The  best  coloration  of  the  skin  is  pro- 
duced by  using  3  dye  troughs  of  the 
same  dye  liquor,  each  of  different 
strength,  the  skin  being  put  in  the 
weakest  liquor  first,  then  passed  into  the 
second,  and  from  there  into  the  third  dye 
liquor,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain 
until  its  full  depth  of  color  is  obtained. 
Very  great  skill  is  required  in  the  em- 
ployment of  aniline  dyes,  as  if  the  heat  be 
too  great,  or  the  skins  remain  too  long  in 
the  final  bath,  "bronzing"  of  the  color 
occurs.  The  only  remedy  for  this  (and 
that  not  always  effectual)  is  to  sponge 
the  skin  with  plenty  of  cold,  clean  water, 
directly  it  is  taken  out  of  the  final  dye 
bath.  The  dyed  skins  are  dried  and 
finished  as  before. 

Leather  Brown. — 
Extract  of  fustic.  ...        5    ounces 
Extract  of  hypernic.  .      1     ounce 


Extract  of  logwood. . .        \  ounce 

Water 2    gallons 

Boil  all  these  ingredients  for  15  min- 
utes, and  then  dilute  with  water  to  make 
10  gallons  of  dye  liquor.  Use  the  dye 
liquor  at  a  temperature  of  110°  F. 

Mordant. — Dissolve  3  ounces  of  white 
tartar  and  4  ounces  of  alum  in  10  gal- 
lons of  water. 

Fast  Brown. — Prepare  a  dye  liquor  by 
dissolving  1 J  ounces  fast  brown  in  1  gal- 
lon of  water,  and  make  a  10-gallon  bulk 
of  this.  Use  at  a  temperature  of  1 10°  F., 
and  employ  the  same  mordanting  liquor 
as  in  last  recipe. 

Bismarck  Brown. — 

Extract  of  fustic 4     ounces 

Extract  of  hypernic.  .  1     ounce 

Extract  of  logwood.  .  .  \  ounce 

Water 2    gallons 

Preparation. — Boil  all  together  for  15 
minutes. 

Method  of  Dyeing. — First  mordant 
the  skins  with  a  mordanting  fluid  made 
by  dissolving  3  ounces  tartar  and  \  ounce 
borax  in  10  gallons  of  water.  Then  put 
the  skins  into  the  above  foundation  bath 
at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  Take  them 
out,  and  then  put  in  1  ounce  of  Bismarck 
brown,  dissolved  in  boiling  water.  Put 
the  skins  in  again  until  colored  deep 
enough,  then  lift  out,  drip  and  dry. 

HARNESS    PREPARATIONS: 

Blacking  for  Harness. — I. — In  a  water 
bath  dissolve  90  parts  of  yellow  wax  in 
900  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine;  aside  from 
this  mix  well  together,  all  the  ingredients 
being  finely  powdered,  10  parts  of  Prus- 
sian blue,  5  parts  of  indigo,  50  parts  of 
bone  black,  and  work  this  into  a  portion 
of  the  above-mentioned  waxy  solution. 
Now  throw  this  into  the  original  solution, 
which  still  remains  in  the  water  bath,  and 
stir  it  vigorously  until  the  mass  becomes 
homogeneous,  after  which  pour  it  into, 
any  convenient  earthenware  receptacle. 

II. — Best  glue,  4  ounces;  good  vine- 
gar, 1$  pints;  best  gum  arabic,  2  ounces; 
good  black  ink,  \  pint;  best  isinglass,  2 
drachms.  Dissolve  the  gum  in  the  ink, 
and  melt  the  isinglass  in  another  vessel 
in  as  much  hot  water  as  will  cover  it. 
Having  first  steeped  the  glue  in  the  vine- 
gar until  soft,  dissolve  it  completely  by 
the  aid  of  heat,  stirring  to  prevent  burn- 
ing. The  heat  should  not  exceed  180° 
F.  Add  the  gum  and  ink,  and  allow 
the  mixture  to  rise  again  to  the  same 
temperature.  Lastly  mix  the  solution  in 
isinglass,  and  remove  from  fire.  When 


LEATHER 


451 


used,  a  small  portion  must  be  heated 
until  fluid,  and  then  applied  with  a 
sponge  and  allowed  to  dry  on. 


Dressings  for  Harness.  — 
I.  —  Ox  blood,  fresh   and 

well  purified  .......  100 

Glycerine,  technical.  20 

Turpentine  oil  ......  30 

Pine  oil  ............  50 

Ox  gall  .  ...........  20 

Formalin.  .........  l 


parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 

The  raw  materials  are  stirred  together 
cold  in  the  order  named.  Pour  the  mix- 
ture through  thin  linen.  It  imparts  a 
wonderful  mild,  permanent  gloss. 

II.  —  A    French    harness    dressing    of 

food  quality  consists  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
00  parts;  yellow  wax,  90  parts;  Berlin 
blue,  10  parts;  indigo,  5  parts;  and  bone 
black,  50  parts.  Dissolve  the  yellow 
wax  in  the  oil  of  turpentine  with  the  aid 
of  moderate  heat  in  a  water  bath,  mix 
the  remaining  substances,  which  should 
previously  be  well  pulverized,  and  work 
them  with  a  small  portion  of  the  wax 
solution.  Finally,  add  the  rest  of  the 
wax  solution,  and  mix  the  whole  well  in 
the  water  bath.  When  a  homogeneous 
liquid  has  resulted,  pour  it  into  earthen 
receptacles. 

Harness  Oils.  — 

I.  —  Neatsfoot  oil  .......    10     ounces 

Oil  of  turpentine..  ..      2     ounces 

Petrolatum  ........      4     ounces 

Lampblack  ........        \  ounce 

Mix  the  lampblack  with  the  turpentine 
and  the  neatsfoot  oil,  melt  the  petrolatum 
and  mix  by  shaking  together. 

II.—  Black  aniline  ----  35    grains 

Muriatic  acid  ...  50    minims 

Bone  black  .....  175    grains 

Lampblack  .....  18     grains 

Yellow  wax.  .  .  .  .  2^  av.  ounces 

Oil  of  turpentine  22    fluidounces 

III.  —  Oil  of  turpentine  8  fluidounces 
Yellow  wax  .....  2  av.  ounces 
Prussian  blue  ...  \  av.  ounce 

Lampblack  .....          J  av.  ounce 
Melt  the  wax,  add  the  turpentine,  a 

portion  first  to  the  finely  powdered  Prus- 

sian blue  and  lampblack,  and  thin  with 

neatsfoot  oil. 

Harness  Pastes.  — 

I.  —  Ceresine,     natural 

yellow  ...........      1.5  parts 

Yellow  beeswax  ....      1.5  parts 

Japan  wax  .........      1.5  parts 

Melt  on  the  water  bath,  and  when  half 
cooled  stir  in  8  parts  of  turpentine  oil. 


Harness  Grease. — 

By  weight 
II. — Ceresine,     natural 

yellow 2.5  parts 

Beeswax,  yellow. . .  .      0.8  parts 
French      colophony, 

pale 0.4  parts 

By  weight 

III. — French    oil    turpen- 
tine       2.0  parts 

Intimately  mixed  in 
the  cold  with 
American  lamp- 
black   1.5  parts 

Put  mixture  I  in  a  kettle  and  melt  over 
a  fire.  Remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in 
mixture  II  in  small  portions.  Then 
pour  through  a  fine  sieve  into  a  second 
vessel,  and  continue  pouring  from  one 
kettle  into  the  other  until  the  mass  is 
rather  thickish.  Next  fill  in  cans. 

Should  the  mixture  have  become  too 
cold  during  the  filling  of  the  cans,  the 
vessel  containing  the  grease  need  only 
be  placed  in  hot  water,  whereby  the  con- 
tents are  rendered  liquid  again,  so  that 
pouring  out  is  practicable.  For  per- 
fuming, use  cinnamon  oil  as  required. 

This  harness  grease  is  applied  by 
means  of  a  rag  and  brushed. 

Waterproof  Harness  Composition. — 
See  also  Waterproofing. 

By  weight 

Rosin  spirit 27 \  parts 

Dark  mineral  oil.  .         13|  parts 
Paraffine  scales. . .    16.380  parts 

Lampblack 7.940  parts 

Dark  rosin 5.450  parts 

Dark  syrup 5.450  parts 

Naphthalene  black     2.500  parts 

Berlin  blue 0.680  parts 

Mirbane  oil 0.170  parts 

Melt  the  paraffine  and  the  rosin,  add 
the  mineral  oil  and  the  rosin  spirit,  stir 
the  syrup  and  the  pigments  into  this, 
and  lastly  add  the  mirbane  oil. 

PATENT  AND  ENAMELED  LEATHER. 
Patent  leather  for  boots  and  shoes  is 

Erepared  from  sealskins,  enameled 
gather  for  harness  from  heavy  bullock's 
hides.  The  process  of  tanning  is  what 
is  called  "union  tannage"  (a  mixture  of 
oak  and  hemlock  barks).  These  tanned 
skins  are  subjected  to  the  process  of  soak- 
ing, unhairing,  liming,  etc.,  and  are  then 
subjected  to  the  tanning  process.  When 
about  one-third  tanned  a  buffing  is  taken 
off  (if  the  hides  are  heavy),  and  the  hide 
is  split  into  three  layers.  The  top  or 
grain  side  is  reserved  for  enameling  in 
fancy  colors  for  use  on  tops  of  carriages; 
the  middle  layer  is  finished  for  splatter 


LEATHER 


boards  and  carriage  trimmings,  and 
some  parts  of  harness;  the  underneath 
layer,  or  flesh  side  is  used  for  shoe  uppers 
and  other  purposes.  The  tanning  of 
the  splits  is  completed  by  subjecting  them 
to  a  gambier  liquor  instead  of  a  bark 
liquor. 

When  the  splits  are  fully  tanned  they 
are  laid  on  a  table  and  scored,  and  then 
stretched  in  frames  and  dried,  after 
which  each  one  is  covered  on  one  side 
with  the  following  compound,  so  as  to 
close  the  pores  of  the  leather  that  it  may 
present  a  suitable  surface  for  receiving 
the  varnish:  Into  14  parts  of  raw  lin- 
seed oil  put  1  part  dry  white  lead  and  1 
part  silver  litharge,  and  boil,  stirring 
constantly  until  the  compound  is  thick 
enough  to  dry  in  15  or  20  minutes  (when 
spread  on  a  sheet  of  iron  or  china)  into 
a  tough,  elastic  mass,  like  caoutchouc. 
This  compound  is  laid  on  one  side  of 
the  leather  while  it  is  still  stretched  in  the 
frame.  If  for  enameled  leather  (i.  e., 
not  the  best  patent),  chalk  or  yellow 
ocher  may  be  mixed  in  the  above  com- 
pound while  boiling,  or  afterwards,  but 
before  spreading  it  on  the  leather. 

The  frames  are  then  put  into  a  rack  in 
a  drying  closet,  and  the  coated  leather 
dried  by  steam  heat  at  80°  to  160°  F., 
the  heat  being  raised  gradually.  After 
removal  from  the  drying  closet,  the 
grounding  coat  previously  laid  on  is 
pumiced,  to  smooth  out  the  surface,  and 
then  given  2  or  3  coats  of  the  enameling 
varnish,  which  consists  of  Prussian  blue 
and  lampblack  boiled  with  linseed  oil 
and  diluted  with  turpentine,  so  as  to 
enable  it  to  flow  evenly  over  the  surface 
of  the  coated  leather.  When  spread  on 
with  a  brush,  each  coating  of  the  enamel 
is  dried  before  applying  the  next,  and 
pumiced  or  rubbed  with  tripoli  powder 
on  a  piece  of  flannel  (the  coat  last  laid  on 
is  not  subjected  to  this  rubbing),  when 
the  leather  is  ready  for  market. 

To  prepare  the  enameling  composi- 
tion, boil  1  part  asphaltum  with  20  parts 
raw  linseed  oil  until  thoroughly  com- 
bined; then  add  10  parts  thick  copal 
varnish,  and  when  this  mixture  is  homo- 
geneous dilute  with  20  parts  spirit  of 
turpentine. 

Instead  of  the  foregoing  enameling 
varnish  the  following  is  used  for  superior 
articles: 

Prussian  blue 18  ounces 

Vegetable  black.  . .        4  ounces 
Raw  linseed  oil.  ...    160  fluidounces 

Boil  together  as  previously  directed, 
and  dilute  with  turpentine  as  occasion 
requires.  These  enameling  varnishes 


should  be  made  and  kept  several  weeks 
in  the  same  room  as  the  varnishing  is 
carried  on.  so  that  they  are  always  sub- 
jected to  the  same  temperature. 

STAINS  FOR  PATENT  LEATHER: 
Black  Stain. — 

Vinegar .      1  gallon 

Ivory  black 14  ounces 

Ground  iron  scales. .  .      6  pounds 

Mix  well  and  allow  to  stand  a  few 
days. 

Red  Stain. — Water,  1  quart;  spirit  of 
hartshorn,  1  quart;  cochineal,  |  pound. 
Heat  the  water  to  near  the  boiling  point, 
and  then  dissolve  in  it  the  cochineal, 
afterwards  adding  the  spirit  of  hartshorn. 
Stir  well  to  incorporate. 

Liquid  Cochineal  Stain. — 

Good  French  carmine    2J  drachms 

Solution  of  potash £  ounce 

Rectified  spirit  of  wine    2    ounces 

Pure  glycerine 4    ounces 

Distilled  water  to  make  1  pint. 
To  the  carmine  in  a  20-ounce  bottle 
add  14  ounces  of  distilled  water.  Then 
gradually  introduce  solution  of  potash, 
shaking  now  and  again  until  dissolved. 
Add  glycerine  and  spirit  of  wine,  making 
up  to  20  ounces  with  distilled  water,  and 
filter. 

Blue  Black. — Ale  droppings,  2  gallons; 
bruised  galls,  \  pound;  logwood  extract, 
\  pound;  indigo  extract,  2  ounces;  sul- 
phate of  iron,  3^  ounces.  Heat  together 
and  strain. 

Finishers'  Ink. — Soft  water,  1  gallon; 
logwood  extract,  \\  ounces;  green  vitriol, 
2J  ounces;  potassium  bichromate,  j 
ounce;  gum  arabic,  \  ounce. 

Grind  the  gum  and  potassium  bichro- 
mate to  powder  and  then  add  all  the 
coloring  ingredients  to  the  water  and  boil. 

To  Restore  Patent  Leather  Dash. — 
Take  raw  linseed  oil,  1  part;  cider  vine- 
gar, 4  ounces;  alcohol,  2  ounces;  butter 
of  antimony,  1  ounce;  aqua  ammonia, 
\  ounce;  spirits  of  camphor,  \  ounce; 
lavender,  \  ounce.  Shake  well  together; 
apply  with  a  soft  brush. 

PRESERVATIVES   FOR   LEATHER. 

I. — Mutton  suet 50  parts 

Sweet  oil 50  parts 

Turpentine 1  part 

Melt  together. 

The  application  should  be  made  on 
the  dry  leather  warmed  to  the  point 
where  it  will  liquefy  and  absorb  the  fat. 

II. — Equal  parts  of  mutton  fat  and 
linseed  oil.  mixed  with  one-tenth  their 


LEATHER 


453 


weight  of  Venice  turpentine,  and  melted 
together  in  an  earthen  pipkin,  will  pro- 
duce a  "dubbin"  which  is  very  efficacious 
in  preserving  leather  when  exposed  to 
wet  or  snow,  etc.  The  mixture  should 
be  applied  when  the  leather  is  quite  dry 
and  warm. 

III. — A  solution  of  1  ounce  of  solid 
paraffine  in  1  pint  light  naphtha,  to 
which  6  drops  of  sweet  oil  have  been 
added,  is  put  cold  on  the  soles,  until  they 
will  absorb  no  more.  One  dressing  will 
do  for  the  uppers.  This  process  is 
claimed  to  vastly  increase  the  tensile 
strength. 

Patent  Leather  Preserver. — 

Carnauba  wax 1.0     part 

Turpentine  oil 9.5     parts 

Aniline  black,  soluble 

in  fat 0.06  parts 

Melt  the  wax,  stir  in  the  turpentine  oil 
and  the  dye  and  scent  with  a  little  mir- 
bane  oil  or  lavender  oil.  The  paste  is 
rubbed  out  on  the  patent  leather  by  means 
of  a  soft  rag,  and  when  dry  should  be 
polished  with  a  soft  brush. 

REVIVERS  AND  REGENERATORS. 

By  weight. 

I. — Methylic  alcohol 22|        parts 

Ground  ruby  shellac     2.250  parts 

Dark  rosin 0.910  parts 

Gum  rosin 0.115  parts 

Sandarac 0.115  parts 

Lampblack  .......      0.115  parts 

Aniline  black,  spirit- 
soluble 0.115  parts 

The  gums  are  dissolved  in  spirit  and 
next  the  aniline  black  soluble  in  spirit  is 
added;  the  lampblack  is  ground  with  a 
little  liquid  to  a  paste,  which  is  added  to 
the  whole,  and  filtering  follows. 

Kid  Reviver.-^- 

By  weight. 
II. — Clear  chloride  of  lime 

solution 3.5  parts 

Spirit  of  sal  ammo- 
niac        0.5  parts 

Scraped     Marseilles 

soap 4.5  parts 

Water 6.0  parts 

Mix  chloride  of  lime  solution  and 
spirit  of  sal  ammoniac  and  stir  in  the 
soap  dissolved  in  water.  Revive  the 
gloves  with  the  pulpy  mass  obtained,  by 
means  of  a  flannel  rag. 

TANNING  LEATHER. 

Pickling  Process. — Eitner  and  Stiazny 
have  made  a  systematic  series  of  experi- 
ments with  mixtures  of  salt  and  vari- 
ous acids  for  pickling  skins  preparatory 


to  tanning.  Experiments  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  acetic  and  lactic  acids 
showed  that  these  offered  no  advantages 
over  sulphuric  acid  for  use  in  pickling, 
the  pickled  pelts  and  the  leather  pro- 
duced from  them  being  similar  in  ap- 
pearance and  quality.  By  varying  the 
concentration  of  the  pickle  liquors,  it  was 
found  that  the  amount  of  salt  absorbed 
by  the  pelt  from  the  pickle  liquor  was 
controlled  by  the  concentration  of  the 
solution,  23  to  25  per  cent  of  the  total 
amount  used  being  taken  up  by  the  pelt, 
and  that  the  absorption  capacity  of  the 
pelt  for  acid  was  limited. 

The  goods  pickled  with  the  largest 
amount  of  acid  possessed  a  more  leathery 
feel  and  after  drying  were  fuller  and 
stretched  much  better  than  those  in 
which  smaller  amounts  of  acids  were 
employed.  Dried,  pickled  pieces,  con- 
taining as  much  as  3  per  cent  of  sulphuric 
acid,  showed  no  deterioration  or  tender- 
ing of  fiber.  The  pickled  skins  after 
chrome  tanning  still  retained  these 
characteristics.  An  analysis  of  the 
leather  produced  by  tanning  with  sumac 
showed  that  no  free  acid  was  retained  in 
the  finished  leather.  An  Australian 
pickled  pelt  was  found  to  contain  19.2 
per  cent  of  salt  and  2.8  per  cent  of  sul- 
phuric acid. 

From  a  very  large  number  of  experi- 
ments the  following  conclusions  were 
drawn:  1.  That  sulphuric  acid  is  quite 
equal  in  efficiency  to  other  acids  for  the 
purpose.  2.  To  a  certain  limit  increas- 
ing softness  is  produced  by  increasing 
the  quantity  of  acid  used.  3.  For 
naturally  soft  skins  and  when  a  leather 
not  very  soft  is  required  the  best  results 
are  obtained  by  using  22  pounds  of  salt, 
2.2  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  25  gal- 
lons of  water  for  1 10  pounds  of  pelt  in  the 
drum.  4.  For  material  which  is  natural- 
ly hard  and  when  a  soft  leather  is  re- 
quired, the  amount  of  acid  should  be 
increased  to  4.4  pounds,  using  similar 
amounts  as  those  given  above  of  pelt, 
salt,  and  water. 

French  Hide  Tanning  Process. — I. — 
The  prepared  pelts  are  submitted  to  a 
3  to  4  hours'  immersion  in  a  solution  of 
rosin  soap,  containing  5  to  10  per  cent  of 
caustic  soda.  The  goods  are  afterwards 
placed  in  a  6  to  12  per  cent  solution  of  a 
salt  of  chromium,  iron,  copper,  or  alum- 
inum (preferably  aluminum  sulphate) 
for  3  to  4  hours. 

II. — The  hides  are  soaked  in  a  solu- 
tion of  sodium  carbonate  of  10°  Be.  for 
3  to  6  hours.  After  washing  with  water 
they  are  allowed  to  remain  for  5  hours  in 


454 


LEATHER 


a  bath  of  caustic  soda,  the  strength  of 
which  may  vary  from  2°  to  30°  Be. 
From  this  they  are  transferred  to  a  bath 
of  hydrochloric  acid  (1°  to  5°  Be.)  in 
which  they  remain  for  2  hours.  Finally 
the  hides  are  washed  and  the  beam-work 
finished  in  the  usual  way.  The  tannage 
consists  of  a  special  bath  of  sodium  or 
ammonium  sulphoricinoleate  (2  to  30 
per  cent)  and  sumac  extract,  or  similar 
tanning  material  (2  to  50  per  cent).  The 
strength  of  this  bath  is  gradually  raised 
from  4°  to  30°  or  40°  Be. 

Tanning  Hides  for  Robes. — The  hides 
should  be  very  thoroughly  soaked  in 
order  to  soften  them  completely.  For  dry 
hides  this  will  require  a  longer  time  than 
for  salted.  A  heavy  hide  requires  longer 
soaking  than  a  skin.  Thus  it  is  impos- 
sible to  fix  a  certain  length  of  time.  After 
soaking,  the  hide  is  fleshed  clean,  and 
is  now  ready  to  go  into  the  tan  liquor, 
which  is  made  up  as  follows:  One  part 
alum;  1  part  salt;  J  to  £  part  japonica. 
These  are  dissolved  in  hot  water  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  make  a  35°  liquor. 
The  hide,  according  to  the  thickness,  is 
left  in  the  tan  from  5  to  10  days.  Skins 
are  finished  in  about  2  or  3  days.  The 
hide  should  be  run  in  a  drum  for  about  2 
hours  before  going  into  tan,  and  again 
after  that  process.  In  tanning  hides  for 
robes,  shaving  them  down  is  a  main 
requisite  for  success,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  get  soft  leather  otherwise.  After 
shaving  put  back  into  the  tan  liquor 
again  for  a  day  or  two  and  hang  up  to 
dry.  When  good  and  hard,  shave  again 
and  lay  away  in  moist  sawdust  and  give  a 
heavy  coat  of  oil.  When  dry,  apply  a 
solution  of  soft  soap;  roll  up  and  lay  away 
in  moist  sawdust  again.  Run  the  hides 
on  a  drum  or  wheel  until  thoroughly  soft. 
The  composition  of  the  tan  liquor  may 
be  changed  considerably.  If  the  brown- 
ish tinge  of  the  japonica  be  objectionable, 
that  article  may  be  left  out  entirely.  The 
japonica  has  the  effect  of  making  the 
robe  more  able  to  resist  water,  as  the 
alum  and  salt  alone  are  readily  soaked 
out  by  rain. 

Lace  Leather. — Take  cow  hides  aver- 
aging from  25  to  30  pounds  each;  35 
hides  will  make  a  convenient  soak  for  a 
vat  containing  1,000  gallons  of  water,  or 
25  hides  to  a  soak  of  700  gallons.  Soak 
2  days  or  more,  as  required.  Change 
water  every  24  hours.  Split  and  flesh; 
resoak  if  necessary.  When  thoroughly 
soft  put  in  limes.  Handle  and  strength- 
en once  a  day,  for  5  or  6  days.  Unhair 
and  wash.  Bathe  in  hen  manure,  90°  F. 
Work  out  of  drench,  wash  well,  drain  4 


of  5  hours.  Then  process,  using  45 
pounds  vitriol  and  600  pounds  of  soft 
water  to  700  gallons  of  water.  In  re- 
newing process  for  second  or  consecutive 
packs,  use  15  pounds  vitriol  and  200 
pounds  salt,  always  keeping  stock  con- 
stantly in  motion  during  time  of  proc- 
essing. After  processing,  drain  over 
night,  then  put  in  tan  in  agitated  liquors, 
keeping  the  stock  in  motion  during  the 
whole  time  of  tanning.  Pack  down  over- 
night. Use  200  pounds  dry  leather  to 
each  mill  in  stuffing. 

For  stuffing,  use  3  gallons  curriers' 
hard  grease  and  3  gallons  American  cod 
oil.  Strike  out  from  mill,  on  flesh.  Set 
out  on  grain.  Dry  slowly.  Trim  and 
board,  length  and  cross.  The  stock  is 
then  ready  to  cut.  The  time  for  soaking 
the  hides  may  be  reduced  one-half  by 
putting  the  stock  into  a  rapidly  revolving 
reel  pit,  with  a  good  inflow  of  water,  so 
that  the  dirty  water  washes  over  and  runs 
off.  After  10  hours  in  the  soak,  put  the 
stock  into  a  drum,  and  keep  it  tumbling 
5  hours.  This  produces  soft  stock. 

In  liming,  where  the  saving  of  the  hair 
is  no  object,  softer  leather  is  obtainable 
by  using  35  pounds  sulphide  of  sodium 
with  60  pounds  lime.  Then,  when  the 
stock  comes  from  the  limes,  the  hair  is 
dissolved  and  immediately  washes  off, 
and  saves  the  labor  of  unhairing  and 
caring  for  the  hair,  which  in  some  cases 
does  not  pay. 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES: 

Russian  Leather. — This  leather  owes 
its  name  to  the  country  of  its  origin.  The 
skins  used  for  its  production  are  goat, 
large  sheep,  calfskin,  and  cow  or  steer 
hide.  The  preliminary  operations  of 
soaking,  unhairing,  and  fleshing  are  done 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  the  hides 
are  permitted  to  swell  in  a  mixture  of  rye 
flour,  oat  flour,  yeast,  and  salt.  This 
compound  is  made  into  a  paste  with 
water,  and  is  then  thinned  with  suffi- 
cient water  to  steep  a  hundred  hides  in 
the  mixture.  The  proportions  of  ingre- 
dients used  for  this  mixture  are  22 
pounds  rye  flour,  10  pounds  oat  flour,  a 
little  salt,  and  sufficient  yeast  to  set  up 
fermentation. 

The  hides  are  steeped  in  this  com- 
pound for  2  days,  until  swelled  up,  and 
then  put  into  a  solution  of  willow  and 
poplar  barks,  in  which  they  are  allowed 
to  remain  8  days,  being  frequently 
turned  about.  The  tanning  process  is 
then  completed  by  putting  them  into  a 
tanning  liquor  composed  of  pine  and 
willow  barks,  equal  parts.  They  are 
steeped  8  days  in  this  liquor,  and  then  a 


LEATHER 


455 


fresh  liquor  of  the  same  ingredients  and 
proportions  is  made  up.  The  hides  are 
hardened  and  split,  and  then  steeped  in 
the  freshly  made  liquor  for  another  8 
days,  when  they  are  sufficiently  tanned. 

The  hides  are  then  cut  down  the 
middle  (from  head  to  tail)  into  sides,  and 
scoured,  rinsed,  and  dried  by  dripping, 
and  then  passed  on  to  the  currier,  who 
slightly  dampens  the  dry  sides  and  puts 
them  in  a  heap  or  folds  them  together 
for  a  couple  of  days  to  temper,  and  then 
impregnates  them  with  a  compound  con- 
sisting of  f  parts  birch  oil  and  J  parts  seal 
oil.  This  is  applied  on  the  flesh  side  for 
light  leather,  and  on  the  grain  side  also 
for  heavy  leather.  The  leather  is  then 
"set  out,"  "whitened,"  and  well  boarded 
and  dried  before  dyeing. 

A  decoction  of  sandalwood,  alone  or 
mixed  with  cochineal,  is  used  for  pro- 
ducing the  Russian  red  color,  and  this 
dye  liquor  is  applied  several  times, 
allowing  each  application  to  dry  before 
applying  the  following  one.  A  brush  is 
used,  and  the  dye  liquor  is  spread  on  the 
grain  side.  A  solution  of  tin  chloride  is 
used  in  Russia  as  a  mordant  for  the 
leather  before  laying  on  the  dye.  The 
dye  liquor  is  prepared  by  boiling  18 
ounces  of  sandalwood  in  13  pints  of 
water  for  1  hour,  and  then  filtering  the 
liquid  arid  dissolving  in  the  filtering 
fluid  1  ounce  of  prepared  tartar  and 
soda,  which  is  then  given  an  hour's 
boiling  and  set  aside  for  a  few  days  be- 
fore use. 

After  dyeing,  the  leather  is  again  im- 
pregnated with  the  mixture  of  birch  and 
seal  oils  (applied  to  the  grain  side  on  a 
piece  of  flannel)  and  when  the  dyed 
leather  has  dried,  a  thin  smear  of  gum- 
dragon  mucilage  is  given  to  the  dyed  side 
to  protect  the  color  from  fading,  while 
the  flesh  side  is  smeared  with  bark-tan 
juice  and  the  dyed  leather  then  grained 
for  market. 

Toughening  Leather.  —  Leather  is 
toughened  and  also  rendered  impervious 
by  impregnating  with  a  solution  of  1  part 
of  caoutchouc  or  gutta-percha  in  16  parts 
of  benzene  or  other  solvent,  to  which  is 
added  10  parts  of  linseed  oil.  Wax  and 
rosin  may  be  added  to  thicken  the  solu- 
tion. 

Painting  on  Leather. — When  the  leath- 
er is  finished  in  the  tanneries  it  is  at  the 
same  time  provided  with  the  necessary 
greasy  particles  to  give  it  the  required 
pliancy  and  prevent  it  from  cracking. 
It  is  claimed  that  some  tanners  strive  to 
obtain  a  greater  weight  thereby,  thus 
increasing  their  profit,  since  a  pound  of 


fat  is  only  one-eighth  as  dear  as  a  pound 
of  leather. 

If  such  leather,  so  called  kips,  which 
are  much  used  for  carriage  covers  and 
knee  caps,  is  to  be  prepared  for  painting 
purposes,  it  is  above  all  necessary  to 
close  up  the  pores  of  the  leather,  so  that 
the  said  fat  particles  cannot  strike 
through.  They  would  combine  with 
the  applied  paint  and  prevent  the  latter 
from  drying,  as  the  grease  consists  main- 
ly of  fish  oil.  For  this  reason  an  elastic 
spirit  leather  varnish  is  employed,  which 
protects  the  succeeding  paint  coat  suffi- 
ciently from  the  fat. 

For  further  treatment  take  a  good 
coach  varnish  to  which  \  of  stand  oil 
(linseed  oil  which  has  thickened  by 
standing)  has  been  added  and  allow  the 
mixture  to  stand  for  a  few  days.  W'ith 
this  varnish  grind  the  desired  colors, 
thinning  them  only  with  turpentine  oil. 
Put  on  2  coats.  In  this  manner  the 
most  delicate  colors  may  be  applied  to 
the  leather,  only  it  is  needful  to  put  on 
pale  and  delicate  shades  several  times. 
In  some  countries  the  legs  or  tops  of 
boots  are  painted  yellow,  red,  green,  or 
blue  in  this  manner.  Inferior  leather, 
such  as  sheepskin  and  goat  leather, 
which  is  treated  with  alum  by  the  tanner, 
may  likewise  be  provided  with  color  in 
the  manner  stated.  Subsequently  it  can 
be  painted,  gilded,  or  bronzed. 

Stains  for  Oak  Leather. — I. — Apply 
an  intimate  mixture  of  4  ounces  of  umber 
(burnt  or  raw);  \  ounce  of  lampblack, 
and  17  fluidounces  ox  gall. 

II. — The  moistened  leather  is  primed 
with  a  solution  of  1  part,  by  weight,  of 
copper  acetate  in  50  parts  of  water, 
slicked  out  and  then  painted  with  solu- 
tion of  yellow  prussiate  potash  in  feebly 
acid  water. 

LEATHER  AS  AN  INSULATOR: 

See  Insulation. 

LEATHER  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Cements. 

LEATHER-CLEANING    PROCESSES : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

LEATHER,  GLUES  FOR: 

See  Adhesives. 

LEATHER    LAC: 

See  Lacquers. 

LEATHER   LUBRICANTS : 

See  Lubricants. 


456 


LEMONS— LETTERING 


LEATHER  VARNISH : 

See  Varnish. 

LEATHER  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing.       « 

LEMONS: 

See  also  Essences,  Extracts,  and  Fruits. 

Preservation  of  Fresh  Lemon  Juice. — 
The  fresh  juice  is  cleared  by  gently  heat- 
ing it  with  a  little  egg  albumen,  without 
stirring  the  mixture.  This  causes  all 
solid  matter  to  sink  with  the  coagulated 
white,  or  to  make  its  way  to  the  surface. 
The  juice  is  then  filtered  through  a 
woolen  cloth  and  put  into  bottles,  filled 
as  full  as  possible,  and  closed  with  a  cork 
stopper,  in  such  a  way  that  the  cork  may 
be  directly  in  contact  with  the  liquid. 
Seal  at  once  and  keep  in  a  cool  place. 
The  bottles  should  be  asepticized  with 
boiling  water  just  before  using. 


LEMON  EXTRACT  (ADULTERATED), 
TESTS   FOR: 

See  Foods. 

LEMON  SHERBET  POWDER: 

See  Salts,  Effervescent. 

LEMONADES,  LEMONADE  POWDERS, 
AND  LEMONADE  DROPS: 

See  Beverages. 

LEMONADE  POWDER: 

See  Salts,  Effervescent. 

LENSES  AND  THEIR  CARE: 

Unclean  Lenses  (see  also  Cleaning  Prep- 
arations and  Methods). — If  in  either  ob- 
jective or  eyepiece  the  lenses  are  not 
clean,  the  definition  may  be  seriously  im- 
paired or  destroyed.  Uncleanliness  may 
be  due  to  finger  marks  upon  the  front  lens 
of  the  objective,  or  upon  the  eyepiece 
lenses;  dust  which  in  time  may  settle  upon 
the  rear  lens  of  the  objective  or  on  the 
eye  lens;  a  film  which  forms  upon  one  or 
the  other  lens,  due  occasionally  to  the  fact 
that  glass  is  hygroscopic,  but  generally 
to  the  exhalation  from  the  interior  finish 
of  the  mountings,  and,  in  immersion  ob- 
jectives, because  the  front  lens  is  not 
properly  cleaned;  or  oil  that  has  leaked 
on  to  its  rear  surface,  or  air  bubbles  that 
have  formed  in  the  oil  between  the  cover 
glass  and  front  lens. 

Remedy. — Keep  all  lenses  scrupu- 
lously clean.  For  cleaning,  use  well- 
washed  linen  (an  old  handkerchief)  or 
Japanese  lens  paper. 

Eyepieces. — To  find  impurities,  revolve 
the  eyepieces  during  the  observation; 
breathe  upon  the  lenses,  and  wipe  gently 


with  a  circular  motion  and  blow  off  any 
particles  which  may  adhere. 

Dry  Objectives. — Clean  the  front  lens 
as  described.  To  examine  the  rear  and  in- 
terior lenses  use  a  2-inch  magnifier,  look- 
ing through  the  rear.  Remove  the  dust 
from  the  rear  lens  with  a  camel's-hair 
brush. 

Oil  Immersion  Objectives. — Invariably 
clean  the  front  lens  after  use  with  moist- 
ened linen  or  paper,  and  wipe  dry. 

In  applying  oil  examine  the  front  of 
the  objective  with  a  magnifier,  and  if  there 
are  any  air  bubbles,  remove  them  with  a 
pointed  quill,  or  remove  the  oil  entirely 
and  apply  a  fresh  quantity. 


LETTERS,  TO  REMOVE  FROM  CHINA  : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

LETTER-HEAD  SENSITIZERS : 

See  Photography,  under  Paper-Sensi- 
tizing Processes. 

Lettering 

CEMENTS  FOR  ATTACHING  LETTERS 
ON  GLASS  : 

See  .Adhesives,  under  Sign-Letter  Ce- 
ments. 

Gold  Lettering. — This  is  usually  done 
by  first  drawing  the  lettering,  then  cover- 
ing with  an  adhesive  mixture,  such  as  size, 
and  finally  applying  gold  bronze  powder 
or  real  gold  leaf.  A  good  method  for 
amateurs  to  follow  in  marking  letters  on 
glass  is  to  apply  first  a  coat  of  whiting, 
mixed  simply  with  water,  and  then  to 
mark  out  the  letters  on  this  surface, 
using  a  pointed  stick  or  the  like.  After 
this  has  been  done  the  letters  may  easily 
be  painted  or  gilded  on  the  reverse  side  of 
the  glass.  When  done,  wash  off  the 
whiting  from  the  other  side,  and  the  work 
is  complete. 

Bronze  Lettering. — The  following  is 
the  best  method  for  card  work:  Write  with 
asphaltum  thinned  with  turpentine  until 
it  flows  easily,  and,  when  nearly  dry,  dust 
bronze  powder  over  the  letters.  When 
the  letters  are  perfectly  dry  tap  the  card 
to  take  off  the  extra  bronze,  and  it  will 
leave  the  letters  clean  and  sharp.  The 
letters  should  be  made  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush  and  not  with  the  automatic 
pen,  as  oil  paints  do  not  work  satisfac- 
torily with  these  pens. 

For  bronzed  letters  made  with  the  pen, 
use  black  letterine  or  any  water  color. 


LETTERING 


457 


If  a  water  color  is  used  add  considerable 
gum  arabic.  Each  letter  should  be 
bronzed  as  it  is  made,  as  the  water  color 
dries  much  more  quickly  than  the  as- 
phaltum. 

Another  method  is  to  mix  the  bronze 
powder  with  bronze  sizing  to  about  the 
consistency  of  the  asphaltum.  Make  the 
letter  with  a  camel's-hair  brush,  using  the 
bronze  paint  as  one  would  any  oil  paint. 

This  method  requires  much  skill,  as 
the  gold  paint  spreads  quickly  and  is  apt 
to  flood  over  the  edge  of  the  letter.  For 
use  on  oilcloth  this  is  the  most  practical 
method. 

Bronzes  may  be  purchased  at  any 
hardware  store.  They  are  made  in 
copper,  red,  green,  silver,  gold,  and  cop- 
per shades. 

Lettering  on  Glass. — White  lettering 
on  glass  and  mirrors  produces  a  rich 
effect.  Dry  zinc,  chemically  pure,  should 
be  used.  It  can  be  obtained  in  any  first- 
class  paint  store  and  is  inexpensive.  To 
every  teaspoonful  of  zinc,  10  drops  of 
mucilage  should  be  added.  The  two 
should  be  worked  up  into  a  thick  paste, 
water  being  gradually  added  until  the 
mixture  is  about  the  consistency  of  thick 
cream.  The  paint  should  then  be  ap- 
plied with  a  camel's-hair  brush. 

Another  useful  paint  for  this  purpose 
is  Chemnitz  white.  If  this  distemper 
color  is  obtained  in  a  jar,  care  should  be 
exercised  to  keep  water  standing  above 
the  color  to  prevent  drying.  By  using 
mucilage  as  a  sizing  these  colors  will  ad- 
here to  the  glass  until  it  is  washed  off. 
Both  mixtures  are  equally  desirable  for 
lettering  on  block  card-board. 

Any  distemper  color  may  be  employed 
on  glass  without  in  any  way  injuring  it. 
An  attractive  combination  is — first  to 
letter  the  sign  with  Turkey  red,  and  then 
to  outline  the  letters  with  a  very  narrow 
white  stripe.  The  letter  can  be  ren- 
dered still  more  attractive  by  shading  one 
side  in  black. 

Signs  on  Show  Cases. — Most  show 
cases  have  mirrors  at  the  back,  either  in 
the  form  of  sliding  panels  or  spring 
doors.  Lettering  in  distemper  colors 
on  these  mirrors  can  easily  be  read 
through  the  fronts  or  tops  of  cases.  If 
the  mirror  is  on  a  sliding  panel,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  detach  it  from  the  case 
in  order  to  letter  it.  When  the  mirror 
is  on  a  spring  door  the  sign  can  be  let- 
tered with  less  trouble. 

By  tracing  letters  in  chalk  on  the  out- 
side of  the  glass,  and  then  painting 
them  on  the  inside,  attractive  signs  can 
be  produced  on  all  show  cases;  but  paint- 


ing letters  on  the  inside  of  a  show  case 
glass  is  more  or  less  difficult,  and  it  is 
not  advisable  to  attempt  it  in  very  shallow 
cases. 

"Spatter"  Work.  — Some  lettering 
which  appears  very  difficult  to  the  unin- 
itiated is,  in  fact,  easily  produced.  The 
beautiful  effect  of  lettering  and  orna- 
mentation in  the  form  of  foliage  or  con- 
ventional scrolls  in  a  speckled  ground  is 
simple  and  can  be  produced  with  little 
effort.  Pressed  leaves  and  letters  or 
designs  cut  from  newspapers  or  maga- 
zines may  be  tacked  or  pasted  on  card- 
board or  a  mat  with  flour  paste.  As 
little  paste  as  possible  should  be  used — 
only  enough  to  hold  the  design  in  place. 
When  all  the  designs  are  in  the  positions 
desired,  a  toothbrush  should  be  dipped 
in  the  ink  or  paint  to  be  employed.  A 
toothpick  or  other  small  piece  of  wood 
is  drawn  to  and  fro  over  the  bristles, 
which  are  held  toward  the  sign,  the  en- 
tire surface  of  which  should  be  spat- 
tered or  sprinkled  with  the  color.  When 
the  color  is  dry  the  designs  pasted  on 
should  be  carefully  removed  and  the 
paste  which  held  them  in  place  should  be 
scraped  off.  This  leaves  the  letters  and 
other  designs  clean  cut  and  white  against 
the  "spatter"  background.  The  begin- 
ner should  experiment  first  with  a  few 
simple  designs.  After  he  is  able  to  pro- 
duce attractive  work  with  a  few  figures 
or  letters  he  may  confidently  undertake 
more  elaborate  combinations. 

Lettering  on  Mirrors. — From  a  bar  of 
fresh  common  brown  soap  cut  off  a  one- 
inch-wide  strip  across  its  end.  Cut  this 
into  2  or  3  strips.  Take  one  strip  and 
with  a  table-knife  cut  from  two  opposite 
sides  a  wedge-shaped  point  resembling 
that  of  a  shading  pen,  but  allow  the  edge 
to  be  fully  J-  inch  thick.  Clean  the 
mirror  thoroughly  and  proceed  to  letter 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  with  a 
shading  pen. 

To  Fill  Engraved  Letters  on  Metal 
Signs. — Letters  engraved  on  metal  may 
be  filled  in  with  a  mixture  of  asphaltum, 
brown  japan,  and  lampblack,  the  mix- 
ture being  so  made  as  to  be  a  putty-like 
mass.  It  should  be  well  pressed  down 
with  a  spatula.  Any  of  the  mass  ad- 
hering to  the  plate  about  the  edges  of  the 
letters  is  removed  with  turpentine,  and 
when  the  cement  is  thoroughly  dried  the 
plate  may  be  polished. 

If  white  letters  are  desired,  make  a 
putty  of  dry  white  lead,  with  equal  parts 
of  coach  japan  and  rubbing  varnish. 
Fill  the  letters  nearly  level  with  the  sur- 


458 


LICORICE— LIME 


face,  and  when  hard,  apply  a  stout  coat 
of  flake  white  in  japan  thinned  with  tur- 
pentine. This  will  give  a  clean  white 
finish  that  may  be  polished. 

The  white  cement  may  be  tinted  to 
any  desired  shade,  using  coach  colors 
ground  in  japan. 

Tinseled  Letters,  or  Chinese  Painting 
on  Glass. — This  is  done  by  painting  the 
groundwork  with  any  color,  leaving  the 
letter  or  figure  naked.  When  dry,  place 
tin  foil  or  any  of  the  various  colored 
copper  foils  over  the  letters  on  the  back 
of  the  glass,  after  crumpling  them  in  the 
hand,  and  then  partially  straightening 
them  out. 

LICE  KILLERS: 

See  Insecticides. 

LICHEN  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods  and 
Household  Formulas. 

LICORICE: 

Stable  Solutions  of  Licorice  Juice. — 
A  percolator,  with  alternate  layers  of 
broken  glass,  which  have  been  well 
washed,  first  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
plentifully  rinsed  with  distilled  water,  is 
the  first  requisite.  This  is  charged  with 
pieces  of  crude  licorice  juice,  from  the 
size  of  a  hazel  nut  to  that  of  a  walnut, 
which  are  weighted  down  with  well- 
washed  pebbles.  The  percolate  is  kept 
for  3  days  in  well  corked  flasks  which 
have  been  rinsed  out  with  alcohol  be- 
forehand. Decant  and  filter  and  evap- 
orate down  rapidly,  under  constant 
stirring,  or  in  vacua.  The  extract 
should  be  kept  in  vessels  first  washed 
with  alcohol  and  closed  with  parchment 
paper,  in  a  dry  place — never  in  the 
cellar. 

To  dissolve  this  extract,  use  water, 
first  boiled  for  15  minutes.  The  solu- 
tion should  be  kept  in  small  flasks,  first 
rinsed  with  alcohol  and  well  corked.  If 
to  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  the  flasks 
should  be  subjected  for  3  consecutive 
days,  a  half  hour  each  day,  to  a  stream  of 
steam,  and  the  corks  paraffined. 

There  is  frequently  met  with  in  com- 
merce a  purified  juice  that  remains  clear 
in  the  mixtura  solvens.  It  is  usually 
obtained  by  supersaturation  with  pure 
ammonia,  allowing  to  stand  for  3  days, 
decanting,  filtering  the  decanted  liquor, 
and  quick  evaporation.  Since  solutions 
with  water  alone  rapidly  spoil,  it  is  well 
to  observe  with  them  the  precautions 
commor  for  narcotic  extracts. 


To  Test  Extract  of  Licorice. — Mere 
solubility  is  no  test  for  the  purity  of 
extract  of  licorice.  It  is,  therefore,  pro- 
posed to  make  the  glycyrrhizin  content 
and  the  nature  of  the  ash  the  determining 
test.  To  determine  the  glycyrrhizin 
quantitatively  proceed  as  follows:  Mac- 
erate -rV  ounce  of  the  extract,  in  coarse 
powder,  in  10  fluidounces  distilled  water 
for  several  hours,  with  more  or  less  fre- 
quent agitation.  When  solution  is  com- 
plete, add  10  fluidounces  alcohol  of  90 
per  cent,  filter  and  wash  the  filter  with 
alcohol  of  40  per  cent  until  the  latter 
comes  off  colorless.  Drive  off  the  alco- 
hol, which  was  added  merely  to  facilitate 
filtration,  by  evaporation  in  the  water 
bath;  let  the  residue  cool  down  and  pre- 
cipitate the  glycyrrhizin  by  addition  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Filter  the  liquid  and 
wash  the  precipitate  on  the  filter  with 
distilled  water  until  the  wash  water  comes 
off  neutral.  Dissolve  the  glycyrrhizin 
from  the  filter  by  the  addition  of  ammonia 
water,  drop  by  drop,  collecting  the  fil- 
tered solution  in  a  tared  capsule.  Evap- 
orate in  the  water  bath,  dry  the  residual 
glycyrrhizin  at  212°  F.,  and  weigh.  Re- 
peated examinations  of  known  pure  ex- 
tracts have  yielded  a  range  of  percentage 
of  glycyrrhizin  running  from  8.06  per 
cent  to  11.90  per  cent.  The  ash  should 
be  acid  in  reaction  and  a  total  percentage 
of  from  5.64  to  8.64  of  the  extract. 


LIGHT,  INACTINIC: 

See  Photography. 

LIGNALOE  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

LIMEADE : 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonades. 

LIME  AS  A  FERTILIZER: 

See  Fertilizers. 

LIME,  BIRD. 

Bird  lime  is  a  thick,  soft,  tough,  and 
sticky  mass  of  a  greenish  color,  has  an 
unpleasant  smell  and  bitter  taste,  melts 
easily  on  heating,  and  hardens  when  ex- 
posed in  thin  layers  to  the  air.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  dissolve  in  alcohol,  but  easily 
soluble  in  hot  alcohol,  oil  of  turpentine, 
fat  oils,  and  also  somewhat  in  vinegar. 
The  best  quality  is  prepared  from  the 
inner  green  bark  of  the  holly  (Ilex  aqui- 
folium),  which  is  boiled,  then  put  in  bar- 
rels, and  submitted  for  14  days  to  slight 
fermentation  until  it  becomes  sticky. 
Another  process  of  preparing  it  is  to  mix 
the  boiled  bark  with  juice  of  mistletoe 
berries  and  burying  it  in  the  ground  until 


LINIMENTS— LINSEED    OIL 


459 


fermented.  The  bark  is  then  pulverized, 
boiled,  and  washed.  Artificial  bird  lime 
is  prepared  by  boiling  and  then  igniting 
linseed  oil,  or  boiling  printing  varnish 
until  it  is  very  tough  and  sticky.  It  is 
also  prepared  by  dissolving  cabinet- 
makers' glue  in  water  and  adding  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  chloride  of  zinc. 
The  mixture  is  very  sticky,  does  not  dry 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  has  the  ad- 
vantage that  it  can  be  easily  washed  off 
the  feathers  of  the  birds. 

LIME  JUICE: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts 

LIME-JUICE  CORDIAL : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

LIME  WAFERS: 

See  Confectionery. 

LINEN,    TO    DISTINGUISH    COTTON 
FROM: 

See  Cotton. 

LINEN  DRESSING: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

LINIMENTS: 

See  also  Ointments. 

For  external  use  only. — I. — The  fol- 
lowing penetrating  oily  liniment  reduces 
all  kinds  of  inflammatory  processes: 

Paraffine  oil 4     ounces 

Capsicum  powder..  .  .        £  ounce 
Digest  on  a  sand  bath  and  filter.     To 
this  may  be  added  directly  the  following: 
Oil  of  wintergreen  or  peppermint,  phenol, 
thymol,  camphor  or  eucalyptol,  etc. 

II. — Camphor 2  ounces 

Menthol 1  ounce 

Oil  of  thyme 1  ounce 

Oil  of  sassafras 1  ounce 

Tincture  of  myrrh  . .  1  ounce 

Tincture  of  capsicum  1  ounce 

Chloroform 1  ounce 

Alcohol 2  pints   . 

LINIMENTS  FOR  HORSES: 
See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

LINOLEUM: 

See  also  Oilcloth. 

Composition  for  Linoleum,  Oilcloth, 
etc. — This  is  composed  of  whiting,  dried 
linseed  oil,  and  any  ordinary  dryer,  such 
as  litharge,  to  which  ingredients  a  pro- 
portion of  gum  tragacanth  is  to  be  added, 
replacing  a  part  of  the  oil  and  serving  to 
impart  flexibility  to  the  fabric,  and  to  the 
composition,  in  a  pasty  mass  the  property 
of  drying  more  rapidly.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  linoleum,  the  whiting  is  re- 
placed in  whole  or  in  part  by  pulverized 
cork.  The  proportions  are  approximate- 


ly the  following  by  weight:  Whiting  or 
powdered  cork,  13  parts;  gum  traga- 
canth, 5  parts;  dried  linseed  oil,  5$  parts; 
siccative,  |  part. 

Dressings  for  Linoleum. — A  weak  so- 
lution of  beeswax  in  spirits  of  turpentine 
has  been  recommended  for  brightening 
the  appearance  of  linoleum.  Here  are 
some  other  formulas: 

I. — Palm  oil 1  ounce 

Paraffine 18  ounces 

Kerosene 4  ounces 

Melt  the  paraffine  and  oil,  remove  from 
the  fire  and  incorporate  the  kerosene. 

II. — Yellow  wax 5  ounces 

Oil  turpentine 11  ounces 

Amber  varnish.  ....      5  ounces 
Melt  the  wax,  add  the  oil,  and  then  the 
varnish.     Apply  with  a  rag. 

Treatment  of  Newly  Laid  Linoleum. — 
The  proper  way  to  cleanse  a  linoleum 
flooring  is  first  to  sweep  off  the  dust  and 
then  wipe  up  with  a  damp  cloth.  Several 
times  a  year  the  surface  should  be  well 
rubbed  with  floor  wax.  Care  must  be 
had  that  the  mass  is  well  pulverized  and 
free  from  grit.  Granite  linoleum  and 
figured  coverings  are  cleansed  without 
the  application  of  water.  A  floor  cover- 
ing which  has  been  treated  from  the 
beginning  with  floor  wax  need  only  be 
wiped  off  daily  with  a  dry  cloth,  either 
woolen  or  felt,  and  afterwards  rubbed 
well  with  a  cloth  filled  with  the  mass. 
It  will  improve  its  appearance,  too,  if  it 
be  washed  several  times  a  year  with 
warm  water  and  a  neutral  soap. 

LINOLEUM,  CLEANING  AND  POLISH- 
ING: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

LINOLEUM    ON    IRON    STAIRS     OR 
CEMENT    FLOORS,    TO    GLUE: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Glues. 

LINSEED    OIL: 

See  also  Oils. 

Bleaching  of  Linseed  Oil  and  Poppy- 
seed  Oil. — In  order  to  bleach  linseed  oil 
and  poppyseed  oil  for  painting  purposes, 
thoroughly  shake  2.5  parts  of  it  in  a  glass 
vessel  with  a  solution  of  potassium  per- 
manganate, 50  parts,  in  1,250  parts  of 
water;  let  stand  for  24  hours  in  a  warm 
temperature,  and  then  mix  with  75  parts 
of  pulverized  sodium  sulphite.  Now 
shake  until  the  latter  has  dissolved  and 
add  100  parts  of  crude  hydrochloric  acid, 
20°.  Agitate  frequently  and  wash,  after 
the  previously  brown  mass  has  become 
light  colored,  with  water,  in  which  a  little 


460 


LINSEED   OIL— LUBRICANTS 


chalk  has  been  finely  distributed,  until 
the  water  is  neutral.  Finally  filter  over 
calcined  Glauber's  salt. 

Adulteration  of  Linseed  Oil. — This  is 
common,  and  a  simple  and  cheap  meth- 
od of  testing  is  by  nitric  acid.  P°ur 
equal  parts  of  the  linseed  jil  and  nitric 
acid  into  a  flask,  shake  vigorously,  and 
let  it  stand  for  20  minutes.  If  the  oil  is 
pure,  the  upper  stratum  is  of  straw  yellow 
color  and  the  lower  one  colorless.  If 
impure,  the  former  is  dark  brown  or 
black,  the  latter  pale  orange  or  dark 
yellow,  according  to  the  admixtures  to 
the  oil. 

The  addition  of  rosin  oil  to  linseed 
oil  or  other  paint  oils  can  be  readily  de- 
tected by  the  increase  in  specific  gravity, 
the  low  flash  point,  and  the  odor  of  rosin 
on  heating  ;  while  the  amount  may 
be  approximately  ascertained  from  the 
amount  of  unsaponifiable  oil  left  after 
boiling  with  caustic  soda. 

LIP  SALVES  AND  LIPOL: 

See  Cosmetics. 

LIPOWITZ  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

LIQUEURS : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

LIQUOR  AMMONII  ANISATUS : 

See  Ammonia. 

LIQUORS : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

LITHOGRAPHERS'   LACQUER: 

See  Lacquers. 

LITHOGRAPHS : 

See  Pictures  and  Engravings. 

LIVER-SPOT  REMEDIES : 

See  Cosmetics. 

LOCKSMITH'S   VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

LOCOMOTIVE  LUBRICANTS: 

See  Lubricants. 

LOCUST  KILLER: 

See  Insecticides. 

LOUSE  WASH: 
See  Insecticides. 

Lubricants 

Oil  for  Firearms.  — Either  pure  vaseline 
oil,  white,  0.870,  or  else  pure  white-bone 
oil,  proof  to  cold,  is  employed  for  this 
purpose,  since  these  two  oils  are  not 
only  free  from  acid,  but  do  not  oxidize 
or  resinify. 


Leather  Lubricants. — Russian  tallow, 
1  pound;  beeswax,  6  ounces;  black  pitch, 
4  ounces;  common  castor  oil,  3  pounds; 
soft  paraffine,  £  pound;  oil  of  citronella, 
\  ounce.  Melt  all  together  in  a  saucepan, 
except  the  citronella,  which  add  on  cool- 
ing. Stir  occasionally. 

Machinery  Oils.— I.— The  solid  fat, 
called  bakourine,  a  heavy  lubricant  which 
possesses  extraordinary  lubricating  quali- 
lities,  has  a  neutral  reaction  and  melts 
only  at  about  176°  to  188°  F.  It  is  pre- 
pared as  follows: 

A  mixture  is  made  of  100  parts  of 
Bienne  petroleum  or  crude  naphtha, 
with  25  parts  of  castor  oil  or  some  min- 
eral oil,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  60 
or  70  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  of  66°  Be. 
The  acid  is  poured  in  a  small  stream  into 
the  oil,  while  carefully  stirring.  The 
agitation  is  continued  until  a  thick  and 
blackish-brown  mass  is  obtained  free 
from  non-incorporated  petroleum.  Very 
cold  water  of  2  or  3  times  the  weight  of 
the  mass  is  then  added,  and  the  whole  is 
stirred  until  the  mass  turns  white  and 
becomes  homogeneous.  It  is  left  at 
rest  for  24  hours,  after  which  the  watery 
liquid,  on  the  surface  of  which  the  fat  is 
floating,  must  be  poured  off.  After 
resting  again  from  3  to  4  days,  the  prod- 
uct is  drawn  off,  carefully  neutralized 
with  caustic  potash,  and  placed  in  bar- 
rels ready  for  shipping. 

II.— Melt  in  a  kettle  holding  2  to  4 
times  as  much  as  the  volume  of  the  mass 
which  is  to  be  boiled  therein,  10  parts, 
by  weight,  of  tallow  in  20  parts  of  rape 
oil  on  a  moderate  fire;  add  10  parts  of 
freshly  and  well  burnt  lime,  slaked  in 
30  or  40  parts  of  water;  increase  the  fire 
somewhat,  and  boil  with  constant  stirring 
until  a  thick  froth  forms  and  the  mass 
sticks  to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle.  Burn- 
ing should  be  prevented  by  diligent  stir- 
ring. Then  add  in  portions  of  10  parts 
each,  gradually,  70  parts  of  rape  oil  and 
boil  with  a  moderate  fire,  until  the  little 
lumps  gradually  forming  have  united 
to  a  whole  uniform  mass.  With  this 
operation  it  is  of  importance  to  be  able  to 
regulate  the  fire  quickly.  Samples  are 
now  continually  taken,  which  are  allowed 
to  cool  quickly  on  glass  plates.  The 
boiling  down  must  not  be  carried  so  far 
that  the  samples  harden  on  cooling; 
they  must  spin  long,  fine  threads,  when 
touched  with  the  finger.  When  this 
point  is  reached  add,  with  constant  stir- 
ring, when  the  heat  has  abated  suffi- 
ciently (which  may  be  tested  by  pouring 
in  a  few  drops  of  water),  25  to  30  parts 
of  water.  Now  raise  the  fire,  without 


LUBRICANTS 


461 


ceasing  to  stir,  until  the  mass  comes  to  a 
feeble,  uniform  boil.  In  order  to  be  able 
to  act  quickly  in  case  of  a  sudden  boiling 
over,  the  fire  must  be  such  that  it  can  be 
removed  quickly,  and  a  little  cold  water 
must  always  be  kept  on  hand.  Next, 
gradually  add  in  small  portions,  so  as 
not  to  disturb  the  boiling  of  the  mass, 
500  parts  of  paraffine  oil  (if  very  thick, 
800  to  900  parts  may  be  added),  remove 
from  the  fire,  allow  the  contents  of  the 
kettle  to  clarify,  and  skim  off  the  warm 
grease  from  the  sediment  into  a  stirring 
apparatus.  Agitate  until  the  mass  be- 
gins to  thicken  and  cool;  if  the  grease 
should  still  be  too  solid,  stir  in  a  little 
paraffine  oil  the  second  time.  The  odor 
of  the  paraffine  oil  may  be  disguised  by 
the  admixture  of  a  little  mirbane  oil. 

For  Cutting  Tools. — The  proportion 
of  ingredients  of  a  lubricating  mixture 
for  cutting  tools  is  6  gallons  of  water,  3£ 
pounds  of  soft  soap,  and  £  gallon  of 
clean  refuse  oil.  Heat  the  water  and  mix 
with  the  soap,  preferably  in  a  mechan- 
ical mixer;  afterwards  add  the  oil.  A 
cast-iron  circular  tank  to  hold  12  gallons, 
fitted  with  a  tap  at  the  bottom  and  hav- 
ing three  revolving  arms  fitted  to  a  ver- 
tical shaft  driven  by  bevels  and  a  fast 
and  loose  pulley,  answers  all  requirements 
for  a  mixer.  This  should  be  kept  run- 
ning all  through  the  working  day. 

For  Highspeed  Bearings. — To  prevent 
heating  and  sticking  of  bearings  on 
heavy  machine  tools  due  to  running  con- 
tinuously at  high  speeds,  take  about  £ 
of  flake  graphite,  and  the  remainder 
kerosene  oil.  As  soon  as  the  bearing 
shows  the  slightest  indication  of  heat- 
ing or  sticking,  this  mixture  should  be 
forcibly  squirted  through  the  oil  hole 
until  it  flows  out  between  the  shaft  and 
bearing,  when  a  small  quantity  of  thin 
machine  oil  may  be  applied. 

For  Heavy  Bearings. — An  excellent 
lubricant  for  heavy  bearings  can  be  made 
from  either  of  the  following  recipes: 

I. — Paraffine 6  pounds 

Palm  oil 12  pounds 

Oleonaphtha 8  pounds 

II. — Paraffine 8  pounds 

Palm  oil 20  pounds 

Oleonaphtha 12  pounds 

The  oleonaphtha  should  have  a  den- 
sity of  0.9.  First  dissolve  the  paraffine 
in  the  oleonaphtha  at  a  temperature  of 
about  158°  F.  Then  gradually  stir  in 
the  palm  oil  a  little  at  a  time.  The  pro- 
portions will  show  that  No.  II  gives  a 
less  liquid  product  than  No.  I.  Quick- 
lime may  be  added  if  desired. 


For  Lathe  Centers. — An  excellent 
lubricant  for  lathe  centers  is  made  by 
using  1  part  graphite  and  4  parts  tallow 
thoroughly  mixed. 

Sewing  Machine  Oil. — I. — Petroleum 
oils  are  better  adapted  for  the  lubrication 
of  sewing  machines  than  any  of  the  animal 
oils.  Sperm  oil  has  for  a  long  time  been 
considered  the  standard  oil  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  it  is  really  not  well  adapted  to 
the  conditions  to  which  a  sewing  machine 
is  subjected.  If  the  machine  were  oper- 
ated constantly  or  regularly  every  day, 
probably  sperm  oil  could  not  be  im- 
proved on.  The  difficulty  is,  however, 
that  a  family  sewing  machine  will  fre- 
quently be  allowed  to  stand  untouched 
for  weeks  at  a  time  and  will  then  be  ex- 
pected to  run  as  smoothly  as  though  just 
oiled.  Under  this  kind  of  treatment 
almost  any  oil  other  than  petroleum  oil 
will  become  gummy.  What  is  known  in 
the  trade  as  a  "neutral"  oil,  of  high 
viscosity,  would  probably  answer  better 
for  this  purpose  than  anything  else.  A 
mixture  of  1  part  of  petrolatum  and  7 
parts  of  paraffine  oil  has  also  been  rec- 
ommended. 

II. — Pale  oil  of  almonds .    9  ounces 
Rectified  benzoline..   3  ounces 
Foreign  oil  of  laven- 
der     1  ounce 

PETROLEUM  JELLIES   AND   SOLID- 
IFIED  LUBRICANTS. 

Petroleum  jelly,  vaseline,  and  petro- 
latum are  different  names  for  the  same 
thing. 

The  pure  qualities  are  made  from 
American  stock  thickened  with  hot  air 
until  the  desired  melting  point  is  at- 
tained. Three  colors  are  made:  white, 
yellow,  and  black  of  various  qualities. 
Cheaper  qualities  are  made  by  using 
ceresine  wax  in  conjunction  with  the 
genuine  article  and  pale  mineral  oil. 
This  is  the  German  method  and  is  ap- 
proved of  by  their  pharmacopoeia.  Ma- 
chinery qualities  are  made  with  cylinder 
oils,  pale  mineral  oils,  and  ceresine  wax. 

I. — Yellow  ceresine  wax  11  parts 
White  ceresine  wax.  6  parts 
American  mineral 

oil,  ${ft 151  parts 

Melt  the  waxes  and  stir  in  the  oil.  To 
make  white,  use  all  white  ceresine  wax. 
To  color,  use  aniline  dyes  soluble  in  oil 
to  any  shade  required. 

II. — Ceresine  wax 1  pound 

Bloomless      mineral 

oil,  Sq.  910 1  gallon 


462 


LUBRICANTS 


Melt  the  wax  and  add  the  oil,  varying 
according  to  the  consistency  required. 
To  color  black,  add  28  pounds  lamp- 
black to  20  gallons  oil.  Any  wax  will 
do,  according  to  quality  of  product  de- 
sired. 

White  Petroleum  Jelly.— 

White  tasteless  oil .  .      4  parts 
White  ceresine  wax .      1  part 

Solidified  Lubricants. — 

I. — Refined  cotton  oil. . .      2  parts 

American       mineral 

oil,  £U 2  parts 

Oleate  of  alumina  .  .      1  part 

Gently  heat  together. 

II.— Petroleum  jelly 120    parts 

Ceresine  wax 5    parts 

Slaked  lime i  part 

Water 4£  parts 

Heat  the  wax  and  the  petroleum  jelly 
gently  until  liquid;  then  mix  together  the 
water  and  lime.  Decant  the  former  into 
packing  receptacles,  and  add  lime  and 
water,  stirring  until  it  sets.  For  cheaper 
qualities  use  cream  cylinder  oil  instead 
of  petroleum  jelly. 

WAGON  AND  AXLE  GREASES: 

For  Axles  of  Heavy  Vehicles. — I. — 
Tallow  (free  from  acid),  19J  parts;  palm 
oil,  14  parts;  sal  soda,  5i  parts;  water, 
3  parts,  by  weight.  Dissolve  the  soda  in 
the  water  and  separately  melt  the  tallow, 
then  stir  in  the  palm  oil.  This  may  be 
gently  warmed  before  adding,  as  it 
greatly  facilitates  its  incorporation  with 
the  tallow,  unless  the  latter  be  made 
boiling  hot,  when  it  readily  melts  the 
semi-solid  palm  oil.  When  these  two 
greases  are  thoroughly  incorporated, 
pour  the  mixture  slowly  into  the  cold  lye 
(or  soda  solution),  and  stir  well  until  the 
mass  is  homogeneous.  This  lubricant 
can  be  made  less  solid  by  decreasing  the 
tallow  or  increasing  the  palm  oil. 

II. — Slaked  lime  (in  powder),  8  parts, 
is  slowly  sifted  into  rosin  oil,  10  parts. 
Stir  it  continuously  to  incorporate  it 
thoroughly,  and  gently  heat  the  mixture 
until  of  a  syrupy  consistency.  Color 
with  lampblack,  or  a  solution  of  turmeric 
in  a  strong  solution  of  sal  soda.  For 
blue  grease,  275  parts  of  rosin  oil  are 
heated  with  1  part  of  slaked  lime  and 
then  allowed  to  cool.  The  supernatant 
oil  is  removed  from  the  precipitated  mat- 
ter, and  5  or  6  parts  of  the  foregoing 
rosin-oil  soap  are  stirred  in  until  all  is  a 
soft,  unctuous  mass. 

For  Axles  of  Ordinary  Vehicles. — I. — 
Mix  80  parts  of  fat  and  20  parts  of  very 


fine  black  lead;  melt  the  fat  in  a  var- 
nished earthen  vessel;  add  the  black  lead 
while  constantly  stirring  until  it  is  cold, 
for  otherwise  the  black  lead,  011  account 
of  its  density,  would  not  remain  in  sus- 
pension in  the  melted  fat.  Axles  lubri- 
cated with  this  mixture  can  make  80 
miles  without  the  necessity  of  renewing 
the  grease. 

II. — Mix  equal  parts  of  red  American 
rosin,  melted  tallow,  linseed  oil,  and 
caustic  soda  lye  (of  1.5  density). 

III. — Melt  20  parts  of  rosin  oil  in  50 
parts  of  yellow  palm  oil,  saponify  this 
with  25  parts  of  caustic  soda  lye  of  15° 
Be.,  and  add  25  parts  of  mineral  oil  or 
paramne. 

IV. — Mix  residue  of  the  distillation  of 
petroleum,  60  to  80  parts;  tallow,  10 
parts;  colophony,  10  parts;  and  caustic 
soda  solution  of  40°  Be.,  15  parts. 

A  Grease  for  Locomotive  Axles. — Sa- 
ponify a  mixture  of  50  parts  tallow,  28 
parts  palm  oil,  2  parts  sperm  oil.  Mix 
in  soda  lye  made  by  dissolving  12  parts 
of  soda  in  137  parts  of  water. 

MISCELLANEOUS   LUBRICANTS: 

For  Cotton  Belts.— Carefully  melt  over 
a  slow  fire  in  a  closed  iron  or  self-regu- 
lating boiler  250  parts  of  caoutchouc  or 
gum  elastic,  cut  up  in  small  pieces;  then 
add  200  parts  of  colophony;  when  the 
whole  is  well  melted  and  mixed,  incor- 
porate, while  carefully  stirring,  200  parts 
of  yellow  wax.  Then  heat  850  parts  of 
train  oil,  mixing  with  it  250  parts  of  talc, 
and  unite  the  two  preparations,  con- 
stantly stirring,  until  completely  cold. 

Chloriding  Mineral  Lubricating  Oils.— 
A  process  has  been  introduced  for  pro- 
ducing industrial  vaselines  and  mineral 
oils  for  lubrication,  based  on  the  treat- 
ment of  naphthas,  petroleums,  and  simi- 
lar hydrocarbides,  by  means  of  chlorine 
or  mixtures  of  chlorides  and  hypochlor- 
ides,  known  under  the  name  of  decolor- 
ing chlorides.  Mix  and  stir  thoroughly 
1,000  parts  of  naphtha  of  about  908 
density;  55  parts  of  chloride  of  lime, 
and  500  parts  of  water.  Decant  and 
wash. 

Glass  Stop  Cock  Lubricant. — (See  also 
Stoppers). 

Pure  rubber 14  parts 

Spermaceti 5  parts 

Petroleum 1  part 

Melt  the  rubber  in  a  covered  vessel 
and  then  stir  in  the  other  ingredients. 
A  little  more  petroleum  will  be  required 
when  the  compound  is  for  winter  use. 


LUBRICANTS 


463 


Hard  Metal  Drilling  Lubricant. — For 
drilling  in  hard  metal  it  is  recommended 
to  use  carbolic  acid  instead  of  another 
fatty  substance  as  a  lubricant,  since  the 
latter,  by  decreasing  the  friction,  dimin- 
ishes the  "biting"  of  the  drill,  whereas 
the  carbolic  acid  has  an  etching  action 

Plaster  Model  Lubricant. — Take  lin- 
seed oil,  1,000  parts;  calcined  lead,  50 
parts;  litharge,  60  parts;  umber,  30  parts; 
talc,  25  parts.  Boil  for  2  hours  on  a  mod- 
erate fire;  skim  frequently  and  keep  in 
well-closed  flasks. 

Graphite  Lubricating  Compound. — 
Graphite  mixed  with  tallow  gives  a  good 
lubricating  compound  that  is  free  from 
any  oxidizing  if  the  tallow  be  rendered 
free  from  rancidity.  The  proportions 
are:  Plumbago,  1  part;  tallow,  4  parts. 
The  plumbago  being  stirred  into  the 
melted  tallow  and  incorporated  by  pass- 
ing it  through  a  mixing  mill,  add  a  few 
pounds  per  hundredweight  of  camphor 
in  powder  to  the  hot  compound. 

Lubricants  for  Redrawing  Shells.— 
Zinc  shells  should  be  clean  arid  free  from 
all  grit  and  should  be  immersed  in  boil- 
ing hot  soap  water.  They  must  be  re- 
drawn while  hot  to  get  the  best  results. 
On  some  shells  hot  oil  is  used  in  prefer- 
ence to  soap  water. 

For  redrawing  aluminum  shells  use  a 
cheap  grade  of  vaseline.  It  may  not  be 
amiss  to  add  that  the  draw  part  of  the 
redrawing  die  should  not  be  made  too 
long,  so  as  to  prevent  too  much  friction, 
which  causes  the  shells  to  split  and  shrivel 
up. 

For  redrawing  copper  shells  use  good 
thick  soap  water  as  a  lubricant.  The 
soap  used  should  be  of  a  kind  that  will 
produce  plenty  of  "slip."  If  none  such 
is  to  be  had,  mix  a  quantity  of  lard  oil 
with  the  soap  water  on  hand  and  boil  the 
two  together.  Sprinkling  graphite  over 
the  shells  just  before  redrawing  some- 
times helps  out  on  a  mean  job. 

Rope  Grease. — For  hemp  ropes,  fuse 
together  20  pounds  of  tallow  and  30 
pounds  of  linseed  oil.  Then  add  20 
pounds  of  paraffine,  30  pounds  of  vase- 
line, and  60  pounds  of  rosin.  Finally  mix 
with  10  pounds  of  graphite,  first  rubbed 
up  with  50  pounds  of  boiled  oil.  For 
wire  ropes  fuse  100  pounds  of  suint  with 
20  pounds  of  dark  colophony  (rosin). 
Then  stir  in  30  pounds  of  rosin  oil  and 
10  pounds  of  dark  petroleum. 

Sheet  Metal  Lubricant. —Mix  1  quart 
of  whale  oil,  1  pound  of  white  lead,  1  pint 
of  water,  and  3  ounces  of  the  finest 


graphite.     This  is  applied  to  the  metal 
with  a  brush  before  it  enters  the  dies. 

Steam  Cylinder  Lubricant. — To  ob- 
tain a  very  viscous  oil  that  does  not  de- 
compose in  the  presence  of  steam  even  at 
a  high  temperature,  it  is  necessary  to  ex- 
pose neutral  wool  fats,  that  have  been 
freed  from  wool-fatty  acids,  such  as  crude 
lanolin  or  wool  wax,  either  quite  alone 
or  in  combination  with  mineral  oils,  to  a 
high  heat.  This  is  best  accomplished  in 
the  presence  of  ordinary  steam  or  super- 
heated steam  at  a  heat  of  572°  F.,  and  a 
pressure  of  50  atmospheres,  correspond- 
ing with  the  conditions  in  the  cylinder  in 
which  it  is  to  be  used.  Instead  of  sepa- 
rating any  slight  quantities  of  acid  that 
may  arise,  they  may  be  dissolved  out  as 
neutral  salts. 

Wooden  Gears. — An  excellent  lubri- 
cating agent  for  wooden  gears  consists 
of  tallow,  30  parts  (by  weight);  palm  oil, 
20  parts;  fish  oil,  10  parts;  and  graphite, 
20  parts.  The  fats  are  melted  at  mod- 
erate heat,  and  the  finely  powdered  and 
washed  graphite  mixed  with  them  inti- 
mately by  long-continued  stirring.  The 
teeth  of  wooden  combs  are  kept  in  a 
perfectly  serviceable  condition  for  a 
much  longer  time  if  to  the  ordinary  tal- 
low or  graphite  grease  one-tenth  part  of 
their  weight  of  powdered  glass  is  added. 

TESTS  FOR  LUBRICANTS. 

In  testing  lubricants  in  general,  a 
great  deal  depends  upon  the  class  of 
work  in  which  they  are  to  be  employed. 
In  dealing  with  lubricating  greases  the 
specific  gravity  should  always  be  deter- 
mined. The  viscosity  is,  of  course,  also 
a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance.  If 
possible  the  viscosity  should  be  taken  at 
the  temperature  at  which  the  grease  is  to 
be  subjected  when  used,  but  this  cannot 
always  be  done;  300°  F.  will  be  found  to 
be  a  very  suitable  temperature  for  the 
determination  of  the  viscosity  of  heavy 
lubricants.  Although  one  of  the  stan- 
dard viscosimeters  is  the  most  satisfac- 
tory instrument  with  which  to  carry  out 
the  test,  yet  it  is  not  a  necessity.  Pro- 
vided the  test  be  always  conducted  in 
exactly  the  same  manner,  and  at  a  fixed 
temperature,  using  a  standard  sample 
for  comparison,  the  form  of  apparatus 
used  is  not  of  great  importance.  Most 
dealers  in  scientific  apparatus  will  pro- 
vide a  simple  and  cheap  instrument,  the 
results  obtained  with  which  will  be  found 
reliable.  With  the  exercise  of  a  little 
ingenuity  any  one  can  fit  up  a  visco- 
simeter  for  himself  at  a  very  small  outlay. 

Acidity  is  another  important  point  to 


464 


LUBRICANTS— MAGNETIC   CURVES 


note  in  dealing  with  lubricating  greases. 
Calculated  as  sulphuric  acid,  the  free 
acid  should  not  exceed  .01  per  cent,  and 
free  fatty  acids  should  not  be  present  to 
any  extent.  Cylinder  oil  should  dissolve 
completely  in  petroleum  benzine  (spe- 
cific gravity,  .700),  giving  a  clear  solution. 
In  dealing  with  machine  oils  the  condi- 
tions are  somewhat  different.  Fatty  oils 
in  mixture  with  mineral  oils  are  very 
useful,  as  they  give  better  lubrication 
and  driving  power,  especially  for  heavy 
axles,  for  which  these  mixtures  should 
always  be  used.  The  specific  gravity 
should  be  from  .900  to  .915  and  the 
freezing  point  should  not  be  above  58° 
F.  The  flash  point  of  heavy  machine 
oils  is  not  a  matter  of  great  importance. 
The  viscosity  of  dynamo  oils,  taken  in 
Engler's  apparatus,  should  be  15-16  at 
68°  F.  and  3V-4  at  122°  F.  In  dealing 
with  wagon  oils  and  greases  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  best  kinds  are 
those  which  are  free  from  rosin  and 
rosin  products,  and  their  flash  point 
should  be  above  212°  F. 

To  Test  Grease.— To  be  assured  of  the 
purity  of  grease,  its  density  is  examined 
as  compared  with  water;  a  piece  of  fat  of 
the  size  of  a  pea  is  placed  in  a  glass  of 
water.  If  it  remains  on  the  surface  or 
sinks  very  slowly  the  fat  is  pure;  if  it 
sinks  rapidly  to  the  bottom  the  fat  is 
mixed  with  heavy  matters  and  coom  is 
the  result. 

LUBRICANTS  FOR  WATCHMAKERS: 
See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

LUPULINE   BITTERS: 
See  Wines  and  Liquors. 


LUSTER  PASTE. 

This  is  used  for  plate  glass,  picture 
frames,  and  metal.  Five  parts  of  very 
finely  washed  and  pulverized  chalk;  5 
parts  of  Vienna  lime,  powdered;  5  parts 
of  bolus,  powdered;  5  parts  of  wood 
ashes,  powdered;  5  parts  of  English  red, 
powdered;  5  parts  of  soap  powder. 
Work  all  together  in  a  kneading  machine, 
to  make  a  smooth,  even  paste,  adding 
spirit.  The  consistency  of  the  paste  can 
be  varied,  by  varying  the  amount  of 
spirit,  from  a  solid  to  a  soft  mass. 

LUTES: 

See  Adhesives. 

MACHINE  OIL: 
See  Lubricants. 

MACHINERY,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


MAGIC: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

MAGNESIUM  CITRATE. 
Magnesium  carbon- 
ate       10     ounces 

Citric  acid 20     ounces 

Sugar 21     ounces 

Oil  of  lemon |  drachm 

Water    enough    to 

make 240     ounces 

Introduce  the  magnesium  carbonate  into 
a  wide-mouthed  2-gallon  bottle,  drop  the  oil 
of  lemon  on  it,  stir  with  a  wooden  stick: 
then  add  the  citric  acid,  the  sugar,  and 
water  enough  to  come  up  to  a  mark  on 
the  bottle  indicating  240  ounces.  For 
this  purpose  use  cold  water,  adding 
about  half  of  the  quantity  first,  and  the 
remainder  when  the  substances  are 
mostly  dissolved.  By  allowing  the  solu- 
tion to  stand  for  a  half  to  a  whole  day,  it 
will  filter  better  and  more  quickly  than 
when  hot  water  is  used. 

MAGNESIUM  ORGEAT  POWDER: 

See  Salts,  Effervescent. 

MAGNESIUM     FLASH-LIGHT     POW- 
DERS: 

See  Photography. 

MAGNETIC   CURVES  OF   IRON  FIL- 
INGS, THEIR  FIXATION. 

One  of  the  experiments  made  in  every 
physical  laboratory  in  teaching  the  ele- 
ments of  magnetism  and  electricity  is 
the  production  of  the  magnetic  curves  by 
sprinkling  iron  filings  over  a  glass  plate, 
after  the  well-known  method. 

For  fixing  these  curves  so  that  they 
may  be  preserved  indefinitely,  a  plate  of 
glass  is  warmed  on  the  smooth  upper 
surface  of  a  shallow  iron  chest  containing 
water  raised  to  a  suitable  temperature 
by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp.  A  piece  of 
paraffine  is  placed  on  the  glass,  and  in 
the  course  of  3  or  4  minutes  spreads 
itself  evenly  in  a  thin  layer  over  the  sur- 
face. The  glass  plate  is  removed,  the 
surplus  paraffine  running  off.  The 
image  is  formed  with  iron  filings  on  the 
cooled  paraffine,  which  does  not  adhere 
to  the  iron,  so  that  if  the  image  is  un- 
satisfactory the  filings  may  be  removed 
and  a  new  figure  taken.  To  fix  the 
curves,  the  plate  of  glass  is  again  placed 
on  the  warming  stove.  Finally,  the  sur- 
face of  the  paraffine  is  covered  with  white 
paint,  so  that  the  curves  appear  black 
on  a  white  ground.  Very  well-defined 
figures  may  thus  be  obtained.  A  similar 
though  much  simpler  process  consists  in 
covering  one  surface  of  stiff  white  paper 
with  a  layer  of  paraffine,  by  warming 


MANTLES— MATCHES 


465 


over  an  iron  plate,  spreading  the  filings 
over  the  cooled  surface,  and  fixing  them 
with  a  hot  iron  or  a  gas  flame. 
MAGNOLIA  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

MAHOGANY: 
See  Wood. 

MALTED  FOOD: 

See  Foods. 

MALTED  MILK: 
See  Milk. 

MALT,  HOT: 
See  Beverages. 

MANGANESE  ALLOYS: 
See  Alloys. 

MANGANESE  STEEL: 
See  Steel. 

MANGE  CURES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

MANICURE  PREPARATIONS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

MANTLES. 

These  are  prepared  after  processes 
differing  slightly  from  one  another,  but 
all  based  on  the  original  formula  of 
Welsbach — the  impregnation  of  vege- 
table fibers  with  certain  mineral  oxides 
in  solution,  drying  out,  and  arranging 
on  platinum  wire. 

Lanthanum  oxide. . .      30  parts 

Yttrium  oxide 20  parts 

Burnt  magnesia 50  parts 

Acetic  acid 50  parts 

Water,  distilled 100  parts 

The  salts  are  dissolved  in  the  water, 
and  to  the  solution  another  150  parts  of 
distilled  water  are  added  and  the  whole 
filtered.  The  vegetable  fiber  (in  its 
knitted  or  woven  form)  is  impregnated 
with  this  solution  dried,  and  arranged  on 
platinum  wire.  In  the  formula  the 
acetic  acid  may  be  replaced  with  dilute 
nitric  acid.  The  latter  seems  to  have 
some  advantages  over  the  former,  among 
which  is  the  fact  that  the  residual  ash 
where  acetic  acid  is  used  has  a  tendency 
to  ball  up  and  make  a  vitreous  residue, 
while  that  of  the  nitric  acid  remains  in 
powdery  form. 

Self -Igniting  Mantles. — A  fabric  of 
platinum  wire  and  cotton  thread  is 
sewed  or  woven  into  the  tissue  of  the  in- 
candescent body;  next  it  is  impregnated 
with  a  solution  of  thorium  salts  and 
dried.  The  thorium  nitrate  in  glowing 
gives  a  very  loose  but  nevertheless  fire- 
proof residue.  A  mixture  of  thorium 
nitrate  with  platinic  chloride  leaves  after 


incandescence  a  fire-resisting  sponge 
possessing  to  a  great  extent  the  property 
of  igniting  gas  mixtures  containing  oxy- 
gen. Employ  a  mixture  of  1  part  of 
thorium  nitrate  to  2£  parts  of  platinic 
chloride. 

MANURES: 

See  Fertilizers. 

MANUSCRIPT  COPYING: 

See  Copying. 

MAPLE: 
See  Wood. 

MARASCHINO: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors 

MARBLE  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

MARBLE  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

MARBLE  COLORS: 

See  Stone. 

MARBLE   ETCHING: 

See  Etching. 

MARBLE,  IMITATION: 
See  Plaster. 

MARBLE,  PAINTING  ON: 

See  Painting. 

MARBLE  POLISHING: 
See  Polishes. 

MARBLING  CRAYONS: 

See  Crayons. 

MARGERINE: 

See  Butter. 

MARKING  FLUID: 

See  also  Inks  and  Etching. 

For  laying  out  work  on  structural  iron 
or  castings  a  better  way  than  chalking 
the  surface  is  to  mix  whiting  with  ben- 
zine or  gasoline  to  the  consistency  of 
paint,  and  then  apply  it  with  a  brush ;  in 
a  few  minutes  the  benzine  or  gasoline 
will  evaporate,  leaving  a  white  surface 
ready  for  scribing  lines. 

MASSAGE  APPLICATIONS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

MASSAGE  SOAPS: 
See  Soaps. 

Matches 

(See  also  Phosphorus.) 

Manufacture  of  Matches. — Each  fac- 
tory uses  its  own  methods  and  chemical 
mixtures,  though,  in  a  general  way  the 
latter  do  not  vary  greatly.  It  is  impos- 


466 


MATCHES 


sible  here  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  dif- 
ferent steps  of  manufacture,  and  of  all 
the  precautions  necessary  to  turn  out 
good,  marketable  matches.  In  the 
manufacture  of  the  ordinary  safety 
match,  the  wood  is  first  comminuted  and 
reduced  to  the  final  shape  and  then 
steeped  in  a  solution  of  ammonium  phos- 
phate (2  per  cent  of  this  salt  with  1  or  1  £ 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid),  or  in  a 
solution  of  ammonium  sulphate  (2^  per 
cent),  then  drained  and  dried.  The 
object  of  this  application  is  to  prevent 
the  match  from  continuing  to  glow  after 
it  has  been  burned  out.  Next  the 
matches  are  dipped  into  a  paraffine  or 
stearine  bath,  and  after  that  into  the 
match  bath  proper,  which  is  best  done 
by  machines  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
Here  are  a  few  formulas: 

I. — Potassium    chlor- 
ate   2,000  parts 

Lead  binoxide..  .  .  1,150  parts 

Red  lead 2,500  parts    ' 

Antimony     trisul- 

phide 1,250  parts 

Gum  arabic 670  parts 

Paraffine 250  parts 

Potassium    bi- 
chromate  1,318  parts 

Directions:   See  No.  II. 

II. — Potassium  chlor- 
ate   2,000  parts 

Lead  binoxide.. .  .  2,150  parts 

Red  lead 2,500  parts 

Antimony     trisul- 

phide 1,250  parts 

Gum  arabic 670  parts 

Paraffine 250  parts 

Rub  the  paraffine  and  antimony  tri- 
sulphide  together,  and  then  add  the 
other  ingredients.  Enough  water  is 
added  to  bring  the  mass  to  a  proper  con- 
sistency when  heated.  Conduct  heating 
operations  on  a  water  bath.  The  sticks 
are  first  dipped  in  a  solution  of  paraffine 
in  benzine  and  then  are  dried.  For 
striking  surfaces,  mix  red  phosphorus,  9 
parts;  pulverized  iron  pyrites,  7  parts; 
pulverized  glass,  3  parts;  and  gum  ara- 
bic or  glue,  1  part,  with  water,  quantity 
sufficient.  To  make  the  matches  water 
or  damp  proof,  employ  glue  instead  of 
gum  arabic  in  the  above  formula,  and 
conduct  the  operations  in  a  darkened 
room.  For  parlor  matches  dry  the 
splints  and  immerse  the  ends  in  melted 
stearine.  Then  dip  in  the  following 
mixture  and  dry: 

Red  phosphorus 3.0  parts 

Gum  arabic  or  traga- 

canth 0.5  parts 


Water 3.0  parts 

Sand  (finely  ground) .      2.0  parts 

Lead  binoxide 2.0  parts 

Perfume  by  dipping  in  a  solution  of 
benzoic  acid. 

III. — M.  O.  Lindner,  of  Paris,  has 
patented  a  match  which  may  be  lighted 
by  friction  upon  any  surface  whatever, 
and  which  possesses  the  advantages  of 
being  free  from  danger  and  of  emitting 
no  unpleasant  odor.  The  mixture  into 
which  the  splints  are  first  dipped  con- 
sists of 

Chlorate  of  potash ...      6     parts 
Sulphide  of  antimony.     2     parts 

Gum 1 1  parts 

Powdered  clay 1J  parts 

The  inflammable  compound  consists 
of 

Chlorate  of  potash .     2  to  3  parts 
Amorphous     phos- 
phorus       6          parts 

Gum 1£       parts 

Aniline if       parts 

Red  or  amorphous  is  substituted  for 
yellow  phosphorus  in  the  match  heads. 
The  composition  of  the  igniting  paste  is 
given  as  follows: 

By  weight 
Soaked  glue  (1  to  5  of 

water) 37.0  parts 

Powdered  glass 7.5  parts 

Whiting 7.5  parts 

Amorphous  phosphor- 
us (pure) 10.0  parts 

Paraffine  wax 4.0  parts 

Chlorate  of  potash.  .  .    27.0  parts 
Sugar  or  lampblack  . .      7.0  parts 
Silicate  of  soda  may  be  substituted  for 
the  glue,  bichromate  of  potash  added  for 
damp   climates,    and   sulphur   for  large 
matches. 

The  different  compositions  for  tip- 
ping the  matches  in  use  in  different 
countries  and  factories  all  consist  essen- 
tially of  emulsions  of  phosphorus  in  a 
solution  of  glue  or  gum,  with  or  without 
other  matters  for  increasing  the  com- 
bustibility, for  coloring,  etc. 

I. — English. — Fine  glue,  2  parts, 
broken  into  small  pieces,  and  soaked  in 
water  till  quite  soft,  is  added  to  water,  4 
parts,  and  heated  by  means  of  a  water 
bath  until  it  is  quite  fluid,  and  at  a 
temperature  of  200°  to  212°  F.  The 
vessel  is  then  removed  from  the  fire,  and 
phosphorus,  1£  to  2  parts,  is  gradually 
added,  the  mixture  being  agitated  briskly 
and  continually  \\ith  a  stirrer  having 
wooden  pegs  or  bristles  projecting  at  its 
lower  end.  When  a  uniform  emulsion 
is  obtained,  chlorate  of  potassa,  4  to  5 


MATCHES— MATRIX   MASSES 


467 


parts;  powdered  glass,  3  to  4  parts;  and 
red  lead,  smalt,  or  other  coloring  matter, 
a  sufficient  quantity  (all  in  a  state  of  very 
fine  powder),  are  added,  one  at  a  time,  to 
prevent  accidents,  and  the  stirring  con- 
tinued until  the  mixture  is  comparatively 
cool.  The  above  proportions  are  those 
of  the  best  quality  of  English  composi- 
tion. The  matches  tipped  with  it  defla- 
grate with  a  snapping  noise. 

II.  — German      (Bottger).  —  Dissolve 
gum  arabic,  16  parts,  in  the  least  possi- 
ble quantity  of  water;  add  of  phosphorus 
(in  powder),  9  parts,  and  mix  by  tritu- 
ration.    Then  add   niter,  14   parts;  ver- 
milion   or    binoxide    of    manganese,    16 
parts,  and  form  the  whole  into  a  paste  as 
directed  above.     Into  this  the  matches 
are  to  be  dipped,  and  then  exposed  to 
dry.     As  soon  as  they  are  quite  dry  they 
are  to  be  dipped  into  very  dilute  copal 
varnish   or  lac   varnish,   and   again   ex- 
posed to  dry,  by  which  means  they  are 
rendered    waterproof,    or    at    least    less 
likely  to  suffer  from  exposure  in  damp 
weather. 

III.  (Bottger.)  —  Glue,     6     parts,    is 
soaked  in  a  little  cold  water  for  24  hours, 
after  which  it  is  liquefied  by  trituration 
in  a  heated  mortar;  phosphorus,  4  parts, 
is  added,  and  rubbed  down  at  a  heat  not 
exceeding  150°  F.;  niter  (in  fine  powder), 
10   parts,   is  next  mixed   in,   and   after- 
wards red  ocher,  5  parts,  and  smalt,  2 
parts,  are  further  added,  and  the  whole 
formed  into  a  uniform  paste,  into  which 
the     matches     are    dipped,     as    before. 
This  is  cheaper  than  the  previous  one. 

IV.  (Diesel.)— Phosphorus,   17  parts; 
glue,  21  parts;  red  lead,  24  parts;  niter, 
38  parts.      Proceed  as  above. 

Matches  tipped  with  II,  III,  or  IV, 
inflame  without  fulmination  when  rubbed 
against  a  rough  surface,  and  are  hence 
termed  noiseless  matches  by  the  makers. 

Safety  Paste  for  Matches. — The  dan- 
ger of  explosion  during  the  preparation 
of  match  composition  may  be  mini- 
mized by  addition  to  the  paste  of  the 
following  mixture:  Finely  powdered 
cork,  3  parts,  by  weight;  oxide  of  iron, 
15  parts;  flour,  23  parts;  and  water, 
about  40  parts.  In  practice,  30  parts  of 
gum  arabic  are  dissolved  in  water,  40 
parts,  and  to  the  solution  are  added 
powdered  potassium  chlorate,  57  parts, 
and  when  this  is  well  distributed,  amor- 
phous phosphorus,  7  parts,  and  pow- 
dered glass,  15  parts,  are  stirred  in.  The 
above  mixture  is  then  immediately  in- 
troduced, and  when  mixing  is  complete, 
the  composition  can  be  applied  to 
wooden  sticks  which  need  not  have  been 


previously  dried  or  paraffined.  The 
head  of  the  match  is  finally  coated  with 
tallow,  which  prevents  atmospheric 
action  and  also  spontaneous  ignition. 

Most  chemists  agree  that  the  greatest  im- 
provement of  note  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches  is  that  of  Landstrom,  of  Jon- 
kpping,  in  Sweden.  It  consists  in 
dividing  the  ingredient  of  the  match  mix- 
ture into  two  separate  compositions,  one 
being  placed  on  the  ends  of  the  splints, 
as  usual,  and  the  other,  which  contains 
the  phosphorus,  being  spread  in  a  thin 
layer  upon  the  end  or  lid  of  the  box. 
The  following  are  the  compositions  used: 
(a)  For  the  splints:  Chlorate  of  potassa, 
6  parts;  sulphuret  of  antimony,  2  to  3 
parts;  glue,  1  part,  (b)  For  the  friction 
surface:  Amorphous  phosphorus,  10 
parts;  sulphuret  of  antimony  or  peroxide 
of  manganese,  8  parts;  glue,  3  to  6  parts; 
spread  thinly  upon  the  surface,  which  has 
been  previously  made  rough  by  a  coating  of 
glue  and  sand.  By  thus  dividing  the 
composition  the  danger  of  fire  arising 
from  ignition  of  the  matches  by  acci- 
dental friction  is  avoided,  as  neither  the 
portion  on  the  splint  nor  that  on  the  box 
can  be  ignited  by  rubbing  against  an  un- 
prepared surface.  Again,  by  using  the 
innocuous  red  or  amorphous  phosphorus, 
the  danger  of  poisoning  is  entirely  pre- 
vented. 

MATCH  MARKS   ON  PAINT,  TO  RE- 
MOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

MATCH  PHOSPHORUS,  SUBSTITUTE 
FOR: 

See  Phosphorus  Substitute. 

Matrix  Masses 

Matrix  for  Medals,  Coins,  etc. — I. — 
Sharp  impressions  of  coins,  medals,  etc., 
are  obtained,  according  to  Bottger,  with 
the  following:  Mix  molten,  thinly  liquid 
sulphur  with  an  equal  quantity  of  in- 
fusorial earth,  adding  some  graphite.  If 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  this  mass,  made 
liquid  over  a  flame,  is  quickly  applied 
with  a  spatula  or  spoon  on  the  coin,  etc., 
an  impression  of  great  sharpness  is  ob- 
tained after  cooling,  which  usually  takes 
place  promptly.  Owing  to  the  addition 
of  graphite  the  articles  do  not  become 
dull  or  unsightly. 

II. — Bronze  and  silver  medals  should 
always  be  coated  with  a  separating  grease 
layer.  The  whole  coin  is  greased  slightly 
and  then  carefully  wiped  off  again  with 
a  little  wadding,  but  in  such  a  manner 


468 


MATRIX   MASSES— MEAD 


that  a  thin  film  of  grease  remains  on  the 
surface.  Next,  a  ring  of  strong  card- 
board or  thin  pasteboard  is  placed  around 
the  edge,  and  the  ends  are  sealed  to- 
gether. Now  stir  up  a  little  gypsum  in  a 
small  dish  and  put  a  teaspoonful  of  it  on 
the  surface  of  which  the  mold  is  to  be 
taken,  distributing  it  carefully  with  a 
badger's-hair  brush,  entering  the  finest 
cavities,  which  operation  will  be  assisted 
by  blowing  on  it.  When  the  object  is 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  the  plaster,  which  has  meanwhile 
become  somewhat  stiffer,  is  poured  on, 
so  that  the  thickness  of  the  mold  will  be 
about  2*0  of  an  inch.  The  removal  of  the 
cast  can  be  effected  only  after  a  time, 
when  the  plaster  has  become  warm,  has 
cooled  again,  and  has  thoroughly  hard- 
ened. If  it  be  attempted  to  remove  the 
cast  from  the  metal  too  early  and  by 
the  use  of  force,  fine  pieces  are  liable  to 
break  off  and  remain  adhering  to  the" 
model.  In  order  to  obtain  a  positive 
mold  from  the  concave  one,  it  is  laid  in 
water  for  a  short  time,  so  that  it  be- 
comes saturated  with  the  water  it  ab- 
sorbs. The  dripping,  wet  mold  is  again 
provided  with  an  edge,  and  plaster  of 
Paris  is  poured  on.  The  latter  readily 
flows  out  on  the  wet  surface,  and  only  in 
rare  cases  blisters  will  form.  Naturally 
this  casting  method  will  furnish  a  surface 
of  pure  gypsum,  which  is  not  the  case 
if  the  plaster  is  poured  into  a  greased 
mold.  In  this  case  the  surface  of  the 
cast  contains  a  soapy  layer,  for  the  liquid 
plaster  forms  with  oil  a  subsequently 
rather  hard  lime  soap.  The  freshly  cast 
plaster  must  likewise  be  taken  off  only 
when  a  quarter  of  an  hour  has  elapsed, 
after  it  has  become  heated  and  has 
cooled  again. 

MATS  FOR  METALS: 
See  Metals. 

MATZOON. 

Add  2  tablespoonfuls  of  bakers'  yeast 
to  1  pint  of  rich  milk,  which  has  been 
slightly  warmed,  stirring  well  together 
and  setting  aside  in  a  warm  room  in  a 
pitcher  covered  with  a  wet  cloth  for  a 
time  varying  from  6  to  12  hours,  accord- 
ing to  the  season  or  temperature  of  the 
room.  Take  from  this,  when  curdled, 
6  tablespoonfuls,  add  to  another  pint  of 
milk,  and  again  ferment  as  before,  and 
continue  for  five  successive  fermenta- 
tions in  all,  when  the  product  will  have 
become  free  from  the  taste  of  the  yeast. 
As  soon  as  the  milk  thickens,  which  is 
finally  to  be  kept  for  use,  it  should  be 
stirred  again  and  then  put  into  a  re- 


frigerator to  prevent  further  fermentation. 
It  should  be  smooth,  of  the  consistence  of 
thick  cream,  and  of  a  slightly  acid  taste. 

The  milk  should  be  prepared  fresh 
every  day,  and  the  new  supply  is  made 
by  adding  6  tablespoonfuls  of  the  pre- 
vious day's  lot  to  a  pint  of  milk  and  pro- 
ceeding as  before. 

The  curd  is  to  be  eaten  with  a  spoon, 
not  drunk,  and  preferably  with  some 
bread  broken  into  it.  It  is  also  some- 
times eaten  with  sugar,  which  is  said  not 
to  impair  its  digestibility. 

MAY  WINE: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

MEAD. 

In  its  best  form  Mead  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: 12  gallons  of  pure,  soft  water  (clean 
rain  water  is,  next  to  distilled  water, 
best)  are  mixed  with  30  gallons  of  ex- 
pressed honey  in  a  big  caldron,  4  ounces 
of  hops  added,  and  the  whole  brought 
to  a  boil.  The  boiling  is  continued 
with  diligent  skimming,  for  at  least  an 
hour  and  a  half.  The  fire  is  then  drawn, 
and  the  liquid  allowed  to  cool  down 
slowly.  When  cold,  it  is  drawn  off  into 
a  clean  barrel,  which  it  should  fill  to  the 
bung,  with  a  little  over.  A  pint  of  fresh 
wine  yeast  or  ferment  is  added,  and  the 
barrel  put  in  a  moderately  warm  place, 
with  the  bung  left  out,  to  ferment  for 
from  8  to  14  days,  according  to  the 
weather  (the  warmer  it  is  the  shorter 
the  period  occupied  in  the  primary  or 
chief  fermentation).  Every  day  the 
foam  escaping  from  the  bung  should  be 
carefully  skimmed  off,  and  every  2  or  3 
days  there  should  be  added  a  little  honey 
and  water  to  keep  the  barrel  quite  full, 
and  in  the  meantime  a  pan  or  cup  should 
be  inverted  over  the  hole,  to  keep  out 
dust,  insects,  etc.  When  fermentation 
ceases,  the  procedure  varies.  Some 
merely  drive  in  the  bung  securely  and  let 
the  liquor  stand  for  a  few  weeks,  then 
bottle;  but  the  best  German  makers  pro- 
ceed as  follows,  this  being  a  far  superior 
process:  The  liquor  is  removed  from 
the  barrel  in  which  it  fermented  to  an- 
other, clean,  barrel,  being  strained 
through  a  haircloth  sieve  to  prevent  the 
admission  of  the  old  yeast.  A  second 
portion  of  yeast  is  added,  and  the  liquid 
allowed  to  pass  through  the  secondary 
fermentation,  lasting  usually  as  long  as 
the  first.  The  bung  is  driven  into  the 
barrel,  the  liquid  allowed  to  stand  a  few 
days  to  settle  thoroughly  and  then  drawn 
off  into  bottles  and  stored  in  the  usual 
way.  Some  add  nutmeg,  cinnamon, 
etc.,  prior  to  the  last  fermentation. 


MEERSCHAUM— METALS 


469 


MEASURES: 

See  Weights  and  Measures. 

MEASURES,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

MEAT    EXTRACT    CONTAINING    AL- 
BUMEN: 
See  Foods. 

MEAT  PEPTONOIDS: 

See  Peptonoids. 

MEAT  PRESERVATIVES: 

See  Foods. 

MEAT  PRODUCTS  (ADULTERATED) : 

See  Foods. 

MEDAL  IMPRESSIONS: 
See  Matrix  Mass. 

MEDALS,  CLEANING  AND  PRESERV- 
ING: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

MEDALLION  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

MEDICINE  DOSES: 

See  Doses. 

MEERSCHAUM: 

To  Color  a  Meerschaum  Pipe.— I. — Fill 
the  pipe  and  smoke  down  about  one- 
third,  or  to  the  height  to  which  you  wish 
to  color.  Leave  the  remainder  of  the 
tobacco  in  the  pipe,  and  do  not  empty  or 
disturb  it  for  several  weeks,  or  until  the 
desired  color  is  obtained.  When  smok- 
ing put  fresh  tobacco  on  the  top  and 
smoke  to  the  same  level, 
should  never  be  smoked 
extremely  cold  weather. 

II. — The  pipe  is  boiled  in  a  prepara- 
tion of  wax,  8  parts;  olive  oil,  2  parts; 
and  nicotine,  1  part,  for  10  or  15  minutes. 
The  pipe  absorbs  this,  and  a  thin  coating 
of  wax  is  held  on  the  surface  of  the  pipe, 
and  made  to  take  a  high  polish.  Under 
the  wax  is  retained  the  oil  of  tobacco, 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  pipe;  and  its 
hue  grows  darker  in  proportion  to  the  to- 
bacco used.  A  meerschaum  pipe  at 
first  should  be  smoked  very  slowly,  and 
before  a  second  bowlful  is  lighted  the 
pipe  should  cool  off.  This  is  to  keep  the 
wax  as  far  up  on  the  bowl  as  possible; 
rapid  smoking  will  overheat,  driving  the 
wax  off  and  leaving  the  pipe  dry  and 
raw. 

To  Repair  Meerschaum  Pipes. — To 
cement  meerschaum  pipes,  make  a  glue 
of  finely  powdered  and  sifted  chalk  and 
white  of  egg.  Put  a  little  of  this  glue  on 
the  parts  to  be  repaired  and  hold  them 
pressed  together  for  a  moment. 

See  also  Adhesives  under  Cements. 


A  new  pipe 
outdoors    in 


To  Tell  Genuine  Meerschaum. — For 
the  purpose  of  distinguishing  imitation 
meerschaum  from  the  true  article,  rub 
with  silver.  If  the  silver  leaves  lead 
pencil-like  marks  on  the  mass,  it  is  not 
genuine  but  artificial  meerschaum.  If  no 
such  lines  are  produced,  the  article  is 
genuine. 

MENTHOL  COUGH  DROPS: 

See  Confectionery. 

MENTHOL  TOOTH  POWDER: 

See  Dentifrices. 

MERCURY  SALVES: 

See  Ointments. 

MERCURY  STAINS,  TO  REMOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

METACARBOL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

Metals  and  Their  Treatment 

METAL  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives  and  Lutes. 

METAL    CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

METAL  INLAYING: 

See  Damaskeening. 

METAL  POLISHES: 
See  Polishes. 

METAL  PROTECTIVES: 

See  Rust  Preventives. 

METAL  VARNISHES: 
See  Varnishes. 

METALS,  HOW  TO  ATTACH  TO  RUB- 
BER: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Rubber  Cements. 

METALS,  SECURING  WOOD  TO: 

See  Adhesives. 

METALS,  BRIGHTENING  AND  DEAD- 
ENING, BY  DIPPING: 

Brightening  Pickle. — To  brighten  ar- 
ticles by  dipping,  the  dipping  liquid  must 
not  be  too  hot,  otherwise  the  pickled 
surface  turns  dull;  neither  must  it  be 
prepared  too  thin,  nor  must  wet  articles 
be  entered,  else  only  tarnished  -surfaces 
will  be  obtained. 

For  a  burnish-dip  any  aqua  fortis  over 
33°  Be.,  i.  e.,  possessing  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.30,  may  be  employed.  It  is  advis- 
able not  to  use  highly  concentrated  aqua 
fortis,  to  reduce  the  danger  of  obtaining 
matt  work.  It  is  important  that  the 
quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol,  which  is  added, 


470 


METALS 


is  correct.  It  is  added  because  the  action 
of  the  aqua  fortis  is  very  uncertain. 
Within  a  short  time  it  becomes  so  heated 
in  acting  on  the  metals  that  it  turns  out 
only  dull  work,  and  pores  or  even  holes 
are  apt  to  be  the  result  of  the  violent 
chemical  action.  If  the  aqua  fortis  is 
diluted  with  water  the  articles  do  not 
become  bright,  but  tarnish.  For  this 
reason  sulphuric  acid  should  be  used. 
This  does  not  attack  the  metals;  it  only 
dilutes  the  aqua  fortis  and  distributes  the 
heat  generated  in  pickling  over  a  larger 
space.  It  is  also  much  cheaper,  and  it 
absorbs  water  from  the  aqua  fortis  and, 
therefore,  keeps  it  in  a  concentrated  state 
and  yet  distributed  over  the  space. 

In  the  case  of  too  much  oil  of  vitriol 
the  dilution  becomes  too  great  and  the 
goods  are  tarnished;  if  too  little  is  added, 
the  mixture  soon  ceases  to  turn  out  bright 
articles,  because  of  overheating.  On 
this  experience  are  based  the  formulas 
given  below. 

Dip  the  articles,  which  must  be  free 
from  grease,  into  the  pickle,  after  they 
have  been  either  annealed  and  quenched 
in  diluted  sulphuric  acid  or  washed  out 
with  benzine.  Leave  them  in  the  dip- 
ping mixture  until  they  become  covered 
with  a  greenish  froth.  Then  quickly 
immerse  them  in  a  vessel  containing 
plenty  of  water,  and  wash  them  out  well 
with  running  water.  Before  entering 
the  dipped  articles  in  the  baths  it  is  well 
to  remove  all  traces  of  acid,  by  passing 
them  through  a  weak  soda  or  potassium 
cyanide  solution  and  washing  them  out 
again.  If  the  brightly  dipped  goods  are 
to  remain  bright  they  must  be  coated 
with  a  thin  spirit  or  zapon  acquer. 

Following  are  two  formulas  for  the 
pickle: 
I.—  Aqua  fortis,  36°  Be., 

by  weight 100    parts 

Oil  of  vitriol    (sul- 
phuric acid),  66° 
Be.,  by  weight  .  .      70    parts 
Cooking     salt,     by 

volume 1£  parts 

Shining  soot  (lamp- 
black), by  vol- 
ume   1$  parts 

II.— Aqua  fortis,  40°  Be., 

by  weight 100    parts 

Oil    of    vitriol,   66° 

Be.,  by  weight . . .    100    parts 
Cooking     salt,     by 

volume 2    parts 

Shining     soot,     by 

volume 2    parts 

Matting  or  Deadening  Pickle. — When, 
instead  of  brilliancy,  a  matted  appear- 


ance is  desired  for  metals,  the  article  is 
corroded  either  mechanically  or  chemic- 
ally. In  the  first  case  it  is  pierced  with 
fine  holes  near  together,  rubbed  with 
emery  powder  or  pumice  stone  and  tam- 
ponned.  In  the  other  case  the  corrosion 
is  effected  in  acid  baths  thus  composed: 

Nitric  acid  of  36°  Be.,  200  parts,  by 
volume;  sulphuric  acid  of  56°  Be.,  200 
parts,  by  volume;  sea  salt,  1  part,  by 
volume;  zinc  sulphate,  1  to  5  parts,  by 
volume. 

With  this  proportion  of  acids  the 
articles  can  remain  from  5  to  20  minutes 
in  the  mixture  cold;  the  prominence  of 
the  matt  depends  on  the  length  of  time 
of  the  immersion.  The  pieces  on  being 
taken  from  the  bath  have  an  earthy  ap- 
pearance which  is  lightened  by  dipping 
them  quickly  in  a  brightening  acid.  If 
left  too  long  the  matted  appearance  is 
destroyed. 

Cotton  Matt.— This  matt,  thus  called 
on  account  of  its  soft  shade,  is  rarely 
employed  except  for  articles  of  stamped 
brass,  statuettes,  or  small  objects.  As 
much  zinc  is  dissolved  in  the  bath  as  it 
will  take.  The  pieces  are  left  in  it  from 
15  to  30  minutes.  On  coming  from  the 
bath  they  are  dull,  and  to  brighten  them 
somewhat  they  are  generally  dipped  into 
acids  as  before  described. 

Silver  Matt. — Articles  of  value  for 
which  gilding  is  desired  are  matted  by 
covering  them  with  a  light  coating  of 
silver  by  the  battery.  It  is  known  that 
this  deposit  is  always  matt,  unless  the 
bath  contains  too  large  a  quantity  of 
potassium  cyanide.  A  brilliant  silvering 
can  be  regularly  obtained  with  electric 
baths  only  by  adding  carbon  sulphide. 
Four  drachms  are  put  in  an  emery  flask 
containing  a  quart  of  the  bath  fluid  and 
allowed  to  rest  for  24  hours,  at  the  end 
of  which  a  blackish  precipitate  is  formed. 
After  decanting,  a  quart  is  poured  into 
the  electric  bath  for  each  quart  before 
every  operation  of  silvering. 

Dangers  of  Dipping. — The  operation 
of  dipping  should  be  carried  out  only  in 
a  place  where  the  escaping  fumes  of  hypo- 
nitric  acid  and  chlorine  can  pass  off 
without  molesting  the  workmen,  e.  g., 
under  a  well-drawing  chimney;  prefer- 
ably in  a  vapor  chamber.  I*  such  an 
arrangement  is  not  present  the  operator 
should  choose  a  draughty  place  and  pro- 
tect himself  from  the  fumes  by  tying  a 
wet  sponge  under  his  nose.  The  vapors 
are  liable  to  produce  very  violent  and 
dangerous  inflammations  of  the  respira- 
tory organs,  coming  on  in  a  surprisingly 


METALS 


471 


quick  manner  after  one  has  felt  no  pre- 
vious injurious  effect  at  all. 

COLORING  METALS: 

See  also  Plating. 

Processes  by  Oxidation. — By  heat: — 
Coloration  of  Steel. — The  steel,  heated 
uniformly,  is  covered  in  the  air  with  a 
pellicle  of  oxide  and  has  successively  the 
following  colors:  Straw  yellow,  blue  (480° 
to  570°  F.),  violet,  purple,  water-green, 
disappearance  of  the  color;  lastly  the  steel 
reddens.  For  producing  the  blue  read- 
ily, plunge  the  object  into  a  bath  of  25 
parts  of  lead  and  1  part  of  tin;  its  tem- 
perature is  sufficient  for  bluing  small 
pieces. 

Bronzing  of  Steel. — I. — The  piece  to 
be  bronzed  is  wet  by  the  use  of  a  sponge 
with  a  solution  formed  of  iron  perchlor- 
ide,  cupric  sulphate,  and  a  nitric  acid. 
It  is  dried  in  a  stove  at  86°  F.,  then  kept 
for  20  minutes  over  boiling  water.  It  is 
dried  again  at  86°  F.,  and  rubbed  with  a 
scratch  brush. 

This  operation  is  repeated  several 
times. 

Bronzing  of  Steel. — II. — Rust  and 
grease  are  removed  from  the  objects 
with  a  paste  of  whiting  and  soda.  They 
are  immersed  in  a  bath  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  rubbed  with  very  fine 
pumice-stone  powder.  They  are  then 
exposed.from  2  to  3  minutes  to  the  vapor 
of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  concen- 
trated chlorhydric  and  nitric  acids. 

The  object  is  heated  to  570°  to  660°  F. 
until  the  bronze  color  appears.  When 
cooled,  it  is  covered  with  paraffine  or 
vaseline  while  rubbing,  and  heated  a 
second  time  until  the  vaseline  or  paraf- 
fine commences  to  decompose.  The 
operation  is  repeated.  The  shades  ob- 
tained are  beautiful,  and  the  bronzing  is 
not  changeable.  By  subjecting  the  ob- 
ject to  the  vapors  of  the  mixture  of  chlor- 
hydric and  nitric  acids,  shades  of  a  light 
reddish  brown  are  obtained.  By  add- 
ing to  these  two  acids  acetic  acid,  beau- 
tiful yellow  bronze  tints  are  procured. 
By  varying  the  proportion  of  these  three 
acids,  all  the  colors  from  light  reddish 
brown  to  deep  brown,  or  from  light 
yellow  bronze  to  deep  yellow  bronze,  are 
produced  at  will. 

Bronzing. — III.— Under  the  name  of 
Tuker  bronze,  a  colored  metal  is  found 
in  trade  which  imitates  ornamental 
bronze  perfectly.  It  is  obtained  by  de- 
oxidizing or,  if  preferred,  by  burnishing 
cast  iron.  A  thin  layer  of  linseed  oil  or 
of  linseed-oil  varnish  is  spread  on.  It  is 
heated  at  a  temperature  sufficient  for 


producing  in  the  open  air  the  oxidation 
of  the  metal.  The  temperature  is  raised 
more  or  less,  according  as  a  simple  yel- 
low coloration  or  a  deep  brown  is  desired. 

Lustrous  Black. — In  a  quantity  of  oil 
of  turpentine,  sulphuric  acid  is  poured 
drop  by  drop,  stirring  continually  until 
a  precipitate  is  no  longer  formed.  Then 
the  whole  is  poured  into  water,  shaken, 
decanted,  and  the  washing  of  the  pre- 
cipitate commenced  again  until  blue 
litmus  paper  immersed  in  the  water  is 
no  longer  reddened.  The  precipitate 
will  thus  be  completely  freed  from  acid. 
After  having  drained  it  on  a  cloth,  it  is 
ready  for  use.  It  is  spread  on  the  iron 
and  burned  at  the  fire. 

If  the  precipitate  spreads  with  diffi- 
culty over  the  metal,  a  little  turpentine 
can  be  added.  It  is  afterwards  rubbed 
with  a  linen  rag,  soaked  with  linseed  oil, 
until  the  surface  assumes  a  beautiful 
lustrous  black.  This  covering  is  not 
liable  to  be  detached. 

Bluish  Black. — Make  a  solution  com- 
posed of  nitric  acid,  15  parts;  cupric 
sulphate,  8  parts;  alcohol,  20  parts;  and 
water,  125  parts.  Spread  over  the  metal 
when  well  cleaned  and  grease  removed. 
Dry  and  rub  with  linen  rag. 

Black. — Make  a  solution  composed  of 
cupric  sulphate,  80  parts;  alcohol,  40 
parts;  ferric  chloride,  30  parts;  nitric 
acid,  20  parts;  ether,  20  parts;  water, 
400  to  500  parts,  and  pass  over  the  ob- 
ject to  be  blackened. 

Magnetic  Oxide. — I. — A  coating  of 
magnetic  oxide  preserves  from  rust. 
To  obtain  it,  heat  the  object  in  a  fur- 
nace to  a  temperature  sufficient  to  de- 
compose steam.  Then  inject  from  4  to 
6  hours  superheated  steam  at  1,100°  F. 
The  thickness  of  the  layer  of  oxide 
formed  varies  with  the  duration  of  the 
operation.  This  process  may  replace 
zincking,  enameling,  or  tinning. 

II. — A  deposit  of  magnetic  oxide  may 
be  obtained  by  electrolysis.  The  iron 
object  is  placed  at  the  anode  in  a  bath  of 
distilled  water  heated  to  176°  F.  The 
cathode  is  a  plate  of  copper,  or  the  ves- 
sel itself  if  it  is  of  iron  or  copper.  By 
electrolysis  a  layer  of  magnetic  oxide  is 
formed. 

In  the  same  way  other  peroxides  may 
be  deposited.  With  an  alkaline  solution 
of  litharge  a  brilliant  black  deposit  of 
lead  peroxide,  very  adherent,  is  obtained. 

The  employment  of  too  strong  a  cur- 
rent must  be  avoided.  It  will  produce  a 
pulverulent  deposit.  To  obtain  a  good 
coating,  it  is  necessary  after  leaving  the 
objects  for  a  moment  at  the  opposite 


472 


METALS 


pole,  to  place  them  at  the  other  pole 
until  the  outside  is  completely  reduced, 
then  bring  them  back  to  the  first  place. 

Processes  by  Sulphuration. — Oxidized 
Brown  Color. — The  object  is  plunged 
into  some  melted  sulphur  mingled  with 
lampblack,  or  into  a  liquid  containing  the 
flowers  of  sulphur  mingled  with  lamp- 
black. It  is  drained  and  dried.  The 
bronzing  obtained  resists  acids,  and  may 
acquire  a  beautiful  polish  which  has  the 
appearance  of  oxidized  bronze,  due  per- 
haps to  the  formation  of  ferric  sulphide, 
a  sort  of  pyrites  remarkable  for  its  beau- 
tiful metallic  reflections  and  its  resistance 
to  chemical  agents. 

Brilliant  Black. — Boil  1  part  of  sulphur 
and  10  parts  turpentine  oil.  A  sulphur- 
ous oil  is  obtained  of  disagreeable  odor. 
Spread  this  oil  with  the  brush  as  lightly 
as  possible,  and  heat  the  object  in  the 
flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  until  the  patina 
takes  the  tint  desired.  This  process  pro- 
duces on  iron  and  steel  a  brilliant  black 
patina,  which  is  extremely  solid. 

Blue. — Dissolve  500  drachms  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  in  1  quart  of  water,  and 
35  grains  of  lead  acetate  in  1  quart  of 
water.  The  two  solutions  mingled  are 
heated  to  the  boiling  point.  The  iron  is 
immersed,  and  assumes  a  blue  coloration 
similar  to  that  obtained  by  annealing. 

Deposit  of  a  Metal  or  of  a  Non-Oxi- 
dizable  Compound. — Bronze  Color. — 
Rub  the  iron  smartly  with  chloride  of 
antimony.  A  single  operation  is  not 
sufficient.  It  is  necessary  to  repeat  it, 
heating  the  object  slightly. 

Black. — I. — Make  a  paste  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  chloride  of  antimony 
and  linseed  oil.  Spread  on  the  object, 
previously  heated,  with  a  brush  or  rag; 
then  pass  over  it  a  coating  of  wax  and 
brush  it.  Finally  varnish  with  gum  lac. 

II. — Prepare  a  solution  of  bismuth  chlo- 
ride, 10  parts;  mercury  chloride,  20  parts; 
cupric  chloride,  10  parts;  hydrochloric 
acid,  60  parts;  alcohol,  50  parts;  water, 
500  parts.  Add  fuchsine  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  mask  the  color. 

The  mercury  chloride  is  poured  into 
the  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  bismuth 
chloride  and  cupric  chloride  added;  then 
the  alcohol.  Employ  this  mixture  with 
a  brush  or  a  rag  for  smearing  the  object. 
The  object  may  also  be  immersed  in  the 
liquid  if  it  is  well  cleaned  and  free  from 
grease.  It  is  dried  and  afterwards  sub- 
mitted to  boiling  water  for  half  an  hour. 
The  operation  is  repeated  until  the 
wished-for  tint  is  obtained;  then  the 
object  is  passed  into  the  oil  bath  and 


taken  to  the  fire  without  wiping.  The 
object  may  also  be  placed  for  10  minutes 
in  boiling  linseed  oil. 

Brown  Tint. — A  solution  is  made  of 
chloride  of  mercury,  20  parts;  cupric 
chloride,  10  parts;  hydrochloric  acid,  60 
parts;  alcohol,  50  parts;  water,  500  parts. 
The  object  is  plunged  into  this  solution 
after  being  well  cleaned.  The  solution 
may  also  be  applied  with  a  brush,  giving 
two  coats.  It  is  afterwards  put  into  hot 
water.  The  surface  of  the  object  is  cov- 
ered with  a  uniform  layer  of  vegetable  oil. 
It  is  placed  in  a  furnace  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, but  not  sufficient  for  carbonizing 
the  oil.  The  iron  is  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  brown  oxide,  which  adheres 
strongly  to  the  metal,  and  which  can  be 
beautifully  burnished,  producing  the  ap- 
pearance of  bronze. 

Brilliant  Black. — The  process  begins 
by  depositing  on  the  object,  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  grease,  a  layer  of 
metallic  copper.  For  this  purpose  the 
following  solutions  are  prepared  :  (a) 
Cupric  sulphate,  1  part;  water,  16  parts. 
Add  ammonia  until  complete  dissolu- 
tion. (6)  Chloride  of  tin,  1  part;  water, 
2  parts;  and  chlorhydric  acid,  2  parts. 
The  object  is  immersed  in  solution  b, 
and  afterwards  in  solution  a.  In  this 
way  there  is  deposited  on  the  iron  a  very 
adherent  coating  of  copper.  The  object, 
washed  with  water,  is  afterwards  rubbed 
with  sulphur,  or  immersed  in  a  solution 
of  ammonium  sulphhydrate.  A  dull  black 
coating  of  cupric  sulphide  is  produced, 
which  becomes  a  brilliant  black  by  burn- 
ishing. 

Blue  Black. — The  iron  object  is  first 
heated  according  to  the  previous  recipe, 
but  the  copper  is  converted  into  cupric 
sulphide,  not  by  a  sulphhydrate,  but  by 
a  hyposulphite.  It  is  sufficient  to  dip 
the  coppered  object  into  a  solution  of 
sodium  hyposulphite,  acidulated  with 
chlorhydric  acid,  and  raised  to  the  tem- 
perature of  175°  to  195°  F. 

Thus  a  blue-black  coating  is  obtained, 
unchangeable  in  air  and  in  water.  After 
polishing,  it  has  the  color  of  blue  steel. 
It  adheres  strongly  enough  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  scratch  brush. 

Deposition  of  Molybdenum. — Iron  is 
preserved  from  rust  by  covering  it  with 
a  coating  of  molybdenum,  as  follows: 
Water,  1,000  parts;  ammonium  molyb- 
date,  1  part;  ammonium  nitrate,  15  to 
20  parts.  Suspend  the  object  at  the 
negative  pole  of  a  battery.  The  current 
ought  to  have  a  strength  of  2  to  5  am- 
peres  per  cubic  decimeter. 

Deposit  of  Manganese  Peroxide. — The 


METALS 


473 


iron  or  steel  is  first  covered  with  a  coat- 
ing of  manganese  peroxide  by  immer- 
sing as  an  anode  in  a  bath  containing 
about  0.05  per  cent  of  chloride  or  sul- 
phate of  manganese  and  from  5  to  25  per 
cent  of  ammonium  nitrate.  The  bath  is 
electrolyzed  cold,  making  use  of  a  cath- 
ode of  charcoal.  Feeble  currents  (1  or 

2  amperes)    produce   an   adherent    and 
unchangeable  deposit. 

Bronzing  of  Cannon. — Prepare  a  solu- 
tion of  ferric  chloride  of  density  1.281, 
14  parts;  mercury  chloride,  3  parts;  fum- 
ing nitric  acid,  3  parts;  cupric  sulphate, 

3  parts;  water,  80  parts.      Give  to   the 
piece  of  ordnance  2  or  3  coatings  of  the 
solution,   taking  care  always  to  scratch 
the   preceding   layer   with  a  steel  brush 
before  spreading  the  second.    Afterwards, 
the    object  is  plunged   in  a  solution  of 
potassium  sulphide  in  900  parts  of  water. 
It  is  left  in  this  for  10  days.     It  is  removed 
by  washing    with    soap    and  hot  water. 
The  object  is  rinsed,  dried,  and  finally 
brushed  with  linseed-oil  varnish. 

Green  Bronzing.  —  Dissolve  1  part  of 
acetate  of  silver  in  20  parts  of  essence  of 
lavender;  coat  the  surface  of  iron  with 
this  liquid  by  means  of  a  brush  and  raise 
the  temperature  to  292°  F.  A  brilliant 
green  color  is  developed  on  the  surface. 

Coating  on  Steel  Imitating  Gilding. — 
The  object  is  first  covered  by  the  gal- 
vanic method  by  means  of  a  solution  of 
cyanide  of  copper  and  potassium,  then 
covered  electrolytically  with  a  thin  de- 
posit of  zinc.  It  is  dried  and  cleaned 
with  a  little  washed  chalk  and  finally 
immersed  in  boiling  linseed  oil.  The 
surface  of  the  piece  after  a  few  seconds, 
at  a  temperature  of  310°  F.,  appears  as  if 
there  had  been  a  real  penetration  of  cop- 
per and  zinc;  that  is  to  say,  as  though 
there  were  a  formation  of  tombac. 

Bronzing  of  Cast  Iron. — The  piece, 
when  scraped,  is  coppered  with  the  fol- 
lowing bath:  Cupric  chloride,  10  parts; 
hydrochloric  acid,  80  parts;  nitric  acid, 
10  parts.  It  is  rubbed  with  a  rag  and 
washed  with  pure  water,  and  then 
rubbed  with  the  following  solution:  Am- 
monium chlorhydrate,  4  parts;  oxalic 
acid,  1  part;  water,  30  parts. 

Gilding  of  Iron  and  Steel. — Chloride 
of  gold  is  dissolved  either  in  oil  of  tur- 
pentine or  in  ether,  and  this  solution  is 
applied  with  the  brush  on  the  metallic 
surface,  after  being  perfectly  scraped. 
It  is  allowed  to  dry,  and  then  heated 
more  or  less  strongly  for  obtaining  the 
necessary  adherence.  When  it  is  dry 
the  gilding  is  burnished. 


Process  by  Deposit  of  a  Color  or 
Varnish. — Beautiful  colorations,  resis- 
tive to  light,  may  be  given  to  metals  by 
the  following  method: 

The  metallic  objects  are  immersed  in 
a  colorless  varnish  with  pyroxyline,  and 
dried  in  a  current  of  hot  air  at  176°  F. 
When  the  varnish  is  sufficiently  dry,  the 
objects  are  bathed  for  a  few  minutes  in  a 
2  per  cent  alcoholic  solution  of  alizarine 
or  of  a  color  of  the  same  group.  By 
washing  with  water  the  yellowish  color 
covering  the  object  on  coming  from  the 
coloring  bath  passes  to  the  golden  red. 

Coloring  Copper.— To  redden  copper 
hang  it  from  a  few  minutes  to  an  hour, 
according  to  the  shade  wanted,  in  a  5  to  10 
per  cent  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  po- 
tassmm  in  water.  By  adding  a  little 
hydrochloric  acid  to  the  solution  the 
color  given  to  the  copper  may  be  made  to 
assume  a  purple  shade.  On  removing 
the  copper,  dry  it  in  the  air  or  in  fine  saw- 
dust, rinse,  and  polish  with  a  brush  or 
chamois  leather,  after  drying  it  again. 

Coloring  Brass. — To  redden  brass,  dip 
in  solution  of  5  ounces  of  sulphate  of 
copper  and  6  to  7  ounces  of  perman- 
ganate of  potash  in  500  ounces  of  water. 

To  blue  copper  or  brass  any  one  of  the 
following  recipes  may  be  used: 

I. — Dip  the  article  in  a  solution  of  2 
ounces  of  liver  of  sulphur  and  2  ounces 
of  chlorate  soda  in  1,000  ounces  of  water. 

II. — Dip  the  article  in  a  solution  of 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  very  strongly 
acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

III. — Stir  the  article  about  constantly 
in  a  solution  of  liver  of  sulphur  in  50 
times  its  weight  of  water. 

Fusion  Point  of  Metals. — The  point 
of  fusion  of  common  metals  is  as  follows: 
Antimony,  808°  F.;  aluminum,  1,160°  F.; 
bismuth,  517°  F.;  copper,  1,931°F.;  gold, 
1,913°F.;  iron,  2,912°  F.;  lead,  850°  F.; 
nickel,  2,642°  F.;  platinum,  3,225°^.; 
silver,  1,750°  F. ;  tin,  551°F. ;  zinc,  812°  F. 
Mercury,  which  is  normally  fluid,  con- 
geals at  38°  below  zero,  F.,  this  being  it? 
point  of  fusion. 

To  Produce  Fine  Leaves  of  Metal. — 
The  metal  plate  is  laid  between  parch- 
ment leaves  and  beaten  out  with  ham- 
mers. Although  films  obtained  in  this 
manner  reach  a  high  degree  of  fineness, 
yet  the  mechanical  production  has  its 
limit.  If  very  fine  films  are  desired  the 
galvano-plastic  precipitation  is  employed 
in  the  following  manner: 

A  thin  sheet  of  polished  copper  is  en- 
tered in  the  bath  and  connected  with  the 


474 


METALS— MILK 


electric  conduit.  The  current  precipi- 
tates gold  on  it.  In  order  to  loosen  it, 
the  gilt  copper  plate  is  placed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  ferric  chloride,  which  dissolves 
the  copper  and  leaves  the  gold  behind. 
In  this  manner  gold  leaf  can  be  ham- 
mered out  to  almost  incredible  thinness. 

METAL  FOIL. 

Tin  foil  is  the  most  common  foil  used» 
being  a  combination  of  tin,  lead,  and 
copper,  sometimes  with  properties  of 
other  metals. 

I  II  III 

Per  cent    Per  cent    Per  cent 

Tin 97.60        98.47        96.21 

Copper 2.11  0.38  0.95 

Lead 0.04          0.84          2.41 

Iron 0.11  0.12  0.09 

Nickel 0.30 

I  is  a  mirror  foil;  III  is  a  tin  foil. 
Tin  Foils  for  Capsules. — 

I  II 

Per  cent         Per  cent 

Tin 20  22 

Lead.... 80  77 

Copper 1 

Tin  Foils  for  Wrapping  Cheese,  etc. — 
I  II  III 

Per  cent  Per  cent   Per  cent 

Tin 97  90  92 

Lead 2.5  7.8  7 

Copper 0.5  0.2  1 


Tin  Foils,  for  Fine  Wrapping, 
for  Tea  Boxes,  III. — 

I  II 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Tin 60  65 

Lead 40  35 

Copper 

Imitation  Gold  Foils. — 

Deep        Pure 
gold          gold 
Per  cent  Per  cent 

Copper 84.5          78 

Zinc 15.5          22 


I  and  II; 

III 

Per  cent 
40 
58.5 
1.5 


Pale 

gold 

Per  cent 

76 

14 


Deep        Deep 

gold          gold  Gold 

Per  cent   Per  cent  Per  cent 

Copper 91              86  83 

Zinc 9              14  17 

dark  pale 

reddish    yellow  yellow 

Imitation  Silver  Foil. — Alloy  of  tin  and 
zinc:  harder  than  tin  and  softer  than  zinc: 
Zinc,  1  part;  tin,  11  parts. 

To  Attach  Gold  Leaf  Permanently. — 
Dissolve  finely  cut  isinglass  in  a  little 
water,  with  moderate  heat,  which  must 


not  be  increased  to  a  boil,  and  add  as 
much  nitric  acid  as  has  been  used  of  the 
isinglass.  The  adhesive  will  not  penetrate 
the  cardboard  or  paper. 

METH: 

See  Mead. 

METHEGLIN: 
See  Mead. 

METHYL  SALICYLATE,  TO  DISTIN- 
GUISH FROM  OIL  OF  WINTER- 
GREEN: 

See  Wintergreen. 

METOL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

METRIC  WEIGHTS: 

See  Weights  and  Measures. 

MICE   POISON: 
See  Rat  Poison. 

MICROPHOTOGRAPHS 

See  Photography. 

MILK: 

See  also  Foods. 

Determining  Cream.— -An  apparatus 
for  determining  cream  in  milk  consists 
of  a  glass  cylinder  having  a  mark  about 
half  its  height,  and  a  second  mark  a  little 
above  the  first.  The  milk  is  added  up  to 
the  lower  mark,  and  water  up  to  the 
second.  The  amount  of  water  thus 
added  is  about  one-fourth  the  volume  of 
the  milk,  and  causes  the  cream  to  rise 
more  quickly.  The  tube  is  graduated 
between  the  two  marks  in  percentages  of 
cream  on  the  undiluted  milk.  A  vertical 
blue  strip  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  aids 
the  reading  of  the  meniscus. 

Formaldehyde  in  Milk,  Detection  of. — 
To  10  parts  of  milk  add  1  part  of  fuchsine 
sulphurous  acid.  Allow  to  stand  5  min- 
utes, then  add  2  parts  of  pure  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  shake.  If  formalde- 
hyde is  not  present,  the  mixture  remains 
yellowish  white,  while  if  present  a  blue- 
violet  color  is  produced.  This  test  will 
detect  1  grain  of  anhydrous  formalde- 
hyde in  1  quart  of  milk. 

Malted  Milk.— To  malt  milk,  add  the 
following: 

Powdered  malt 1  ounce 

Powdered  oat  meal.  .  .  2  ounces 

Sugar  of  milk 4  ounces 

Roasted  flour 1  pound 

Milk  Extracts. — These  are  made  from 
skimmed  milk  freed  from  casein,  sugar 
and  albumen,  and  resemble  meat  ex- 
tracts. The  milk  is  slightly  acidulated 
with  phosphoric  or  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  evaporated  in  vacua  to  the  consis- 


MILK 


475 


tency  of  thick  syrup.  During  the  crys- 
tallization of  tne  sugar,  the  liquid  is 
sterilized. 

Modification  of  Milk  for  Infants. — 
For  an  ill  child  note  the  percentages  of 
milk  taken;  decide,  if  indigestion  is 
present,  which  ingredient  of  the  milk,  fat 
or  proteid,  or  both,  is  at  fault,  and  make 
formula  accordingly. 

After  allowing  the  milk  to  stand  8 
hours,  remove  the  top  8  ounces  from  a 
quart  jar  of  4  per  cent  fat  milk  by  means 
of  a  dipper,  and  count  this  as  12  per  cent 
fat  cream.  Count  the  lowest  8  ounces  of 
the  quart  fat-free  milk.  From  these  the 
following  formula  may  be  obtained, 
covering  fairly  well  the  different  per- 
centages required  for  the  different  pe- 
riods of  life. 

First  Week. 

12  per  cent  cream.      Fat-free  milk. 

Fat 2.00        Cream  ....   3$  oz. 

Sugar.  .  .  .   5.00        Milk l|  oz. 

Proteids.  .  0.75        Milk  sugar    2     meas. 

Second  Week. 
2.50  Cream  .. 
.6.00  Milk 


Fat 

Sugar.     . 
Proteids 


4J  oz. 
li  oz. 
2*  meas. 


Fat 

Sugar 
Proteids 


Fat 

Sugar. .  . 
Proteids. 


oz. 
oz. 


Fat 

Sugar . . . 
Proteids. 


Fat 

Sugar. . 
Proteids. 


Fat 

Sugar.  .  . 
Proteids  . 


1.00       Milk  sugar 

Third  Week. 
3.00        Cream  ....   5 
6.00        Milk 1 

1.00        Milk  sugar.  2 

Four  to  Six  Weeks. 

3.50       Cream ....  5} 

6.50       Milk 11 

1.00       Milk  sugar  £J  meas. 

Six  to  Eight  Weeks. 
3.50        Cream..  ..   5f 

6.50       Milk 3| 

1.50       Milk  sugar    2j 

Two  to  Four  Months. 
4.00        Cream  ....   6| 

7.00       Milk 2| 

1.50        Milk  sugar    2|  meas. 

Four  to  Eight  Months. 
4.00        Cream  ....    6J  oz. 
7.00       Milk..        .   4£  oz. 


oz. 
oz. 


oz. 
oz. 
meas. 


oz. 
oz. 


Fat. 

Sugar.  . 
Proteids. 


Fat..  . 
Sugar  . 
Proteids 


2.00       Milk  sugar  2J  meas. 
Eight  to  Nine  Months. 


.   4.00        Cream  ....   6J  oz. 

.   7.00       Milk 7$  oz. 

.   2.50        Milk  sugar  2     meas. 

Nine  to  Ten  Months. 

Cream    .    .   6  f  oz. 
Milk..      .    10*  oz. 


4.00 
7.00 
3.00 


Milk  sugar  1$  meas. 


Ten  to  Twelve  Months. 

Fat 4.00       Cream   6|  oz. 

Sugar....    5.00        Milk llf  oz. 

Proteids..   3.50        Milk  sugar     J  meas. 

After  Twelve  Months. 
Unmodified  cow's  milk. 

Preservation  of  Milk  (see  also  Foods). 
— I. — Shortly  after  the  milk  is  strained 
add  to  it  from  1  per  cent  to  2  per  cent 
of  a  12-volume  solution  of  hydrogen  per- 
oxide, and  set  it  aside  for  10  to  12  hours. 
It  thus  acquires  the  property  of  keeping 
perfectly  sweet  and  fresh  for  3  or  4  days, 
and  is  far  preferable  to  milk  sterilized  by 
heat.  Two  points  are  worthy  of  notice 
in  the  process.  The  addition  of  oxy- 
genated water  should  be  made  as  soon 
after  it  is  taken  from  the  cow,  strained, 
etc.,  as  possible;  the  peroxide  appears  to 
destroy  instantly  all  anaerobic  microbes 
(such  as  the  bacillus  of  green  diarrhea  of 
childhood),  but  has  no  effect  upon  the 
bacillus  of  tuberculosis.  This  process  is 
to  be  especially  recommended  in  the  heat 
of  summer,  and  at  all  times  in  the  milk 
of  cattle  known  to  be  free  of  tuberculosis. 

II. — Fresh  milk  in  bottles  has  been 
treated  with  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid 
under  pressure  of  some  atmospheres. 
By  this  method  it  is  said  to  be  possible  to 
preserve  milk  fresh  50  to  60  days.  The 
construction  of  the  bottle  is  siphon-like. 

Milk  Substitute.— Diamalt  is  a  thick 
syrupy  mass  of  pleasant,  strong,  some- 
what sourish  odor  and  sweetish  taste, 
which  is  offered  as  a  substitute  for  milk. 
The  preparation  has  been  analyzed.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  1.4826;  the  percentage 
of  water  fluctuates  between  24  and  28 
per  cent;  the  amount  of  ash  is  1.3  per 
cent.  There  are  present:  Lactic  acid, 
0.718  to  1.51;  nitrogenous  matter,  4.68 
to  5.06  per  cent;  and  constituents  rich  in 
nitrogen,  about  68  per  cent.  The  latter 
consist  principally  of  maltose.  Dissolved 
in  water  it  forms  a  greenish-yellow  mixt- 
ure. Turbidness  is  caused  by  starch 
grains,  yeast  cells,  bacteria,  and  a  shape- 
less coagulum. 

MILK  AS  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  CELLU- 
LOID, BONE,  AND  IVORY: 

See  Casein. 

MILK,  CUCUMBER: 

See  Cosmetics. 

MILK  OF  SOAP: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
odsf  under  Miscellaneous  Methods, 

MINARGENT: 

See  Alloys, 


476 


MIRRORS 


MINERAL  WATERS: 
See  Waters. 

MINOFOR  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

MINT   CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

Mirrors 

(See  also  Glass.) 

Mirror  Silvering. — Mirror  silvering  is 
sometimes  a  misnomer,  inasmuch  as  the 
coating  applied  to  glass  in  the  manu- 
facture of  mirrors  does  not  always  con- 
tain silver.  In  formula  I  it  is  an  amal- 
gam of  mercury  and  tin. 

I. — A  sheet  of  pure  tin  foil,  slightly 
larger  than  the  glass  plate  to  be  silvered, 
is  spread  evenly  on  a  perfectly  plane 
stone  table  having  a  raised  edge,  and  is 
well  cleaned  from  all  dust  and  impurity. 
The  foil  must  be  free  from  the  slightest 
flaw  or  crack.  The  tin  is  next  covered 
uniformly  to  a  depth  of  J  of  an  inch 
with  mercury,  preference  being  given  by 
some  to  that  containing  a  small  propor- 
tion of  tin  from  a  previous  operation. 
The  glass  plate,  freed  from  all  dust  or 
grease,  and  repolished  if  necessary,  is 
then  carefully  slid  over  the  mercury. 
This  part  of  the  work  requires  skill  and 
experience  to  exclude  all  air  bubbles,  and 
even  the  best  workmen  are  not  successful 
every  time.  If  there  is  a  single  bubble  or 
scratch  the  operation  must  be  repeated 
and  the  tin  foil  is  lost;  not  a  small  expense 
for  large  sizes.  When  this  step  has  been 
satisfactorily  accomplished  the  remainder 
is  easy.  The  glass  plate  is  loaded  with 
heavy  weights  to  press  out  the  excess  of 
mercury  which  is  collected  and  is  used 
again.  After  24  hours  the  mirror  is 
lifted  from  the  table  and  placed  on  edge 
against  a  wall,  where  it  is  left  to  dram 
well. 

II. — Solution  No.  1  is  composed  as 
follows:  To  8  ounces  of  distilled  water, 
brought  to  a  boil,  add  12  grains  of  silver 
nitrate  and  12  grains  of  Rochelle  salts. 
Let  it  come  to  a  boil  for  6  to  7  minutes; 
then  cool  and  filter. 

Solution  No.  2  is  made  as  follows: 
Take  8  ounces  of  distilled  water,  and 
into  a  small  quantity  poured  into  a  tum- 
bler put  19  grains  of  silver  nitrate.  Stir 
well  until  dissolved.  Then  add  several 
drops  of  26°  ammonia  until  the  solution 
becomes  clear.  Add  16  grains  more  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  stirring  well  until  dis- 
solved. Add  balance  of  distilled  water 
and  filter.  The  filtering  must  be  done 
through  a  glass  funnel,  in  which  the 


filter  paper  is  placed.  The  solution  must 
be  stirred  with  a  glass  rod.  Keep  the 
solutions  in  separate  bottles  marked  No. 
1  and  No.  2. 

Directions  for  Silvering:  Clean  the 
glass  with  ammonia  and  wipe  with  a 
wet  chamois.  Then  take  half  and  half  of 
the  two  solutions  in  a  graduating  glass, 
stirring  well  with  a  glass  rod.  Pour  the 
contents  on  the  middle  of  the  glass  to  be 
silvered.  It  will  spread  over  the  surface 
of  itself  if  the  glass  is  laid  flat.  Leave  it 
until  the  solution  precipitates. 

Silvering  Globes. — The  insides  of  globes 
may  be  silvered,  it  is  said,  by  the  follow- 
ing methods: 

I. — Take  $  ounce  of  clean  lead,  and 
melt  it  with  an  equal  weight  of  pure  tin; 
then  immediately  add  \  ounce  of  bismuth, 
and  carefully  skim  off  the  dross;  remove 
the  alloy  from  the  fire,  and  before  it 
grows  cold  add  5  ounces  of  mercury,  and 
stir  the  whole  well  together;  then  put  the 
fluid  amalgam  into  a  clean  glass,  and  it 
is  fit  for  use.  When  this  amalgam  is 
used  for  silvering,  it  should  be  first 
strained  through  a  linen  rag;  then  gently 
pour  some  ounces  of  it  into  the  globe  in- 
tended to  be  silvered;  the  alloy  should  be 
poured  into  the  globe  by  means  of  a 
paper  or  glass  funnel  reaching  almost  to 
the  bottom  of  the  globe,  to  prevent  it 
splashing  the  sides;  the  globe  should  be 
turned  every  way  very  slowly,  to  fasten 
the  silvering. 

II. — Make  an  alloy  of  3  ounces  of 
lead,  2  ounces  of  tin,  and  5  ounces  of 
bismuth.  Put  a  portion  of  this  alloy 
into  the  globe  and  expose  it  to  a  gentle 
heat  until  the  compound  is  melted;  it 
melts  at  197°  F.;  then  by  turning  the 
globe  slowly  round,  an  equal  coating 
may  be  laid  on,  which,  when  cold,  hard- 
ens and  firmly  adheres. 

Resilvering  Mirrors — If  mirrors  coated 
with  amalgam  become  damaged  they 
may  sometimes  be  successfully  repaired 
by  one  of  the  following  processes: 

I. — Place  the  old  mirror  in  a  weak 
solution  of  nitric  acid — say  5  per  cent — 
whick  immediately  removes  the  silver. 
Rinse  it  a  little,  and  then  clean  very  thor- 
oughly with  a  pledget  of  cotton- wool  and 
a  mixture  of  whiting  and  ammonia. 
Rouge  will  answer  in  place  of  whiting,  or, 
as  a  last  extreme,  finest  levigated  pumice, 
first  applied  to  a  waste  glass  to  crush 
down  any  possible  grit.  This  cleaning 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  upon  its 
thoroughness  depends  eventual  success. 
Front,  back,  and  edges  must  alike  be 
left  in  a  state  above  suspicion.  The 


MIRRORS 


477 


plate  is  then  again  flowed  with  weak  acid, 
rinsed  under  the  tap,  then  flowed  back 
and  front  with  distilled  water,  and  kept 
immersed  in  a  glass-covered  dish  of  dis- 
tilled water  until  the  solutions  are  ready. 

The  depositing  vessel  is  the  next  con- 
sideration, and  it  should  be  realized  that 
unless  most  of  the  silver  in  the  solution 
finds  its  way  on  to  the  face  of  the  mirror 
it  were  cheaper  that  the  glass  should  be 
sent  to  the  professional  mirror-maker. 
The  best  plan  is  to  use  a  glass  dish  al- 
lowing a  -n;-  inch  margin  all  round  the 
mirror,  inside.  But  such  a  glass  dish  is 
expensive,  having  to  be  made  specially, 
there  being  no  regular  sizes  near  enough 
to  4x7  or  8x5  (usual  mirror  sizes).  If 
too  large,  a  dish  must  perforce  be  used, 
the  sides  or  ends  of  which  should  be  filled 
up  with  sealing  wax.  Four  strips  of  glass 
are  temporarily  bound  together  with  2 
or  3  turns  of  string,  so  as  to  form  a  hol- 
low square.  The  side  pieces  are  i  inch 
longer  outside,  and  the  end  pieces  i  inch 
wider  than  the  mirror  glass.  This  frame 
is  placed  in  about  the  center  of  the  dish, 
moistened  with  glycerine,  and  the  molten 
wax  flowed  outside  of  it  to  a  depth  of 
about  £  of  an  inch  or  more.  For  econ- 
omy's sake,  good  "parcel  wax"  may  be 
used,  but  best  red  sealing  wax  is  safer. 
This  wax  frame  may  be  used  repeatedly, 
being  cleaned  prior  to  each  silvering 
operation.  It  is  the  only  special  ap- 
pliance necessary,  and  half  an  hour  is  a 
liberal  time  allowance  for  making  it. 

Use  a  stock  solution  of  silver  nitrate  of 
the  strength  of  25  grains  to  1  ounce  of 
distilled  water:  Take  2  drachms  of  sil- 
ver nitrate  stock  solution  and  convert  it 
to  ammonia  nitrate,  by  adding  ammonia 
drop  by  drop  until  the  precipitate  is  re- 
dissolved.  Add  3 1  ounces  of  distilled 
water. 

In  another  measure  take  80  drops 
(approximately  74  minims)  of  40  per  cent 
formalin.  Pour  the  solution  of  ammo- 
nio  nitrate  of  silver  into  the  measure  con- 
taining the  formalin,  then  back  into  the 
original  measure,  and  finally  into  the 
dish  containing  the  glass  to  be  silvered. 
This  should  be  done  rapidly,  and  the 
dish  containing  the  mirror  well  rocked 
until  the  silvering  is  complete,  which  may 
be  ascertained  by  the  precipitation  of  a 
black,  flocculent  deposit,  and  the  clearing 
of  the  solution.  The  actual  process  of 
silvering  takes  about  2  minutes. 

Cleanliness  throughout  is  of  the  great- 
est importance.  The  vessels  in  which 
the  solutions  are  mixed  should  be  well 
rinsed  with  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash  and  sulphuric  acid,  then  washed 
out  three  or  four  times  under  the  tap,  and 


finally  with  distilled  water.  For  cleans- 
ing, dip  the  glass  for  a  short  time  in  a 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  to 
which  a  little  sulphuric  acid  is  added. 
The  glass  is  afterwards  well  rinsed  for  a 
minute  or  two  under  the  tap,  flooded 
with  distilled  water,  and  dried  with  a 
clean  linen  cloth.  A  little  absolute 
alcohol  is  then  rubbed  on  with  a  soft 
linen  handkerchief,  which  is  immediately 
rolled  into  a  pad  and  used  for  well  polish- 
ing the  surface.  The  cleaning  with  al- 
cohol is  repeated  to  avoid  risk  of  failure. 

After  the  mirror  has  been  silvered, 
hold  it  under  the  tap  and  allow  water  to 
flow  over  it  for  about  3  minutes.  Rinse 
it  with  distilled  water,  and  stand  it  up 
on  edge  on  blotting  paper.  When  it  is 
quite  dry  take  a  pad  of  very  soft  wash- 
leather,  spread  a  small  quantity  of  finest 
opticians'  rouge  on  a  sheet  of  clean  glass, 
and  well  coat  the  pad  with  rouge  by 
polishing  the  sheet  of  glass.  A  minute 
quantity  of  rouge  is  sufficient.  After- 
wards polish  the  mirror  by  gently  rubbing 
the  surface  with  the  pad,  using  a  circular 
stroke. 

It  will  be  seen  that  with  this  process  it 
is  unnecessary  to  suspend  the  mirror  in 
the  silvering  solution,  as  usually  recom- 
mended. The  mirror  is  laid  in  the  dish, 
which  is  a  distinct  advantage,  as  the 
progress  of  the  silvering  may  be  watched 
until  complete.  The  film  also  is  much 
more  robust  than  that  obtained  by  the 
older  methods. 

II. — Clean  the  bare  portion  of  the 
glass  by  rubbing  it  gently  with  fine  cot- 
ton, taking  care  to  remove  any  trace  of 
dust  and  grease.  If  this  cleaning  be  not 
done  very  carefully,  defects  will  appear 
around  the  place  repaired.  With  the 
point  of  a  penknife  cut  upon  the  back  of 
another  looking  glass  around  a  portion  of 
the  silvering  of  the  required  form,  but  a 
little  larger.  Upon  it  place  a  small  drop 
of  mercury;  a  drop  the  size  of  a  pin's 
head  will  be  sufficient  for  a  surface  equal 
to  the  size  of  the  nail.  The  mercury 
spreads  immediately,  penetrates  the 
amalgam  to  where  it  was  cut  off  with  the 
knife,  and  the  required  piece  may  be 
now  lifted  and  removed  to  the  place  to  be 
repaired.  This  is  the  most  difficult  part 
of  the  operation.  Then  press  lightly  the 
renewed  portion  with  cotton;  it  hardens 
almost  immediately,  and  the  glass  pre- 
sents the  same  appearance. 

Clouding  of  Mouth  Mirrors. — By 
means  of  the  finger,  slightly  moistened, 
apply  a  film  of  soap  of  any  brand  or  kind 
to  the  mirror;  then  rub  this  off  with  a 
clean,  dry  cloth;  the  mirror  will  be  as 


478 


MIRRORS— MOLDS 


bright  and  clear  as  ever.  Breathing  on 
it  will  not  affect  its  clearness  and  the 
mirror  does  not  suffer  from  the  opera- 
tion. 

Magic  Mirrors.  —  Among  the  many 
amusing  and  curious  articles  which  the 
amateur  mechanic  can  turn  out,  metallic 
mirrors  having  concealed  designs  on 
them,  and  which  can  be  brought  into 
view  by  breathing  on  the  polished  sur- 
face, are  both  funny  and  easy  to  produce. 
To  produce  steel  mirrors  either  tough 
bronze  or  good  cast  mottled  iron  discs 
should  be  used,  and  the  design  should  be 
on  the  bottom  of  the  cast  disc,  as  this  is 
the  soundest  and  densest  part  of  the 
metal.  The  method  of  working  is  dif- 
ferent with  bronze  and  iron,  and  bronze 
will  be  dealt  with  first. 

The  cast  disk  of  bronze  should  be 
turned  up  level  on  both  sides,  and  the 
edges  should  be  turned  or  shaped  up,  the 
metal  being  about  half  an  inch  thick. 
On  the  side  which  was  at  the  bottom  in 
casting,  a  line  should  be  drawn  to  allow 
for  working  up  the  border  or  frame  of 
the  mirror,  ano:  on  the  rest  of  the  smooth 
surface  the  design  should  be  drawn,  not 
having  too  much  detail.  It  is  best  to 
mark  the  lines  with  a  sharp  scriber,  to 
prevent  their  effacement  during  working. 
When  the  disk  is  marked  out,  it  should 
be  laid  on  a  smoothly  planed  iron  block, 
and  the  lines  punched  to  a  depth  of  about 
}.  inch,  a  punch  with  round  edges  being 
used.  Then  the  disk  should  be  turned 
down  to  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
punched-in  metal,  and  the  border  or  edge 
formed,  finishing  smoothly,  but  without 
burnishing.  The  back  can  be  turned 
down  and,  with  the  outer  edge,  bur- 
nished; but  the  inside  of  the  edge  and 
the  face  of  the  mirror  should  be  polished 
with  fine  abrasive  powder,  and  finished 
with  fine  rouge.  When  dry,  the  mirror 
will  appear  equally  bright  all  over;  but 
when  breathed  on  the  design  will  show, 
again  disappearing  as  the  moisture  is 
removed.  The  metal  punched  in  will  be 
more  dense  than  the  rest  of  the  surface, 
and  will  also  be  very  slightly  raised,  this 
being  imperceptible  unless  the  polishing 
has  been  too  long  continued. 

With  iron  mirrors  a  good  mottled  iron 
must  be  used,  selecting  hematite  for  pref- 
erence; but  in  any  case  it  must  be  chill- 
able  metal.  Preferably  it  should  be 
melted  in  a  crucible,  as  this  causes  the 
least  change  in  the  metallic  content,  and 
as  the  metal  can  be  made  hot  and  fluid, 
it  works  well.  The  design  must  be 
worked  out  in  iron  of  about  £  inch  in 
thickness,  and  must  be  level,  as  it  has  to 


touch  the  molten  metal  in  the  bottom  of 
the  mold.  If  preferred,  the  design  may 
be  cast  and  ground  flat,  but  this  depends 
largely  on  the  design.  The  chill  pattern 
should  be  coated  with  plumbago,  and  in 
molding  the  disk  pattern  of  about  £  inch 
in  thickness  should  be  laid  on  a  board, 
and  on  this  the  design — chill — should 
be  placed,  and  the  mold  should  be 
rammed  up  from  the  back  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  The  casting  should  be  allowed 
to  get  cold  in  the  mold,  and  should  then 
be  removed  and  dressed  in  the  usual  way. 
It  should  then  be  ground  bright  all  over 
on  emery  wheels  of  successively  finer 
grades,  and  the  mirror  surface  should  be 
buffed  and  polished  until  a  steely  mirror 
surface  is  produced.  With  a  good  mot- 
tled iron  the  chilled  design  will  not  show 
until  the  surface  is  breathed  on  or  rubbed 
with  a  greasy  rag,  but  will  then  show 
clearly. 

MIRROR  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

MIRRORS,  FROSTED: 

See  Glass. 

MIRROR-LETTERING : 

See  Lettering. 

MIRROR  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

MIRRORS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

MIRRORS,    TO    PREVENT    DIMMING 
OF: 

See  Glass. 

MIRROR  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

MITE  KILLER: 

See  Insecticides. 

MIXING  STICKS  FOR  PAINT: 

See  Paint. 

MODELING  WAX: 
See  Wax,  Modeling. 

MOISTURE: 

See  Insulation. 


MOLDS: 

See  also  Casting  and  Matrix. 

Molding  Sand. — A  high  grade  of  mold- 
ing sand  should  be  fat,  i.  e.,  strongly 
mixed  with  clay.  Naturally  the  molds  of 
this  sand  should  be  employed  only  in 
a  perfectly  dry  state.  The  fat  molding 
sand  is  prepared  artificially  from  quartz 
sand  (fine  sprinkling  sand),  fat  clay,  free 


MOLDS— MOUNTANTS 


479 


from  lime  and  ferric  oxide  (red  ocher). 
The  molding  sand  is  fixed  by  breaking 
up  the  loose  pieces  in  which  it  is  partly 
dug;  next  it  is  passed  through  a  fine  sieve 
and  mixed  up  to  one-third  of  its  volume 
with  charcoal  dust,  or,  better  still,  with 
lampblack,  which,  owing  to  its  looseness 
and  fatness,  does  not  detract  so  much 
from  the  binding  qualities  of  the  sand. 
The  utility  of  the  sand  may  be  tested  by 
pressing  the  finger  into  it,  whereupon  the 
fine  lines  of  the  skin  should  appear 
sharply  defined;  its  binding  power  is 
ascertained  by  dropping  a  lump  pressed 
together  with  the  hand  from  a  neight, 
which  is  increased  until  it  breaks. 


MOLDS  OF  PLASTER: 

See  Plaster. 

MOLES: 

See  also  Warts. 

Lunar  caustic  is  frequently  used  to 
remove  warts  and  moles.  It  should  be 
wrapped  in  tin  foil  or  placed  in  a  quill  so 
that  it  will  not  touch  the  bare  flesh. 
Moisten  the  raised  surface  and  touch 
with  the  caustic  night  and  morning. 
Successive  layers  of  skin  will  dry  up  and 
peel  off.  When  on  a  level  with  the  sur- 
rounding flesh  apply  a  healing  ointment. 
Let  the  last  crust  formed  drop  without 
touching  it.  Unless  carefully  done  this 
process  may  leave  a  white  scar. 

A  simple  remedy  for  warts  consists  in 
wetting  and  rubbing  them  several  times 
a  day  in  a  strong  solution  of  common 
washing  soda.  The  electric  treatment, 
however,  is  now  the  most  popular. 


MORDANTS: 

See  also  Dyes. 

Mordant  for  Cement  Surfaces. — Take 
green  vitriol  and  dissolve  it  in  hot  water. 
If  the  cement  is  rather  fresh  add  1  part 
of  vinegar  for  each  part  of  green  vitriol. 
Best  suited,  however,  is  triple  vinegar 
(vinegar  containing  f 3-  per  cent  of  acetic 
acid),  which  is  alone  sufficient  for  well- 
dried  places.  For  such  surfaces  that 
have  been  smoothed  with  a  steel  tool  and 
have  hardly  any  pores,  take  alcohol,  1 
part,  and  green  vitriol,  10  parts,  and 
apply  this  twice  until  the  iron  has  ac- 
quired a  yellowish  color.  This  mordant 
forms  a  neutral  layer  between  cement 
and  paint,  and  causes  the  latter  to  dry 
well. 


Mordant  for  Gold  Size. — A  mordant 
for  gold  size  gilding  that  has  been  thor- 
oughly tested  and  found  to  be  often  pref- 
erable to  the  shellac-mixed  article,  is 
prepared  from  yolk  of  egg  and  glycerine. 
The  yolk  of  an  egg  is  twirled  in  a  cup 
and  up  to  30  drops  of  glycerine  are  added 
to  it.  The  more  glycerine  added,  the 
longer  the  mordant  will  take  to  dry.  Or 
else  an  equal  portion  of  ordinary  syrup 
is  mixed  with  the  yolk  of  egg.  Same 
must  be  thinly  liquid.  If  the  mass  be- 
comes too  tough  it  is  warmed  a  little  or 
thinned  with  a  few  drops  of  warm  water. 
A  single  application  is  sufficient.  Nat- 
urally, this  style  of  gilding  is  only  prac- 
ticable indoors;  it  cannot  withstand  the  in- 
fluence of  moisture. 

MORTAR,  ASBESTOS. 

Asbestos  mortar  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  asbestos  wi*h  10  per  cent  of  white 
lime.  Canadian  asbestos  is  generally 
used,  which  is  composed  of  80  per  cent 
of  asbestos  and  20  per  cent  of  serpen- 
tine. The  asbestos  is  ground  and  the 
coarse  powder  used  for  the  first  rough 
cast,  while  the  finer  material  is  employed 
for  the  second  top-plastering.  This 
mortar  is  highly  fire-resisting  and  water- 
proof, is  only  half  as  heavy  as  cement 
mortar,  and  tough  enough  to  admit  of 
nails  being  driven  in  without  breaking  it. 


MOSQUITO  REMEDIES: 

See  Insecticides. 

MOSS  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

MOTHS: 

See  Turpentine. 

MOTH  PAPER: 
See  Paper. 

MOTH  TRAPS  AND  MOTH  KILLERS: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

MOTHER-OF-PEARL : 

See  Pearl. 

MOTORS,  ANTI -FREEZING  SOLU- 
TION FOR: 

See  Freezing  Preventives. 

MOUNTANTS: 

See  also  Adhesives  and  Photography. 

Mounting  Drawings,  Photos,  etc., 
upon  Fine  Pasteboard. — It  frequently 
happens  that  the  pasteboard  will  warp 
toward  the  face  of  the  picture,  even  if 
left  in  a  press  till  the  gluing  medium  is 
perfectly  dry.  This  fault  can  be  obvi- 


480 


MOUNTANTS— MUSTARD   PAPER 


ated  by  moistening  the  back  of  the  paste- 
board moderately  with  a  sponge,  and, 
while  this  is  still  wet,  pasting  the  picture 
on  with  good,  thin  glue.  If  moistening 
the  pasteboard  is  impracticable  (with 
sensitive  drawings,  paintings,  etc.), 
paste  which  has  been  pressed  through  a 
fine  cloth  is  rubbed  on,  always  in  the 
same  direction,  and  the  picture  is  care- 
fully and  evenly  pressed  on.  Then 
bend  the  pasteboard  backward  in  a  wide 
semicircle,  and  place  it  between  two 
heavy  objects  on  the  table.  After  a  few 
hours,  when  the  paste  is  completely  dry, 
put  the  picture  down  flat  and  load  pro- 
portionately. Papers  of  large  size, 
which  cannot  conveniently  be  placed 
between  two  objects,  are  wrapped  up, 
and  twine  is  stretched  around,  thus 
keeping  them  bent. 

Mounting  Prints  on  Glass. — Take  4 
ounces  of  gelatin;  soak  £  hour  in  cold 
water;  then  place  in  a  glass  jar,  adding 
16  ounces  of  water;  put  the  jar  in  a  large 
dish  of  warm  water  and  dissolve  the  gel- 
atin. When  dissolved  pour  in  a  shal- 
low tray;  have  the  prints  rolled  on  a 
roller,  albumen  side  up;  take  the  print  by 
the  corners  and  pass  rapidly  through  the 
gelatin,  using  great  care  to  avoid  air 
bubbles.  Squeeze  carefully  onto  the 
glass.  The  better  the  quality  of  glass, 
the  finer  the  effect. 

MOUTH   ANTISEPTICS: 

See  Antiseptics. 

MOUTH  WASHES: 
See  Dentifrices. 

MOVING    OBJECTS    AND    HOW    TO 

PHOTOGRAPH  THEM: 
See  Photography. 

MUCILAGE : 

See  Adhesives. 

MUSIC   BOXES. 

Care  must  be  exercised  in  taking  apart, 
for  if  the  box  is  wound  up  and  the  fly 
is  removed,  the  cylinder  is  ruined.  The 
spring  relaxes  at  a  bound,  causing  the 
cylinder  to  turn  with  such  rapidity  that 
the  pins  cannot  resist  the  teeth,  whose 
force  is  intensified  by  the  velocity  of  the 
cylinder.  The  pins  originally  bent  for- 
ward are  broken,  or  pressed  backwards; 
as  they  are  hardened,  they  cannot  be 
bent  forward  again  without  breaking. 
This  accident  involves  the  cost  of  a  new 
cylinder,  the  most  expensive  part  of  the 
apparatus.  Besides,  the  comb  almost 
always  loses  some  teeth  and  the  wheel- 
work  also  suffers  in  its  turn. 

To   avoid   such    mishaps   the   careful 


operator  will  take  the  parts  asunder  in 
the  following  order: 

1.  Remove  the  comb. 

2.  Take  the  apparatus  from  the  box 
and  completely  disarm  the  spring. 

3.  Remove  the  barrel. 

4.  Remove  the  escapement. 

5.  Remove  the  cylinder. 

The  barrel  and  the  wheels  are  cleaned 
like  those  of  a  watch. 

The  cylinder  should  be  handled  care- 
fully. The  holes  should  be  well  cleaned. 
Oil  should  be  put  only  on  the  pivots, 
especially  none  on  the  part  of  the  arbor 
to  which  the  cylinder  is  attached.  It  is 
the  first  piece  to  be  replaced,  care  being 
taken  to  see  that  the  arbor  turns  freely, 
but  without  play,  between  the  bridges. 
When  it  is  in  position,  put  in  the  escape- 
ment, then  the  barrel,  and  finally  the 
comb. 

The  comb,  representing  the  musical 
part  of  a  simple  box,  cannot  receive  too 
much  care.  Before  replacing  it  examine 
the  springs  closely,  and  in  supplying  the 
ones  that  are  lacking,  take  for  the  model 
of  size  and  form  those  resembling  them 
the  most.  If  the  parts  have  been  put 
together  properly,  then,  as  soon  as  the 
comb  is  screwed  in  its  place,  these  should 
be  found  in  good  working  order:  the  levee 
(lift) — that  is,  that  the  pins  do  not  lift  the 
teeth  too  much  or  too  little;  the  tombee 
(fall)— that  is,  that  the  chords,  the  bass, 
the  medium,  and  the  treble,  fall  together; 
and  the  visee  (pointing) — that  the  pins 
catch  at  the  center  of  the  ends  of  the 
teeth. 

MUSLIN,  PAINTING  ON: 

See  Painting. 

MUSTACHE  FIXING  FLUID. 

Balsam  of  Tolu 1  part 

Rectified  spirit 3  parts 

Jockey  club 1  part 

Dissolve  the  balsam  in  the  liquids. 
Apply  a  few  drops  to  the  mustache  with 
a  brush,  then  twist  into  the  desired  shape. 

MUSTARD  PAPER. 

I. — India  rubber 1  part 

Benzol 49  parts 

Black  mustard  in  powder,  a  suffi- 
ciency. 

Dissolve  the  India  rubber  in  the  ben- 
zol, then  stir  in  the  mustard  until  the 
mixture  is  of  a  suitable  consistence  for 
spreading.  It  was  further  recommended 
to  remove  the  fixed  oil  from  the  mustard 
by  percolation  with  benzol.  Mustard 
paper  thus  made  is  of  good  quality,  very 
active,  and  keeps  well. 


MUSTARD   PAPER— NICKEL   TESTING 


481 


II. — Black      and      white 

mustard,    in    No. 
60     powder,     de- 
prived of  fixed  oil .      1  part 
Benzol    solution    of 
India  rubber  (1  in 

40) 4  parts 

Mix  to  a  smooth  mass,  and  spread  the 
same  over  one  side  of  a  suitable  paper  by 
means  of  a  plaster-spreading  machine, 
or  passing  the  paper  over  the  mass  con- 
tained in  a  suitable  shallow  vessel.  Ex- 
pose to  warm  air  for  a  short  time  to  dry. 
Preserve  the  dry  paper  in  well-closed 
boxes.  It  may  be  useful  to  know  that 
mustard  paper,  after  spreading,  should 
not  be  long  exposed  to  light  and  air.  By 
so  doing  not  only  does  the  mustard 
bleach  but  the  rubber  soon  perishes. 
Moreover,  mustard  paper  is  hygroscopic, 
so  that  in  a  moist  atmosphere  it  soon 
loses  its  virtue.  It  is,  therefore,  highly 
important  that  mustard  paper  should  be 
rapidly  dried  in  a  warm  atmosphere  with 
free  ventilation,  then  at  once  stored  in 
well-closed  packets.  Thus  prepared 
they  keep  well  and  remain  active  for 
many  years. 

MUSTARDS : 

See  Condiments. 

MYRRH   ASTRINGENT: 

See  Dentifrices. 

NAIL,  INGROWING. 

Copious  applications  of  dried  pow- 
dered alum  are  sufficient  to  cure  every 
case  of  ingrowing  nail  in  about  5  days. 
The  applications  are  not  painful  in  the 
least,  and  the  destruction  of  the  patho- 
logic tissue  results  in  the  formation  of  a 
hard,  resistant,  and  non-sensitive  bed 
for  the  nail,  a  perfect  cure  for  the  in- 
growing tendency.  Apply  a  fomenta- 
tion of  soap  and  water  for  24  hours  be- 
forehand and  then  pour  the  alum  into 
the  space  between  the  nail  and  its  bed, 
tamponing  with  cotton  to  keep  the  alum 
in  place,  and  repeating  the  application 
daily.  The  suppuration  rapidly  dries 
up,  and  pain  and  discomfort  are  relieved 
almost  at  once. 

NAIL  POLISHES: 
See  Cosmetics. 

NAPOLEON  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

NAPHTHOL  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

NEATSFOOT  OIL. 

Crude  neatsfoot  oil  5,000  parts 

Alcohol,  90  per  cent  2,500  parts 

Tannin 5  parts 


Place  in  a  clearing  flask,  agitate  vigor- 
ously and  allow  to  stand  for  8  days  in  a 
warm  room  with  daily  repetition  of  the 
shaking.  Then  draw  off  the  spirit  of 
wine  on  top,  rinse  again  with  1,000  parts 
of  spirit  of  wine  (90  per  cent)  and  place 
the  oil  in  a  temperature  of  about  53£°  F. 
Allow  to  stand  in  this  temperature  for  at 
least  6  weeks,  protected  from  the  light, 
and  then  filter. 

NEEDLES,  ANTI-RUST  PAPER  FOR: 

See  Rust  Preventives. 

NEGATIVES,  HOW  TO  USE  SPOILED: 

See  Photography. 

NERVE   PASTE: 

See  also  Dental  Cements,  under  Ce- 
ments. 

Arsenious  acid 4  parts 

Morphine  sulphate.  .  .      2  parts 

Clove  oil 1  part 

Creosote,  quantity  sufficient  to  make 

a  paste. 

After  the  nerve  is  destroyed  the  fol- 
lowing paste  is  to  be  put  in  the  cavity: 

Alum 1  part 

Thymol 1  part 

Zinc  oxide 1  part 

Glycerine 1  part 

NERVINE  OINTMENT: 
See  Ointments. 

NESSELRODE  PUDDING: 

See  Ice  Creams. 

NETS: 

See  Cordage. 


NICKEL-TESTING. 

Pure  nickel  will  remain  nearly  white, 
while  "patent  nickel,"  or  nickel- copper 
will  not  retain  its  primitive  brilliancy, 
but  soon  becomes  slightly  oxidized  and 
grayish  in  color.  The  magnet  furnishes 
a  good  means  of  testing.  The  unadul- 
terated nickel  is  distinctly  sensitive  to 
magnetism,  while  that  much  alloyed  is 
destitute  of  this  property. 

NICKEL  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

NICKEL,  TO  REMOVE  RUST  FROM: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

NICKEL-PLATING: 

See  Plating. 

NICKEL  STEEL: 

See  Steel. 

NICKELING,  TEST  FOR: 

See  Plating. 


OILS 


NIELLO: 

See  Steel. 

NITROGLYCERINE: 

See  Explosives. 

NOYAUX  LIQUEUR: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

NUT  CANDY  STICKS : 

See  Confectionery. 

NUTMEG  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

NUTMEG  ESSENCE: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

OAK: 

See  Wood. 

ODONTER: 

See  Dentifrices. 


Oils 

Clock  Oil. — Put  2,000  parts,  by  weight, 
of  virgin  oil  in  a  decanting  vessel,  add  a 
solution  of  40  parts  of  ether  tannin  in 
400  parts  of  water  and  shake  until  com- 
pletely emulsified.  Let  stand  for  8  days, 
with  frequent  shaking;  next,  add  100 
parts  of  talcum  and,  when  this  has  also 
been  well  shaken,  1,600  parts  of  water. 
Allow  to  settle  for  24  hours,  and  then  run 
off  the  lower  water  layer,  repeating  the 
washing  as  long  as  the  wash  water  still 
shoAvs  a  coloration  with  ferric  chloride. 
Pour  the  contents  of  the  decanting  vessel 
into  an  evaporating  dish;  then  add  200 
parts  of  thoroughly  dried  and  finely 

ground  cooking  salt;  let  stand  for  24 
ours  and  filter  through  paper.  The 
clock  oil  is  now  ready,  and  should  be 
filled  in  brown  glass  bottles,  holding  20 
to  25  parts  (about  1  ounce),  which  must 
be  corded  up  well  and  kept  at  a  cool 
temperature. 

COD-LIVER  OIL: 

Aromatic  Cod-Liver  Oil. — 

Coumarin 0.01  parts 

Saccharine 0.50  parts 

Vanillin 0.10  parts 

Alcohol,  absolute.          5.40  parts 

Oil  of  lemon 5.00  parts 

Oil  of  peppermint.          1.00  part 

Oil  of  neroli 1.00  part 

Cod-liver  oil  to  make  1,000  parts 

Deodorized  Cod-Liver  Oil. — Mix  400 
parts  of  cod-liver  oil  with  20  parts  of 
ground  coffee  and  10  parts  of  bone  black, 
warm  the  mixture  in  an  open  vessel  to 
140°  F.,  let  it  stand  5  days,  shaking  occa- 


sionally, and  strain  through  linen.     The 
oil  acquires  the  taste  of  coffee. 

Cod-Liver  Oil  Emulsions. — 
I. — Calcium     hypo- 
phosphite 80  grains 

Sodium  hypophos- 

phite 120  grains 

Sodium  chloride.  .      60  grains 

Gum     acacia,     in 

powder 2  ounces 

Elixir  of  glucoside     20  minims 

Essential  oil  of  al- 
monds       15  minims 

Glycerine 2  fluidounces 

Cod-liver  oil 8  fluidounces 

Distilled  water,  a   sufficient  quan- 
tity to  produce  16  fluidounces. 

II. — Mix  190  parts  of  powdered  sugar 
with  5  parts  of  acacia  and  500  parts 
of  tragacanth  in  a  mortar.  Mix  in  a 
large  bottle  and  shake  thoroughly  to- 
gether 500  parts  of  cod-liver  oil  and  200 
parts  of  a  cold  infusion  of  coffee.  Grad- 
ually add  a  part  of  this  mixture  to  the 
powder  in  the  mortar  and  triturate  until 
emulsified.  To  the  remaining  liquid 
mixture  add  100  parts  of  rum,  then 
gradually  incorporate  with  the  contents 
of  the  mortar  by  trituration. 

Extracting  Oil  from  Cottonseed. — 
Claim  is  made  for  a  process  of  extraction, 
in  an  English  patent,  in  which  the  seeds 
are  placed  in  a  rotable  vessel  mounted 
on  a  hollow  shaft  divided  into  compart- 
ments by  means  of  a  partition.  The  sol- 
vent is  introduced  at  one  end  of  this 
shaft  and  passes  into  the  vessel,  which  is 
then  made  to  rotate.  After  the  extrac- 
tion the  bulk  of  the  solvent  and  the  ex- 
tracted oil  pass  away  through  an  exit 
pipe,  and  steam  is  then  introduced 
through  the  same  opening  as  the  solvent, 
in  order  to  cook  the  seeds  and  expel  the 
residual  solvent.  The  steam  and  the 
vapors  pass  through  perforations  in  a 
scraper  fixed  to  the  shaft  and  thence 
through  connected  pipes  into  the  other 
compartment  of  the  shaft,  the  end  of 
which  is  attached  to  a  condenser. 

Silver  Nitrate  Test  for  Cottonseed 
Oil. — Investigations  of  Charabout  and 
March  throw  some  light  on  the  value  of 
this  test  in  presence  of  olive  oil.  The 
free-fat  acids  obtained  from  cottonseed 
oil  by  saponification  were  treated  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  method  of  Milliau  on 
a  water  bath  with  a  3  per  cent  solution 
of  silver  nitrate,  and  the  brown  precipi- 
tate thus  formed  subjected  to  a  chemical 
examination.  It  was  found  to  consist 
chiefly  of  a  brown  silver  salt  composed  of 
a  fat  acid  melting  at  52°  F.,  and  congeal- 


OILS 


485 


ing  at  120°  to  1226  F.,  and  of  sulphide  of 
silver.  Olive  oil,  which  contains  a  sul- 
phur compound  of  an  analogous  com- 
position, is  also  capable  of  forming  a 
more  or  less  distinct  precipitate  of  a  dark 
colored  silver  sulphide  with  nitrate  of 
silver.  It  is  important  to  bear  this  fact 
in  mind  when  examining  olive  oil  for 
cottonseed  oil. 


Floral  Hair  Oil. — 
White  vaseline.  .  .  . 

Floricin,  pure 

Linalool  rose 

Terpineol 

Aubepine    (haw 
thorne),  liquid.. 

Floral  Hair  Pomade.- 

White  ceresine. . .  . 

Floricin,  pure 

Vanillin 

Geranium  oil 

Isoeugenol 

Floricin  Brilliantine.- 


5,000  parts 

800  parts 

60  parts 

50  parts 

12  parts 


250  parts 
1,600  parts 

3  parts 
5  parts 

4  parts 


Floricin  oil 2,100  parts 

White  ceresine 250  parts 

Ylang-ylangoil. ...          2  parts 

Kananga  oil 5  parts 

Oil  of  rose,  artificial          1  part 
Cheirantia 5  parts 

Solid  Linseed  Oil. — Cements  for  the 
manufacture  of  linoleum  and  other  sim- 
ilar substances  are  composed  to  a  large 
extent  of  linseed  oil,  oxidized  or  poly- 
merized until  it  has  become  solid.  The 
old  process  of  preparing  this  solid  oil  is 
tedious,  costly,  and  invites  danger  from 
fire.  It  consists  in  running  linseed  oil 
over  sheets  of  thin  cloth  hung  from  the 
top  of  a  high  building.  The  thin  layer 
of  oil  upon  the  cloth  dries,  and  then  a 
second  layer  is  obtained  in  the  same  way. 
This  is  continued  until  a  thick  skin  of 
solid  oil  is  formed  on  either  side  of  the 
cloth.  A  new  method  of  solidifying  lin- 
seed oil  is  by  means  of  alkalies.  The 
drying  oils,  when  heated  with  basic  sub- 
stances such  as  the  alkalies,  polymerize 
and  become  solid.  Hertkorn  makes  use 
of  the  oxides  of  the  alkaline  earths,  or 
their  salts  with  weak  acids,  such  as  their 
soaps.  When  chalk  or  lime  is  added  to 
the  oil  during  the  process  of  oxidation, 
either  during  the  liquid  or  the  plastic 
stage,  it  forms  a  calcium  soap,  and  causes 
polymerization  to  set  in  in  the  partially 
oxidized  oil.  Similarly,  if  caustic  soda 
or  caustic  potash  be  added,  the  action  is 
not  caused  by  them  in  the  free  state,  but 
by  the  soaps  which  they  form.  Oxidized 
oil  is  more  readily  saponified  than  raw 
oil,  and  the  greater  the  oxidation,  the 
more  readily  does  saponification  take 


place.  Lime  soaps  are  not  soluble  in 
water,  whereas  soda  and  potash  soaps 
are.  Consequently  a  cement  made  with 
the  latter,  if  exposed  to  the  weather, 
will  be  acted  upon  by  rain  and  moisture, 
owing  to  the  soluble  soap  contained  in  it, 
while  a  cement  made  with  lime  will  not 
be  acted  upon.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
action  of  the  bases  on  linseed  oil  is  simply 
due  to  their  neutralization  of  the  free  acid. 
The  acidity  of  linseed  oil  increases  as 
it  becomes  oxidized.  When  the  basic 
matter  is  added  part  of  the  free  acid  is 
neutralized,  and  polymerization  sets  in. 
The  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  free 
acid  must  therefore  hinder  polymeriza- 
tion. From  5  to  10  per  cent  of  chalk  or 
lime  is  considered  to  be  the  amount 
which  gives  the  best  result  in  practice. 

Decolorizing  or  Bleaching  Linseed 
Oil. — Linseed  oil  may  be  bleached  by  the 
aid  of  chemical  bodies,  the  process  of 
oxidizing  or  bleaching  being  best  per- 
formed by  means  of  peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen. For  this  purpose,  the  linseed  oil 
to  be  bleached  is  mixed  with  5  per  cent 

Eeroxide  of  hydrogen  in  a  tin  or  glass 
ottle,  and  the  mixture  is  shaken  re- 
peatedly. After  a  few  days  have  elapsed 
the  linseed  oil  is  entirely  bleached  and 
clarified,  so  that  it  can  be  poured  off 
from  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  which 
has  been  reduced  to  oxide  of  hydrogen, 
i.  e.,  water,  by  the  process  of  oxidation. 
The  use  of  another  oxidizing  medium, 
such  as  chloride  of  lime  and  hydro- 
chloric acid  or  bichromate  of  calcium 
and  sulphuric  acid,  etc.,  cannot  be  rec- 
ommended to  the  layman,  as  the  oper- 
ation requires  more  care  and  is  not  with- 
out danger.  If  there  is  no  hurry  about 
the  preparation  of  bleached  linseed  oil, 
sun  bleaching  seems  to  be  the  most 
recommendable  method.  For  this  only 
a  glass  bottle  is  required,  or,  better  still, 
a  flat  glass  dish,  of  any  shape,  which  can 
be  covered  with  a  protruding  piece  of 
glass.  For  the  admission  of  air,  lay 
some  sticks  of  wood  over  the  dish  and 
the  glass  on  top.  The  thinner  the  layer 
of  linseed  oil,  the  quicker  will  be  the  oxi- 
dation process.  It  is,  of  course,  neces- 
sary to  place  the  vessel  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  is  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun 
for  many  hours  daily. 

Linseed  Oil  for  Varnish -Making. — 
Heat  in  a  copper  vessel  50  gallons  Baltic 
oil  to  280°  F.,  add  2|  pounds  calcined 
white  vitriol,  and  stir  well  together. 
Keep  the  oil  at  the  above  temperature 
for  half  an  hour,  then  draw  the  fire,  and 
in  24  hours  decant  the  clear  oil.  It 
should  stand  for  at  least  4  weeks. 


484 


OILS 


Refining  Linseed  Oil. — Put  236  gallons 
of  oil  into  a  copper  boiler,  pour  in  6 
pounds  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  stir  them 
together  for  3  hours,  then  add  6  pounds 
fuller's  earth  well  mixed  with  14  pounds 
hot  lime,  and  stir  for  3  hours.  The  oil 
must  be  put  in  a  copper  vessel  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  water.  Now  boil  for 
3  hours,  then  extinguish  the  fire.  When 
cold  draw  off  the  water.  Let  the  mix- 
ture settle  for  a  few  weeks. 

MINERAL  OIL : 

See  also  Petroleum. 
Production     of     Consistent     Mineral 
Oils.— 

By  weight 

I. — Mineral  oil 100  parts 

Linseed  oil 25  parts 

Ground  nut  oil.  ...      25  parts 
Lime 10  parts 

II. — Mineral  oil 100  parts 

Rosin  oil 100  parts 

Rape  seed  oil 50  parts 

Linseed  oil 75  parts 

Lime 25  parts 

Mixing  Castor  Oil  with  Mineral  Oils. — 
Castor  oil  is  heated  for  6  hours  in  an  auto- 
clave at  a  temperature  of  500°  to  575°  F., 
and  under  a  pressure  of  4  to  6  atmos- 
pheres. When  cold  the  resulting  product 
mixes  in  all  proportions  with  mineral  oils. 

BLEACHING  OILS: 

Linseed  Oil  or  Poppy  Oil. — Agitate  in 
a  glass  balloon  25,000  parts,  by  weight, 
of  oil  with  a  solution  of  50  parts,  by 
weight,  potassium  permanganate  in 
1,250  parts,  by  volume,  of  water.  Let 
stand  for  24  hours  at  a  gentle  warmth 
and  add  75  parts,  by  weight,  of  pow- 
dered sodium  sulphite.  Agitate  strongly 
and  add  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  again  agitate.  Let 
stand  until  decolorization  takes  place, 
then  wash  the  oil  with  a  sufficiency  of 
water,  carrying  in  suspension  chalk, 
finely  powdered,  until  the  liquid  no 
longer  has  an  acid  reaction.  Finally 
filter  off  over  anhydrous  sodium  sulphate. 

Boiled  Oil. — The  following  is  espe- 
cially adapted  for  zinc  painting,  but  will 
also  answer  for  any  paint:  Mix  1  part 
binoxide  of  manganese,  in  coarse  pow- 
der, but  not  dusty,  with  10  parts  nut  or 
linseed  oil.  Keep  it  gently  heated  and 
frequently  stirred  for  about  30  hours,  or 
until  the  oil  begins  to  turn  reddish. 

British  Oil. — 

I. — Oil  of  turpentine. ...  40  parts 

Barbadoes  pitch.  ...  26  parts 

Oil  of  rosemary 1  part 

Oil  of  origanum  ....  1  part 


II. — Oil  of  turpentine. ...      2  parts 

Rape  oil 20  parts 

Spirit  of  tar 2  parts 

Alkanet  root,  quantity  sufficient. 

Macerate  the  alkanet  root  in  the  rape 
oil  until  the  latter  is  colored  deep  red; 
then  strain  off  and  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients. 

Decolorizing  and  Deodorizing  Oils. — 
I. —  One  may  partially  or  completely 
deodorize  and  decolorize  rank  fish  and 
other  oils  by  sending  a  current  of  hot  air 
or  of  steam  through  them,  after  having 
heated  them  from  175°  to  200°  F.  To 
decolorize  palm  oil  pass  through  it  a 
current  of  steam  under  pressure  corre- 
sponding to  a  temperature  of  230°  F., 
agitating  the  oil  constantly.  The  vapor 
is  then  passed  through  leaden  tuyeres  of 
about  2  inches  diameter,  10  hours  being 
sufficient  for  deodorizing  4  tons  of  oil. 

II. — Another  method  that  may  be  ap- 
plied to  almost  all  kinds  of  fats  and  oils 
with  excellent  results  is  the  following: 
Melt  say  112  parts,  by  weight,  of  palm 
oil  in  a  boiler.  When  the  mass  is  en- 
tirely liquefied  add  to  it  a  solution  of  cal- 
cium chloride,  made  by  dissolving  7 
parts,  by  weight,  of  lime  chloride  for 
every  84  parts,  by  weight,  of  oil  in  water, 
and  mix  intimately.  After  cooling,  the 
mass  hardens  and  is  cut  into  small  bits 
and  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  weeks. 
After  this  exposure  the  material  is  re- 
assembled in  a  boiler  of  iron,  jacketed 
on  the  inside  with  lead;  a  quantity  of  sul- 
phuric acid  diluted  to  5  per  cent,  equal  in 
amount  to  the  lime  chloride  previously 
used,  is  added,  and  heat  is  applied  until 
the  oil  melts  and  separates  from  the 
other  substances.  It  is  then  left  to  cool 
off  and  solidify. 

Decomposition  of  Oils,  Fats,  etc. — 
In  many  of  the  processes  at  present  in 
use,  whereby  oils  and  fats  are  decom- 
posed by  steam  at  a  high  pressure,  the 
time  during  which  the  oil  or  fat  has  to 
be  exposed  to  high  pressure  and  tem- 
perature has  the  effect  of  considerably 
darkening  the  resulting  product.  Han- 
nig's  process  claims  to  shorten  the  time 
required,  by  bringing  the  steam  and  oil 
into  more  intimate  contact.  The  oil  to 
be  treated  is  projected  in  fine  streams 
into  the  chamber  containing  steam  at  8 
to  10  atmospheres  pressure.  The  streams 
of  oil  are  projected  with  sufficient  force 
to  cause  them  to  strike  against  the  walls 
of  the  chamber,  and  they  are  thus  broken 
up  into  minute  globules  which  mix  inti- 
mately with  the  steam.  In  this  way  the 
most  satisfactory  conditions  for  the  de- 
composition of  the  oil  are  obtained. 


OILS 


485 


Driffield  Oils. — 

Barbadoes  tar 1     ounce 

Linseed  oil. 16    ounces 

Oil  turpentine 3    ounces 

Oil  vitriol \  ounce 

Add  the  oil  of  vitriol  to  the  other  in- 
gredients very  gradually,  with  constant 
stirring. 

Drying  Oils. — To  dry  oils  for  varnishes, 
paintings,  etc.,  the  most  economical 
means  is  to  boil  them  with  shot,  to  leave 
them  for  some  time  in  contact  with 
shot,  or  else  to  boil  them  with  lith- 
arge. Another  method  consists  in  boil- 
ing the  oils  with  equal  parts  of  lead,  tin, 
and  sulphate  of  zinc  in  the  ratio  of  ^ 
part  (weight)  of  the  united  metals  to  1 
part  of  oil  to  be  treated.  These  metals 
must  be  granulated,  which  is  easily  ac- 
complished by  melting  them  separately 
and  putting  them  in  cold  water.  They 
will  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  water 
in  the  shape  of  small  balls.  It  is  in  this 
manner,  by  the  way,  that  shot  is  pro- 
duced. 

Dust-Laying  Oil. — A  process  has  been 
patented  for  rendering  mineral  oils  mis- 
cible  in  all  proportions  of  water.  The 
method  consists  of  forming  an  intimate 
mixture  of  the  oil  with  a  soap  which  is 
soluble  in  water.  The  most  simple 
method  is  as  follows:  The  oil  is  placed 
in  a  tank  provided  with  an  agitator.  The 
latter  is  set  in  motion  and  the  fatty  oil  or 
free  fatty  acid  from  which  the  soap  is  to 
be  formed  is  added,  and  mixed  inti- 
mately with  the  mineral  oil.  When  the 
mixture  is  seen  to  be  thoroughly  homo- 
geneous, the  alkali,  in  solution  in  water, 
is  added  little  by  little  and  the  stirring 
continued  until  a  thorough  emulsion  is 
obtained,  of  which  the  constituents  do 
not  separate,  even  after  prolonged  stand- 
ing at  ordinary  temperatures.  The 
agitation  may  be  produced  either  by  a 
mechanical  apparatus  or  by  forcing  air 
in  under  pressure.  As  a  rule,  the  oper- 
ation can  be  carried  out  in  the  cold,  but 
in  certain  cases  the  solution  of  the  fatty 
body  and  its  saponification  requires 
the  application  of  moderate  heat.  This 
may  be  obtained  by  using  either  a  steam- 
jacketed  pan,  or  by  having  the  steam 
coil  within  the  pan,  or  live  steam  may 
be  blown  through  the  mixture,  serving  at 
the  same  time  both  as  a  heating  and 
stirring  agent.  Any  fatty  matter  or 
fatty  acid  suitable  for  soap-making  may 
be  used,  and  the  base  may  be  any  one 
capable  of  forming  a  soluble  soap,  most 
commonly  the  alkaline  hydroxides, 
caustic  soda,  and  caustic  potash,  as  also 


ammonia.  The  raw  materials  are  chos- 
en according  to  the  use  to  which  the  fin- 
ished product  is  to  be  applied.  A  good 
formula,  suitable  for  preparing  an  oily 
liquid  for  watering  dusty  roads,  is  as 
follows: 

By  weight 

Heavy  mineral  oil ....  75  parts 
Commercial  olein. ...  2  parts 
Commercial  ammonia  1.5  parts 
Water 21.5  parts 

Floor  Oils.— 

I. — Neatsfoot  oil 1  part 

Cottonseed  oil 1  part 

Petroleum  oil 1  part 

II. — Beeswax 8       parts 

Water. 56       parts 

Potassium  carbonate  4  parts 
Dissolve  the  potash  in  12  parts  of 
water;  heat  together  the  wax  and  the  re- 
maining water  till  the  wax  is  liquefied; 
then  mix  the  two  and  boil  together  until 
a  perfect  emulsion  is  effected.  Color,  if 
desired,  with  a  solution  of  annatto. 

Ground -Laying  Oil  for  Ceramics. — Boi> 
together  until  thoroughly  incorporated 
1  pint  of  linseed  oil,  1  pint  of  dissolved 
gum  mastic,  \  ounce  of  red  lead,  \  ounce 
of  rosin.  In  using  mix  with  Venice 
turpentine. 

Oil  Suitable  for  Use  with  Gold. — Heat 
and  incorporate  linseed  oil,  1  quart;  rape 
oil,  1  pint;  Canadian  balsam,  3  pints; 
rectified  spirits  of  tar,  1  quart. 

Wool  Oil. — These  are  usually  pro- 
duced by  the  distillation  in  retorts  of 
Yorkshire  grease  and  other  greases.  The 
distilled  oil  is  tested  for  quality,  and  is 
brought  down  to  70  per  cent  or  50  per 
cent  grades  by  the  addition  of  a  suitable 
quantity  of  mineral  oil.  The  lower  the 
quality  of  the  grease  used  the  lower  is  the 
grade  of  the  resulting  wool  oil. 


OIL,  CASTOR : 

See  Castor  Oil. 

OIL    FOR    FORMING    A    BEAD    ON 
LIQUORS : 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

OILS  FOR  HARNESS: 
See  Leather. 

OILS  (EDIBLE),  TESTS  FOR: 
See  Foods. 

OIL,  HOW  TO  POUR  OUT : 

See  Castor  Oil. 

OIL,  LUBRICATING : 

See  Lubricants. 


486 


OILS— OINTMENTS 


OILS,  PURIFICATION  OF: 

See  Fats. 

OILCLOTH : 

See  Linoleum. 

OILCLOTH  ADHESIVES: 

See  Adhesives. 

OILCLOTH  VARNISHES : 

See  Varnishes. 

OILING  FIBERS  AND  FABRICS: 

See  Waterproofing. 

OILSKINS : 

See  Waterproofing. 

OIL  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 
OIL,  SOLIDIFIED : 

See  Lubricants. 

Ointments 

Arnica  Salve. — 

Solid  extract  of  arnica     2  parts 

Rosin  ointment 16  parts 

Petrolatum 4  parts 

Sultanas 16  parts 

Fine  cut  tobacco 1  part 

Boil  the  raisins  and  the  tobacco  in  40 
ounces  of  water  until  exhausted,  express 
the  liquid,  and  evaporate  down  to  8 
ounces.  Soften  the  arnica  extract  in  a 
little  hot  water  and  mix  in  the  liquid. 
Melt  the  rosin  'ointment  and  petrolatum 
together,  and  add  the  liquid  to  the  melted 
mass  and  incorporate  thoroughly. 

Barbers'  Itch.— 

Ichthyol 30  grains 

Salicylic  acid 12  grains 

Mercury     oleate     (10 

per  cent) 3  drachms 

Lanolin 1  ounce 

Mix.  To  be  kept  constantly  applied 
to  the  affected  parts. 

Brown  Ointment. — 

Rosin 1     ounce 

Lead  plaster 4     ounces 

Soap  cerate 8     ounces 

Yellow  beeswax. ...    1     ounce 
Olive  oil 7i  fluidounces 

Chilblains. — The  following  are  for 
unbroken  chilblains: 

I. — Sulphurous  acid. ...      3  parts 

Glycerine 1  part 

Water 1  part 

II. — Balsam  Peru 1  part 

Alcohol 24  parts 

Hydrochloric  acid..  .      1  part 
Tincture     benzoin 

compound 8  parts 


Dissolve  the  balsam  in  the  alcohol, 
and  add  the  acid  and  tincture.  Apply 
morning  and  evening. 

Domestic  Ointments. — 

I. —  Vaseline 80  parts 

Diachylon     oint- 
ment    30  parts 

Carbolic  acid 4  parts 

Camphor 5  parts 

II. — Butter,  fresh  (un- 

salted) 750  parts 

Wax,  yellow 125  parts 

Rosin,  white 100  parts 

Nutmeg  oil 15  parts 

Peru  balsam 1  part 

III. — Lead  plaster,  sim- 
ple  6,090  parts 

Vaseline,  yellow.  .  1,000  parts 

Camphor 65  parts 

Carbolic  acid 50  parts 

Mix. 

Green  Salve. — 

White  pine  turpentine     8  ounces 

Lard,  fresh 8  ounces 

Honey 4  ounces 

Beeswax,  yellow.  ....      4  ounces 
Melt,  stir  well,  and  add 

Verdigris,  powdered. .      4  drachms 
Apply  locally. 

This  cannot  be  surpassed  when  used 
for  deep  wounds,  as  it  prevents  the 
formation  of  proud  flesh  and  keeps  up  a 
healthy  discharge. 

Salve  for  all  Wounds. — 

Lard,  fresh 16  ounces 

White  lead,  dry 3  ounces 

Red  lead,  dry 1  ounce 

Beeswax,  yellow 3  ounces 

Black  rosin 2  ounces 

Mix,  melt,  and  boil  for  45  minutes, 
then  add 

Common  turpentine 4  ounces 

Boil  for  3  minutes  and  cool. 

Apply  locally  to  cuts,  burns,  sores, 
ulcers,  etc.  It  first  draws,  then  heals. 

Irritating  Plaster. — 

Tar,  purified 16  ounces 

Burgundy  pitch 1  ounce 

White  pine  turpentine  1  ounce 

Rosin,  common 2  ounces 

Melt  and  add 

Mandrake  root,  pow- 
dered    1  drachm 

Bloodroot,  powdered.  1  ounce 

Poke  root,  powdered. .  1  ounce 
Indian     turnip     root, 

powdered 1  ounce 

Apply    to   the    skin    in  the  form  of  a 


OINTMENTS 


487 


plaster  (spread  on  muslin)  and  renew  it 
daily. 

This  salve  will  raise  a  sore  which  is  to 
be  wiped  with  a  dry  cloth  to  remove  mat- 
ter, etc.  The  sore  must  not  be  wetted. 
This  is  a  powerful  counter-irritant  for  re- 
moving internal  pains,  and  in  other  cases 
where  an  irritating  plaster  is  necessary. 

Mercury  Salves.— I.— Red  Salve.— Red 
mercury  oxide,  1  part;  melted  lard, 
9  parts. 

II. — White  Salve. — Mercury  precipi- 
tate, 1  part;  melted  lard,  9  parts. 

Pink  salve. 

Ammoniated     mer- 
cury        1     ounce 

Mercuric     oxide, 

precipitated..  ...      2|  ounces 
Red    mercuric    sul- 
phide (vermilion)   60    grains 

Perfume \  fluidounce 

Lard 1£  pounds 

Prepared  suet \  pound 

Antiseptic  Nervine  Ointment. — 

lodoform 2  parts 

Salol 4  parts 

Boric  acid 5  parts 

Antipyrine 5  parts 

Vaseline 80  parts 

Photographers'  Ointment. — The  fol- 
lowing protects  the  hands  from  photo- 
graphic chemicals: 

Best   castile   soap,   in 

fine  shavings 1  ounce 

Water 1  ounce 

Wax 1  ounce 

Ammonia 45  minims 

Lanolin 1  ounce 

The  soap  is  dissolved  in  the  water 
heated  for  that  purpose,  the  wax  mixed 
in  with  much  stirring,  and,  when  all  is  in 
solution,  the  ammonia  is  added.  When 
clear,  the  lanolin  is  put  in,  and  then,  if 
the  mixture  is  very  thick,  water  is  added 
until  the  whole  has  the  consistency  of 
honey.  Keep  in  a  covered  stoneware 
jar.  The  hands  should  be  first  washed 
with  ordinary  soap,  and  then,  while  the 
lather  is  still  on  them,  a  bit  of  the  mixture 
about  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  is  rubbed  in 
until  all  is  absorbed,  and  the  hands  are 
dry.  At  the  close  of  the  work,  the  film 
of  wax  is  washed  off  in  warm  water  and 
a  little  lanolin  rubbed  into  the  hands. 

Pain-Subduing  Ointment. — The  fol- 
lowing is  an  excellent  formula: 

Tincture  of  capsicum.      5  parts 
Tincture  of  camphor.      1  part 

Ammonia  water 2  parts 

Alcohol 2  parts 

Soap  liniment 2  parts 


Skin  Ointment. — I. — Add  about  2  per 
cent  of  phenol  to  petrolatum,  perfuming 
it  with  oil  of  bergamot  and  color  a  dull 
green.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a 
mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  yellow 
ocher  would  answer  as  the  coloring 
agent. 

II. — Phenol 40  grains 

Boric  acid 2  drachms 

Oil  of  bergamot 90  minims 

Petrolatum 1  pound 

Color  with  chlorophyll. 

OINTMENTS  FOR  VETERINARY  PUR- 
POSES : 

See   Veterinary  Formulas. 

OLEIN  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

OLEOMARGARINE : 

See  Butter. 

OLIVE-OIL  PASTE: 

See  Butter  Substitutes. 

ONYX  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

ORANGEADE : 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonades. 

ORANGE  BITTERS  AND  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

ORANGE  DROPS: 

See  Confectionery. 

ORANGE  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

ORANGE   FRAPPE: 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonades. 

ORANGE  PHOSPHATE: 

See  Beverages. 

ORGEAT  PUNCH: 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonades. 

ORTOL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

OXIDIZING: 

See  Bronzing,  Plating,  Painting. 

OXIDE,  MAGNETIC: 

See  Rust  Preventives. 

OXOLIN : 

See  Rubber. 

OZONATINE : 

See  Air  Purifying. 

PACKAGE  POP: 

See  Beverages,  under  Ginger  Ale. 

PACKAGE  WAX: 

See  Waxes. 


488 


PACKINGS— PAINTINGS 


PACKINGS: 

Packing  for  Stuffing  Boxes. — 

Tallow 10  parts 

Barrel  soap,  non-filled  30  parts 

Cylinder  oil 10  parts 

Talcum     Venetian, 

finely  powdered.. .  .    20  parts 
Graphite,    finely 

washed 6  parts 

Powdered  asbestos. .  .      6  parts 
Melt  the  tallow  and  barrel  soap  to- 
gether, add  the  other  materials  in  rota- 
tion,   mix   intimately   in   a   mixing   ma- 
chine, and  fill  in  4-pound  cans. 

Packing  for  Gasoline  Pumps. — For 
packing  pumps  on  gasoline  engines  use 
asbestos  wick-packing  rubbed  full  of 
regular  laundry  soap;  it  will  work  with- 
out undue  friction  and  will  pack  tightly. 
Common  rubber  packing  is  not  as  good, 
as  the  gasoline  cuts  it  out. 

PADS    OF    PAPER: 

See  Paper  Pads. 

PAIN-SUBDUING   OINTMENT: 

See  Ointments. 

PAINTING  PROCESSES : 

Painting  Ornaments  or  Letters  on 
Cloth  and  Paper. — Dissolve  gum  shellac 
in  95  per  cent  alcohol  at  the  rate  of  1 
pound  of  shellac  to  3  pints  of  alcohol,  and 
mix  with  it  any  dry  color  desired.  If 
it  becomes  too  thick,  thin  with  more 
alcohol.  This  works  free,  does  not 
bleed  out,  imparts  brilliancy  to  the  color, 
and  wears  well.  The  preparation  can 
be  used  also  on  paper. 

Painting  on  Marble. — To  paint  marble 
in  water  colors,  it  must  be  first  thor- 
oughly cleaned  and  all  grease  com- 
pletely removed.  The  slab  is  washed 
well,  and  then  rubbed  off  with  benzine 
by  means  of  a  rag  or  sponge.  In  order 
to  be  quite  sure,  add  a  little  ox  gall  or 
aguoline  to  the  colors.  After  marble  has 
been  painted  with  water  colors  it  cannot 
be  polished  any  more. 

Painting  on  Muslin. — To  paint  on 
muslin  requires  considerable  skill.  Select 
a  smooth  wall  or  partition,  upon  which 
tack  the  muslin,  drawing  the  fabric 
taut  and  firm.  Then  make  a  solution 
of  starch  and  water,  adding  one-fourth 
starch  to  three-fourths  water,  and  apply 
a  glaze  of  this  to  the  muslin.  To  guard 
against  the  striking  in  of  the  paint,  and 
to  hold  it  more  securely  in  place  and  tex- 
ture, mix  the  pigment  with  rubbing  varnish 
to  the  consistency  of  a  stiff  paste,  and 
then  thin  with  turpentine  to  a  free  work- 
ing condition.  A  double  thick  camel's- 


hair  brush,  of  a  width  to  correspond 
properly  with  the  size  of  the  surface  to  be 
coated,  is  the  best  tool  with  which  to  coat 
fine  muslin.  A  fitch-hair  tool  is  prob- 
ably best  suited  to  the  coarser  muslin. 
Many  painters,  when  about  to  letter  on 
muslin,  wet  the  material  with  water;  but 
this  method  is  not  so  reliable  as  sizing 
with  starch  and  water.  Wetting  canvas 
or  duck  operates  very  successfully  in 
holding  the  paint  or  color  in  check,  but 
these  materials  should  not  be  confounded 
with  muslin,  which  is  of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent texture. 

PAINTING  ON  LEATHER: 

See  Leather. 

PAINTINGS : 

Protection  for  Oil  Paintings. — Oil 
paintings  should  under  no  circumstances 
be  varnished  over  before  the  colors  are 
surely  and  unmistakably  dry,  otherwise 
the  fissuring  and  early  decay  of  the  sur- 
face may  be  anticipated.  The  conten- 
tion of  some  people  that  oil  paintings 
need  the  protection  of  a  coat  of  varnish 
is  based  upon  the  claim  that  the  picture, 
unvarnished,  looks  dead  and  lusterless 
in  parts  and  glossy  in  still  others,  the 
value  and  real  beauty  of  the  color  being 
thus  unequally  manifested.  It  is  not  to 
be  inferred,  however,  that  a  heavy  coat- 
ing of  varnish  is  required.  When  it  is 
deemed  advisable  to  varnish  over  an  oil 
painting  the  varnish  should  be  mastic, 
with  perhaps  3  or  4  drops  of  refined  lin- 
seed oil  added  to  insure  against  cracking. 
A  heavy  body  of  varnish  used  over 
paintings  must  be  strictly  prohibited,  in- 
asmuch as  the  varnish,  as  it  grows  in 
age,  naturally  darkens  in  color,  and  in  so 
doing  carries  with  it  a  decided  clouding 
and  discoloration  of  the  delicate  pig- 
ments. A  thinly  applied  coat  of  mastic 
varnish  affords  the  required  protection 
from  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  atmos- 
pheric impurities,  besides  fulfilling  its 
mission  in  other  directions. 

Oil  paintings,  aquarelles,  etc.,  may  be 
also  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  Canada 
balsam,  and  placed  smoothly  on  a  pane 
of  glass  likewise  coated  with  Canada 
balsam,  so  that  both  layers  of  balsam 
come  together.  Then  the  pictures  are 
pressed  down  from  the  back,  to  remove 
all  air  bubbles. 

To  Renovate  Old  Oil  Paintings. — 
When  old  oil  paintings  have  become 
dark  and  cracked,  proceed  as  follows: 
Pour  alcohol  in  a  dish  and  put  the  pic- 
ture over  it,  face  downward.  The  fumes 
of  the  alcohol  dissolve  the  paint  of  the 
picture,  the  fissures  close  up  again,  and 


PAINTINGS— PAINTS 


489 


the  color  assumes  a  freshness  which  is 
surprising.  Great  caution  is  absolutely 
necessary,  and  one  must  look  at  the  paint- 
ing very  often,  otherwise  it  may  happen 
that  the  colors  will  run  together  or  even 
run  off  in  drops. 

PAINTINGS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

Paints 

(See  also  Acid-Proofing,  Ceramics, 
Enamels,  Fireproofing,  Glazing,  Painting 
Processes,  Pigments,  Rust  Preventives, 
Varnishes,  and  Waterproofing.) 

PAINT  BASES: 

Dry  Bases  for  Paints. — The  following 
colors  and  minerals,  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portions given  and  then  ground  to  fine 
powder,  make  excellent  dry  paints,  and 
may  be  thinned  with  turpentine  oil,  and 
a  small  percentage  of  cheap  varnish  to 
consistency  required. 

Buff.— 

Yellow  ocher 44     pounds 

Whiting 6     pounds 

Oxide  of  zinc 5     pounds 

Plaster  of  Paris |  pound 

Brick  Brown. — 

Yellow  ocher 26     pounds 

Calcined  copperas.. ..  4     pounds 

Red  hematite 1 J  pounds 

Best  silica 7    pounds 

Whiting 18     pounds 

Gray. — 

Oxide  of  zinc 30    pounds 

White  lead 6     pounds 

Whiting.  . 12    pounds 

Bone  black f  pound 

Yellow  ocher 2    pounds 

Crimson. — 

Indian  red 25  pounds 

Crocus  martis 7  pounds 

Oxide  of  zinc 6  pounds 

Whiting 6  pounds 

Vandyke  Brown. — 

Yellow  ocher 25  pounds 

Whiting 18  pounds 

Umber 4  pounds 

Oxide  of  zinc 7  pounds 

Purple  oxide  of  iron  . .  1  pound 

Blood  Red. — 

Crocus  martis 30  pounds 

Whiting 20  pounds 

Hematite 3  pounds 

Silica 6  pounds 

Venetian  red 2  pounds 


Drab.— 

Yellow  ocher 40    pounds 

Whiting 10    pounds 

Oxide  of  zinc 8J  pounds 

Sulphate  of  barytes..  .  1     pound 

Paint  for  Blackboards. — 

Shellac 1     pound 

Alcohol 1     gallon 

Lampblack      (fine 

quality) 4     ounces 

Powdered  emery 4     ounces 

Ultramarine  blue  ....  4  ounces 
Dissolve  the  shellac  in  the  alcohol. 
Place  the  lampblack,  emery,  and  ultra- 
marine blue  on  a  cheese-cloth  strainer, 
pour  on  part  of  the  shellac  solution, 
stirring  constantly  and  gradually  adding 
the  solution  until  all  of  the  powders  have 
passed  through  the  strainer. 

Dark-Green  Paint  for  Blackboards. — 
Mix  1  part  Prussian  blue  and  1  part 
chrome  green  with  equal  parts  of 
gilders'  size  and  alcohol  to  a  thin  cream 
consistency.  Apply  with  a  large,  stiff 
brush  and  after  an  hour  a  second  coat  is 
given.  After  24  to  48  hours  smooth  the 
surface  with  a  felt  cloth.  This  renders 
it  rich  and  velvety.  The  shade  must  be 
a  deep  black  green  and  the  quantities  of 
the  colors  have  to  be  modified  accordingly 
if  necessary.  Old  blackboards  should 
be  previously  thoroughly  cleaned  with 
soda. 

BRONZING  SOLUTIONS  FOR  PAINTS. 

I. — The  so-called  "  banana  solution  " 
(the  name  being  derived  from  its  odor) 
which  is  used  in  applying  bronzes  of 
various  kinds,  is  usually  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  amyl  acetate,  acetone, 
and  benzine,  with  just  enough  pyr- 
oxyline  dissolved  therein  to  give  it 
body.  Powdered  bronze  is  put  into  a 
bottle  containing  this  mixture  and  the 
paint  so  formed  applied  with  a  brush. 
The  thin  covering  of  pyroxyline  that  is 
left  after  the  evaporation  of  the  liquid 
protects  the  bronze  from  the  air  and 
keeps  it  from  being  wiped  off  by  the 
cleanly  housemaid.  Tarnished  picture 
frames  and  tarnished  chandeliers  to 
which  a  gold  bronze  has  been  applied 
from  such  a  solution  will  look  fresh  and 
new  for  a  long  time.  Copper  bronze  as 
well  as  gold  bronze  and  the  various  col- 
ored bronze  powders  can  be  used  in  the 
"banana  solution"  for  making  very 
pretty  advertising  signs  for  use  in  the 
drug  store.  Lettering  and  bordering 
work  upon  the  signs  can  be  done  with  it. 
Several  very  small,  stiff  painters'  brushes 
are  needed  for  such  work  and  they  must 


490 


PAINTS 


be  either  kept  in  the  solution  when  not  in 
use,  or,  better  still,  washed  in  benzine  or 
acetone  immediately  after  use  and  put 
away  for  future  service.  As  the  "banana 
solution"  is  volatile,  it  must  be  kept  well 
corked. 

II. — A  good  bronzing  solution  for  paint 
tins,  applied  by  dipping,  is  made  by  dis- 
solving Syrian  asphaltum  in  spirits  of 
turpentine,  etc.,  and  thinning  it  down 
with  these  solvents  to  the  proper  bronze 
color  and  consistency.  A  little  good 
boiled  oil  will  increase  the  adherence. 

Paint  Brushes. — To  soften  a  hard 
paint  brush,  stand  the  brush  overnight  in 
a  pot  of  soft  soap  and  clean  in  warm 
water.  Afterwards  clean  in  benzine.  If 
the  brush  is  wrapped  with  a  string  do 
not  let  the  string  touch  the  soap. 

Paint  brushes  which  have  dried  up  as 
hard  as  stone  can  be  cleaned  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Dissolve  1  part  soda 
in  3  parts  water;  pour  the  solution  in  a 
cylinder  glass,  and  suspend  in  it  the 
brushes  to  be  cleaned,  so  that  they  are 
about  2  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  Let  it  remain  undisturbed  at  a 
temperature  of  140°  to  158°  F.,  12  to  24 
hours,  after  which  the  most  indurated 
brushes  will  have  become  soft,  so  that 
they  can  be  readily  cleaned  with  soap. 
It  is  essential,  however,  to  observe  the 
temperature,  as  bristle  brushes  will  be 
injured  and  spoiled  if  the  heat  is  greater. 

Black. — A  Permanent  Black  of  Rich 
Luster  for  Metal  Boxes.  —  Dissolve 
chlorate  of  potassium  and  blue  vitriol, 
equal  parts,  in  36  times  as  much  water, 
and  allow  the  solution  to  cool.  The 
parts  to  be  blacked  may  be  either  dipped 
in  the  solution,  or  the  solution  may  be 
flowed  on  and  allowed  to  remain  until 
the  metal  becomes  black,  after  which  the 
fixtures  should  be  rinsed  in  clean  water 
and  allowed  to  dry.  Those  parts  of  the 
surface  which  show  imperfections  in  the 
black  should  be  recoated. 

Dead  White  on  Silver  Work,  etc.— 
Bruise  charcoal  very  finely  and  mix  it 
with  calcined  borax  in  the  proportion  of 
4  parts  of  charcoal  to  1  of  borax.  Of 
this  make  a  paste  with  water;  apply  this 
paste  on  the  parts  to  be  deadened;  next 
expose  the  piece  to  the  fire  of  well-lit  coal 
until  it  acquires  a  cherry-red  shade; 
allow  to  cool  and  then  place  it  in  water 
slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid. 
The  bath  must  not  be  more  than  5°  Be. 
Leave  the  piece  in  the  bath  about  2 
hours,  then  rinse  off  several  times. 

White  'Coating  for  Signs,  etc. —  A 
white  color  for  signs  and  articles  exposed 


to  the  air  is  prepared  as  follows  for  the 
last  coat:  Thin  so-called  Dutch  "stand" 
oil  with  oil  of  turpentine  to  working 
consistency,  and  grind  in  it  equal  parts  of 
zinc  white  and  white  lead,  not  adding 
much  siccative,  as  the  white  lead  assists 
the  drying  considerably.  If  the  paint  is 
smoothed  well  with  a  badger  brush,  a 
very  durable  white  color  of  great  gloss  is 
obtained.  Linseed  oil,  or  varnish  which 
has  thickened  like  "stand"  oil  by  long 
open  storing,  will  answer  equally  well. 

To  Prevent  Crawling  of  Paints. — 
Probably  the  best  method  to  pursue 
will  be  to  take  an  ordinary  flannel  rag 
and  carefully  rub  it  over  the  work  pre- 
vious to  varnishing,  striping,  or  painting. 
This  simple  operation  will  obviate  the 
possibility  of  crawling. 

In  some  instances,  however,  crawling 
may  be  traced  to  a  defective  varnish. 
The  latter,  after  drying  evenly  on  a  well- 
prepared  paint  surface  will  at  times 
crawl,  leaving  small  pitmarks.  For  this, 
the  simple  remedy  consists  in  purchasing 
varnish  from  a  reputable  manufacturer. 

FIREPROOF  PAINTS: 

See  also  Fireproofing. 

Fireproofing  paints  of  effective  quality 
are  prepared  in  different  ways.  Natu- 
rally no  oily  or  greasy  substances  enter 
into  their  composition,  the  blending  agent 
being  simply  water. 

I. — One  of  the  standing  paints  con- 
sists of  40  pounds  of  powdered  asbestos, 
10  pounds  of  aluminate  of  soda,  10 
pounds  of  lime,  and  30  pounds  of  silicate 
of  soda,  with  the  addition  of  any  non- 
rosinous  coloring  matter  desired.  The 
whole  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  enough 
water  to  produce  a  perfect  blend  and 
render  an  easy  application.  Two  or 
more  coats  of  this  is  the  rule  in  applying 
it  to  any  wood  surface,  inside  or  outside 
of  building. 

II. — Another  formula  involves  the  use 
of  40  pounds  of  finely  ground  glass,  a 
like  amount  of  ground  porcelain,  and 
similarly  of  China  clay  or  the  same  quan- 
tity of  powdered  asbestos,  and  20  pounds 
of  quicklime.  These  materials  are 
ground  very  fine  and  then  mixed  in  60 
pounds  of  liquid  silicate  of  soda  with 
water,  as  in  the  preceding  formula.  Two 
or  more  coats,  if  necessary,  are  given. 

Each  of  these  paints  is  applied  with  a 
.brush  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  drying 
being  accomplished  in  a  few  hours,  and, 
if  coloring  matter  is  desired,  the  above 
proportions  are  varied  accordingly. 

III. — A  surface  coated  with  3  coats  of 
water  glass,  these  3  coats  being  subse- 


PAINTS 


491 


quently  coated  with  water  glass  con- 
taining enough  whiting  or  ground  chalk 
to  make  it  a  trifle  thicker  than  ordinary 
paint,  is  practically  non-inflammable, 
only  yielding  to  fierce  consuming  flames 
after  a  somewhat  protracted  exposure. 

IV. — Zinc  white,  70  pounds;  air- 
slaked  lime,  39  pounds;  white  lead,  50 
pounds;  sulphate  of  zinc,  10  pounds; 
silicate  of  soda,  7  gallons.  The  zinc 
white  and  lime  are  mixed  together,  then 
ground  in  elastic  oil,  after  which  the  sili- 
cate of  soda  is  added,  this  addition  being 
followed  by  the  white  lead  and  sulphate 
of  zinc.  This  white  paint  can  be  colored 
to  meet  any  desired  shade  and  it  may  be 
classed  as  a  good  working  paint  and 
probably  fireproof  to  the  same  extent 
that  most  of  the  pretentiously  sounded 
pigments  on  the  markets  are. 

Fireproof  and  Waterproof  Paints. — 
The  following  recipes  are  claimed  to 
resist  both  fire  and  water:  A  prepara- 
tion for  protecting  wood  against  the  ac- 
tion of  fire  and  of  moisture,  and  also  for 
producing  on  the  surface  of  wood  and 
metal  a  coat,  insulating  with  reference  to 
electricity  and  preservative  from  corro- 
sion, has  been  introduced  in  France 
by  Louis  Bethisy  and  Myrthil  Rose. 
The  bases  or  fundamental  raw  materials 
quite  distinct  from  those  hitherto  em- 
ployed for  the  same  purpose,  are  100 
parts,  by  weight,  of  nitro-cellulose  and  30 
parts,  by  weight,  of  chloride  of  lime,  dis- 
solved in  50  per  cent  alcohol. 

Preparation  of  the  Bases. — The  cellu- 
lose (of  wood,  paper,  cotton,  linen,  ramie, 
or  hemp)  is  put  in  contact  with  two- 
thirds  part  of  sulphuric  acid  of  66°  Be. 
and  one-third  part  of  nitric  acid  of  42°  Be. 
for  some  20  or  30  minutes,  washed  with 
plenty  of  water,  and  kept  for  24  hours  in 
a  tank  of  water  supplied  with  an  ener- 
getic current. 

The  nitro-cellulose  thus  obtained  is 
bleached  for  this  purpose;  a  double  hypo- 
chlorite  of  aluminum  and  magnesium  is 
employed.  This  is  obtained  by  grinding 
together  100  parts  of  chloride  of  lime,  60 
parts  of  aluminum  sulphate,  23  parts  of 
magnesium  sulphate,  with  200  parts  of 
water. 

When  the  nitro-cellulose  is  bleached 
and  rewashed,  it  is  reduced  to  powder 
and  dried  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  It 
is  then  placed  in  a  vat  hermetically  closed 
and  put  in  contact  with  the  indicated 
proportion  of  calcium  chloride  dissolved 
in  alcohol.  This  solution  of  calcium 
chloride  should  be  prepared  at  least 
24  hours  in  advance  and  filtered. 

Composition    of    the    Coating. — This 


has  the  following  constituents:  Bases 
(nitro-cellulose  and  solution  of  calcium 
chloride),  1  part;  amyl  acetate  (solvent 
of  the  bases),  5  parts,  by  weight;  sul- 
phuric ether  of  65°,  1.650  parts,  by 
weight;  alcohol,  0.850  parts,  by  weight; 
one  of  these  powders,  alum,  talc,  as- 
bestos, or  mica,  0.100  parts.  Other  sol- 
vents may  be  employed  instead  of  amyl 
acetate;  for  example,  acetone,  acetic  acid, 
ether  alcohol,  or  methylic  alcohol.  The 
ether  alcohol  furnishes  a  product  drying 
very  quickly.  If  a  very  pliant  coating 
is  desired,  the  amyl  acetate  is  employed 
preferably,  with  addition  of  vaseline  oil, 
0.20  parts,  and  lavender  oil,  0.010  parts. 

Method  of  Operating. — The  sulphuric 
acid  is  mixed  with  the  alcohol,  and  left 
for  an  hour  in  contact,  shaking  from 
time  to  time.  Afterwards  the  amyl  ace- 
tate is  added,  and  left  in  contact  for  an- 
other hour  under  similar  agitation.  In 
case  of  the  employment  of  vaseline  oil 
and  lavender  oil,  these  two  are  mingled 
in  ether  alcohol.  The  base  is  introduced 
and  left  in  contact  for  24  hours,  with 
frequent  agitation.  The  fluidity  of  the 
product  is  augmented  by  increasing  the 
quantity  of  the  solvent. 

Properties. — Wood  covered  with  this 
coating  is  fireproof,  non-hygrometric, 
and  refractory  to  the  electric  current.  It 
also  resists  the  action  of  acids  and  alka- 
lies. Metals  covered  with  it  are  shel- 
tered from  oxidation,  and  effectually 
insulated  on  their  surface  from  the  elec- 
tric current.  The  coating  is  liquid  in 
form,  and  applied  like  collodions,  either 
by  the  brush  or  by  immersion  or  other 
suitable  method. 

Paint  Deadening. — In  order  to  obtain 
an  even  dullness  of  large  walls,  proceed 
as  follows:  After  all  the  dirt  has  been 
carefully  swept  off,  oil  with  2  parts 
linseed  oil  and  1  part  turpentine  and  rub 
down  the  smooth  places  in  the  wet  oil 
with  pumice  stone.  When  the  oil  coat- 
ing is  dry,  mix  the  ground  paint,  con- 
sisting of  whiting,  2  parts;  and  white 
lead,  1  part;  both  finely  ground  and 
diluted  as  above.  Do  not  apply  the 
grounding  too  thin,  because  the  chalk  in 
itself  possesses  little  covering  power.  It 
is  not  the  mission  of  the  chalk,  however, 
to  adulterate  the  material,  but  to  afford  a 
hard  foundation  for  the  subsequent 
coats.  For  the  third  coating  take  white 
lead,  1  part;  and  zinc  white,  1  part;  thin 
as  above  and  blend  with  a  soft  hair  pencil. 
For  the  final  application  use  only  zinc 
white,  ground  stiff  in  oil  with  any  de- 
sired mixing  color  and  thinned  with 
turpentine  and  rain  water.  Mix  the 


492 


PAINTS 


water  and  the  turpentine  with  the  color 
at  the  same  time,  and  this  coat  may  be 
dabbed  instead  of  blended.  By  the  ad- 
dition of  water  the  paint  becomes  dull 
more  slowly  and  is  a  little  more  difficult 
to  lay  on;  but  it  does  not  show  a  trace  of 
gloss  after  a  few  days  and  never  turns 
yellow,  even  in  places  less  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  besides  excels  by  great  perma- 
nency. 

Another  way  is  to  add  white  wax  in- 
stead of  water  to  the  last  coating.  This 
wax  paint  also  gives  a  handsome  dullness 
but  is  more  difficult  of  treatment.  A 
nice  matt  coating  is  also  obtained  by 
addition  of  Venetian  soap,  dissolved  in 
water  instead  of  the  wax.  This  is  very 
desirable  for  church  decorations  where 
exceptionally  large  surfaces  are  to  be 
deadened. 

PAINT  DRYERS: 

I. — Ordinary  barytes.  . . 

Whiting 

Litharge 

Sulphate  of  zinc .... 

Sugar  of  lead 

Boiled  linseed  oil. . . . 
Plaster  of  Paris 

II.— Whiting 

Barytes 

White  lead 

Boiled  linseed  oil.  . .        £  gallon 

PAINTS  FOR  GOLD  AND  GILDING: 

Gold  Paints. — The  formulas  of  the 
various  gold  paints  on  the  market  are 
carefully  guarded  trade  secrets.  Essen- 
tially they  consist  of  a/  bronze  powder 
mixed  with  a  varnish.  The  best  bronze 
powder  for  the  purpose  is  what  is  known 
m  the  trade  as  "French  flake,"  a  deep 
gold  bronze.  This  bronze,  as  seen  under 
the  microscope,  consists  of  tiny  flakes  or 
spangles  of  the  bronze  metal.  As  each 
minute  flake  forms  a  facet  for  the  re- 
flection of  color,  the  paint  made  with  it 
is  much  more  brilliant  than  that  prepared 
from  finely  powdered  bronze. 

For  making  gold  paint  like  the  so- 
called  "  washable  gold  enamel  "  that  is 
sold  by  the  manufacturers  at  the  present 
time,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  a  celluloid 
varnish  with  the  French  flake  bronze 
powder.  This  varnish  is  made  by  dis- 
solving transparent  celluloid  in  amyl 
acetate  in  the  proportion  of  about  5  per 
cent  of  celluloid. 

Transparent  cellu- 
loid, finely  shred- 
ded   1  ounce 

Acetone,  sufficient  quantity. 

Amyl  acetate  to  make   20  ounces. 


25 
4 

2 
2 
2 
5 

16 
16 
3 

pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pound 

pounds 
pounds 
pounds 

Digest  the  celluloid  in  the  acetone  until 
dissolved  and  add  the  amyl  acetate. 
From  1  to  4  ounces  of  flake  bronze  is  to 
be  mixed  with  this  quantity  of  varnish. 
For  silver  paint  or  "aluminum  enamel," 
flake  aluminum  bronze  powder  should 
be  used  in  place  of  the  gold.  The  cellu- 
loid varnish  incloses  the  bronze  particles 
in  an  impervious  coating,  air-tight  and 
water-tight.  As  it  contains  nothing  that 
will  act  upon  the  bronze,  the  latter  re- 
tains its  luster  for  a  long  period,  until 
the  varnished  surface  becomes  worn  or 
abraded  and  the  bronze  thus  exposed  to 
atmospheric  action. 

All  of  the  "gold"  or,  more  properly, 
gilt  furniture  that  is  sold  so  cheaply  by 
the  furniture  and  department  stores  is 
gilded  with  a  paint  of  this  kind,  and  for 
that  reason  such  furniture  can  be  offered 
at  a  moderate  price.  The  finish  is  sur- 
prisingly durable,  and  in  color  and  luster 
is  a  very  close  imitation  of  real  gold-leaf 
work.  This  paint  is  also  used  on  picture 
frames  of  cheap  and  medium  grades,  tak- 
ing the  place  of  gold  leaf  or  the  lacquered 
silver  leaf  formerly  used  on  articles  of  the 
better  grades;  it  is  also  substituted  for 
"Dutch  metal,"  or  imitation  gold  leaf,  on 
the  cheapest  class  of  work. 

A  cheaper  gold  paint  is  made  by  using 
an  inexpensive  varnish  composed  of 
gutta  percha,  gum  dammar,  or  some 
other  varnish  gum,  dissolved  in  benzole, 
or  in  a  mixture  of  benzole  and  benzine. 
The  paints  made  with  a  celluloid-amyl- 
acetate  varnish  give  off  a  strong  banana- 
like  odor  when  applied,  and  may  be  read- 
ily recognized  by  this  characteristic. 

The  impalpably  powdered  bronzes 
are  called  "lining"  bronzes.  They  are 
chiefly  used  for  striping  or  lining  by  car- 
riage painters;  in  bronzing  gas  fixtures 
and  metal  work;  in  fresco  and  other  in- 
terior decoration,  and  in  printing;  the 
use  of  a  very  fine  powder  in  inks  or  paints 
admits  of  the  drawing  or  printing  of  very 
delicate  lines. 

Lining  bronze  is  also  used  on  picture 
frames  or  other  plastic  ornamental  work. 
Mixed  with  a  thin  weak  glue  sizing  it  is 
applied  over  "burnishing  clay,"  and 
when  dry  is  polished  with  agate  bur- 
nishers. The  object  thus  treated,  after 
receiving  a  finishing  coat  of  a  thin  trans- 
parent varnish,  imitates  very  closely  in 
appearance  a  piece  of  finely  cast  antique 
bronze.  To  add  still  more  to  this  effect 
the  burnishing  clay  is  colored  the  green- 
ish black  that  is  seen  in  the  deep  parts 
of  real  antique  bronzes,  and  the  bronze 
powder,  mixed  with  size,  is  applied  only 
to  the  most  prominent  parts  or  "high 
lights"  of  the  ornament. 


PAINTS 


493 


Since  the  discovery  of  the  celluloid- 
amyl-acetate  varnish,  or  bronze  liquid, 
and  its  preservative  properties  on  bronze 
powders,  manufacturers  have  discon- 
tinued the  use  of  liquids  containing  oils, 
turpentine,  or  gums,  since  their  constitu- 
ents corrode  the  bronze  metal,  causing 
the  paint  finally  to  turn  black. 

Gilding  in  Size. — The  old  painters  and 
gilders  used  to  prepare  the  gold  size 
themselves,  but  nowadays  it  is  usually 
bought  ready  made,  barring  the  white  of 
egg  additional.  The  best  and  most 
reliable,  and  especially  suited  for  fine 
work,  is  undoubtedly  the  red  French 
gold  size.  It  is  cleaned,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, of  all  impurities,  and  powdered. 
For  246  grains  take  1  white  of  egg;  put  it 
into  a  glass,  taking  care  to  exclude  the 
yolk  entirely — otherwise  the  burnish  will 
show  black  spots.  Beat  the  white  of  egg 
to  a  froth  with  a  long,  well-cleaned  bristle 
brush;  add  the  froth  to  the  size  and  grind 
finely  together,  which  is  soon  done. 
When  grinding,  a  little  water  and  red 
size,  if  necessary,  may  be  added  (use 
only  water  for  thinning).  After  being 
ground,  the  size  is  forced  through  a  very 
fine  hair  sieve  into  a  perfectly  clean 
vessel,  and  covered  up  well,  for  imme- 
diate or  subsequent  use. 

The  raw  stuff  of  the  red  size  is  bolus, 
which  is  dug  in  France  and  Armenia  in 
excellent  quality.  Besides  the  red  size 
there  are  yellow,  white  (pipe  clay),  blue, 
and  gray  (alumina),  which  are  used  for 
certain  purposes,  to  enumerate  which 
here  would  lead  too  far. 

For  burnish  gold,  always  take  yellow 
size  for  ground  work.  Dip  a  finely 
ground  bristle  brush  in  the  gold  size  pre- 
pared for  use;  fill  a  well-cleaned  glass 
(holding  1  pint)  half  full  of  water,  and 
add  the  size  contained  in  the  brush,  also 
about  4  to  5  spoonfuls  of  pure  alcohol. 
It  is  advisable  not  to  take  too  much  size; 
the  liquid,  when  applied,  must  hardly 
have  a  yellow  tint.  When  this  is  dry 
soon  after,  commence  applying  the  size, 
for  which  a  hair  pencil  is  used.  The 
essentials  are  to  paint  evenly  and  not  too 
thickly,  so  that  the  tone  remains  uniform. 
Apply  three  coats  of  size. 

When  the  size  is  laid  on  correctly  and 
has  become  dry,  brush  the  whole  with 
a  special  brush,  or  rub  with  a  flannel  rag, 
so  as  to  obtain  the  highest  possible  luster. 
The  size  must  not  stand  too  long;  other- 
wise no  gloss  can  be  developed.  After 
brushing,  coat  the  work  with  weak  glue 
water  and  wrap  it  up  in  tissue  paper  if 
the  gilding  is  not  to  be  done  at  once. 

The  strictest  cleanliness  is  essential,  as 


the  red  gold  size  is  very  sensitive.  The 
parts  where  the  size  has  been  applied 
must  not  be  touched  with  the  hand,  else 
grease  spots  will  ensue,  which  will  make 
a  flawless  gloss  in  gilding  impossible. 
The  least  relaxation  of  the  necessary 
attention  may  spoil  the  whole  job,  so  that 
everything  has  to  be  ground  off  again. 

The  necessary  tools  for  the  application 
of  gold  leaf  are:  Hair  pencils  of  various 
sizes,  tip,  cushion,  and  gilding  knife,  as 
"with  oil-gilding.  Take  pure  alcohol  or 
grain  brandy,  and  dilute  with  two-thirds 
water.  When  ready  to  apply  the  gold 
leaf,  dip  a  hair  pencil  of  suitable  size  into 
the  fluid,  but  do  not  have  it  full  enough 
that  the  alcohol  will  run  on  the  size 
ground.  Moisten  a  portion  of  the 
ground  surface  as  large  as  the  gold  leaf, 
which  is  laid  on  immediately  after. 
Proceed  in  the  same  manner,  first  mois- 
tening, then  applying  the  ready-cut  gold 
leaf.  The  latter  must  not  be  pressed  on, 
but  merely  laid  down  lightly,  one  leaf  a 
little  over  the  edge  of  the  previous  one, 
without  using  up  too  much  gold.  Tech- 
nical practice  in  gold-leaf  gilding  is 
presupposed;  through  this  alone  can  any 
skill  be  acquired,  reading  being  of  no 
avail. 

The  leaf  of  gold  being  applied,  all  dust 
must  be  swept  off  by  means  of  a  light, 
fine  hair  pencil  (but  never  against  the 
overlapping  edges),  and  the  burnishing 
is  commenced.  For  this  purpose  there 
are  special  agate  tools  of  the  shape  of  a 
horn.  Flint  stone,  blood  stone,  and 
wolf's  teeth  are  sometimes,  but  gradually 
more  seldom,  employed.  Burnish  till  a 
full,  fine  luster  appears;  but  very  care- 
fully avoid  dents  and  lines,  not  to  speak 
of  scratches,  which  would  be  very  hard 
to  mend. 

Gold  Enamel  Paints. — 

I. — Pure  turps 6    pints 

Copal  varnish 1     pint 

Good  gold  bronze. .  .      6£  pounds 
Calcis  hydrate  (dry- 
slaked  lime) \  ounce 

Mix  the  varnish  and  turps  at  a  gentle 
heat,  then  slake  well  with  the  lime,  and 
settle  for  a  few  days,  then  pour  off  the 
clean  portion  and  mix  with  the  powder. 

II. — White  hard  varnish .      1     gallon 
Methylated  spirit. . .        f  gallon 

Gold  bronze 12    pounds 

Finely    powdered 

mica 3     ounces 

Mix  the  varnish  and  the  spirit,  reduce 
the  mica  to  an  impalpable  powder,  mix 
with  the  gold,  then  add  to  the  liquid. 
Many  bronze  powders  contain  a  goodly 


494 


PAINTS 


proportion  of  mica,  as  it  imparts  bril- 
liancy. Powdered  mother-of-pearl  is 
used  also. 

GRAINING  WITH  PAINT: 

See  also  Wood. 

Oak  Graining. — Prepare  a  paint  of 
two-thirds  of  white  lead  and  one-third  of 
golden  ocher  with  the  requisite  amount 
of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  a  little  drier, 
and  cover  the  floor  twice  with  this  mix- 
ture, which  possesses  great  covering 
power.  When  the  last  coating  is  dry, 
paint  the  floor  with  a  thinly  liquid  paint 
consisting  of  varnish  and  sienna,  apply- 
ing the  same  in  the  longitudinal  direc- 
tion of  the  boards.  Treat  a  strip  about 
20  inches  wide  at  a  time,  and  draw  at 
once  a  broad  paint  brush  or,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  such,  an  ordinary  brush  or 
goose  feather  along  the  planks  through 
the  wet  paint,  whereupon  the  floor  will 
acquire  a  nicely  grained  appearance. 
The  paint  requires  several  days  to  dry. 
A  subsequent  coating  of  varnish  will 
cause  the  graining  to  stand  out  still  more 
prominently. 

Birch. — Imitations  of  birch  are  use- 
fully employed  for  furniture.  The 
ground  should  be  a  light,  clean  buff, 
made  from  white  lead,  stainecWivith 
either  yellow  ocher  or  raw  sienna  BH  oil. 
In  graining,  brush  over  the  surface  with 
a  thin  wash  of  warm  brown,  making 
the  panel  of  2  or  3  broad  color  shades. 
Then  take  a  large  mottler  and  mottle  the 
darker  parts  into  the  light,  working 
slantwise,  as  for  maple,  but  leaving  a 
broad  and  stiff  mark.  While  this  is  still 
wet  soften  the  panel  and  then  slightly 
mottle  across  the  previous  work  to  break 
it  up.  When  thoroughly  dry,  carefully 
wet  the  work  over  with  clean  water  and 
clean  mottler,  and  put  in  darker  over- 
grain  with  a  thin  oak  overgrainer  or 
overgrainer  in  tubes. 

Maple. — Sixty  pounds  white  lead;  1 
ounce  deep  vermilion;  1  ounce  lemon 
chrome. 

Ash. — Sixty  pounds  white  lead;  1 
ounce  deep  vermilion;  1  ounce  lemon 
chrome. 

Medium  Oak. — Sixty  pounds  white 
lead;  2  pounds  French  ocher;  1  ounce 
burnt  umber. 

Light  Oak. — Sixty  pounds  white  lead; 
1  ounce  lemon  chrome;  \  pound  French 
ocher. 

Dark  Oak. — Sixty  pounds  white  lead; 
10  pounds  burnt  umber;  \\  pounds 
medium  Venetian  red. 

Satin     Wood. — Sixty     pounds     white 


lead;  1  ounce  deep  vermilion;  \\  pounds 
lemon  chrome. 

Pollard  Oak. — Seventy-five  pounds 
white  lead;  20  pounds  French  ocher;  3 
pounds  burnt  umber;  2A  pounds  medium 
Venetian  red. 

Pitch  Pine. — Sixty  pounds  white  lead; 
\  pound  French  ocher;  \  pound  medium 
Venetian  red. 

Knotted  Oak. — Sixty  pounds  white 
lead;  9  pounds  French  ocher;  3J  pounds 
burnt  umber. 

Italian  Walnut. — Sixty  pounds  white 
lead;  6  pounds  French  ocher;  1^  pounds 
burnt  umber;  1|  pounds  medium  Vene- 
tian red. 

Rosewood. — Nine  and  one-half  pounds 
burnt  umber;  40  pounds  mediimi  Venetian 
red;  10  pounds  orange  chrome. 

Dark  Mahogany. — Nine  and  one-half 
pounds  burnt  umber;  40  pounds  medium 
Venetian  red;  10  pounds  orange  chrome. 

Light  Mahogany. — Sixty  pounds  white 
lead;  3  pounds  burnt  umber;  10  pounds 
medium  Venetian  red. 

American  Walnut. — Thirty  pounds 
white  lead;  9  pounds  French  ocher; 
4  pounds  burnt  umber;  1  pound  medium 
Venetian  red. 

LUMINOUS  PAINTS. 

The  illuminating  power  of  the  phos- 
phorescent masses  obtained  by  heating 
strontium  thiosulphate  or  barium  thio- 
sulphate is  considerably  increased  by  the 
addition,  before  heating,  of  small  quan- 
tities of  the  nitrates  of  uranium,  bismuth, 
or  thorium.  Added  to  calcium  thio- 
sulphate, these  nitrates  do  not  heighten 
the  luminosity  or  phosphorescence. 
The  product  from  strontium  thiosul- 
phate is  more  luminous  than  that  of  the 
barium  compound.  Among  the  best 
luminous  paints  are  the  following: 

I. — Lennord's. — One  hundred  parts, 
by  weight,  of  strontium  carbonate;  100 
parts,  by  weight,  of  sulphur;  0.5  parts, 
by  weight,  of  potassium  chloride;  0.5 
parts,  by  weight,  of  sodium  chloride; 
0.4  parts,  by  weight,  of  manganese 
chloride.  The  materials  are  heated  for 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  one  hour, 
to  about  2,372°  F.  The  product  gives 
a  violet  light. 

II. — Mourel's. — One  hundred  parts,  by 
weight,  of  strontium  carbonate;  30  parts, 
by  weight,  of  sulphur;  2  parts  by  weight, 
of  sodium  carbonate;  0.5  parts,  by  weight, 
of  sodium  chloride:  0.2  parts,  by  weight, 
of  manganese  sulphate.  The  method  of 
treatment  is  the  same  as  in  the  first,  the 
phosphorescence  deep  yellow. 


PAINTS 


III. — Vanino's. — Sixty  parts,  by  weight, 
of  strontium  thiosulphate;  12  parts,  by 
weight,  of  a  0.5  per  cent  acidified  alco- 
holic solution  of  bismuth  nitrate;  6  parts, 
by  weight,  of  a  0.5  per  cent  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  uranium  nitrate.  The  materials 
are  mixed,  dried,  brought  gradually  to  a 
temperature  of  2,372°  F.,  and  heated  for 
about  an  hour.  The  phosphorescence  is 
emerald  green. 

IV. — Balmain's. — Twenty  parts,  by 
weight,  of  calcium  oxide  (burnt  lime), 
free  from  iron;  6  parts,  by  weight,  of  sul- 
phur; 2  parts,  by  weight,  of  starch;  1 
part,  by  weight,  of  a  0.5  per  cent  solution 
of  bismuth  nitrate;  0.15  parts,  by  weight, 
of  potassium  chloride;  0.15  parts,  by 
weight,  of  sodium  chloride.  The  materi- 
als are  mixed,  dried,  and  heated  to  1,300° 
C.  (2,372°  P.).  The  product  gives  a  vio- 
let light. 

To  make  these  phosphorescent  sub- 
stances effective,  they  are  exposed  for  a 
time  to  direct  sunlight;  or  a  mercury 
lamp  may  be  used.  Powerful  incandes- 
cent gas  light  also  does  well,  but  requires 
more  time. 

PAINTS  FOR  METAL  SURFACES: 

Blackening  Ornaments  of  Iron. — I. — 
To  give  iron  ornaments  a  black-brown 
to  black  color,  proceed  in  the  following 
manner:  The  articles  are  treated  with 
corrosives,  cleaned  of  all  adhering  grease, 
and  placed  in  a  10  per  cent  solution  of 
potassium  bichromate,  dried  in  the  air, 
and  finally  held  over  an  open,  well-glow- 
ing, non-sooting  fire  for  2  minutes.  The 
first  coloring  is  usually  black  brown,  but 
if  this  process  is  repeated  several  times, 
a  pure  mack  shade  is  obtained.  Special 
attention  has  to  be  paid  to  removing  all 
grease,  otherwise  the  greasy  spots  will 
not  be  touched  by  the  liquid,  and  the 
coloring  produced  will  become  irregular. 
Benzine  is  employed  for  that  purpose 
and  the  articles  must  not  be  touched  with 
the  fingers  afterwards. 

II. — This  process  protects  the  iron 
from  rust  for  a  long  time.  The  treat- 
ment consists  in  coating  the  objects  very 
uniformly  with  a  thin  layer  of  linseed-oil 
varnish,  and  burning  it  off  over  a  char- 
coal fire.  During  the  deflagration  the 
draught  must  be  stopped.  The  varnish 
will  first  go  up  in  smoke  with  a  strong 
formation  of  soot,  and  finally  burn  up 
entirely.  The  process  is  repeated,  i.  e., 
after  one  coating  is  burned  off  a  new  one 
is  applied,  until  the  parts  exhibit  a  uni- 
formly handsome,  deep  -  black  color. 
Next,  wipe  off  the  covering  with  a  dry 
rag  and  heat  again,  but  only  moder- 


ately. Finally,  the  articles  are  taken 
from  the  fire  and  rubbed  with  a  rag  well 
saturated  with  linseed-oil  varnish.  The 
black  turns  completely  dull,  and  forms  a 
real  durable  covering  for  the  objects. 

Black  for  Polished  Iron  Pieces. — Apply 
successive  layers  of  a  very  concentrated 
solution  of  nitrate  of  manganese  dis- 
solved in  alcohol  over  a  gentle  fire  and 
the  water  bath.  The  surfaces  to  be 
blackened  should  be  previously  heated. 
By  repeating  the  layers  all  the  tints  be- 
tween brownish  black  and  bluish  black 
may  be  obtained. 

Glossy  Black  for  Bicycles,  etc.— 

Amber ,8     ounces 

Linseed  oil 4     ounces 

Asphaltum 1A  ounces 

Rosin 1|  ounces 

Oil  turpentine 8     ounces 

Heat  the  linseed  oil  to  boiling  point, 
add  the  amber,  asphaltum,  and  rosin, 
and  when  all  melted  remove  from  the  fire 
and  gradually  add  the  turpentine. 

Japan  Black. — The  following  is  a 
good  japan  black  for  metal  surfaces: 
Take  12  ounces  of  amber  and  2  ounces 
of  asphaltum.  Fuse  by  heat,  and  add 
$  pjtfp  boiled  oil  and  2  ounces  of  rosin. 
Wnen  cooling  add  16  ounces  of  oil  of 
turpentine. 

Brass  and  Bronze  Protective  Paint. — 
As  a  protective  covering,  especially  for 
brass  and  bronze  objects,  a  colorless 
celluloid  solution  is  recommended,  such 
as  is  found  in  trade  under  the  name  of 
"Zapon"  (q.  v.). 

Paint  for  Copper. — Dissolve  1  ounce  of 
alum  in  1  quart  of  warm  soft  water. 
When  cold  add  flour  to  make  it  about 
the  consistency  of  cream,  then  add  £ 
thimble  of  rosin  and  £  ounce  of  sugar  of 
lead. 

Priming  Iron. — The  following,  if  care- 
fully carried  out,  gives  the  best  satis- 
faction: The  first  step  consists  in  thor- 
oughly cleaning  the  surface  of  the  iron, 
removing  all  adhesions  in  the  way  of 
dirt,  rust,  etc.,  before  the  question  of 
priming  is  considered.  As  paint  in  this 
instance  is  applied  more  with  a  view  of 
protecting  the  iron  from  atmospheric 
influences,  rather  than  for  a  decorative 
effect,  careful  attention  should  be  de- 
voted for  securing  a  base  or  surface 
which  is  calculated  to  produce  a  thorough 
and  permanent  application.  A  great 
deal  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
metal  to  be  painted.  Common  cast  iron, 
for  instance,  possessing  a  rough  exterior, 


496 


PAINTS 


with  ordinary  precautions  can  be  more 
readily  painted  with  the  prospect  of  a 
permanent  adhesion  of  the  paint,  than  a 
planed  steel  or  wrought-iron  surface. 
With  the  latter  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  a  hard  and  elastic  paint  is  needed, 
while  with  regard  to  cast  iron,  other 
paints  containing  iron  oxides  are  more 
suitable.  For  good  drying  and  covering 
properties,  as  well  as  elasticity,  a  good 
boiled  oil  to  which  has  been  added  an 
adequate  proportion  of  red  lead  will  be 
found  to  form  an  excellent  paint  for 
smooth  metal  surfaces.  The  primary 
object  is  to  protect  the  surface  of  the  iron 
from  moisture  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing rust.  The  priming  must  therefore 
be  carried  out  so  that  it  will  stick,  after 
which  subsequent  coats  may  be  added  if 
desired. 

It  is  advisable  that  articles  made  of 
iron  should  first  be  coated  with  linseed- 
oil  varnish.  It  dries  slowly,  hardens, 
and  enables  the  operator  afterwards  to 
exercise  an  effective  control  over  the  con- 
dition of  his  material.  Iron  must  be 
absolutely  dry  and  free  from  rust  when 
it  is  to  be  painted.  It  is  best  to  apply 
next  a  coating  of  hot  linseed  oil;  when 
dry  this  should  be  followed  by  a  priming 
of  pure  red  lead  in  good  linseed  oil,  and 
the  iron  should  then  be  painted  as  de- 
sired, using  ground  oil  paints  and  leav- 
ing an  interval  of  a  week  between  each 
coating.  Cementing  should  be  done 
after  the  red  lead  priming,  but  the  last 
coat  must  not  be  given  until  the  whole  is 
thoroughly  dry.  Bright  oil  paints  and 
an  upper  coating  with  plenty  of  oil  resist 
the  effects  of  heat  better  than  thin  coat- 
ings; moreover,  rust  can  be  detected  in 
its  early  stages  with  the  former.  Coat- 
ings of  tar  and  asphalt  (asphalt  dissolved 
in  turpentine)  are  practicable  for  under- 
ground pipes,  but  are  not  adapted  for 
pipes  exposed  to  the  air,  as  they  are 
quickly  spoiled.  Asphalt  varnish,  used 
for  coating  coal  scuttles,  fire  screens,  etc., 
consists  of  asphalt  dissolved  in  linseed- 
oil  varnish.  Iron  stoves  and  stovepipes 
are  best  coated  with  graphite. 

Galvanized  Iron. — For  galvanized  iron 
there  has  been  recommended  a  wash 
consisting  simply  of  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  produces  chloride  of  zinc, 
that  in  combination  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  is  said  to  produce  a  film  upon 
which  oil  color  takes  as  good  a  hola  as 
it  would  upon  ordinary  sheet  iron. 

Another  method  which  has  been 
tested  and  found  effective  is  to  make  a 
solution  as  follows:  One  ounce  of  chlo- 
ride of  copper;  1  ounce  nitrate  of  copper; 


1  ounce  sal  ammoniac,  dissolved  in  2 
quarts  of  soft  water,  to  which  is  added 
1  ounce  of  crude  or  commercial  hydro- 
chloric acid.  This  solution  should  be 
made  in  an  earthenware  dish  or  pot,  or 
in  gKss  or  stoneware,  as  tin  will  precipi- 
tate the  copper  salts  and  make  the  solu- 
tion imperfect.  To  large  surfaces  this 
solution  is  applied  with  a  broad  brush, 
when  the  surface  assumes  a  deep  black 
color,  which  in  drying  out  in  from  12  to 
24  hours  becomes  a  gray  white,  upon 
which  the  properly  prepared  primer  will 
take  a  permanent  grip.  On  the  film  so 
produced  a  much  thinner  paint  will 
coyer  very  much  better  than  a  stouter 
paint  would  on  the  untreated  galvanized 
or  ordinary  iron  surface.  A  single  trial 
will  convince  the  craftsman  that  this 
treatment  is  a  method  that  will  give 
lasting  results,  provided  he  tries  the  same 
priming  paint  on  the  treated  and  un- 
treated surface. 

To  Paint  Wrought  Iron  with  Graphite. 
— In  order  to  make  wrought  iron  look 
like  new  mix  fine  graphite  with  equal 
parts  of  varnish  and  turpentine  oil,  add- 
ing a  little  siccative.  Paint  the  iron 
parts  with  this  twice,  allowing  to  dry 
each  time.  Especially  the  second  coat- 
ing must  be  perfectly  dry  before  further 
treatment.  The  latter  consists  in  pre- 
paring graphite  with  spirit  and  applying 
it  very  thinly  over  the  first  coat.  After 
the  drying  or  evaporation  of  the  spirit 
the  graphite  last  applied  is  brushed 
vigorously,  whereby  a  handsome,  dura- 
ble gloss  is  produced. 

Paint  for  Iron  Bodies  Exposed  to 
Heat. — Dilute  1  part  soda  water  glass 
with  2  parts  water  and  mix  intimately 
with  the  following  pigments: 

White.— White  lead  or  sulphate  of 
barium. 

Yellow. — Chromate  of  barium,  ocher, 
or  uranium  yellow. 

Green. — Chromic  oxide  or  ultramarine 
green. 

Blue. — Ultramarine. 

Brown. — Oxide  of  cadmium,  oxide  of 
manganese  or  terra  di  sienna. 

Red. — English  red  or  chrome  red. 

Bronze  powder  in  a  suitable  quantity 
may  be  added  to  the  mixture,  but  not 
more  paint  should  be  prepared  than  can 
be  uSted  up  in  a  few  hours.  The  bronze 
powder  may  also  be  strewn  on  the  fresh 
paint,  or  applied  with  a  dry  brush,  to 
enhance  the  gloss.  This  paint  is  not 
affected  by  heat,  and  is  inodorous. 

Protective  Coating  for  Bright  Iron 
Articles. — Zinc  white,  30  parts;  lamp- 


PAINTS 


497 


black,  2  parts;  tallow,  7  parts;  vaseline, 
1  part;  olive  oil,  3  parts;  varnish,  1  part. 
Boil  together  £  hour  and  add  \  part  of 
benzine  and  \  part  of  turpentine,  stirring 
the  mass  carefully  and  boiling  for  some 
time.  The  finished  paste-like  substance 
can  be  readily  removed  with  a  rag  with- 
out the  use  of  solvents. 

Rust  Paints. — I. — A  new  rust  paint  is 
produced  by  the  following  process:  Mix 
100  parts  dry  iron  sulphate  and  87  parts 
sodium  chlorate  and  heat  to  1,500°  to 
1,800°  F.  The  chlorine  set  free  seems 
to  have  a  very  favorable  action  on  the 
color  of  the  simultaneously  forming  iron 
oxide.  In  order  to  avoid,  however,  too 
far-reaching  an  effect  of  the  chlorine  gas, 
about  18  pounds  of  a  substance  which 
absorbs  the  same  mechanically,  such  as 
kaolin,  ground  pumice  stone,  ocher, 
etc.,  are  added  to  the  mixture. 

II. — A  material  known  under  the 
names  of  lardite,  steatite,  agalmatolite, 
pagodite,  is  excellently  adapted  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  ordinary  metallic  protec- 
tive agent  of  the  pigments  and  has  the 
property  of  protecting  iron  from  rust  in 
an  effective  manner.  In  China,  lardite 
is  used  for  protecting  edifices  of  sand- 
stone, which  crumbles  under  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere.  Likewise  a  thin 
layer  of  powdered  steatite,  applied  in  the 
form  of  paint,  has  been  found  valuable 
there  as  a  protector  against  the  decay  of 
obelisks,  statues,  etc.  Lardite,  besides, 
possesses  the  quality  of  being  exceedingly 
fine-grained,  which  renders  this  material 
valuable  for  use  in  ship  painting. 
Ground  steatite  is  one  of  the  finest  ma- 
terials which  can  be  produced,  and  no 
other  so  quickly  and  firmly  adheres  to  the 
fibers  of  iron  and  steel.  Furthermore, 
steatite  is  lighter  than  metallic  covering 
agents,  and  covers,  mixed  in  paint,  a 
larger  surface  than  zinc  white,  red  lead, 
or  iron  oxide.  Steatite  as  it  occurs  in 
Switzerland  is  used  there  and  in  the 
Tyrol  for  stoves,  since  it  is  fireproof. 

Steel. — An  excellent  coating  for  steel, 
imitating  the  blue  color  of  natural  steel, 
is  composed  of  white  shellac,  5  parts; 
borax,  1  part;  alcohol,  5  parts;  water,  4 
parts;  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  methy- 
lene  blue.  The  borax  is  dissolved  in 
water,  the  shellac  in  alcohol.  The 
aqueous  solution  of  the  borax  is  heated 
to  a  boil  antt  the  alcoholic  solution  of  the 
shellac  is  added  with  constant  stirring. 
Next  add  the  blue  color,  continuing  to 
stir.  Before  this  coating  is  applied  to 
the  steel,  e.  g.,  the  spokes  of  a  bicycle, 
the  latter  are  first  rubbed  off  with  fine 
emery  paper.  The  coat  is  put  on  with 


a  soft  rag.  The  quantity  of  pigment  to 
be  added  is  very  small.  By  varying  the 
quantity  a  paler  or  darker  coloring  of  the 
steel  can  be  produced. 

PAINTS  FOR  ROOFS  AND  ROOF 
PAPER: 

Carbolineum. — This  German  prepar- 
ation is  made  in  three  colors. 

I. — Pale. — Melt  together  in  an  iron 
kettle,  over  a  naked  fire,  30  parts  of 
American  rosin  F  and  150  parts  of  pale 
paraffine  oil  and  stir  in  10  parts  of  single 
rectified  rosin  oil. 

II.— Dark.— Melt  100  parts  of  an- 
thracene oil  and  20  parts  of  American 
rosin  F  on  a  slow  fire.  Next  stir  in  2 
parts  of  Para  rubber  solution  (or  solution 
of  caoutchouc  waste)  and  keep  on  boil- 
ing until  all  is  dissolved.  When  this  is 
done  there  should  be  still  added  5  parts 
of  crude  concentrated  carbolic  acid  and 
5  parts  of  zinc  chloride  lye,  50°  Be.,  stir- 
ring until  cool.  The  last-named  ad- 
mixture is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but 
highly  advisable,  owing  to  its  extraor- 
dinary preservative  and  bactericidal 
properties. 

III.— Colored.— For  red,  melt  100 
parts  of  coal-tar  oil,  then  stir  in  50  parts 
of  pale  paraffine  oil,  and  finally  75  parts 
of  bole  or  iron  minium,  and  pass  through 
the  paint  mill.  Although  the  addition  of 
iron  minium  is  very  desirable,  it  is  con- 
siderably more  expensive.  For  gray, 
proceed  as  above,  with  the  exception 
that  metallic  gray  is  used  in  place  of  the 
bole.  For  green,  metallic  green  is  em- 
ployed. The  colors  are  identical  with 
those  used  in  the  manufacture  of  roof 
varnish.  To  increase  the  antiseptic 
properties  of  the  colored  carbolineum, 
any  desired  additions  of  phenol  or  zinc 
chloride  solutions  may  be  made,  but  the 
chief  requirement  in  the  case  of  colored 
carbolineum  is  good  covering  power  of 
he  coating. 

Paints   for  Roofs   Covered   with  Tar 
Paper,  for  Roofing  Paper,  etc. — 
I. — Distilled  coal  tar. ...    70  parts 
Heavy     mineral     oil 

(lubricating  oil)  . .    10  parts 
American  rosin 20  parts 

II. — Distilled  coal  tar. ...   50  parts 
Trinidad  asphalt.  . .    15  parts 
Mineral  oil,  contain- 
ing paraffine 10  parts 

Dry    clay,    finely 

ground 25  parts 

Imitation  Oil  Paint. — Schulz's  German 
patent  paint  is  cheap,  and  claimed  to  be 


498 


PAINTS 


durable,  weatherproof,  and  glossy,  like 
oil  paint.  The  application  consists  of  a 
ground  coat,  upon  which  the  surface 
coat  proper  is  applied  after  the  former  is 
dry.  For  the  preparation  of  the  ground- 
ing dissolve  1,000  parts,  by  weight, 
of  Marseilles  soap  in  10,000  parts  of 
boiling  water  and  stir.  In  a  separate 
vessel  dissolve  2,000  parts  of  glue  in 
10,000  parts  of  boiling  water,  adding 
17,500  parts  of  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac. 
These  two  solutions  are  poured  to- 
gether and  well  stirred.  Then  dis- 
solve 400  parts  of  chrome  alum  in  5,000 
parts  of  water,  and  pour  into  the  above 
mixture.  To  this  mixture  add  10,000 
parts  of  pipe  clay,  stirring  the  whole  well 
and  tinting  with  earth  colors,  ocher, 
Vandyke  brown,  etc.  The  solid  ingre- 
dients'must  be  dissolved  in  boiling  hot 
water,  and  sifted  so  as  to  obtain  a  finely 
divided  ground  color.  This  priming  is 
applied  in  a  warm  state.  The  coating 
proper  is  put  on  the  ground  coat  after  it 
is  dry,  in  about  one-half  to  one  hour. 
For  this  coat  dissolve  2,000  parts  of  crys- 
tallized alum  in  10,000  parts  of  boiling 
water  and  add  to  this  liquid  a  solution  of 
2,000  parts  of  glue  in  10,000  parts  of 
water;  in  a  special  vessel  prepare  soap- 
suds of  1,000  parts  of  Marseilles  soap  in 
12,000  parts  of  boiling  water;  dissolve 
120  parts  of  chrome  alum  in  1,500  parts 
of  boiling  water,  and  mix  the  three  solu- 
tions together  with  diligent  stirring.  This 
paint  or  liquid  should  also  be  put  on  hot, 
and  assures  a  durable  exterior  paint. 

PAINTS,  STAINS,  ETC.,  FOR  SHIPS. 

Anti -Fouling  Composition. — Make  an 
agglutinant  by  heating  together 

By  weight 
White  lead,  ground  in 

oil 2  parts 

Red  lead,  dry 1  part 

Raw  'inseed  oil 14  parts 

While  hot  stir  in  yellow  ocher,  kao- 
lin, baked  clay  in  powder,  or  any  inert 
body,  such  as  silica,  barytes,  gypsum,  etc., 
to  form  a  stiff  dough,  and,  without  allow- 
ing this  compound  to  become  cold  (the 
vessel  should  not  be  removed  from  the 
source  of  heat),  dilute  with  more  or  less 
manganese  linoleate  to  the  required 
consistency. 

Marine  Paint  to  Resist  Sea  Water. — 
First  prepare  the  water- resisting  agglu- 
tinant by  heating  together 
Drv  white    lead,   car- 
bonate only 1  part 

Litharge ...      1  part 

Linseed    oil    (fluid 

measure) 14  parts 


Heat  these  and  stir  until  of  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  glue,  and  for  every  36 
parts,  by  weight,  of  this  compound  add 
3  parts,  by  weight,  of  turpentine,  and  1 
part,  by  weight,  of  mastic  varnish  (mas- 
tic rosin  dissolved  in  turpentine) ;  reheat 
the  whole,  and  for  every  32  parts,  by 
weight,  stir  in  and  mix  the  following: 
Baked  and  powdered 

clay 4  parts 

Portland  cement 16  parts 

Zinc  white 1  part 

Red  lead 1  part 

After  well  mixing,  dilute  with  more  or 
less  turpentine  (not  exceeding  25  per 
cent  of  the  whole),  or  linoleate  of  man- 
ganese, the  latter  being  preferable,  as 
it  has  greater  binding  power.  For  col- 
ored paints  use  red  oxide  of  iron  or  green 
oxide  of  chrome,  but  do  not  use  chrome 
green  or  lead,  as  they  will  not  stand  the 
action  of  the  sea  water. 

Compositions  for  Ships'  Bottoms. — 
Green. 

Pale  rosin 25     pounds 

Prepared  mineral 

green 8     pounds 

D.  L.  zinc.  .  .  .. 13     pounds 

Boiled  oil 2     pounds 

Mineral  naphtha.  ..      1     gallon 
Petroleum  spirit 1£  gallons 

Prepared  Mineral  Green. 
Dry  levigated    min- 
eral green 28  pounds 

Turpentine 7  pounds 

Turpentine  varnish .      7  pounds 
Refined  linseed  oil .  .      7  pounds 

Copper  Color. 

Pale  rosin 25     pounds 

Light  Italian  ocher. .  15     pounds 

D.  L.  zinc 5     pounds 

Turkey  red  paint.  .  .  $  pound          , 

Petroleum  spirit.  ...  l|  pounds 

Mineral  naphtha.  ..  1     pound 

Pink. 

Pale  rosin 25     pounds 

D.  L.  zinc 16    pounds 

Deep  vermilion 7     pounds 

Mineral  naphtha.  ..  1     gallon 

Petroleum  spirit.  ...  1^  gallons 

PAINTS    FOR    WALLS    OF    CEMENT, 
PLASTER,  HARD  FINISH,  ETC. 

Coating  for  Bathrooms. ^- As  a  rule 
cement  plastering,  as  well  as  oil  paint, 
suffices  for  the  protection  of  walls  and 
ceilings  in  bathrooms,  but  attention 
must  be  called  to  the  destructive  action 
of  medicinal  admixtures.  For  such 
rooms  as  well  as  for  laboratories,  an 


PAINTS 


499 


application  of  Swedish  wood  tar,  made 
into  a  flowing  consistency  with  a  little 
oil  of  turpentine  and  put  on  hot,  has 
been  found  very  excellent.  It  is  of 
advantage  previously  to  warm  the  wall 
slightly.  To  the  second  coat  add  some 
wax.  A  very  durable  coating  is  ob- 
tained, which  looks  so  pleasing  that  it  is 
only  necessary  to  draw  some  stripes  with 
a  darker  paint  so  as  to  divide  the  surface 
into  fields. 

Cement,  to  Paint  Over  Fresh. — The 
wall  should  be  washed  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  several  days  before  painting. 
This  will  change  the  surplus  caustic  lime 
to  sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum.  The 
acid  should  be  about  one-half  chamber 
acid  and  one-half  water.  This  should  be 
repeated  before  painting,  and  a  coat  of 
raw  linseed  oil  flowed  on  freely  should 
be  given  for  the  first  coat.  While  this 
cannot  be  always  guaranteed  as  effectual 
for  making  the  paint  hold,  it  is  the  best 
method  our  correspondent  has  heard  of 
for  the  purpose,  and  is  worth  trying  when 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  paint  over 
fresh  cement. 

Damp  Walls,  Coating  for. — Thirty 
parts  of  tin  are  dissolved  in  40  parts  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  30  parts  of  sal 
ammoniac  are  added.  A  powder  com- 
posed of  freestone,  50  parts;  zinc  oxide, 
20  parts;  pounded  glass,  15  parts;  pow- 
dered marble,  10  parts;  and  calcined 
magnesia,  5  parts,  is  prepared,  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  the  liquid  above  men- 
tioned. Coloring  matter  may  be  added. 
The  composition  may  be  used  as  a 
damp-proof  coating  for  walls,  or  for 
repairing  stonework,  or  for  molding 
statues  or  ornaments. 

Facade  Paint. — For  this  zinc  oxide  is 
especially  adapted,  prepared  with  size 
or  casein.  Any  desired  earth  colors  may 
also  be  added.  The  surfaces  are  coated 
3  times  with  this  mass.  After  the  third 
application  is  dry,  put  on  a  single  coat- 
ing of  zinc  chloride  solution  of  30°  Be. 
to  which  3  per  cent  borax  is  added. 

This  coating  is  very  solid,  can  be 
washed,  and  is  not  injured  by  hydrogen 
sulphide. 

Hard -Finished  Walls.— The  treatment 
for  hard-finished  walls  which  are  to  be 
painted  in  flat  colors  is  to  prime  with  a 
thin  coat  of  lead  and  oil  well  brushed 
into  the  wall.  Next  put  on  a  thin  coat  of 
glue  size;  next  a  coat  mixed  with  ^  oil 
and  f  turpentine;  next  a  coat  of  flat 
paint  mixed  with  turpentine.  If  you  use 
any  dry  pigment  mix  it  stiff  in  oil  and 
thin  with  turps.  If  in  either  case  the 


paint  dries  too  fast,  and  is  liable  to  show 
laps,  put  a  little  glycerine  in,  to  retard 
the  drying. 

PAINTS,    WATERPROOF    AND 
WEATHERPROOF: 

See  also  Fireproof  Paint. 

The  following  are  claimed  to  be  both 
waterproof  and  weatherproof: 

I. — In  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  spirit 
of  96  per  cent,  dissolve  16  parts,  by 
weight,  of  shellac,  orange,  finely  pow- 
dered; 3  parts",  by  weight,  of  silver  lake, 
finely  powdered;  and  0.6  parts,  by 
weight,  of  gamboge,  finely  powdered. 
This  paint  may  be  employed  without  ad- 
mixture of  any  siccative,  and  is  excel- 
lently adapted  for  painting  objects  which 
are  exposed  to  the  inclemencies  of  the 
weather,  as  it  is  perfectly  weatherproof.  * 

II. — Mix  glue  water  with  zinc  oxide 
(zinc  white)  and  paint  the  respective 
object  with  this  mixture.  When  this  is 
dry  (after  about  2  hours)  it  is  followed 
up  with  a  coating  of  glue  water  and  zinc 
chloride  in  a  highly  diluted  state.  Zinc 
oxide  enters  into  a  chemical  combination 
with  zinc  chloride,  which  acquires  the 
hardness  of  glass  and  a  mirror-like 
bright  surface.  Any  desired  colors  can 
be  prepared  with  the  glue  water  (size) 
and  are  practically  imperishable.  This 
zinc  coating  is  very  durable,  dries  quick- 
ly, and  is  50  per  cent  cheaper  than  oil 
paint. 

Water-  and  Acid -Resisting  Paint. — 
Caoutchouc  is  melted  with  colophony  at 
a  low  temperature,  after  the  caoutchouc 
has  been  dried  in  a  drying  closet  (stove) 
at  158°  to  176°  F.,  until  no  more  con- 
siderable increase  in  weight  is  percepti- 
ble, while  the  colophony  has  completely 
lost  its  moisture  by  repeated  melting. 
The  raw  products  thus  prepared  will 
readily  melt  upon  slight  heating.  To 
the  melted  colophony  and  caoutchouc 
add  in  a  hot  liquid  state  zinc  white  or  any 
similar  pigment.  Thin  with  a  varnish 
consisting  of  50  parts  of  perfectly  an- 
hydrous colophony,  40  parts  of  absolute 
alcohol,  and  40  parts  of  benzine.  The 
whole  syrupy  mass  is  worked  through  in 
a  paint  mill  to  obtain  a  uniform  product, 
at  which  operation  more  or  less  colo- 

Shony  varnish  is  added  according  to  the 
esired  consistency. 

Water-  and  Air -Proof  Paint. — An  air- 
proof  and  waterproof  paint,  the  subject 
of  a  recent  French  patent,  is  a  compound 
of  30  parts,  by  weight,  acetone;  100 
parts  acetic  ether;  50  parts  sulphuric 
ether;  100  parts  camphor;  50  parts  gum 
lac;  200  parts  cotton;  100  parts  paper 


500 


PAINTS 


(dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid);  100  parts 
mastic  in  drops.  These  proportions 
may  fluctuate  according  to  need.  The 
paper  is  reduced  well  and  dissolved  with- 
out heat  with  sufficient  sulphuric  ether; 
the  cotton  is  dissolved  in  the  acetone  and 
the  whole  is  mixed  together  with  the 
other  ingredients  and  stirred  well.  The 
application  is  performed  as  with  any 
other  varnish.  The  coating  is  said  not 
to  crack  or  shrink  and  to  be  particularly 
useful  as  a  protection  against  moisture 
for  all  stuffs. 

PAINTS  FOR  WOOD: 

See  also  Wood. 

Floor  Coating. — A  new  paint  for  floors, 
especially  those  of  soft  wood:  Mix  to- 
gether 2.2  pounds  joiners'  glue;  a  little 
over  1  ounce  powdered  bichromate  of 
potash;  3 \  ounces  aniline  brown;  and 
10  \  quarts  water  in  a  tin  vessel.  After 
6  hours  have  elapsed  (when  the  glue  is 
completely  soaked),  heat  gradually  to 
the  boiling  point.  The  coating  becomes 
perfectly  water-tight  after  2  or  3  days;  it 
is  not  opaque,  as  the  earthy  body  is  lack- 
ing. The  glue  causes  the  wood  fibers 
to  be  firmly  united.  It  becomes  in- 
soluble by  the  addition  of  bichromate 
of  potash,  under  the  influence  of  light. 
Without  this  admixture  a  simple  glue 
coat  has  formerly  not  been  found  satis- 
factory, as  it  dissolves  if  cleaned  with 
water. 

Durable  House  Paint.  —  I.  —  New 
houses  should  be  primed  once  with  pure 
linseed  oil,  then  painted  with  a  thin 
paint  from  white  lead  and  chalk,  and 
thus  gradually  covered.  The  last  coat 
is  prepared  of  well-boiled  varnish,  white 
lead,  and  chalk.  The  chalk  has  the 
mission  to  moderate  the  saponification 
of  the  linseed  oil  by  the  white  lead. 
Mixing  colors  such  as  ocher  and  black, 
which  take  up  plenty  of  oil,  materially 
assist  in  producing  a  durable  covering. 

II. — Prime  with  zinc  white  and  let 
this  be  succeeded  by  a  coating  with  zinc 
chloride  in  glue  water  (size).  The  zinc 
oxide  forms  with  the  zinc  chloride  an 
oxy-chloride  of  great  hardness  and 
glossy  surface.'  By  admixture  of  pig- 
ments any  desired  shade  may  be  pro- 
duced. The  zinc  coating  is  indestruc- 
tible, dries  quickly,  does  not  peel,  is  free 
from  the  smell  of  fresh  oil  paint,  and 
more  than  5  per  cent  cheaper. 

Ivory  Coating  for  Smooth,  Li^ht  Wood. 
— In  order  to  cover  the  articles,  which 
may  be  flat  or  round,  with  this  coating, 
they  must  first  be  polished  quite  smooth 
and  clean;  then  they  are  coated  with 


thin,  hot,  white  glue.  When  the  coat  is 
thoroughly  dry,  the  glue  is  rubbed  off 
again  witn  fine  glass  paper.  The  mass 
is  prepared  as  follows:  Take  3  pounds 
(more  or  less,  according  to  the  number 
of  articles)  of  the  purest  and  best  collo- 
dion; grind  upon  a  clean  grinding  stone 
twice  the  quantity  that  can  be  taken  up 
with  the  point  of  a  knife  of  Krems  white, 
with  enough  good  pale  linseed  oil  as  is 
necessary  to  grind  tne  white  smooth  and 
fine.  Take  a  clean  bottle,  into  which 
one-half  of  the  collodion  is  poured;  to 
this  add  the  ground  white,  which  can  be 
removed  clean  from  the  stone  by  means 
of  a  good  spatula  and  put  in  the  bottle. 
Add  about  100  drops  of  linseed  oil,  and 
shake  the  mass  till  it  looks  like  milk. 

Now  painting  with  this  milky  sub- 
stance may  be  commenced,  using  a  fine 
hair  pencil  of  excellent  quality.  The 
pencil  is  not  dipped  in  the  large  bottle; 
but  a  glass  is  kept  at  hand  with  an  open- 
ing of  abput  1  inch,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
immerse  the  pencil  quickly.  The  sub- 
stance is  not  flowing  like  the  alcohol 
lacquers,  for  which  reason  it  may  be  put 
on  thick,  for  the  ether,  chiefly  consti- 
tuting the  mass,  evaporates  at  once  and 
leaves  but  a  very  thin  film  which  becomes 
noticeable  only  after  about  10  such 
applications  have  been  made.  Shake 
the  bottle  well  each  time  before  filling 
the  small  glass,  as  the  heavy  Krems 
white  is  very  apt  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle.  If  it  is  observed  that  the 
substance  becomes  too  thick,  which  may 
easily  occur  on  account  of  the  evapora- 
tion, a  part  of  the  remaining  ether  is 
added,  to  which  in  turn  30  to  40  drops 
of  oil  are  added,  shaking  it  till  the  oil 
appears  to  be  completely  dissolved. 

The  operator  must  put  on  the  mass 
in  quick  succession  and  rather  thick. 
After  about  10  coats  have  been  applied 
the  work  is  allowed  to  rest  several  hours; 
then  3  or  4  coats  of  pure  collodion,  to 
which  likewise  several  drops  of  oil  have 
been  added,  are  given.  Another  pause 
of  several  hours  having  been  allowed  to 
intervene,  application  of  the  mass  is  once 
more  begun. 

When  it  is  noticed  that  a  layer  of  the 
thickness  of  paper  has  formed,  the  arti- 
cles, after  drying  thoroughly,  should  be 
softly  rubbed  off  with  very  fine  glass 
paper,  after  which  they  require  to  be 
wiped  off  well  with  a  clean  linen  rag,  so 
that  no  dust  remains.  Then  coating  is 
continued  till  the  work  seems  serviceable. 

A  few  applications  of  pure  collodion 
should  be  made,  and  when  this  has 
become  perfectly  hard,  after  a  few 
hours,  it  can  be  rubbed  down  with  a  rag, 


PAINTS 


501 


tripoli,  and  oil,  and  polished  by  hand, 
like  horn  or  ivory.  This  work  can  be 
done  only  in  a  room  which  is  entirely  free 
from  dust.  The  greatest  cleanliness 
must  be  observed. 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES.  PAINTS, 
ETC.: 

Bathtub  Paint. — Take  white  keg  lead, 
tint  to  any  desired  color  and  then  add, 
say,  £  boiled  oil  (pure  linseed)  to  £  hard 
drying  durable  body  varnish.  Clean  the 
surface  of  the  tub  thoroughly  before  ap- 
plying the  paint.  Benzine  or  lime  wash 
are  good  cleaning  agents.  Coat  up  un- 
til a  satisfactorily  strong,  pure  color  is 
reached.  This  will  give  good  gloss  and 
will  also  wear  durably. 

Coating  for  Name  Plates. — A  durable 
coating  for  name  plates  in  nurseries  is 
produced  as  follows:  Take  a  woolen  rag, 
saturate  it  with  joiners'  polish,  lay  it 
into  a  linen  one,  and  rub  the  wooden  sur- 
face with  this  for  some  time.  Rub  down 
with  sandpaper  and  it  can  be  written  on 
almost  like  paper.  When  all  is  dry, 
coat  with  dammar  lacquer  for  better 
protection.  If  the  wood  is  to  receive  a 
color  it  is  placed  in  the  woolen  rag  before 
rubbing  down,  in  this  case  chrome 
yellow. 

To  Keep  Flies  from  Fresh  Paint. — For 
the  purpose  of  keeping  flies  and  other 
insects  away  from  freshly  painted  sur- 
faces mix  a  little  bay  oil  (laurel  oil)  with 
the  oil  paint,  or  place  a  receptacle  con- 
taining same  in  the  vicinity  of  the  painted 
objects.  The  pungent  odor  keeps  off 
the  flies. 

Heat -Indicating  Paint. — A  heat-indi- 
cating paint  composed  of  a  double  iodide 
of  copper  arid  mercury  was  first  dis- 
covered years  ago  by  a  German  physi- 
cist. At  ordinary  temperatures  the 
paint  is  red,  but  when  heated  to  206°  F. 
it  turns  black.  Paper  painted  with  this 
composition  and  warmed  at  a  stove  ex- 
hibits the  change  in  a  few  seconds.  A 
yellow  double  iodide  of  silver  and  mer- 
cury is  even  more  sensitive  to  heat, 
changing  from  yellow  to  dark  red. 

To  Keep  Liquid  Paint  in  Workable 
Condition. — To  prevent  liquid  paint 
which,  for  convenience  sake,  is  kept  in 
small  quantities  and  flat  receptacles, 
from  evaporating  and  drying,  give  the 
vessels  such  a  shape  that  they  can  be 
placed  one  on  top  of  the  other  without 
danger  "of  falling  over,  and  provide  the 
under  side  with  a  porous  mass — felt  or 
very  porous  clay,  etc. — which,  if  mois- 


tened, will  retain  the  water  for  a  long 
time.  Thus,  in  placing  the  dishes  one 
on  top  of  the  other,  a  moist  atmosphere  is 
created  around  them,  which  will  inhibit 
evaporation  and  drying  of  the  paint.  A 
similar  idea  consists  in  producing  covers 
with  a  tight  outside  and  porous  inside, 
for  the  purpose  of  covering  up,  during 
intermission  in  the  work,  clay  models 
and  like  objects  which  it  is  desired  to 
keep  soft.  In  order  to  avoid  the  forma- 
tion of  fungous  growth  on  the  constantly 
wet  bottom,  it  may  be  saturated  with 
non-volatile  disinfectants,  or  with  vola- 
tile ones  if  their  vapors  are  calculated  to 
act  upon  the  objects  kept  underneath  the 
cover.  If  the  cover  is  used  to  cover  up 
oil  paints,  it  is  moistened  on  the  inside 
with  volatile  oil,  such  as  oil  of  turpentine, 
oil  of  lavender,  or  with  alcohol. 

Peeling  of  Paints. — For  the  preven- 
tion of  peeling  of  new  coatings  on  old  oil 
paintings  or  lakes,  the  latter  should  be 
rubbed  with  roughly  ground  pumice 
stone,  wet  by  means  of  felt  rags,  and  to 
the  first  new  coat  there  should  be  added 
fine  spirit  in  the  proportion  of  about 
-iV  of  the  thinning  necessary  for  stir- 
ring (turpentine,  oil,  etc.).  This  paint 
dries  well  and  has  given  good  results, 
even  in  the  most  difficult  cases.  The 
subsequent  coatings  are  put  on  with  the 
customary  paint.  Fat  oil  glazes  for 
graining  are  likewise  mixed  with  spirit, 
whereby  the  cracking  of  the  varnish 
coating  is  usually  entirely  obviated. 

Polychroming  of  Figures. — This  paint 
consists  of  white  wax,  1  part,  and  pow- 
dered mastic,  1  part,  melted  together 
upon  the  water  bath  and  mixed  with 
rectified  turpentine.  The  colors  to  be 
used  are  first  ground  stiffly  in  turpentine 
on  the  grinding  slab,  and  worked  into 
consistency  with  the  above  solution. 

Priming  Coat  for  Water  Spots. — A  very 
simple  way  to  remove  rain  spots,  or 
such  caused  by  water  soaking  through 
ceilings,  has  been  employed  with  good 
results.  Take  unslaked  white  lime, 
dilute  with  alcohol,  and  paint  the  spots 
with  it.  When  the  spots  are  dry — which 
ensues  quickly,  as  the  alcohol  evaporates 
and  the  lime  forms  a  sort  of  insulating 
layer — one  can  proceed  painting  with 
size  color,  and  the  spots  will  not  show 
through  again. 

PAINT    FOR    PROTECTING    CEMENT 

AGAINST  ACID: 
See  Acid-Proofing. 

PAINT,  GREASE: 
See  Cosmetics. 


508 


PAINTS— PAPER 


PAINT  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

PALLADIUM  ALLOYS: 

See  Alloys. 

PALLADIUMIZING: 
See  Plating. 

PALMS,  THEIR  CARE. 

Instead  of  washing  the  leaves  of  palms 
with  water,  many  florists  employ  a  mix- 
ture of  milk  and  water,  the  object  being 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  disfiguring 
brown  stains. 

Paper 

Paper  Pads  (see  also  Adhesives,  under 
Glue). 

I. — Glue 3J  ounces 

Glycerine 8    ounces 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Pour  upon  the  glue  more  than  enough 
water  to  cover  it  and  let  stand  for  several 
hours,  then  decant  the  greater  portion  of 
the  water;  apply  heat  until  the  glue  is 
dissolved,  and  add  the  glycerine.  If  the 
mixture  is  too  thick,  add  more  water. 

II. — Glue 6    ounces 

Alum 30    grains 

Acetic  acid $  ounce 

Alcohol l|  ounces 

Water 6£  ounces 

Mix  all  but  the  alcohol,  digest  on  a 
water  bath  till  the  glue  is  dissolved,  allow 
to  cool,  and  add  the  alcohol. 

Papier  Mache". — The  following  are  the 
ingredients  necessary  to  make  a  lump  of 
papier  mache  a  little  larger  than  an  ordi- 
nary baseball  and  weighing  17  ounces: 

Wet  paper  pulp,  dry  paper,  1  ounce; 
water,  3  ounces;  4  ounces  (avoirdupois); 
dry  plaster  Paris,  8  ounces  (avoirdupois); 
hot  glue,  \  gill,  or  44  tablespoonfuls. 

While  the  paper  pulp  is  being  pre- 
pared, melt  some  best  Irish  glue  in  the 
glue  pot  and  make  it  of  the  same  thick- 
ness and  general  consistency  as  that  used 
by  cabinet  makers.  On  taking  the  paper 
pulp  from  the  water  squeeze  it  gently, 
but  do  not  try  to  dry  it.  Put  in  a 
bowl,  add  about  3  tablespoonfuls  of 
the  hot  glue,  and  stir  the  mass  up  into  a 
soft  and  very  sticky  paste.  Add  the 
plaster  of  Paris  and  mix  thoroughly. 
By  the  time  about  3  ounces  of  the 
plaster  have  been  used,  the  mass  is  so  dry 
and  thick  that  it  can  hardly  be  workea. 
Add  the  remainder  of  the  glue,  work 
it  up  again  until  it  becomes  sticky  once 
more,  and  then  add  the  remainder  of 
the  plaster.  Squeeze  it  vigorously  through 


the  fingers  to  thoroughly  mix  the  mass, 
and  work  it  until  free  from  lumps, 
finely  kneaded  and  sticky  enough  to  ad- 
here to  the  surface  of  a  planed  board. 
If  it  is  too  dry  to  stick  fast  add  a  few 
drops  of  either  glue  or  water,  and  work 
it  up  again.  When  the  paper  pulp  is 
poor  and  the  mache  is  inclined  to  be 
lumpy,  lay  the  mass  upon  a  smooth 
bo.ard,  take  a  hammer  and  pound  it  hard 
to  grind  it  up  fine. 

If  the  papier  mache  is  not  sticky  enough 
to  adhere  firmly  to  whatever  it  is  rubbed 
upon,  it  is  a  failure,  and  requires  more 
glue.  In  using  it  the  mass  should  be 
kept  ifi  a  lump  and  used  as  soon  as 
possible  after  making.  Keep  the  sur- 
face of  the  lump  moist  by  means  of  a  wet 
cloth  laid  over  it,  for  if  you  do  not,  the 
surface  will  dry  rapidly.  If  it  is  to  be 
kept  overnight,  or  longer,  wrap  it  up  in 
several  thicknesses  of  wet  cotton  cloth, 
and  put  under  an  inverted  bowl.  If  it 
is  desired,  to  keep  a  lump  for  a  week,  to 
use  daily,  add  a  few  drops  of  glycerine 
when  making,  so  that  it  will  dry  more 
slowly. 

The  papier  mache  made  according  to 
this  formula  has  the  following  qualities: 
When  tested  by  rubbing  between  the 
thumb  and  finger,  it  was  sticky  and  cov- 
ered the "  thumb  with  a  fine  coating. 
(Had  it  left  the  thumb  clean,  it  would 
have  been  because  it  contained  too 
much  water.)  When  rubbed  upon  a 
pane  of  glass  it  sticks  tightly  and  dries 
hard  in  3  hours  without  cracking,  and 
can  only  be  removed  with  a  knife. 
When  spread  in  a  layer  as  thin  as  writiag 
paper  it  dries  in  half  an  hour.  A  mass 
actually  used  dried  hard  enough  to  coat 
with  wax  in  18  hours,  and,  without 
cracking,  became  as  hard  as  wood;  yet 
a  similar  quantity  wrapped  in  a  wet  cloth 
and  placed  under  an  inverted  bowl  kept 
soft  and  fit  for  use  for  an  entire  week. 

Parchment  Paper. — I. — Dip  white  un- 
sized paper  for  half  a  minute  in  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  specific  gravity,  1.842, 
and  afterwards  in  water  containing  a 
little  ammonia. 

II. — Plunge  unsized  paper  for  a  few 
seconds  into  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with 
half  to  a  quarter  its  bulk  of  water  (this 
solution  being  of  the  same  temperature 
as  the  air),  and  afterwards  wash  with 
weak  ammonia. 

Razor  Paper. — I. — Smooth  unsized 
paper,  one  of  the  surfaces  of  which, 
while  in  a  slightly  damp  state,  has  been 
rubbed  over  with  a  mixture  of  calcined 
peroxide  of  iron  and  emery,  both  in  im- 
palpable powder.  It  is  cut  up  into 


PAPER 


503 


pieces  (about  5x3  inches),  and  sold  in 
packets.  Used  to  wipe  the  razor  on, 
which  thus  does  not  require  stropping. 

II. — From  emery  and  quartz  (both  in 
impalpable  powder),  and  paper  pulp 
(estimated  in  the  dry  state),  equal  parts, 
made  into  sheets  of  the  thickness  of 
drawing  paper,  by  the  ordinary  process. 
For  use,  a  piece  is  pasted  on  the  strop 
and  moistened  with  a  little  oil. 

Safety  Paper. — White  paper  pulp 
mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  pulp 
tinged  with  any  stain  easily  affected  by 
chlorine,  acids,  alkalies,  etc.,  and  made 
into  sheets  as  usual,  serves  as  a" safety 
paper  on  which  to  write  checks  or  the 
like.  Any  attempt  to  wash  out  the  writ- 
ing affects  the  whole  surface,  showing 
plainly  that  it  has  been  tampered  with. 

Tracing  Paper. — Open  a  quire  of 
smooth-,  unsized  white  paper,  and  place 
it  flat  upon  a  table.  Apply,  with  a  clean 
sash  tool  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  first 
sheet,  a  coat  of  varnish  made  of  equal 
parts  of  Canada  balsam  and  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, and  hang  the  prepared  sheet 
across  the  line  to  dry;  repeat  the  opera- 
tion on  fresh  sheets  until  the  proper 
quantity  is  finished.  If  not  sufficiently 
transparent,  a  second  coat  of  varnish 
may  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  first  has 
become  quite  dry. 

Strengthened  Filter  Paper. — When  or- 
dinary filter  paper  is  dipped  into  nitric 
acid  (specific  gravity,  1.42),  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried,  it  becomes  a  tissue  of 
remarkable  properties,  and  one  that  de- 
serves to  be  better  known  by  chemists 
and  pharmacists.  It  shrinks  somewhat 
in  size  and  in  weight,  and  gives,  on  burn- 
ing, a  diminished  ash.  It  yields  no  ni- 
trogen, nor  does  it  in  the  slightest  man- 
ner affect  liquids.  It  remains  perfectly 
pervious  to  liquids,  its  filtering  properties 
being  in  no  wise  affected,  which,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  is  very  different  from 
the  behavior  of  the  same  paper  "parch- 
mented"  by  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  as 
supple  as  a  rag,  yet  may  be  very  roughly 
handled,  even  when  wet,  without  tearing 
or  giving  way.  These  qualities  make  it 
very  valuable  for  use  in  filtration  under 
pressure  or  exhaust.  It  fits  closely  to  the 
funnel,  upon  which  it  may  be  used  direct, 
without  any  supports,  and  it  thus  pre- 
vents undue  access  of  air.  As  to  strength, 
it  is  increased  upward  of  10  times.  A 
strip  of  ordinary  white  Swedish  paper, 
i  of  an  inch  wide,  will  sustain  a  load  of 
from  |  to  |  of  a  pound  avoirdupois,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  paper.  A 
similar  strip  of  the  toughened  paper 


broke,  in  3  trials,  with  5  pounds,  7  ounces, 
and  3  drachms;  5  pounds,  4  ounces,  and 
36  grains;  and  5  pounds,  10  ounces  re- 
spectively. These  are  facts  that  deserve 
to  be  better  known  than  they  seem  to  be 
to  the  profession  at  large. 

Blotting  Paper. — A  new  blotting  paper 
which  will  completely  remove  wet  as 
well  as  dry  ink  spots,  after  moistening  the 
paper  with  water,  is  produced  as  follows: 
Dissolve  100  parts  of  oxalic  acid  in  400 
parts  of  alcohol,  and  immerse  porous 
white  paper  in  this  solution  until  it  is 
completely  saturated.  Next  hang  the 
sheets  up  separately  to  dry  over  threads. 
Such  paper  affords  great  advantages, 
but  in  its  characteristic  application  is 
serviceable  for  ferric  inks  only,  while 
aniline  ink  spots  cannot  be  removed  with 
it,  after  drying. 

Carbon  Paper. — Many  copying  papers 
act  by  virtue  of  a  detachable  pigment, 
which,  when  the  pigmented  paper  is 
placed  between  two  sheets  of  white  paper, 
and  when  the  uppermost  paper  is  writ- 
ten on,  transfers  its  pigment  to  the  lower 
white  sheet  along  lines  which  correspond 
to  those  traced  on  the  upper  paper,  and 
therefore  gives  an  exact  copy  of  them  on 
the  lower  paper. 

The  pigments  used  are  fine  soot  or 
ivory  black,  indigo  carmine,  ultramarine, 
and  Paris  blue,  or  mixtures  of  them. 
The  pigment  is  intimately  mixed  with 
grain  soap,  and  then  rubbed  on  to  thin 
but  strong  paper  with  a  stiff  brush. 
Fatty  oils,  such  as  linseed  or  castor  oil, 
may  be  used,  but  the  grain  soap  is  pref- 
erable. Graphite  is  frequently  used 
for  black  copying  paper.  It  is  rubbed 
into  the  paper  with  a  cotton  pad  until  a 
uniform  light-gray  color  results.  All 
superfluous  graphite  is  then  carefully 
brushed  off. 

It  is  sometimes  desired  to  make  a  copy- 
ing paper  which  will  produce  at  the  same 
time  a  positive  copy,  which  is  not  required 
to  be  reproduced,  and  a  negative  or  re- 
versed copy  from  which  a  number  of 
direct  copies  can  be  taken.  Such  paper 
is  covered  on  one  side  with  a  manifolding 
composition,  and  on  the  other  with  a 
simple  copying  composition,  and  is  used 
between  2  sheets  of  paper  with  the  mani- 
folding side  undermost. 

The  manifolding  composition  is  made 
by  mixing  5  ounces  of  printers'  ink  with 
40  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  then  mix- 
ing it  with  a  fused  mixture  of  40  ounces 
of  tallow  and  5  ounces  of  stearine.  When 
the  mass  is  homogeneous,  30  ounces  of 
the  finest  powdered  protoxide  of  iron, 
first  mixed  with  15  ounces  of  pyrogallic 


504 


PAPER 


acid  and  5  ounces  of  gallic  acid,  are 
stirred  in  till  a  perfect  mixture  is  ob- 
tained. This  mass  will  give  at  least  50 
copies  on  damp  paper  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  copying  composition  for  the 
other  side  of  the  prepared  paper  consists 
of  the  following  ingredients: 

Printers'  ink 5  parts 

Spirits  of  turpentine.  40  parts 

Fused  tallow 30  parts 

Fused  wax 3  parts 

Fused  rosin 2  parts 

Soot 20  parts 

It  goes  without  saying  that  rollers  or 
stones  or  other  hard  materials  may  be 
used  for  the  purpose  under  consideration 
as  well  as  paper.  The  manifolding 
mass  may  be  made  blue  with  indigotin, 
red  with  magenta,  or  violet  with  methyl 
violet,  adding  30  ounces  of  the  chosen 
dye  to  the  above  quantities  of  pigment. 
If,  however,  they  are  used,  the  oxide  of 
iron  and  gallic  acids  must  be  replaced  by 
20  ounces  of  carbonate  of  magnesia. 

Celloidin  Paper. — Ordinary  polished 
celluloid  and  celloidin  paper  are  dif- 
ficult to  write  upon  with  pen  and  ink. 
If,  however,  the  face  is  rubbed  over  with 
a  chalk  crayon,  and  the  dust  wiped  off 
with  a  clean  rag,  writing  becomes  easy. 
Cloth  Paper. — This  is  prepared  by 
covering  gauze,  calico,  canvas,  etc.,  with 
a  surface  of  paper  pulp  in  a  Foudrinier 
machine,  and  then  finishing  the  com- 
pound sheet  in  a  nearly  similar  manner 
to  that  adopted  for  ordinary  paper. 

Drawing  Paper. — The  blue  drawing 
paper  of  commerce,  which  is  frequently 
employed  for  technical  drawings,  is  not 
very  durable.  For  the  production  of  a 
serviceable  and  strong  drawing  paper, 
the  following  process  is  recommended. 
Mix  a  solution  of 

Gum  arabic 2  parts 

Ammonia  iron  citrate.     3  parts 

Tartaric  acid 2  parts 

Distilled  water 20  parts 

After  still  adding  4  parts  of  solution  of 
ammonia  with  a  solution  of 

Potassium  ferri cyanide    2.5  parts 

Distilled  water 10.0  parts 

allow  the  mixture  to  stand  in  the  dark 
half  an  hour.  Apply  the  preparation  on 
the  paper  by  means  of  a  soft  brush,  in  ar- 
tificial light,  and  dry  in  the  dark.  Next, 
expose  the  paper  to  light  until  it  appears 
dark  violet,  place  in  water  for  10  seconds, 
air  a  short  time,  wash  with  water,  and 
finally  dip  in  a  solution  of 

Eau  de  javelle 50  parts 

Distilled  water 1,000  parts 

until  it  turns  dark  blue. 


Filter  Paper. — This  process  consists  in 
dipping  the  paper  in  nitric  acid  of  1.433 
specific  gravity,  subsequently  washing  it 
well  and  drying  it.  The  paper  there- 
by acquires  advantageous  qualities.  It 
shrinks  a  little  and  loses  in  weight,  while 
on  burning  only  a  small  quantity  of  ash 
remains.  It  possesses  no  traces  of  nitro- 
gen and  does  not  in  any  way  attack  the 
liquid  to  be  filtered.  Withal,  this  paper 
remains  perfectly  pervious  for  the  most 
varying  liquids,  and  its  filtering  capacity 
is  in  no  wise  impaired.  It  is  difficult  to 
tear,  and  still  elastic  and  flexible  like 
linen.  It  clings  completely  to  the  funnel. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 
strength  of  the  filtering  paper  thus 
treated  increases  100  per  cent. 

Fireproof  Papers.  —  I.  —  Ammonium 
sulphate,  8  parts,  by  weight;  boracic 
acid,  3  parts;  borax,  2  parts;  water,  100 
parts.  The  temperature  should  be  about 
122°  F. 

II. — For  paper,  either  printed  or  un- 
printed,  bills  of  exchange,  deeds,  books, 
etc.,  the  following  solution  is  recom- 
mended: Ammonium  sulphate,  8  parts; 
boracic  acid,  3  parts;  sodium  borate, 
1.7  parts;  water,  10,000  parts.  The  so- 
lution is  heated  to  122°  F.,  and  may  be 
used  when  the  paper  is  manufactured. 
As  soon  as  the  paper  leaves  the  machine 
it  is  passed  through  this  solution,  then 
rolled  over  a  warm  cylinder  and  dried. 
If  printed  or  in  sheets,  it  is  simply  im- 
mersed in  the  solution,  at  a  temperature 
of  122°  F.,  and  spread  out  to  dry,  finally 
pressed  to  restore  the  luster. 

Hydrographic  Paper. — This  is  paper 
which  may  be  written  on  with  simple 
water  or  with  some  colorless  liquid  hav- 
ing the  appearance  of  water. 

I. — A  mixture  of  nut  galls,  4  parts,  and 
calcined  sulphate  of  iron,  1  part  (both 
perfectly  dry  and  reduced  to  very  fine 
powder),  is  rubbed  over  the  surface  of 
the  paper,  and  is  then  forced  into  its 
pores  by  powerful  pressure,  after  which 
the  loose  portion  is  brushed  off.  The 
writing  shows  black  when  a  pen  dipped 
in  water  is  used. 

II. — A  mixture  of  persulphate  of  iron 
and  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  may  be 
employed  as  in  formula  I.  This  writes 
blue. 

Iridescent  Paper. — Sal  ammoniac  and 
sulphate  of  indigo,  of  each  1  part; 
sulphate  of  iron,  5  parts;  nut  galls,  8 
parts;  gum  arabic,  |  part.  Boil  them  in 
water,  and  expose  the  paper  washed 
with  the  liquia  to  (the  fumes  of)  am- 
monia. 


PAPER 


505 


Lithographic  Paper. — I. — Starch,  6 
ounces;  gum  arable,  2  ounces;  alum,  1 
ounce.  Make  a  strong  solution  of  each 
separately,  in  hot  water,  mix,  strain 
through  gauze,  and  apply  it  while  still 
warm  to  one  side  of  leaves  of  paper,  with 
a  clean  painting  brush  or  sponge;  a  sec- 
ond and  a  third  coat  must  be  given  as 
the  preceding  one  becomes  dry.  The 
paper  must  be,  lastly,  pressed,  to  make 
it  smooth. 

II. — Give  the  paper  3  coats  of  thin 
size,  1  coat  of  good  white  starch,  and  1 
coat  of  a  solution  of  gamboge  in  water, 
the  whole  to  be  applied  cold,  with  a 
sponge,  and  each  coat  to  be  allowed  to 
dry  before  the  other  is  applied.  The 
solutions  should  be  freshly  made. 

Lithographic  paper  is  written  on  with 
lithographic  ink.  The  writing  is  trans- 
ferred simply  by  moistening  the  back  of 
the  paper,  placing  it  evenly  on  the  stone, 
and  then  applying  pressure.  A  reversed 
copy  is  obtained,  which,  when  printed 
from,  yields  corrected  copies  resembling 
the  original  writing  or  drawing.  In  this 
way  the  necessity  of  executing  the  writ- 
ing or  drawing  in  a  reversed  direction  is 
obviated. 

MARBLING  PAPER  FOR  BOOKS. 

Provide  a  wooden  trough  2  inches  deep 
and  the  length  and  width  of  any  desired 
sheet;  boil  in  a  brass  or  copper  pan  a 
quantity  of  linseed  and  water  until  a 
thick  mucilage  is  formed;  strain  it  into 
a  trough,  and  let  cool;  then  grind  on  a 
marble  slab  any  of  the  following  colors 
in  small  beer: 

For  Blue. — Prussian  blue  or  indigo. 

Red. — Rose  pink,  vermilion,  or  drop 
lake. 

Yellow. — King's  yellow,  yellow  ocher, 
etc. 

White. — Flake  white. 

Black. — Burnt  ivory  or  lampblack. 

Brown.  —  Umber,  burnt;  terra  di 
sienna,  burnt. 

Black  mixed  with  yellow  or  red  also 
makes  brown. 

Green. — Blue  and  yellow  mixed. 

Orange. — Red  and  yellow  mixed. 

Purple. — Red  and  blue  mixed. 

For  each  color  have  two  cups,  one  for 
the  color  after  grinding,  the  other  to  mix 
it  with  ox  gall,  which  must  be  used  to 
thin  the  colors  at  discretion.  If  too 
much  gall  is  used,  the  colors  will  spread. 
When  they  keep  their  place  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  trough,  when  moved  with  a 
quill,  they  are  fit  for  use.  All  things  in 


readiness,  the  colors  are  successively 
sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  the  mucilage 
in  the  trough  with  a  brush,  and  are  waved 
or  drawn  about  with  a  quill  or  a  stick, 
according  to  taste.  When  the  design  is 
just  formed,  the  book,  tied  tightly  be- 
tween cutting  boards  of  the  same  size,  is 
lightly  pressed  with  its  edge  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  liquid  pattern,  and  then  with- 
drawn and  dried.  The  covers  may  be 
marbled  in  the  same  way,  only  letting  the 
liquid  colors  run  over  them.  In  mar- 
bling paper  the  sides  of  the  paper  are  gent- 
ly applied  to  the  colors  in  the  trough. 
The  film  of  color  in  the  trough  may  be  as 
thin  as  possible,  and  if  any  remains  after 
the  marbling  it  may  be  taken  off  by  ap- 
plying paper  to  it  before  you  prepare 
for  marbling  again.  To  diversify  the 
effects,  colors  are  often  mixed  with  a 
little  sweet  oil  before  sprinkling  them  on, 
by  which  means  a  light  halo  or  circle 
appears  around  each  spot. 

WATERPROOF  PAPERS. 

I. — Wall  papers  may  be  easily  ren- 
dered washable,  either  before  or  after 
they  are  hung,  by  preparing  them  in  the 
following  manner:  Dissolve  2  parts  of 
borax  and  2  parts  of  shellac  in  24  parts 
of  water,  and  strain  through  a  fine  cloth. 
With  a  brush  or  a  sponge  apply  this  to 
the  surface  of  the  paper,  and  when  it  is 
dry,  polish  it  to  a  high  gloss  with  a  soft 
brush.  Thus  treated  the  paper  may  be 
washed  without  fear  of  removing  the 
colors  or  even  smearing  or  blurring 
them. 

II. — This  is  recommended  for  drawing 
paper.  Any  kind  of  paper  is  lightly  primed 
with  glue  or  a  suitable  binder,  to  which  a 
finely  powdered  inorganic  body,  such  as 
zinc  white,  chalk,  lime,  or  heavy  spar,  as 
well  as  the  desired  coloring  matter  for  the 
paper,  are  added.  Next  the  paper  thus 
treated  is  coated  with  soluble  glass — 
silicate  of  potash  or  of  soda — to  which 
small  amounts  01  magnesia  have  been 
admixed,  or  else  it  is  dipped  into  this 
mixture,  and  dried  for  about  10  days  in 
a  temperature  of  77°  F.  Paper  thus 
prepared  can  be  written  or  drawn  upon 
with  lead  pencil,  chalk,  colored  crayons, 
charcoal,  India  ink,  and  lithographic 
crayon,  and  the  writing  or  drawing  may 
be  washed  off  20  or  more  times,  entirely 
or  partly,  without  changing  the  paper 
materially.  It  offers  the  convenience 
that  anything  may  be  readily  and  quickly 
removed  with  a  moist  sponge  and  imme- 
diately corrected,  since  the  washed  places 
can  be  worked  on  again  at  once. 

Wax  Paper. — I. — Place  cartridge  paper 
or  strong  writing  paper,  on  a  not  iron 


506 


PAPER 


plate,  and  rub  it  well  with  a  lump  of 
beeswax.  Used  to  form  extempora- 
neous steam  or  gas  pipes,  to  cover  the 
joints  of  vessels,  and  to  tie  over  pots,  etc. 
II. — For  the  production  of  waxed  or 
ceresine  paper,  saturate  ordinary  paper 
with  equal  parts  of  stearine  and  tallow  or 
ceresine.  If  it  is  desired  to  apply  a 
business  stamp  on  the  paper  before  sat- 
uration and  after  stamping,  it  should  be 
dried  well  for  24  hours,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  aniline  color  from  spreading. 

Wrapping  Paper  for  Silverware. — 
Make  a  solution  of  6  parts  of  sodium 
hydrate  in  sufficient  water  to  make  it 
show  about  20°  B.  (specific  gravity,  1.60). 
To  it  add  4  parts  zinc  oxide,  and  boil 
together  until  the  latter  is  dissolved. 
Now  add  sufficient  water  to  reduce  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  solution  to  1.075 
(10°  B.).  The  bath  is  now  ready  for 
use.  Dip  each  sheet  separately,  and 
hang  on  threads  stretched  across  the 
room,  to  dry.  Be  on  your  guard  against 
dust,  as  particles  of  sand  adhering  to  the 
paper  will  scratch  the  ware  wrapped  in  it. 
Ware,  either  plated  or  silver,  wrapped  in 
this  paper,  will  not  blacken. 

Varnished  Paper. — Before  proceeding 
to  varnish  paper,  card-work,  pasteboard, 
etc.,  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  2  or  3  coats 
of  size,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  the 
varnish,  and  any  injury  to  the  color  or 
design.  The  size  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving a  little  isinglass  in  boiling  water, 
or  by  boiling  some  clean  parchment  cut- 
tings until  they  form  a  clear  solution. 
This,  after  being  strained  through  a 
piece  of  clean  muslin,  or,  for  very  nice 
purposes,  clarified  with  a  little  white 
of  egg,  is  applied  by  means  of  a  small 
clean  brush  called  by  painters  a  sash 
tool.  A  light,  delicate  touch  must  be 
adopted,  especially  for  the  first  coat,  lest 
the  ink  or  colors  be  started  or  smothered. 
When  the  prepared  surface  is  quite  dry 
it  may  be  varnished. 

Impregnation  of  Papers  with  Zapon 
Varnish. — For  the  protection  of  impor- 
tant papers  against  the  destructive  in- 
fluences of  the  atmosphere,  of  water 
fungi,  and  light,  but  especially  against 
the  consequences  of  the  process  of 
molding,  a  process  has  been  introduced 
under  the  name  of  zapon  impregnation. 

The  zaponizing  may  be  carried  out  by 
dipping  the  papers  in  zapon  or  by  coating 
them  with  it  by  means  of  a  brush  or  pen- 
cil. Sometimes  the  purpose  may  also  be 
reached  by  dripping  or  sprinkling  it  on, 
but  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  painting 
of  the  sheets  will  be  the  simplest  method. 


Zapon  in  a  liquid  state  is  highly  in- 
flammable, for  wnich  reason  during  the 
application  until  the  evaporation  of  the 
solvent,  open  flames  and  fires  should  be 
kept  away  from  the  vicinity.  When  the 
drying  is  finished,  which  usually  takes  a 
few  hours  where  both  sides  are  coated, 
the  zaponized  paper  does  not  so  easily 
ignite  at  an  open  flame  any  more  or  at 
least  not  more  readily  than  non-im- 
pregnated paper.  For  coating  with  and 
especially  for  dipping  in  zapon,  a  con- 
trivance which  effects  a  convenient  sus- 
pension and  dripping  off  with  collection 
of  the  excess  is  of  advantage. 

The  zapon  should  be  thinned  accord- 
ing to  the  material  to  be  treated.  Fee- 
bly sized  papers  are  coated  with  ordinary, 
i.  e.,  undiluted  zapon.  For  dipping  pur- 
poses, the  zapon  should  be  mixed  with  a 
diluent,  if  the  paper  is  hard  and  well 
sized.  The  weaker  the  sizing,  the  more 
careful  should  be  the  selection  of  the 
zapon. 

Zapon  to  be  used  for  coating  purposes 
should  be  particularly  thick,  so  that  it 
can  be  thinned  as  desired.  Unsized 
papers  require  an  undiluted  coating. 

The  thick  variety  also  furnishes  an 
excellent  adhesive  agent  as  cement  for 
wood,  glass,  porcelain,  and  metals 
which  is  insoluble  in  cold  and  hot  water, 
and  binds  very  firmly.  Metallic  sur- 
faces coated  with  zapon  do  not  oxidize  or 
alter  their  appearance,  since  the  coating 
is  like  glass  and  only  forms  a  very  thin 
but  firmly  adhering  film,  which,  if  ap- 
plied on  pliable  sheet  metal,  does  not 
crack  on  bending. 

For  the  preparation  of  zapon  the  fol- 
lowing directions  are  given:  Pour  20 
parts  of  acetone  over  2  parts  of  colorless 
celluloid  waste — obtainable  at  the  cellu- 
loid factories — and  let  stand  several  days 
in  a  closed  vessel,  shaking  frequently, 
until  the  whole  has  dissolved  into  a  clear, 
thick  mass.  Next  admix  78  parts  of  amyl 
acetate  and  completely  clarify  the  zapon 
varnish  by  allowing  to  settle  forweeks. 

Slate  Parchment. — Soak  good  paper 
with  linseed-oil  varnish  (boiled  oil)  and 
apply  the  following  mass,  mentioned  be- 
low, several  times  in  succession:  Copal 
varnish,  1  part,  by  weight;  turpentine 
oil,  2  parts;  finest  sprinkling  sand,  1  part; 
powdered  glass,  1  part;  ground  slate  as 
used  for  slates,  2  parts;  and  lampblack, 
1  part,  intimately  mixed  together,  and 
repeatedly  ground  very  fine.  After 
drying  and  hardening,  the  plates  can  be 
written  upon  with  lead  or  slate  pencils. 

Paper  Floor  Covering. — The  floor  is 
carefully  cleaned,  and  all  holes  and 


PAPER— PARAFFINE 


507 


cracks  are  filled  up  with  a  mass  which 
is  prepared  by  saturating  newspapers 
with  a  paste  that  is  made  by  mixing 
thoroughly  17f  ounces  wheat  flour, 
3.17  quarts  water,  and  1  spoonful  of 
pulverized  alum.  The  floor  is  coated 
with  this  paste  throughout,  and  covered 
with  a  layer  of  manilla  paper,  or  other 
strong  hemp  paper.  If  something  very 
durable  is  desired,  paint  the  paper  layer 
with  the  same  paste  and  put  on  another 
layer  of  paper,  leaving  it  to  dry  thor- 
oughly. Then  apply  another  coat  of 
paste,  and  upon  this  place  wall  paper  of 
any  desired  kind.  In  order  to  protect 
the  wall  paper  from  wear,  give  it  2  or 
more  coats  of  a  solution  of  8|  ounces 
white  glue  in  2.11  quarts  hot  water,  allow 
them  to  dry,  and  finish  the  job  with  a 
coating  of  hard  oil  varnish. 

METALLIC  PAPER. 

This  paper,  made  by  transferring,  past- 
ing, or  painting  a  coating  of  metal  on 
ordinary  paper,  retains  a  comparatively 
dull  and  dead  appearance  even  after 
glazing  or  polishing  with  the  burnisher 
or  agate.  Galvanized  or  electroplated 
metal  paper,  on  the  other  hand,  in  which 
the  metal  has  penetrated  into  the  most 
minute  pores  of  the  paper,  possesses  an 
extraordinarily  brilliant  polish,  fully 
equal  to  that  of  a  piece  of  compact 
polished  metal.  It  is  much  more  ex- 
tensively used  than  the  kind  first  men- 
tioned. 

The  following  solutions  are  recom- 
mended for  making  "galvanized"  metal 
paper: 

I. — For  silver  paper:  Twenty  parts 
argento-cyanide  of  potassium;  13  parts 
cyanide  of  potassium;  980  parts  water. 

II. — For  gold  paper:  Four  parts  auro- 
cyanide  of  potassium;  9  parts  cyanide  of 
potassium;  900  parts  water. 

Moth  Paper. — 

Naphthalene 4  ounces 

Paraffine  wax 8  ounces 

Melt  together  and  while  warm  paint 
unsized  paper  and  pack  away  with  the 
goods. 

Lead     Paper. — Lay     rough     drawing 

rper  (such  as  contains  starch)  on  an 
per  cent  potassium  iodide  solution. 
After  a  moment  take  it  out  and  dry. 
Next,  in  a  dark  room,  float  the  paper 
face  downward  on  an  8  per  cent  lead  ni- 
trate solution.  This  sensitizes  the  paper. 
Dry  again.  The  paper  is  now  ready  for 
printing.  This  process  should  be  car- 
ried on  till  all  the  detail  is  out  in  a  grayish 
color.  Then  develop  in  a  10  per  cent 


ammonium  chloride  solution.     The  tones 
obtained  are  of  a  fine  blue  black. 

Aluminum  Paper. — Aluminum  paper 
is  not  leaf  aluminum,  but  real  paper 
glazed  with  aluminum  powder.  It  is 
said  to  keep  food  materials  fresh.  The 
basic  material  is  artificial  parchment, 
coated  with  a  solution  of  rosin  in  alcohol 
or  ether.  After  drying,  the  paper  is 
warmed  until  the  rosin  has  again  sof- 
tened to  a  slight  degree.  The  aluminum 
powder  is  dusted  on  and  the  paper  then 
placed  under  heavy  pressure  to  force 
the  powder  firmly  into  it.  The  metallic 
coating  thus  formed  is  not  affected  by 
air  or  greasy  substances. 


PAPER  (ANTI-RUST)  FOR  NEEDLES: 

See  Rust  Preventives. 

PAPER  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives. 

PAPER  DISINFECTANT: 

See  Disinfectants. 

PAPER,  FIREPROOF: 

See  Fireproofing. 

PAPER,  FROSTED: 

See  Glass  (Frosted). 

PAPER  ON  GLASS,  TO  AFFIX: 

See  Aahesives,  under  Water-Glass  Ce- 
ments. 

PAPERS,  IGNITING : 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

PAPER    ON    METALLIC    SURFACES, 
PASTING: 

See  Adhesives. 

PAPER  AS  PROTECTION  FOR  IRON 

AND   STEEL: 
See  Rust  Preventives. 

PAPERHANGERS'  PASTES: 

See  Adhesives. 

PAPER,  PHOTOGRAPHIC: 

See  Photography. 

PAPER  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

PAPER  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

PAPIER  MACHE: 
See  Paper. 

PARAFFINE: 

Rendering  Paraffine  Transparent.— 
A  process  for  rendering  paraffine  and  its 
mixtures  with  other  bodies  (ceresine,  etc.) 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  transparent 
candles  consists  essentially  in  adding  a. 


508 


PARAFFINE— PASSE-PARTOUT   FRAMING 


naphthcl,  particularly  beta-naphthol,  to 
the  material  which  is  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  candles,  tapers,  etc.  The 
quantity  added  varies  according  to  the 
material  and  the  desired  effect.  One 
suitable  mixture  is  mide  by  heating  100 
parts  of  paraffine  and  2  parts  of  beta- 
naphthol  at  175°  to  195°  F.  The  material 
can  be  colored  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Removal  of  Dirt  from  Paraffine. — Fil- 
tration through  felt  will  usually  remove 
particles  of  foreign  matter  from  paraf- 
fine. It  may  be  necessary  to  use  a  layer 
of  fine  sand  or  of  infusorial  earth.  If 
discolored  by  any  soluble  matter,  try 
freshly  heated  animal  charcoal.  To  keep 
the  paraffine  fluid,  if  a  large  quantity  is 
to  be  handled,  a  jacketed  funnel  will  be 
required,  either  steam  or  hot  water  being 
kept  in  circulation  in  the  jacket. 

Paraffine  Scented  Cakes. 

Paraffine,  1  ounce;  white  petrolatum, 
2  ounces;  heliotropin,  10  grains;  oil  of 
bergamot,  5  drops;  oil  of  lavender,  5  drops; 
oil  of  cloves,  2  drops.  Melt  the  first  two 
substances,  then  add  the  next,  the  oils 
last,  and  stir  all  until  cool.  After  settling 
cut  into  blocks  and  wrap  in  tin  foil.  This 
is  a  disseminator  of  perfume.  It  per- 
fumes where  it  is  rubbed.  It  kills  moths 
and  perfumes  the  wardrobe.  It  is  used 
by  rubbing  on  cloth,  clothes,  and  the 
handkerchief. 


PARCHMENT    AND    PARCHMENT 
PAPER: 

See  Paper. 

PARCHMENT    CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives. 

PARCHMENT  PASTE: 

See  Adhesives. 

PARFAITS: 

See  Ice  Creams. 

PARFAIT  D' AMOUR  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

PARIS  GREEN: 

See  Pigments. 

PARIS  RED: 

See  Polishes. 

PARIS  SALTS: 

See  Disinfectants. 

PARISIAN  CEMENT: 
See  Adhesives. 

PASSE-PARTOUT  FRAMING. 

It  is  hardly  correct  to  call  the  passe- 
partout a  frame,  as  it  is  merely  a  binding 


together  of  the  print,  the  glass,  and  the 
backing  with  a  narrow  edge  of  paper. 
This  simple  arrangement  lends  to  the 
picture  when  complete  a  much  greater 
finish  and  a  more  important  appearance 
than  might  be  anticipated. 

In  regard  to  the  making  of  a  passe- 
partout frame,  the  first  thing  is  to  decide 
as  to  the  width  of  the  mount  or  matt  to  be 
used.  In  some  cases,  of  course,  the 
print  is  framed  with  no  mount  being  visi- 
ble; but,  unless  the  picture  is  of  large 
size,  it  will  usually  be  found  more  be- 
coming to  have  one,  especially  should 
the  wall  paper  be  of  an  obtrusive  design. 
When  the  print  and  mount  are  both 
neatly  trimmed  to  the  desired  size,  pro- 
cure a  piece  of  clear  white  picture  glass — 
most  amateur  frarners  will  have  dis- 
covered that  there  is  a  variance  in  the 
quality  of  this — and  a  piece  of  stout  card- 
board, both  of  exactly  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  picture.  Next  prepare  or 
buy  the  paper  to  be  used  for  binding  the 
edges  together.  This  may  now  be 
bought  at  most  all  stationery  stores  in  a 
great  variety  of  colors.  If  it  is  prepared 
.at  home  a  greater  choice  of  colors  is 
available,  and  it  is  by  no  means  a  diffi- 
cult task  with  care  and  sharp  scissors. 
The  tint  should  be  chosen  to  harmonize 
with  the  print  and  the  mount,  taking  also 
into  consideration  the  probable  sur- 
roundings— brown  for  photographs  of 
brown  tone,  dark  gray  for  black,  pale 
gray  for  lighter  tones;  dark  green  is  also 
a  good  color.  All  stationers  keep  col- 
ored papers  suitable  for  the  purpose, 
while  plain  wall  papers  or  thin  brown 
paper  answers  equally  well. 

Cut  the  paper,  ruling  it  carefully,  into 
even  strips  an  inch  wide,  and  then  into 
four  pieces,  two  of  them  the  exact  length 
of  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  frame,  and 
the  other  two  half  an  inch  longer  than 
the  two  sides.  Make  sure  that  the  print 
is  evenly  sandwiched  between  the  glass 
and  the  back.  Cut  some  tiny  strips  of 
thin  court-plaster,  and  with  these  bind  the 
corners  tightly  together.  Brush  over  the 
two  larger  pieces  of  paper  with  mount- 
ant,  and  with  them  bind  tightly  together 
the  three  thicknesses — print,  glass,  and 
cardboard — allowing  the  paper  to  pro- 
ject over  about  a  third  of  an  inch  on 
the  face  side,  and  the  ends  which  were 
left  a  little  longer  must  be  neatly  turned 
over  and  stuck  at  the  back.  Then,  in 
the  same  manner,  bind  the  top  and  bot- 
tom edges  together,  mitering  the  corners 
neatly. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  before 
binding  the  edges  together,  to  make  two 
slits  in  the  cardboard  back  for  the  pur- 


PASTES— PERFUMES 


509 


pose  of  inserting  little  brass  hangers, 
having  flat  ends  like  paper  fasteners, 
which  may  be  bought  for  the  purpose; 
or,  where  these  are  not  available,  two 
narrow  loops  of  tape  may  be  used  in- 
stead, sticking  the  ends  firmly  on  the 
inside  of  the  cardboard  by  means  of  a 
little  strong  glue. 

These  are  the  few  manipulations 
necessary  for  the  making  of  a  simple 
passe-partout  frame,  but  there  are  num- 
berless variations  of  the  idea,  and  a  great 
deal  of  variety  may  be  obtained  by  means 
of  using  different  mounts.  Brown  paper 
answers  admirably  as  a  mount  for  some 
subjects,  using  strips  of  paper  of  a  darker 
shade  as  binding.  A  not  too  obtrusive 
design  in  pen  and  ink  is  occasionally 
drawn  on  the  mount,  while  a  more  am- 
bitious scheme  is  to  use  paint  and  brushes 
in  the  same  way.  An  ingenious  idea 
which  suits  some  subjects  is  to  use  a  piece 
of  hand-blocked  wall  paper  as  a  mount. 

PARQUET  POLISH: 

See  Polishes. 

PASTES: 

See  Adhesives  for  Adhesive  Purposes. 

Pastes,  Razor. — I. — From  jewelers' 
rouge,  plumbago,  and  suet,  equal  parts, 
melted  together  and  stirred  until  cold. 

II. — From  prepared  putty  powder 
(levigated  oxide  of  tin),  3  parts;  lard, 
2  parts;  crocus  martis,  1  part;  triturated 
together. 

III. — Prepared  putty  powder,  1  ounce; 
powdered  oxalic  acid,  J  ounce;  pow- 
dered gum,  20  grains;  make  a  stiff  paste 
with  water,  quantity  sufficient,  and 
evenly  and  thinly  spread  it  over  the  strop, 
the  other  side  of  which  should  be  covered 
with  any  of  the  common  greasy  mixtures. 
With  very  little  friction  this  paste  gives 
a  fine  edge  to  the  razor,  and  its  action  is 
still  further  increased  by  slightly  mois- 
tening it,  or  even  breathing  on  it.  Im- 
mediately after  its  use,  the  razor  should 
receive  a  few  turns  on  the  other  side  of 
the  strop. 

PASTE  FOR  PAPER: 
See  Paper. 

PASTES  FOR  POLISHING  METALS: 
See  Soaps. 

PASTEBOARD  CEMENT: 

See  Adhesives. 

PASTEBOARD  DEODORIZERS: 

See  Household  Formulas. 


PASTILLES,  FUMIGATING: 

See  Fumigants. 

PATINAS: 

See  Bronzing  and  Plating. 

PATENT  LEATHER: 
See  Leather. 

PEACH  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

PEARLS,  Tp  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

PEGAMOID. 

Camphor,  100  parts;  mastic,  100 
parts;  bleached  shellac,  50  parts;  gun 
cotton,  200  parts;  acetone,  200  parts; 
acetic  ether,  100  parts;  ethylic  ether,  50 
parts. 

PEN  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

PENCILS,  ANTISEPTIC: 

See  Antiseptics. 

PENCILS    FOR    MARKING    GLASS: 

See  Etching,  Frosted  Glass,  and  Glass. 

PENS,  GOLD: 
See  Gold. 

PEONY  ROOTS,  THEIR  PRESERVA- 
TION: 

See  Roots. 


PERCENTAGE  SOLUTION. 

Multiply  the  percentage  by  5 ;  the  prod- 
uct is  the  number  of  grains  to  be  added 
to  an  ounce  of  water  to  make  a  solution 
of  the  desired  percentage.  This  is  cor- 
rect for  anything  less  than  15  per  cent. 


Perfumes 


DRY  PERFUMES: 

Sachet  Powders. — 

I. — Orris  root 6  ounces 

Lavender  flowers.  ..      2  ounces 

Talcum 4  drachms 

Musk 20  grains 

Terpinol 60  grains 

II. — Orange  peel 2  ounces 

Orris  root 1  ounce 

Sandalwood 4  drachms 

Tonka 2  drachms 

Musk 6  grains 


510 


PERFUMES 


Lavender  Sachets. — 

I. — Lavender  flowers. .  .  16  ounces 

Gum  benzoin 4  ounces 

Oil  lavender 2  drachms 

II. — Lavender  flowers,  150  parts; 
orris  root,  150  parts;  benzoin,  150  parts; 
Tonka  beans,  150  parts;  cloves,  100  parts; 
"Neugenwerz,"  50  parts;  sandalwood, 
50  parts;  cinnamon,  50  parts;  vanilla,  50 
parts;  and  musk,  £  part.  All  is  bruised 
finely  and  mixed. 

Violet  Sachet. — 

Powdered  orris  root  500  parts 

Rice  flour 250  parts 

Essence  bouquet. .  .  10  parts 
Spring   flowers   ex- 
tract   10  parts 

Violet  extract 20  parts 

Oil  of  bergamot ...  4  parts 

Oil  of  rose 2  parts 

Borated  Talcum. — 

I. — Purified     talcum, 

N.  F . .  2  pounds 

Powdered  boric  acid  1  ounce 

To  perfume  add  the  following: 

Powered  orris  root.  .  1£  ounces 

Extract  jasmine  ....  2     drachms 

Extract  musk 1     drachm 

II. — A  powder  sometimes  dispensed 
under  this  name  is  the  salicylatea  pow- 
der of  talcum  of  the  National  Formulary, 
which  contains  in  every  1,000  parts  30 
parts  of  salicylic  acid  and  100  parts  of 
Doric  acid. 

Rose. — 

I. — Cornstarch 9  pounds 

Powdered  talc 1  pound 

Oil  of  rose 80  drops 

Extract  musk 2  drachms 

Extract  jasmine ....      6  drachms 

II. — Potato  starch 9     pounds 

Powdered  talc 1     pound 

Oil  rose 45     drops 

Extract  jasmine  ....        §  ounce 

Rose  Talc. — 

I. — Powdered  talc 5  pounds 

Oil  rose 50  drops 

Oil  wintergreen  ....      4  drops 
Extract  jasmine  ....      2  ounces 

II. — Powdered  talc 5  pounds 

Oil  rose 32  drops 

Oil  jasmine 4  ounces 

Extract  musk 1  ounce 

Violet  Talc.— 

I. — Powdered  talc 14    ounces 

Powdered  orris  root.  2    ounces 

Extract  cassie \  ounce 

Extract  jasmine \  ounce 

Extract  musk 1     drachm 


II. — Starch 5,000  parts 

Orris  root 1,000  parts 

Oil  of  lemon 14  parts 

Oil  of  bergamot .  .        14  parts 
Oil  of  clove 4  parts 

Smelling  Salts. — I. — Fill  small  glasses 
having  ground  stopper  with  pieces  of 
sponge  free  from  sand  and  saturate 
with  a  mixture  of  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac 
(0.910),  9  parts,  and  oil  of  lavender,  1 
part.  Or  else  fill  the  bottles  with  small 
dice  of  ammonium  sesquicarbonate  and 
pour  the  above  mixture  over  them. 

II. — rEssential  oil  of  lav- 
ender   18  parts 

Attar  of  rose 2  parts 

Ammonium  car- 
bonate   480  parts 

Violet  Smelling  Salts. — I. — Moisten 
coarsely  powdered  ammonia  carbonate, 
contained  in  a  suitable  bottle,  with  a 
mixture  of  concentrated  tincture  of 
orris  r6ot,  2£  ounces;  aromatic  spirit 
of  ammonia,  1  drachm;  violet  extract,  3 
drachms. 

II. — Moisten  the  carbonate,  and  add 
as  much  of  the  following  solution  as  it 
will  absorb:  Oil  of  orris,  5  minims;  oil 
of  lavender  flowers,  10  minims;  violet 
extract,  30  minims;  stronger  water  of 
ammonia,  2  fluidounces. 

To  Scent  Advertising  Matter,  etc. — 
The  simplest  way  of  perfuming  printed 
matter,  such  as  calendars,  cards,  etc.,  is 
to  stick  them  in  strongly  odorous  sachet 
powder.  Although  the  effect  of  a  strong 
perfume  is  obtained  thereby,  there  is  a 
large  loss  of  powder,  which  clings  to  the 
printed  matter.  Again,  there  are  often 
little  spots  which  are  due  to  the  essential 
oils  added  to  the  powder. 

Another  way  of  perfuming,  which  is 
used  especially  in  France  for  scenting 
cards  and  other  articles,  is  to  dip  them  in 
very  strong  "extraits  d'odeur,"  leaving 
them  therein  for  a  few  days.  Then  the 
cards  are  taken  out  and  laid  between  fil- 
tering paper,  whereupon  they  are  pressed 
vigorously,  which  causes  them  not  only 
to  dry,  but  also  to  remain  straight.  They 
remain  under  strong  pressure  until  com- 
pletely dry. 

Not  all  cardboard,  however,  can  be 
subjected  to  this  process,  and  in  its 
choice  one  should  consider  the  perfum- 
ing operation  to  be  conducted.  Nor  can 
the  cards  be  glazed,  since  spirit  dissolves 
the  glaze.  It  is  also  preferable  to  have 
lithographed  text  on  them,  since  in  the 
case  of  ordinary  printing  the  letters  often 
partly  disappear  or  the  colors  are 
changed. 


PERFUMES 


511 


For  pocket  calendars,  price  lists,  and 
voluminous  matter  containing  more 
leaves  than  one,  another  process  is 
recommended.  In  a  tight  closet,  which 
should  be  lined  with  tin,  so  that  little  air 
can  enter,  tables  composed  of  laths  are 
placed  on  which  nets  stretched  on  frames 
are  laid.  Cover  these  nets  with  tissue 
paper,  and  proceed  as  follows:  On  the 
bottom  of  the  closet  sprinkle  a  strongly 
odorous  and  reperfumed  powder;  then 
cover  one  net  with  the  printed  matter 
to  be  perfumed  and  shove  it  to  the  closet 
on  the  lath.  The  next  net  again  re- 
ceives powder,  the  following  one  printed 
matter,  and  so  on  until  the  closet  is 
filled.  After  tightly  closing  the  doors, 
the  whole  arrangement  is  left  to  itself. 
This  process  presents  another  advantage 
in  that  all  sorts  of  residues  may  be  em- 
ployed for  scenting,  such  as  the  filters 
of  the  odors  and  infusions,  residues  of 
musk,  etc.  These  are  simply  laid  on  the 
nets,  and  will  thus  impart  their  perfume 
to  the  printed  matter. 

Such  a  scenting  powder  is  produced 
as  follows: 

By  weight 
Iris   powder,   finely 

ground 5,000  parts 

Residues  of  musk.  .  1,000  parts 
Ylang-ylang  oil. ...         10  parts 

Bergamot  oil 50  parts 

Artificial  musk  ....          2  parts 

lonone 2  to  5  parts 

Tincture  of  benzoin      100  parts 
The    powder    may    subsequently    be 
employed  for  filling  cheap  sachets,  etc. 

LIQUID  PERFUMES: 

Coloring  Perfumes. — Chlorophyll  is  a 
suitable  agent  for  coloring  liquid  per- 
fumes green.  Care  must  be  taken  to  pro- 
cure an  article  freely  soluble  in  the  men- 
struum. As  found  in  the  market  it  is 
prepared  (in  form  of  solutions)  for  use 
in  liquids  strongly  alcoholic;  in  water 
or  weak  alcohol;  and  in  oils.  Aniline 
greens  of  various  kinds  will  answer  the 
same  purpose,  but  in  a  trial  of  any  one  of 
these  it  must  be  noted  that  very  small 
quantities  should  be  used,  as  their  tinc- 
torial power  is  so  great  that  liquids  in 
which  they  are  incautiously  used  may 
stain  the  handkerchief. 

Color  imparted  by  chlorophyll  will  be 
found  fairly  permanent;  this  term  is  a 
relative  one,  and  not  too  much  must  be 
expected.  Colors  which  may  suffer  but 
little  change  by  long  exposure  to  diffused 
light  may  fade  perceptibly  by  short  ex- 
posure to  the  direct  light  of  the  sun. 

Chlorophyll  may  be  purchased  or  it 
may  be  prepared  as  follows:  Digest 


leaves  of  grass,  nettles,  spinach,  or  other 
green  herb  in  warm  water  until  soft; 
pour  off  the  water  and  crush  the  herb  to 
a  pulp.  Boil  the  pulp  for  a  short  time 
with  a  half  per  cent  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  and  afterwards  precipitate  the 
.chlorophyll  by  means  of  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid;  wash  the  precipitate  thor- 
oughly with  water,  press  and  dry  it,  and 
use  as  much  for  the  solution  as  may  be 
necessary.  Or  a  tincture  made  from 
grass  as  follows  may  be  employed: 

Lawn  grass,  cut  fine.  .      2  ounces 
Alcohol 16  ounces 

Put  the  grass  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle' 
and  pour  the  alcohol  upon  it.  After 
standing  a  few  days,  agitating  occasion- 
ally, pour  off  the  liquid.  The  tincture 
may  be  used  with  both  alcoholic  and 
aqueous  preparations. 

Among  the  anilines,  spirit  soluble 
malachite  green  has  been  recommended. 

A  purple  or  violet  tint  may  be  pro- 
duced by  using  tincture  of  litmus  or  am- 
moniated  cochineal  coloring.  The  for- 
mer is  made  as  follows: 

Litmus 2£  ounces 

Boiling  water 16    ounces 

Alcohol 3    ounces 

Pour  the  water  upon  the  litmus,  stir 
well,  allow  to  stand  for  about  an  hour, 
stirring  occasionally,  filter,  and  to  the 
filtrate  add  the  alcohol. 

The  aniline  colors  "Paris  violet"  or 
methyl  violet  B  may  be  similarly  em- 
ployed. The  amount  necessary  to  pro- 
duce a  desired  tint  must  be  worked  out 
by  experiment.  Yellow  tints  may  best 
be  imparted  by  the  use  of  tincture  of 
turmeric  or  saffron,  fustic,  quercitron,  etc. 

If  a  perfumed  spirit,  as,  for  instance, 
a  mouth  wash,  is  poured  into  a  wine- 
glassful  of  water,  the  oils  will  separate 
at  once  and  spread  over  the  surface  of 
the  water.  This  liquid  being  allowed  to 
stand  uncovered,  one  oil  after  another 
will  evaporate,  according  to  the  degree  of 
its  volatility,  until  at  last  the  least  vola- 
tile remains  behind. 

This  process  sometimes  requires  weeks, 
and  in  order  to  be  able  to  watch 
the  separate  phases  of  this  evaporation 
correctly,  it  is  necessary  to  use  several 
glasses  and  to  conduct  the  mixtures  at 
certain  intervals.  The  glasses  must  be 
numbered  according  to  the  day  when  set 
up,  so  that  they  may  be  readily  identified. 

If  we  assume,  for  example,  that  a 
mouth  wash  is  to  be  examined,  we  may 
probably  prepare  every  day  for  one 
week  a  mixture  of  about  100  grams  of 
water  and  10  drops  of  the  respective 
liquid.  Hence,  after  a  lapse  of  7  days 


512 


PERFUMES 


we  will  have  before  us  7  bouquets,  of  dif- 
ferent odor,  according  to  the  volatility  of 
the  oils  contained  in  them.  From  these 
different  bouquets  the  qualitative  com- 
position of  the  liquid  may  be  readily 
recognized,  provided  that  one  is  familiar 
enough  with  the  character  of  the  different 
oils  to  be  able  to  tell  them  by  their  odors. 

The  predominance  of  peppermint  oil — 
to  continue  with  the  above  example — 
will  soon  be  lost  and  other  oils  will  rise 
one  after  the  other,  to  disappear  again 
after  a  short  time,  so  that  the  7  glasses 
afford  an  entire  scale  of  characteristic 
odors,  until  at  last  only  the  most  lasting 
are  perceptible.  Thus  it  is  possible  with 
some  practice  to  tell  a  bouquet  pretty 
accurately  in  its  separate  odors. 

In  this  manner  interesting  results  are 
often  reached,  and  with  some  persever- 
ance even  complicated  mixtures  can  be 
analyzed  and  recognized  in  their  dis- 
tinctiveness.  Naturally  the  difficulty  in 
recognizing  each  oil  is  increased  in  the 
case  of  oils  whose  volatility  is  approxi- 
mately the  same.  But  even  in  this  case 
changes,  though  not  quite  so  marked, 
can  be  determined  in  the  bouquet. 

In  a  quantitative  respect  this  method 
also  furnishes  a  certain  result  as  far  as 
the  comparison  of  perfumed  liquids  is 
concerned. 

According  to  the  quantity  of  the  oils 
present  the  dim  zone  on  the  water  is 
broader  or  narrower,  and  although  the 
size  of  this  layer  may  be  changed  by  the 
admixture  of  other  substances,  one  gains 
an  idea  regarding  the  quantity  of  the  oils 
by  mere  smelling.  It  is  necessary,  of 
course,  to  choose  glasses  with  equally 
large  openings  and  to  count  out  the  drops 
of  the  essence  carefully  by  means  of  a 
dropper. 

When  it  is  thought  that  all  the  odors 
have  been  placed,  a  test  is  made  by  pre- 
paring a  mixture  according  to  the  recipe 
resulting  from  the  trial. 

Not  pure  oils,  always  alcoholic  dilu- 
tions in  a  certain  ratio  should  be  used,  in 
order  not  to  disturb  the  task  by  a  sur- 
plus of  the  different  varieties,  since  it  is 
easy  to  add  more,  but  impossible  to  take 
away. 

It  is  true  this  method  requires  patience, 
perseverance,  and  a  fine  sense  of  smell. 
One  smelling  test  should  not  be  consid- 
ered sufficient,  but  the  glasses  should  be 
carried  to  the  nose  as  often  as  possible. 

Fixing  Agents  in  Perfumes. — The 
secret  of  making  perfumery  lies  mainly  in 
the  choice  of  the  fixing  agents — i.  e.,  those 
bodies  which  intensify  and  hold  the 
floral  odors.  The  agents  formerly  em- 


ployed were  musk,  civet,  and  ambergris, 
all  having  a  heavy  and  dull  animal  odor, 
which  is  the  direct  antithesis  of  a  floral 
fragrance.  A  free  use  of  these  bodies 
must  inevitably  mean  a  perfume  which 
requires  a  label  to  tell  what  it  is  intended 
for,  to  say  nothing  of  what  it  is.  To-day 
there  is  no  evidence  that  the  last  of  these 
(ambergris)  is  being  used  at  all  in  the 
newer  perfumes,  and  the  other  two  are 
employed  very  sparingly,  if  at  all.  The 
result  is  that  the  newer  perfumes  possess 
a  fragrance  and  a  fidelity  to  the  flowers 
that  they  imitate  which  is  far  superior  to 
the  older  perfumes.  Yet  the  newer  per- 
fume is  quite  as  prominent  and  lasting  as 
the  old,  while  it  is  more  pleasing.  It 
contains  the  synthetic  odors,  with  bal- 
sams or  rosinous  bodies  as  fixatives,  and 
employs  musk  and  civet  only  in  the  most 
sparing  manner  in  some  of  the  more  sen- 
sitive odors.  As  a  fixing  agent  benzoin 
is  to  be  recommended.  Only  the  best 
variety  should  be  used,  the  Siamese,  which 
costs  5  or  6  times  as  much  as  that  from 
Sumatra.  The  latter  has  a  coarse  pun- 
gent odor. 

Musk  is  depressing,  and  its  use  in 
cologne  in  even  the  minutest  quantity 
will  spoil  the  cologne.  The  musk  lingers 
after  the  lighter  odors  have  disappeared, 
and  a  sick  person  is  pretty  sure  to  feel 
its  effects.  Persons  in  vigorous  health 
will  not  notice  the  depressing  effects  of 
musk,  but  when  lassitude  prevails  these 
are  very  unpleasant.  Moreover,  it  is  not 
a  necessity  in  these  toilet  accessories, 
either  as  a  blending  or  as  a  fixing  agent. 
Its  place  is  better  supplied  by  benzoin 
for  both  purposes. 

As  to  alcohol,  a  lot  of  nonsense  has 
been  written  about  the  necessity  of  ex- 
treme care  in  selecting  it,  such  as  certain 
kinds  requiring  alcohol  made  from 
grapes  and  others  demanding  extreme 
purification,  etc.  A  reasonable  attention 
to  a  good  quality  of  alcohol,  even  at  a 
slight  increase  in»cost,  will  always  pay, 
but,  other  things  being  equal,  a  good 
quality  of  oils  in  a  poor  quality  of  alcohol 
will  give  far  better  satisfaction  than  the 
opposite  combination.  The  public  is  not 
composed  of  exacting  connoisseurs,  and 
it  does  not  appreciate  extreme  care  or 
expense  in  either  particular.  A  good 
grade  of  alcohol,  reasonably  free  from 
heavy  and  lingering  foreign  odors,  will 
answer  practically  all  the  requirements. 

General  Directions  for  Making  Per- 
fumes.— It  is  absolutely  essential  for  ob- 
taining the  best  results  to  see  that  all 
vessels  are  perfectly  clean.  Always  em- 
ploy alcohol,  90  per  cent,  deodorized  by 


PERFUMES 


51S 


means  of  charcoal.  When  grain  musk  is 
used  as  an  ingredient  in  liquid  perfumes, 
first  rub  down  with  pumice  stone,  then 
digest  in  a  little  hot  water  for  2  or  3  hours; 
finally  add  to  alcohol.  The  addition  of 
2  or  3  minims  of  acetic  acid  will  improve 
the  odor  and  also  prevent  accumulation 
of  NH3,  Civet  and  ambergris  should 
also  be  thoroughly  rubbed  down  with 
some  coarse  powder,  and  transferred 
directly  to  alcohol. 

Seeds,  pods,  bark  rhizomes,  etc., 
should  be  cut  up  in  small  pieces  or  pow- 
dered. 

Perfumes  improve  by  storing.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  tie  over  the  mouth  of  the 
containing  vessel  some  fairly  thick  por- 
ous material,  and  to  allow  the  vessel  to 
stand  for  a  week  or  two  in  a  cool  place, 
instead  of  corking  at  once. 

It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  add  that 
as  large  a  quantity  as  possible  should  be 
decanted,  and  then  the  residue  filtered. 
This  obviously  prevents  loss  by  evapora- 
tion. Talc  or  kieselguhr  (amorphous 
SiO2)  are  perhaps  the  best  substances  to 
add  to  the  filter  in  order  to  render  liquid 
perfumes  bright  and  clear,  and  more 
especially  necessary  in  the  case  of  aro- 
matic vinegars. 

The  operations  involved  in  making  per- 
fumes are  simple;  the  chief  thing  to  be 
learned,  perhaps,  is  to  judge  of  the  quality 
of  materials. 

The  term  "extract,"  when  used  in 
most  formulas,  means  an  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  the  odorous  principles  of  certain 
flowers  obtained  by  enfluerage;  that  is, 
the  flowers  are  placed  in  contact  with  pre- 
pared grease  which  absorbs  the  odorous 
matter,  and  this  grease  is  in  turn  macer- 
ated with  alcohol  which  dissolves  out  the 
odor.  A  small  portion  of  the  grease  is 
taken  up  also  at  ordinary  temperatures; 
this  is  removed  by  filtering  the  "ex- 
tract" while  "chilled"  by  a  freezing  mix- 
ture. The  extracts  can  be  either  pur- 
chased or  made  directly  from  the  pomade 
(as  the  grease  is  called).  To  employ  the 
latter  method  successfully  some  experi- 
ence may  be  necessary. 

The  tinctures  are  made  with  95  per 
cent  deodorized  alcohol,  enough  men- 
struum being  added  through  the  marc 
when  filtering  to  bring  the  finished  prep- 
aration to  the  measure  of  the  menstruum 
originally  taken. 

The  glycerine  is  intended  to  act  as  a 
"fixing"  agent — that  is,  to  lessen  the 
volatility  of  the  perfumes. 

Tinctures  for  Perfumes. — 
a.   Ambergris,  1  part;  alcohol,  96  per 
cent,  15  parts. 


b.  Benzoin,  Sumatra,  1  part;  alcohol, 
96  per  cent,  6  parts. 

c.  Musk,    1   part;   distilled   water,   25 
parts;  spirit,  96  per  cent,  25  parts. 

d.  Musk,   1  part;  spirit,  96  per  cent, 
50   parts;   for   very   oleiferous   composi- 
tions. 

e.  Peru   balsam,   1  part   in  spirit,    96 
per  cent,  7  parts;  shake  vigorously. 

/.  Storax,  1  part  in  spirit,  96  per  cent, 
15  parts. 

g.  Powdered  Tolu  balsam,  1  part; 
spirit,  96  per  cent,  6  parts. 

h.  Chopped  Tonka  beans,  1  part; 
spirit,  60  per  cent,  6  parts;  for  composi- 
tions containing  little  oil. 

i.  Chopped  Tonka  beans,  1  part; 
spirit,  96  per  cent,  6  parts;  for  composi- 
tions containing  much  oil. 

j.  Vanilla,  1  part;  spirit,  60  per  cent,  6 
parts;  for  compositions  containing  little 
oil. 

k.  Vanilla,  1  part;  spirit,  96  per  cent, 
6  parts;  for  compositions  containing 
much  oil. 

/.  Vanillin,  20  parts;  spirit,  96  per 
cent,  4,500  parts. 

m.  Powdered  orris  root,  1  part;  spirit, 
96  per  cent,  5  parts. 

n.  Grated  civet,  1  part  in  spirit,  96  per 
cent,  10  parts. 

Bay  Rum. — Bay  rum,  or  more  prop- 
erly bay  spirit,  may  be  made  from  the  oil 
with  weak  alcohol  as  here  directed: 

I. — Oil  of  bay  leaves 3    drachms 

Oil  of  orange  peel ...        £  drachm 
Tincture    of    orange 

peel 2    ounces 

Magnesium  carbon- 
ate         £  ounce 

Alcohol 4     pints 

Water 4     pints 

Triturate  the  oils  with  the  magnesium 
carbonate,  gradually  adding  the  other 
ingredients  previously  mixed,  and  fil- 
ter. 

The  tincture  of  orange  peel  is  used 
chiefly  as  a  coloring  for  the  mixture. 

Oil  of  bay  leaves  as  found  in  the  mar- 
ket varies  in  quality.  The  most  costly 
will  presumably  be  found  the  best,  and 
its  use  will  not  make  the  product  ex- 
pensive. It  can  be  made  from  the  best 
oil  and  deodorized  alcohol  and  still  sold 
at  a  moderate  price  with  a  good  profit. 

Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  use 
only  perfectly  fresh  oil  of  orange  peel. 
As  is  well  known,  this  oil  deteriorates 
rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  air,  acquiring 
an  odor  similar  to  that  of  turpentine. 
The  oil  should  be  kept  in  bottles  of  such 
size  that  when  opened  the  contents  can 
be  all  used  in  a  short  time. 


514 


PERFUMES 


II. — Bay  oil,  15  parts;  sweet  orange 
oil,  1  part;  pimento  oil,  1  part;  spirit  of 
wine,  1,000  parts;  water,  750  parts;  soap 
spirit  or  quillaia  bark,  ad  libitum. 

III. — Bay  oil,  12.5  parts;  sweet  orange 
oil,  0.5  part;  pimento  oil,  0.5  part;  spirit 
of  wine,  200  parts;  water,  2,800  parts; 
Jamaica  rum  essence,  75  parts;  soap 
powder,  20  parts;  quillaia  extract,  5  parts; 
borax,  10  parts;  use  sugar  color. 

Colognes. — In  making  cologne  water, 
the  alcohol  used  should  be  that  obtained 
from  the  distillation  of  wine,  provided  a 
first-class  article  is  desired.  It  is  pos- 
sible, of  course,  to  make  a  good  cologne 
with  very  highly  rectified  and  deodorized 
corn  or  potato  spirits,  but  the  product 
never  equals  that  made  from  wine 
spirits.  Possibly  the  reason  for  this  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  latter  always  con- 
tains a  varying  amount  of  oenanthic 
ether. 


I. — Oil  of  bergamot . . 

Oil  of  neroli 

Oil  of  citron 

Oil  of  cedrat 

Oil  of  rosemary. .  . 
Tincture    of    am- 
bergris   : 

Tincture    of   ben- 


zoin . 
Alcohol 


10  parts 

15  parts 

5  parts 

5  parts 

1  part 

5  parts 

5  parts 
1,000  parts 


II. — The  following  is  stated  to  be  the 
"original"  formula: 

Oil  of  bergamot.          96  parts 

Oil  of  citron 96  parts 

Oil  of  cedrat.  ...          96  parts 
Oil  of  rosemary.          48  parts 

Oil  of  neroli 48  parts 

Oil  of  lavender.  .          48  parts 
Oil  of  cavella. ...  24  parts 
Absolute  alcohol.    1,000  parts 
Spirit     of     rose- 
mary  25,000  parts 

III.— Alcohol,     90     per 

cent 5,000  parts 

Bergamot  oil 220  parts 

Lemon  oil 75  parts 

Neroli  oil 20  parts 

Rosemary  oil. ....          5  parts 
Lavender       oil, 

French 5  parts 

The  oils  are  well  dissolved  in  spirit 
and  left  alone  for  a  few  days  with  fre- 
quent shaking.  Next  add  about  40  parts 
of  acetic  acid  and  filter  after  a  while. 

IV.— Alcohol,     90     per 

cent 5,000  parts 

Lavender      oil, 

French 35  parts 

Lemon  oil 30  parts 


Portugallo  oil .. 
Neroli  oil.  . 


Bergamot  oil.  ... 
Petit  grain  oil . .  . 
Rosemary  oil.  . .  . 
Orange  water.  .  . 


30  parts 

15  parts 

15  parts 

4  parts 

4  parts 

700  parts 


Cologne  Spirits  or  Deodorized  Alco- 
hol.— This  is  used  in  all  toilet  prepara- 
tions and  perfumes.  It  is  made  thus: 

Alcohol,  95  per  cent .  .  1  gallon 
Powdered      unslaked 

lime 4  drachms 

Powdered  alum 2  drachms 

Spirit  of  nitrous  ether  1  drachm 

Mix  the  lime  and  alum,  and  add  them 
to  the  alcohol,  shaking  the  mixture  well 
together;  then  add  the  sweet  spirit  of 
niter  and  set  aside  for  7  days,  shaking 
occasionally;  finally  filter. 

Florida  Waters. — 

Oil  of  bergamot. .  .  3     fluidounces 

Oil  of  lavender  ...  1    fluidounce 

Oil  of  cloves 1%  fluidrachms 

Oil  of  cinnamon  .  .  2$  fluidrachms 
Oil  of  neroli ......      |  fluidrachm 

Oil  of  lemon 1     fluidounce 

Essence  of  jasmine  6     fluidounces 

Essence  of  musk. .  2     fluidounces 

Rose   water 1     pint 

Alcohol 8     pints 

Mix,  and  if  cloudy,  filter  through  mag- 
nesium carbonate. 

Lavender  Water. — This,  the  most 
famous  of  all  the  perfumed  waters,  was 
originally  a  distillate  from  a  mixture  of 
spirit  and  lavender  flowers.  This  was 
the  perfume.  Then  came  a  compound 
water,  or  "palsy  water,"  which  was  in- 
tended strictly  for  use  as  a  medicine,  but 
sometimes  containing  ambergris  and 
musk,  as  well  as  red  sanders  wood. 
Only  the  odor  of  the  old  compound  re- 
mains to  us  as  a  perfume,  and  this  is  the 
odor  which  all  perfume  compounders 
endeavor  to  hit.  The  most  important 
precaution  in  making  lavender  water  is 
to  use  well-matured  oil  of  lavender. 
Some  who  take  pride  in  this  perfume  use 
no  oil  which  is  less  than  5  years  old,  and 
which  has  had  1  ounce  of  rectified  spirit 
added  to  each  pound  of  oil  before  being 
set  aside  to  mature.  After  mixing,  the 
perfume  should  stand  for  at  least  a 
month  before  filtering  through  gray  fil- 
tering paper.  This  may  be  taken  as  a 
general  instruction: 

I. — Oil  of  lavender 1£  ounces 

Oil  of  bergamot  ....  4     drachms 

Essence  ambergris.  .  4     drachms 

Proof  spirit 3     pints 


PERFUMES 


II. — English  oil  of  laven- 
der   1     ounce 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  1*  drachms 

Essence      of      musk 

(No.  2) \  ounce 

Essence    of    amber- 
gris   \  ounce 

Proof  spirit 2     pints 

III. — English  oil  of  laven- 
der.'.    \  ounce 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  2     drachms 

Essence    of    amber- 
gris    1     drachm 

Essence      of      musk 

(No.  1) 3     drachms 

Oil  of  angelica 2     minims 

Attar  of  rose 6     minims 

Proof  spirit 1     pint 

IV. — Oil  of  lavender.  ....  4     ounces 

Grain  musk 15     grains 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  2£  ounces 

Attar  of  rose l|  drachms 

Oil  of  neroli \  drachm 

Spirit    of    nitrous 

ether 2£  ounces 

.         Triple  rose  water.  ..  12     ounces 

Proof  spirit 5     pints 

Allow  to  stand  5  weeks  before  filtering. 


LI 


1 

2 

150 


parts 

parts 

parts 

part 

part 

parts 

parts 

parts 


UID  PERFUMES  FOR  THE  HAND- 
KERCHIEF, PERSON,  ETC. : 
Acacia  Extract. — 

French  acacia 400 

Tincture     of    amber 

(linlO) 3 

Eucalyptus  oil 0.5 

Lavender  oil 1 

Bergamot  oil 

Tincture  of  musk .  . . 
Tincture  of  orris  root 
Spirit  of  wine,  80  per 
cent 500 

Bishop  Essence. — 
Fresh  green  peel  of 
unripe  oranges . . 
Cura£ao  orange  peel 
Malaga  orange  peel 
Ceylon  cinnamon.  . 

Cloves 

Vanilla 

Orange  flower  oil .  . 

Spirit  of  wine 1,500.0  grams 

Hungarian  wine  ...      720.0  grams 
A  dark -brown  tincture  of   pleasant  taste 
and  smell. 

Caroline  Bouquet. — 

Oil  of  lemon 15  minims 

Oil  of  bergamot 1  drachm 

Essence  of  rose 4  ounces 

Essence  of  tuberose  .  .      4  ounces 

Essence  of  violet 4  ounces 

Tincture  of  orris 2  ounces 


60.0  grams 
180.0  grams 

90.0  grams 
2.0  grams 
7.5  grams 

11.0  grams 
4  drops 


Alexandra  Bouquet. — 
Oil  of  bergamot ...... 

Oil  of  rose  geranium 

Oil  of  rose 

Oil  of  cassia 

Deodorized  alcohol. . . 

Navy  Bouquet. — 

Spirit  of  sandalwood. . 
Extract  of  patchouli .  . 

Spirit  of  rose 

Spirit  of  vetivert 

Extract  of  verbena .  . . 


drachms 
drachm 
drachm 
15     minims 
1     pint 


10  ounces 
10  ounces 
10  ounces 
10  ounces 
12  ounces 


Bridal  Bouquet. — Sandal  oil,  30  min- 
ims; .rose  extract,  4  fluidounces;  jas- 
mine-extract, 4  fluidounces;  orange 
flower  extract,  16  fluidounces;  essence  of 
vanilla,  1  fluidpunce;  essence  of  musk,  2 
fluidci-y^des;  tincture  of  storax,  2  fluid- 
ounces.^  (The  tincture  of  storax  is  pre- 
pared with  liquid  storax  and  alcohol  [90 
per  cent],  1:20,  by  macerating  for  7 
days.) 

Irish  Bouquet. — 

White  rose  essence .  5,000  parts 
Vanilla  essence  ....      450  parts 

Rose  oil 5  parts 

Spirit 100  parts 

Essence  Bouquet. — 

I. — Spirit 8,000  parts 

Distilled  water  ....  2,000  parts 

Iris  tincture 250  parts 

Vanilla    herb    tinc- 
ture        100  parts 

Benzoin  tincture.  ..        40  parts 

Bergamot  oil 50  parts 

Storax  tincture  ....        50  parts 

Clove  oil 15  parts 

Palmarosa  oil 12  parts 

Lemon-grass  oil .  . .        15  parts 

II. — Extract  of  rose  (2d)  .  .    64     ounces 
Extract     of     jasmine 

(2d) 12     ounces 

Extract  of  cassie  (2d) .     8     ounces 
Tincture    of    orris    (1 

to  4) 64     ounces 

Oil  of  bergamot \  ounce 

Oil  of  cloves 1     drachm 

Oil  of  ylang-ylang \  drachm 

Tincture    of    benzoin 

(1  to  8) 2    ounces 

Glycerine 4     ounces 

Bouquet  Canang. — 

Ylang-ylang  oil ...  45  minims 

Grain  musk 3  grains 

Rose  oil 15  minims 

Tonka  beans 3 

Cassie  oil 5  minims 

Tincture  orris  rhi- 
zome   1  fluidounce 


516 


PERFUMES 


Civet 1    grain 

Almond  oil ^  minim 

Storax  tincture ...      3    fluidrachms 
Alcohol, 90  per  cent     9     fluidounces 
Mix,  and  digest  1  month.     The  above 
is  a  very  delicious  perfume. 

Cassie  oil  or  otto  is  derived  from  the 
flowers  of  Acacia  farnesiana  Mimosa 
farnesiana,  L.  (N.  O.  Leguminosae,  sub- 
order Mimosese).  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  cassia  otto,  the  essential 
oil  obtained  from  Cinnamomum  cassia. 

Cashmere  Nosegay. — 
I. — Essence     of     violet, 

from  pomade 1     pint 

Essence    of    rose, 

from  pomade 1|  pints 

Tincture  of  benzoin, 

(1  to  4) $  pint 

Tincture  of  civet  (1 

to  64)   J  pint 

Tincture  of  Tonka  (1 

to  4) |  pint 

Benzoic  acid f  ounce 

Oil  of  patchouli  ....        \  ounce 

Oil  of  sandal |  ounce 

Rose  water \  pint 

II. — Essence  violet 120  ounces 

Essence  rose 180  ounces 

Tincture  benjamin 

(1  in  4) 60  ounces 

Tincture  civet  (1  in 

62) 30  ounces 

Tincture  Tonka  (1  in 

4) 30  ounces 

Oil  patchouli 3  ounces 

Oil  sandalwood 6  ounces 

Rose  water 60  ounces 

Clove  Pink. — 

I. — Essence  of  rose 

Essence     of    orange 
flower 

Tincture  of  vanilla. . 

Oil  of  cloves .  . 


2     ounces 

6     ounces 
3|  ounces 
20     minims 

5  ounces 


II. — Essence  of  cassie.. .  . 
Essence    of    orange 

flower 5  ounces 

Essence  of  rose 10  ounces 

Spirit  of  rose 7  ounces 

'Tincture  of  vanilla . .  3  ounces 

Oil  of  cloves 12  minims 

Frangipanni.; — 

I. — Grain  musk 10  grains 

Sandal  otto 25  minims 

Rose  otto 25  minims 

Orange   flower 

otto    (neroli)  30  minims 

Vetivert  otto  ....     5  minims 
Powdered      orris 

rhizome £  ounce 


Vanilla 30    grains 

Alcohol    (90    per 

cent) 10    fluidounces 

Mix  and  digest  for  1  month.  This  is  a 
lasting  and  favorite  perfume. 

II. — Oil  of  rose 2  drachms 

Oil  of  neroli 2  drachms 

Oil  of  sandalwood  .  .      2  drachms 
Oil     of     geranium 

(French) v  2  drachms 

Tincture  of  vetivert 

(IJtoS) 96  ounces 

Tincture  of  Tonka  (1 

to  8) 16  ounces 

Tincture  of  orris   (1 

to  4) 64  ounces 

Glycerine 6  ounces 

Alcohol 64  ounces 

Handkerchief  Perfumes. — 

I. — Lavender  oil 10  parts 

Neroli  oil 10  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil .  .        2  parts 

Orris  root 200  parts 

Rose  oil 5  parts 

Clove  oil 5  parts 

Lemon  oil ........        1  part 

Cinnamon  oil 2  parts 

Mix  with  2,500  parts  of  best  alcohol, 
and  after  a  rest  of  3  days  heat  moder- 
ately on  the  water  bath,  and  filter. 

II. — Bergamot  oil 10  parts 

Orange  peel  oil 10  parts 

Cinnamon  oil 2  parts 

Rose  geranium  oil .  .      1  part 

Lemon  oil 4  parts 

Lavender  oil 4  parts 

Rose  oil 1  part 

Vanilla  essence 5  parts 

Mix  with  2,000  parts  of  best  spirit,  and 
after  leaving  undisturbed  for  3  days,  heat 
moderately  on  the  water  bath,  and  filter. 

Honeysuckle. — 

Oil  of  neroli 12  minims 

Oil  of  rose 10  minims 

Oil  of  bitter  almond.  .  8  minims 

Tincture  of  storax. ...  4  ounces 

Tincture  of  vanilla.  .  .  6  ounces 

Essence  of  cassie 16  ounces 

Essence  of  rose 16  ounces 

Essence  of  tuberose  .  .  16  ounces 

Essence  of  violet 16  ounces 

India.— 

Coumarin 10  grains 

Concentrated     rose 

water  (1  to  40) 2  ounces 

Neroli  oil 5  minims 

Vanilla  bean 1  drachm 

Bitter  almond  oil 5  minims 

Orris  root 1  drachm 

Alcohol 10  ounces 

Macerate  for  a  month. 


PERFUMES 


517 


Javanese  Bouquet. — 

Rose  oil 

Pimento  oil 

Cassia  oil 

Neroli  oil 

Clove  oil. 

Lavender  oil 

Sandal  wood  oil 

Alcohol 

Water 

Macerate  for  14  days. 

Lily  Perfume. — 

Essence  of  jasmine.  .  . 
Essence   of    orange 

flowers 

Essence  of  rose 

Essence  of  cassie 

Essence  of  tuberose  .  . 

Spirit  of  rose 

Tincture  of  vanilla.  .  . 
Oil  of  bitter  almond.  ., 


15 

20 

3 

3 

2 

60 
10 
10 


minims 
minims 
minims 
minims 
minims 
minims 
minims 
ounces 
ounces 


1  ounce 

1  ounce 

2  ounces 
2  ounces 
8  ounces 
1  ounce 

1  ounce 

2  minims 


Lily  of  the  Valley. — 

I. — Acacia  essence.  .  .      750  parts 

Jasmine  essence. .      750  parts 

Orange  flower  es- 
sence        800  parts 

Rose     flower     es- 
sence       800  parts 

Vanilla  flower  es- 
sence  1,500  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil.         15  parts 

II. — Oil  of  bitter  almond  10     minims 

Tincture  of  vanilla.  .  2    ounces 

Essence  of  rose 2    ounces 

Essence    of    orange 

flower 2     ounces 

Essence  of  jasmine. .  2£  ounces 

Essence  of  tuberose.  2^  ounces 

Spirit  of  rose 2£  ounces 

III.— Extract  rose 200  parts 

Extract  vanilla ....  200  parts 
Extract  orange .  .  . .  800  parts 
Extract  jasmine .  .  .  600  parts 
Extract  musk  tinc- 
ture    150  parts 

Neroli  oil 10  parts 

Rose  oil 6  parts 

Bitter  almond  oil .  .  4  parts 

Cassia  oil 5  parts 

Bergamot  oil 6  parts 

Tonka     beans     es- 
sence   150  parts 

Linaloa  oil 12  parts 

Spirit    of    wine  (90 

per  cent) 3,000  parts 

JV. — Neroli  extract 400  parts 

Orris  root  extract.  .  600  parts 

Vanilla  extract.  .  .  .  400  parts 

Rose  extract 900  parts 

Musk  extract 200  parts 


Orange  extract. .  .  .   500  parts 

Clove  oil 6  parts 

Bergamot  oil 5  parts 

Rose  geranium  oil     15  parts 

Marechal  Niel  Rose. — In  the  genus  of 
roses,  outside  of  the  hundred-leaved  or 
cabbage  rose,  the  Marechal  Niel  rose 
(Rosa  Noisetteana  Red),  also  called 
Noisette  rose  and  often,  erroneously,  tea 
rose,  is  especially  conspicuous.  Its  fine, 
piquant  odor  delights  all  lovers  of  pre- 
cious perfumes.  In  order  to  reproduce 
the  fine  scent  of  this  flower  artificially  at 
periods  when  it  cannot  be  had  without 
much  expenditure,  the  following  recipes 
will  be  found  useful: 

I. — Infusion  rose  I 

(from  pomades)  1,000  parts 

Genuine  rose  oil. .        10       parts 

Infusion  Tolu  bal- 
sam   150  parts 

Infusion  genuine 

musk  1 40  parts 

Neroli  oil 30       parts 

Clove  oil 2       parts 

Infusion  tube- 
reuse  I  (from 
pomades) 1,000  parts 

Vanillin 1       part 

Coumarin 0.5  parts 

II. — Triple  rose  essence. .  50  grams 

Simple  rose  essence .  60  grams 

Neroli  essence 30  grams 

Civet  essence 20  grams 

Iris  essence 30  grams 

Tonka  beans  essence  20  grams 

Rose  oil 5  drops 

Jasmine  essence. ...  60  grams 

Violet  essence 50  grams 

Cassia  essence 50  grams 

Vanilla  essence 45  grams 

Clove  oil 20  drops 

Bergamot  oil 10  drops 

Rose  geranium  oil . .  20  drops 

May  Flowers. — 

Essence  of  rose.  ....    10  ounces 

Essence  of  jasmine. .    10  ounces 
Essence    of    orange 

flowers 10  ounces 

Essence  of  cassie. ...    10  ounces 

Tincture  of  vanilla.  .   20  ounces 
Oil  of  bitter  almond.        \  drachm 

Narcissus. — 

Caryophyllin 10  minims 

Extract  of  tuberose. .  16  ounces 

Extract  of  jasmine.  .  4  ounces 

Oil  of  neroli 20  minims 

Oil  of  ylang-ylang  .  .  20  minims 

Oil    of   clove 5  minims 

Glycerine 30  minims 


518 


PERFUMES 


Almond  Blossom. — 

Extract  of  heliotrope  30  parts 

Extract  of  orange 

flower 10  parts 

Extract  of  jasmine.  .    10  parts 

Extract  of  rose 3  parts 

Oil  of  lemon 1  part 

Spirit  of  bitter  al- 
mond, 10  per  cent  6  parts 

Deodorized  alcohol.    40  parts 

Artificial  Violet. — lonone  is  an  arti- 
ficial perfume  which  smells  exactly  like 
fresh  violets,  and  is  therefore  an  ex- 
tremely important  product.  Although 
before  it  was  discovered  compositions 
were  known  which  gave  fair  imitations  of 
the  violet  perfume,  they  were  wanting  in 
the  characteristic  tang  which  distin- 
guishes all  violet  preparations.  lonone 
has  even  the  curious  property  possessed 
by  violets  of  losing  its  scent  occasionally 
for  a  short  time.  It  occasionally  hap- 
pens that  an  observer,  on  taking  the 
stopper  out  of  a  bottle  of  ionone,  per- 
ceives no  special  odor,  but  a  few  seconds 
after  the  stopper  has  been  put  back  in 
the  bottle,  the  whole  room  begins  to 
smell  of  fresh  violets.  It  seems  to  be  a 
question  of  dilution.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  make  a  usable  extract  by 
mere  dilution  of  a  10  per  cent  solution  of 
ionone. 

It  is  advisable  to  make  these  prepara- 
tions in  somewhat  large  quantities,  say 
30  to  50  pounds  at  a  time.  This  en- 
ables them  to  be  stocked  for  some  time, 
whereby  they  improve  greatly.  When 
all  the  ingredients  are  mixed,  10  days  or 
a  fortnight,  with  frequent  shakings, 
should  elapse  before  filtration.  The 
filtered  product  must  be  kept  in  well- 
filled  and  well-corked  bottles  in  a  dry, 
dark,  cool  place,  such  as  a  well- ventilated 
cellar.  After  5  or  6  weeks  the  prepara- 
tion is  ready  for  use. 

Quadruple  Extract.—     By  weight 

Jasmine  extract,  1st 

pomade 100  parts 

Rose  extract,  1st 

pomade 100  parts 

Cassia  extract,  1st 

pomade 200  parts 

Violet  extract,  1st 

pomade 200  parts 

Oil  of  geranium, 

Spanish 2  parts 

Solution  of  vanil- 
lin, 10  per  cent.  .  10  parts 

Solution  of  orris, 

10  per  cent 100  parts 

Solution  of  io- 
none, 10  per  cent  20  parts 


Infusion  of  musk  . .      10  parts 
Infusion     of     orris 

from      coarsely 

ground  root 260  parts 

Triple  Extract.—  By  weight 

Cassia    extract,  2d 

pomade 100  parts 

Violet    extract,    2d 

pomade 300  parts 

Jasmine       extract, 

2d  pomade 100  parts 

Rose     extract,     2d 

pomade 100  parts 

Oil     of    geranium, 

African 1  part 

lonone,  10  per  cent     15  parts 
Solution    of    vanil- 
lin, 10  per  cent.  .        5  parts 
Infusion     of     orris 

from    coarse 

ground  root  ....    270  parts 
Infusion  of  musk  .  .      10  parts 

Double  Extract. —  jjv  weight 
Cassia  extract,  2d 

pomade 100  parts 

Violet  extract,  2d 

pomade 150  parts 

Jasmine  extract, 

2d  pomade 100  parts 

Rose  extract,  2d 

pomade 100  parts 

Oil  of  geranium, 

reunion 2  parts 

lonone,  10  per  cent  10  parts 
Solution  of  vanil- 
lin, 10  per  cent.  .  10  parts 
Infusion  of  am- 

brette 20  parts 

Infusion  of  orris 

from    coarse 

ground  root 300  parts 

Spirit 210  parts 

White  Rose. — 

Rose  oil 25  minims 

Rose  geranium  oil .  .  20  minims 

Patchouli  oil 5  minims 

lonone 3  minims 

Jasmine     oil      (syn- 
thetic)    5  minims 

Alcohol 10  ounces 

Ylang-Ylang  Perfume. — 

I. — Ylang-ylang  oil 10  minims 

Neroli  oil. » 5  minims 

Rose  oil 5  minims 

Bergamot  oil 3  minims 

Alcohol 10  ounces 

One  grain  of  musk  may  be  added. 

II. — Extract  of  cassie  (2d)  96  ounces 
Extract    of    jasmine 

.    24  ounces 


PERFUMES 


519 


Extract  of  rose 24  ounces 

Tincture  of  orris.  ...  4  ounces 

Oil  of  ylang-ylang  . .  6  drachms 

Glycerine 6  ounces 

TOILET  WATERS. 

Toilet  waters  proper  are  perfumed 
liquids  designed  more  especially  as  re- 
freshing applications  to  the  person — 
accessories  to  the  bath  and  to  the  opera- 
tions of  the  barber.  They  are  used 
sparingly  on  the  handkerchief  also,  but 
should  not  be  of  so  persistent  a  char- 
acter as  the  "extracts"  commonly  used 
for  that  purpose,  as  they  would  then  be 
unsuitable  as  lotions. 

Ammonia  Water. — Fill  a  6-ounce 
ground  glass  stoppered  bottle  with  a 
rather  wide  mouth  with  pieces  of  am- 
monium carbonate  as  large  as  a  marble, 
then  drop  in  the  following  essential  oils: 

Oil  of  lavender.'.  ...  30  drops 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  30  drops 

Oil  of  rose 10  drops 

Oil  of  cinnamon. ...  10  drops 

Oil  of  clove 10  drops 

Finally  fill  the  bottle  with  stronger 
water  of  ammonia,  put  in  the  stopper  and 
let  stand  overnight. 

Birch-Bud  Water. — Alcohol  (96  per 
cent),  350  parts;  water,  70  parts;  soft 
soap,  20  parts;  glycerine,  15  parts;  essen- 
tial oil  of  birch  buds,  5  parts;  essence  of 
spring  flowers,  10  parts;  chlorophyll, 
quantity  sufficient  to  tint.  Mix  the 
water  with  an  equal  volume  of  spirit 
and  dissolve  the  soap  in  the  mixture. 
Mix  the  oil  and  other  ingredients  with 
the  remainder  of  the  spirit,  add  the  soap 
solution  gradually,  agitate  well,  allow  to 
stand  for  8  days  and  filter.  For  use, 
dilute  with  an  equal  volume  of  water. 

Carmelite  Balm  Water. — 

Melissa  oil 30  minims 

Sweet  marjoram 

oil 3  minims 

Cinnamon  oil ....  10  minims 

Angelica  oil 3  minims 

Citron  oil 30  minims 

Clove  oil 15  minims 

Coriander  oil ....     5  minims 

Nutmeg  oil 5  minims 

Alcohol    (90    per 

cent) 10  fluidounces 

Angelica  oil  is  obtained  principally 
from  the  aromatic  root  of  Angelica 
archangelica*  L.  (N.  O.  Umbelliferae), 
which  is  commonly  cultivated  for  the 
sake  of  the  volatile  oil  which  it  yields. 


Cypress  Water. — 

Essence  of  ambergris      |  ounce 

Spirits  of  wine 1  gallon 

Water 2  quarts 

Distill  a  gallon. 

Eau  de  Botot. — 

Aniseed 80  parts 

Clover 20  parts 

Cinnamon  cassia  .  .      20  parts 

Cochineal 5  parts 

Refined  spirit 800  parts 

Rose  water 200  parts 

Digest  for  8  days  and  add 
Tincture  of  amber- 
gris          1  part 

Peppermint  oil.  ...      10  parts 

Eau  de  Lais. — 

Eaa  de  cologne 

Jasmine  extract .... 

Lemon  essence 

Balm  water 

Vetiver  essence 

Triple  rose  water.  . . 

Eau  de  Merveilleuse. — 

Alcohol 

Orange  flower  water 

Peru  balsam 

Clove  oil 

Civet 

Rose  geranium  oil . . 

Rose  oil 

Neroli  oil 

Edelweiss. — 

Bergamot  oil 

Tincture  of  am- 
bergris  

Tincture  of  veti- 
ver  (1  in  10)..  .  . 

Heliotropin 

Rose  oil  spirit  (1 
in  100) 

Tincture  of  musk. 

Tincture  of  angel- 
ica   

Neroli  oil,  artifi- 
cial   

Hyacinth,  artifi- 
cial   

Jasmine,  artificial. 

Spirit  of  wine,  80 
per  cent 

Honey  Water. — 

I. — Best  honey 1     pound 

Coriander  seed 1     pound 

Cloves 1$  ounces 

Nutmegs.. 1     ounce 

Gum  benjamin 1     ounce 

Vamlloes,  No.  4 1     drachm 

The  yellow  rind  of  3  large  lemons. 


1  part 
0.5  parts 
0.5  parts 
0.5  parts 
0.5  parts 
0.5  parts 


3  quarts 

4  quarts 
2    ounces 
4    ounces 
1£  ounces 

|  ounce 
4     drachm* 
4     drachms 


10  grams 
2  grams 

25  grams 
5  grams 

25  grams 
5  drops 

12  drops 
10  drops 

15  drops 
1  gram 

1,000  grams 


520 


PERFUMES 


Bruise  the  cloves,  nutmegs,  coriander 
seed,  and  benjamin,  cut  the  vanilloes  in 
pieces,  and  put  all  into  a  glass  alembic 
with  1  gallon  of  clean  rectified  spirit, 
and,  after  digesting  48  hours,  draw  off 
the  spirit  by  distillation.  To  1  gallon  of 
the  distilled  spirit  add 

Damask  rose  water.      1J  pounds 
Orange  flower  water     1J  pounds 

Musk 5    grains 

Ambergris 5     grains 

Grind  the  musk  and  ambergris  in  a 
glass  mortar,  and  afterwards  put  all  to- 
gether into  a  digesting  vessel,  and  let 
them  circulate  3  days  and  3  nights  in  a 
gentle  heat;  then  let  all  cool.  Filter,  and 
keep  the  water  in  bottles  well  stoppered. 

II. — Oil  of  cloves 2£  drachms 

Oil  of  bergamot ....    10     drachms 
English  oil  of  laven- 
der       2 1  drachms 

Musk 4    grains 

Yellow  sandalwood.      2£  drachms 

Rectified  spirit 32     ounces 

Rose  water 8    ounces 

Orange  flower  water     8     ounces 

English  honey 2     ounces 

Macerate  the  musk  and  sandalwood 
in  the  spirit  7  days,  filter,  dissolve  the  oils 
in  the  filtrate,  add  the  other  ingredients, 
shake  well,  and  do  so  occasionally,  keep- 
ing as  long  as  possible  before  filtering. 

Lilac  Water.— 

Terpineol 2  drachms 

Heliotropin 8  grains 

Bergamot  oil 1  drachm 

Neroli  oil 8  minims 

Alcohol 12  ounces 

Water 4  ounces 

Orange  Flower  Water. — 
Orange     flower     es- 
sence       8  ounces 

Magnesium  carbon- 
ate       1  ounce 

Water . .     8  pints 

Triturate  the  essence  with  the  mag- 
nesium carbonate,  add  the  water,  and 
filter. 

To  Clarify  Turbid  Orange  Flower 
Water. — Shake  1  quart  of  it  with  J  pound 
of  sand  which  has  previously  been  boiled 
out  with  hydrochloric  acid,  washed  with 
water,  and  dried  at  red  heat.  This  process 
doubtless  would  prove  valuable  for  many 
other  purposes. 

Violet  Waters.— 
I. — Spirit  of   ionone,    10 

per  cent $  drachm 

Distilled  water 5     ounces 

Orange  flower  water     1     ounce 


Rose  water 1     ounce 

Cologne  spirit 8     ounces 

Add  the  spirit  of  ionone  to  the  alcohol 

and  then  add  the  waters.      Let  stand  and 

filter. 

II. — Violet  extract 2    ounces 

Cassie  extract 1     ounce 

Spirit  of  rose \  ounce 

Tincture  of  orris.  ...        \  ounce 
Green  coloring,  a  sufficiency. 
Alcohol  to  20  ounces. 

PERFUMED  PASTILLES. 

These  scent  tablets  consist  of  a  com- 
pressed mixture  of  rice  starch,  mag- 
nesium carbonate,  and  powdered  orris 
root,  -saturated  with  heliotrope,  violet, 
or  lilac  perfume. 

Violet. — 

Ionone 50  parts 

Ylang-ylang  oil 50  parts 

Tincture    of    musk, 

extra  strong 200  parts 

Tincture  of  benzoin .  200  parts 

Heliotrope. — 

Heliotropin 200  parts 

Vanillin 50  parts 

Tincture  of  musk.  .  .  100  parts 
Tincture  of  benzoin .  200  parts 

Lilac.— 

Terpineol 200  parts 

Muguet 200  parts 

Tincture  of  musk.  .  .200  parts 
Tincture  of  benzoin  .  200  parts 

Sandalwood 2     drachms 

Vetivert 2     drachms 

Lavender  flowers.  ..  4     drachms 

Oil  of  thyme \  drachm 

Charcoal 2     ounces 

Potassium  nitrate.  .  .  \  ounce 
Mucilage  of  tragacanth,  a  sufficient 
quantity. 

Perfumes  for  Hair  Oils. — 

I. — Heliotropin 8  grains 

Coumarin 1  grain 

Oil  of  orris 1  drop 

Oil  of  rose 15  minims 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  30  minims 

II. — Coumarin 2  grains 

Oil  of  cloves 4  drops 

Oil  of  cassia 4  drops 

Oil  of  lavender  flow- 
ers   15  minims 

Oil  of  lemon 45  minims 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  75  minims 

Soap  Perfumes. — 
See  also  Soap. 

I. — Oil  of  lavender \  ounce 

Oil  of  cassia 30    minims 

Add  5  pounds  of  soap  stock. 


PETROLEUM 


521 


II. — Oil  of  caraway 

Oil  of  clove 

Oil  of  white  thyme.  .      1£  drachms 

Oil  of  cassia >          of 

Oil    of    orange    leaf  each 

(neroli  petit  grain) 

Oil  of  lavender 

Add  to  5  pounds  of  soap  stock. 

PERFUMES    (FUMIGANTS): 
See  Ftimigants. 

PERSPIRATION  REMEDY: 

See  Cosmetics. 


Petroleum 

(See  also  Oils.) 

The  Preparation  of  Emulsions  of 
Crude  Petroleum. — Kerosene  has  long 
been  recognized  as  a  most  efficient  insec- 
ticide, but  its  irritating  action,  as  well  as 
the  very  considerable  cost  involved,  has 
prevented  the  use  of  the  pure  oil  as  a 
local  application  in  the  various  parasitic 
skin  diseases  of  animals. 

In  order  to  overcome  these  objections 
various  expedients  have  been  resorted  to, 
all  of  which  have  for  their  object  the  dilu- 
tion or  emulsification  of  the  kerosene. 
Probably  the  best  known  and  most  gen- 
erally employed  method  for  accomplish- 
ing this  result  is  that  which  is  based  upon 
the  use  of  soap  as  an  emulsifying  agent. 
The  formula  which  is  used  almost  uni- 
versally for  making  the  kerosene  soap 
emulsion  is  as  follows: 

Kerosene 2     gallons 

Water 1     gallon 

Hard  soap \  pound 

The  soap  is  dissolved  in  the  water  with 
the  aid  of  heat,  and  while  this  solution  is 
still  hot  the  kerosene  is  added  and  the 
whole  agitated  vigorously.  The  smooth 
white  mixture  which  is  obtained  in  this  way 
is  diluted  before  use  with  sufficient  water 
to  make  a  total  volume  of  20  gallons,  and 
is  usually  applied  to  the  skin  of  animals 
or  to  trees  or  other  plants  by  means  of  a 
spray  pump.  This  method  of  applica- 
tion is  used  because  the  diluted  emulsion 
separates  quite  rapidly,  and  some  me- 
chanical device,  such  as  a  •  self-mixing 
spray  pump,  is  required  to  keep  the  oil 
in  suspension. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that 
this  emulsion  would  not  be  well  adapted 
either  for  use  as  a  dip  or  for  application 
by  hand,  for  in  the  one  case  the  oil, 
which  rapidly  rises  to  the  surface,  would 
adhere  to  the  animals  when  they  emerged 


from  the  dipping  tank  and  the  irritating 
effect  would  be  scarcely  less  than  that 
produced  by  the  plain  oil,  and  in  the 
second  case  the  same  separation  of  the 
kerosene  would  take  place  and  necessa- 
rily result  in  an  uneven  distribution  of  the 
oil  on  the  bodies  of  the  animals  which 
were  being  treated. 

Within  recent  years  it  has  been  found 
that  a  certain  crude  petroleum  frcm  the 
Beaumont  oil  fields  is  quite  effective  for 
destroying  the  Texas  fever  cattle  ticks. 
This  crude  petroleum  contains  from  40 
to  50  per  cent  of  oils  boiling  below 
300°  C.  (572°  F.),  and  from  1  to  1.5  per 
cent  of  sulphur.  After  a  number  of 
trials  of  different  combinations  of  crude 
oil,  soap,  and  water,  the  following  for- 
mula was  decided  upon  as  the  one  best 
suited  to  the  uses  in  view: 

Crude  petroleum 2    gallons 

Water £  gallon 

Hard  soap |  pound 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  with 
the  aid  of  heat;  to  this  solution  add  the 
crude  petroleum,  mix  with  a  spray  pump 
or  shake  vigorously,  and  dilute  with  the 
desired  amount  of  water.  Soft  water 
should,  of  course,  be  used.  Various 
forms  of  hard  and  soft  soaps  have  been 
tried,  but  soap  with  an  amount  of  free 
alkali  equivalent  to  0.9  per  cent  of  sodium 
hydroxide  gives  the  best  emulsion.  All 
the  ordinary  laundry  soaps  are  quite  sat- 
isfactory, but  toilet  soaps. in  the  main 
are  not  suitable. 

An  emulsion  of  crude  petroleum  made 
according  to  this  modified  formula  re- 
mains fluid  and  can  be  easily  poured;  it 
will  stand  indefinitely  without  any  ten- 
dency toward  a  separation  of  the  oil  and 
water  and  can  be  diluted  in  any  propor- 
tion with  cold  soft  water.  After  suffi- 
cient dilution  to  produce  a  10  per  cent 
emulsion,  a  number  of  hours  are  re- 
quired for  all  the  oil  to  rise  to  the 
surface,  but  if  the  mixture  is  agitated 
occasionally,  no  separation  takes  place. 
After  long  standing  the  oil  separates  in 
the  form  of  a  creamlike  layer  which  is 
easily  mixed  with  the  water  again  by 
stirring.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  for 
producing  an  emulsion  which  will  hold 
the  oil  in  suspension  after  dilution,  the 
modified  formula  meets  the  desired  re- 
quirements. 

In  preparing  this  emulsion  for  use  in 
the  field,  a  large  spray  pump  capable  of 
mixing  25  gallons  may  be  used  with 
perfect  success. 

In  using  the  formula  herewith  given, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is 
recommended  especially  for  the  crude 


PETROLEUM —PICTURES 


petroleum  obtained  from  the  Beaumont 
oil  fields,  the  composition  of  which  has 
already  been  given.  As  crude  petroleums 
from  different  sources  vary  greatly  in  their 
composition,  it  is  impracticable  to  give  a 
formula  that  can  be  used  with  all  crude 
oils.  Nevertheless,  crude  petroleum 
from  other  sources  than  the  Beaumont 
wells  may  be  emulsified  by  modifying 
the  formula  given  above.  In  order  to 
determine  what  modification  of  this 
formula  is  necessary  for  the  emulsifica- 
tion  of  a  given  oil,  the  following  method 
may  be  used: 

Dissolve  \  pound  of  soap  in  \  gallon  of 
hot  water;  to  1  measure  of  this  soap 
solution  add  4  measures  of  the  crude 
petroleum  to  be  tested  and  shake  well 
in  a  stoppered  bottle  or  flask  for  several 
minutes. 

If,  after  dilution,  there  is  a  separation 
of  a  layer  of  pure  oil  within  half  an  hour 
the  emulsion  is  imperfect,  and  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  formula  will  be  required. 
To  accomplish  this  the  proportion  of  oil 
should  be  varied  until  a  good  result  is 
obtained. 

Petroleum  for  Spinning. — In  order  to 
be  able  to  wash  out  the  petroleum  or 
render  it  "saponifiable,"  the  following 
process  is  recommended:  Heat  the  min- 
eral oil  with  5  to  10  per  cent  of  plein, 
add  the  proper  amount  of  alcoholic  lye 
and  continue  heating  until  the  solvent 
(water  alcohol)  evaporates.  A  prac- 
tical way  is  to  introduce  an  aqueous  lye 
at  230°  F.  in  small  portions  and  to  heat 
until  the  froth  disappears.  For  clearness 
it  is  necessary  merely  to  evaporate  all  the 
water.  In  the  same  manner,  more  olein 
may  be  added  as  desired  if  the  admixture 
of  lye  is  kept  down  so  that  not  too  much 
soap  is  formed  or  the  petroleum  be- 
comes too  thick.  After  cooling,  a  uni- 
form gelatinous  mass  results.  This  is 
liquefied  mechanically,  during  or  after 
the  cooling,  by  passing  it  through  fine 
sieves.  Soap  is  so  finely  and  intimately 
distributed  in  the  petroleum  that  the  fin- 
est particles  of  oil  are  isolated  by  soap,  as 
it  were.  When  a  quantity  of  oil  is 
intimately  stirred  into  the  water  an 
emulsion  results  so  that  the  different 
parts  cannot  be  distinguished.  The 
same  process  takes  place  in  washing,  the 
soap  contained  in  the  oil  swelling  be- 
tween the  fibers  and  the  oil  particles 
upon  mixture  with  water,  isolating  the 
oil  and  lifting  it  from  the  fiber. 

Deodorized  Petroleum.  —  Petroleum 
may  be  deodorized  by  shaking  it  first 
witn  100  parts  of  chlorinated  lime  for 
every  4,500  parts,  adding  a  little  hydro- 


chloric acid,  then  transferring  the  liquid 
to  a  vessel  containing  lime,  and  again 
shaking  until  all  the  chlorine  is  removed. 
After  standing,  the  petroleum  is  de- 
canted. 

Petroleum  Briquettes. — Mix  with  1,000 
parts  of  petroleum  oil  150  parts  of 
ground  soap,  150  parts  of  rosin,  and  300 
parts  of  caustic  soda  lye.  Heat  this 
mixture  while  stirring.  When  solidifi- 
cation commences,  which  will  be  in 
about  40  minutes,  the  operation  must  be 
watched.  If  the  mixture  tends  to  over- 
flow, pour  into  the  receiver  a  few  drops 
of  soda,  and  continue  to  stir  until  the 
solidification  is  complete.  When  the 
operation  is  ended,  flow  the  matter  into 
molds  for  making  the  briquettes,  and 
place  them  for  10  or  15  minutes  in  a 
stove;  then  they  may  be  allowed  to  cool. 
The  briquettes  can  be  employed  a  few 
hours  after  they  are  made. 

To  the  three  elements  constituting  the 
mixture  it  is  useful  to  add  per  1,000  parts 
by  weight  of  the  briquettes  to  be  ob- 
tained, 120  parts  of  sawdust  and  120 
parts  of  clay  or  sand,  to  render  the 
briquettes  more  solid. 

Experiments  in  the  heating  of  these 
briquettes  have  demonstrated  that  they 
will  furnish  three  times  as  much  heat  as 
briquettes  of  ordinary  charcoal,  without 
leaving,  any  residue. 

PETROLEUM  EMULSION: 

See  Insecticides. 

PETROLEUM  JELLIES: 

See  Lubricants. 

PETROLEUM  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

PEWTER: 

See  Alloys. 

PEWTER,  TO  CLEAN: 

.  See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

PEWTER,  AGEING: 

If  it  is  desired  to  impart  to  modern  ar- 
ticles of  pewter  the  appearance  of  an- 
tique objects,  plunge  the  pieces  for  several 
moments  into  a  solution  of  alum  to  which 


several  drops  of  hydrochloric  or  sulph 
acid  have  been  added. 


uric 


PICTURES,  GLOW. 

These  can  be  easily  produced  by  draw- 
ing the  outlines  of  a  picture,  writing,  etc., 
on  a  piece  of  white  paper  with  a  solution 
of  40  parts  of  saltpeter  and  20  parts  of 
gum  arabic  in  40  parts  of  warm  water, 
using  a  writing  pen  for  this  purpose.  All 
the  lines  must  connect  and  one  of  them 


PHOSPHATE   SUBSTITUTE—PHOTOGRAPHY 


must  run  to  the  edge  of  the  paper,  where 
it  should   be   marked  with   a  fine   lead- 

Eencil  line.  When  a  burning  match  is 
eld  to  this  spot,  the  line  immediately 
glows  on,  spreading  over  the  whole  de- 
sign, and  the  design  formerly  invisible 
finally  appears  entirely  singed.  This 
little  trick  is  not  dangerous. 

PHOSPHATE  SUBSTITUTE. 

An  artificial  phosphate  is  thus  pre- 
pared: Melt  in  an  oven  a  mixture  of  100 
parts  of  phosphorite,  ground  coarsely,  70 
parts  of  acid  sulphate  of  soda;  20  parts  of 
carbonate  of  lime;  22  parts  of  sand,  and 
607  parts  of  charcoal.  Run  the  molten 
matter  into  a  receiver  filled  with  water; 
on  cooling  it  will  become  granular.  Rake 
out  the  granular  mass  from  the  water, 
and  after  drying,  grind  to  a  fine  powder. 
The  phosphate  can  be  kept  for  a  long 
time  without  losing  its  quality,  for  it  is 
neither  caustic  nor  hygroscopic.  Wag- 
ner has,  in  collaboration  with  Dorsch, 
conducted  fertilizing  experiments  for 
determining  its  value,  as  compared  with 
superphosphate  or  with  Thomas  slag. 
The  phosphate  decomposes  more  rapidly 
in  the  soil  than  Thomas  slag,  and  so  far 
as  the  experiments  have  gone,  it  appears 
that  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  new  phos- 
phate exercises  almost  as  rapid  an  action 
as  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  superphos- 
phate soluble  in  water.  <^v 

PHOSPHORESCENT  MASS. 

See  also  Luminous  Bodies  and  Paints. 

Mix  2  parts  of  dehydrated  sodium 
carbonate,  0.5  parts  of  sodium  chloride, 
and  0.2  parts  of  manganic  sulphate  with 
100  parts  of  strontium  carbonate  and  30 
parts  of  sulphur  and  heat  3  hours  to  a 
white  heat  with  exclusion  of  air. 

PHOSPHOR  BRONZE: 

See  Alloys,  under  Bronzes. 

PHOSPHORUS    SUBSTITUTE. 

G.  Graveri  recommends  persul  fo- 
cyanic  acid  =  H2(CN)yS3  as  meeting  all 
the  requirements  of  phosphorus  on 
matches.  It  resists  shock  and  friction, 
it  is  readily  friable,  and  will  mix  with 
other  substances;  moreover,  it  is  non- 
poisonous  and  cheaper  than  phosphorus. 


Photography 


DEVELOPERS  AND  DEVELOPING 
OF  PLATES. 

No  light  is  perfectly  safe  or  non-actinic, 
even  that  coming  through  a  combined 
ruby  and  orange  window  or  lamp. 
Therefore  use  great  care  in  developing. 


A  light  may  be  tested  this  way:  Place  a 
dry  plate  in  the  plate  holder  in  total 
darkness,  draw  the  slide  sufficiently  to 
expose  one-half  of  the  plate,  and  allow 
the  light  from  the  window  or  lamp,  12  to 
18  inches  distant,  to  fall  on  this  exposed 
half  for  3  or  4  minutes.  Then  develop 
the  plate  the  usual  length  of  time  in  total 
darkness.  If  the  light  is  safe,  there  will 
be  no  darkening  of  the  exposed  part.  If 
not  safe,  the  remedy  is  obvious. 

The  developing  room  must  be  a  per- 
fectly dark  room,  save  for  the  light  from 
a  ruby-  or  orange-colored  window  (or 
combination  of  these  two  colors).  Have 
plenty  of  pure  running  water  and  good 
ventilation. 

Plates  should  always  be  kept  in  a  dry 
room.  The  dark  room  is  seldom  a  safe 
place  for  storage,  because  it  is  apt  to  be 
damp. 

Various  developing  agents  give  differ- 
ent results.  Pyrogallic  acid  in  combi- 
nation with  carbonate  of  sodium  or 
carbonate  of  .  potassium  gives  strong, 
vigorous  negatives.  Eikonogen  and  metol 
yield  soft,  delicate  negatives.  Hydro- 
chinon  added  to  eikonogen  or  metol 
produces  more  contrast  or  greater 
strength. 

It  is  essential  to  have  a  bottle  of  bro- 
mide of  potassium  solution,,  10  per  cent, 
in  the  dark  room.  (One  ounce  of  bromide 
of  potassium,  water  to  10  ounces.)  Over- 
timed plates  may  be  much  improved 
by  adding  a  few  drops  of  bromide  solu- 
tion to  the  developer  as  soon  as  the 
overtimed  condition  is  apparent  (a  plate 
is  overtimed  when  the  image  appears 
almost  immediately,  and  then  blackens 
all  over). 

Undertimed  plates  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  developer  and  placed  in  a  tray 
of  water  where  no  light  can  reach  them. 
If  the  detail  in  the  shadows  begins  to  ap- 
pear after  half  an  hour  or  so,  the  plate 
can  be  replaced  in  the  developer  and  de- 
velopment brought  to  a  finish. 

Quick  development,  with  strong  solu- 
tions, means  a  lack  of  gradation  or  half- 
tones. 

A  developer  too  warm  or  containing 
too  much  alkali  (carbonate  of  sodium  or 
potassium)  will  yield  flat,  foggy  nega- 
tives. 

A  developer  too  cold  is  retarded  in  its 
action,  and  causes  thin  negatives. 

Uniform  temperature  is  necessary  for 
uniform  results. 

If  development  is  continued  too  long, 
the  negative  will  be  too  dense. 

In  warm  weather,  the  developer 
should  be  diluted;  in  cold  weather,  it 
should  be  stronger. 


524 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


The  negative  should  not  be  exposed  to 
white  light  until  fixation  is  complete. 

The  negative  should  be  left  fully  5 
minutes  longer  in  the  fixing  bath  than  is 
necessary  to  dissolve  out  the  white  bro- 
mide of  silver. 

In  hot  weather  a  chrome  alum  fixing 
bath  should  be  used  to  prevent  frilling. 

Always  use  a  fresh  hypo  or  fixing  bath. 
Hypo  is  cheap. 

Plates  and  plate  holders  must  be  kept 
free  from  dust,  or  pinholes  will  result. 

After  the  negative  is  fixed,  an  hour's 
washing  is  none  too  much. 

The  plate  should  be  dried  quickly  in 
warm  weather  else  the  film  will  become 
dense  and  coarse-grained. 

Do  not  expect  clean,  faultless  negatives 
to  come  out  of  dirty  developing  and  fix- 
ing solutions  and  trays. 

Pyro  and  Soda  Developer. — 

I. — Pure  water 30    ounces 

Sulphite  soda,  crys- 
tals        5    ounces 

Carbonate      soda*, 

crystals 2£  ounces 

II. — Pure  water 24     ounces 

Oxalic  acid 15     grains 

Pyrogallic  acid 1     ounce 

To  develop,  take  of 

Solution  No.  1 1    ounce 

Solution  No.  II £  ounce 

Pure  water 3    ounces 

More  water  may  be  used  in  warm 
weather  and  less  in  cool  weather. 

If  solution  No.  I  is  made  by  hydrom- 
eter test,  use  equal  parts  of  the  follow- 
ing: 

Sulphite  soda  testing,  80°. 
Carbonate  soda  testing,  .40°. 
One  ounce  of  this  mixture  will  be  equiv- 
alent to  1  ounce  of  solution  No.  I. 

Pyro  and  Potassium  Developer. — 

I. — Pure  water 32  ounces 

Sulphite  soda,  crys- 
tals        8  ounces 

Carbonate    p  o  t  a  s  - 

sium,  dry 1  ounce 

II. — Pure  water 24  ounces 

Oxalic  acid 15  ounces 

Pyrogallic  acid 1  ounce 

To  develop,  take  of 

Solution  No.  1 1     ounce 

Solution  No.  II Bounce 

Pure  water 3    ounces 

When  the  plate  is  fully  developed,  if 
the  lights  are  too  thin,  use  less  water  in 
the  developer;  if  too  dense,  use  more 
water. 


Pyro  and  Metol  Developer. — Good  for 
short  exposures: 

I. — Pure  water 57     ounces 

Sulphite   soda,  crys- 
tals       2£  ounces 

Metol 1     ounce 

II. — Pure  water 57     ounces 

Sulphite   soda,  crys- 
tals       2  \  ounces 

Pyrogallic  acid \  ounce 

III. — Pure  water 57     ounces 

Carbonate    p  o  t  a  s  - 

sium 2^  ounces 

To  develop,  take  of 

Pure  water 3  ounces 

Solution  No.  1 1  ounce 

Solution  No.  II 1  ounce 

Solution  No.  III. ...      1  ounce 

This  developer  may  be  used  repeat- 
edly by  adding  a  little  fresh  developer  as 
required. 

Keep  the  used  developer  in  a  separate 
bottle. 

Rodinal  Developer. — One  part  rodinal 
to  30  parts  pure  water. 

Use  repeatedly,  adding  fresh  as  re- 
quired. 

Bromo -Hydrochinon  Developer. — For 
producing  great  contrast  and  intensity, 
also  for  developing  over-exposed  plates. 

I. — Distilled  or  ice  water  25  ounces 
Sulphite  of  soda,  crys- 
tals        3    ounces 

Hydrochinon \  ounce 

Bromide    of    potas- 
sium          \  ounce 

Dissolve  by  warming,  and  let  cool  be- 
fore use. 

II. — Water 25  ounces 

Carbonate    of   soda, 

crystals 6  ounces 

Mix  Nos.  I  and  II,  equal  parts,  for  use. 

Eikonogen  Hydrochinon  Developer. — 
I. — Distilled     or     pure 

well  water 32  ounces 

Sodium   sulphite, 

crystals 4  ounces 

Eikonogen 240  grains 

Hydrochinon 60  grains 

II. — Water 32  ounces 

Carbonate  of  potash  4  ounces 
To  develop,  take 

No.  1 2  ounces 

No.  II 1  ounce 

*  Water..  1  ounce 


*For    double-coated    plates   use    5   ounces   of 
water. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


525 


By  hydrometer: 

I. — Sodium  sulphite. 

solution  to  test  30     34  ounces 

Eikonogen 240  grains 

Hydrochinon 60  grains 

II. — Carbonate   of   pot- 
ash   solution    to 

test  50 

To  develop,  take 

No.  I 2  ounces 

No.  II 1  ounce 

*W7ater 1  ounce 

Hydrochinon  Developer. — 

I. — Hydrochinon 1  ounce 

Sulphite      of     soda, 

crystals 5  ounces 

Bromide    of    potas- 
sium     10  grains 

Water    (ice    or    dis- 
tilled)      55  ounces 

II. — Caustic  potash 180  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

To  develop: 

Take  of  I,  4  ounces;  II,  £  ounce.  Af- 
ter use  pour  into  a  separate  bottle.  This 
can  be  used  repeatedly,  and  with  uni- 
formity of  results,  by  the  addition  of  1 
drachm  of  I  and  10  drops  of  II  to  every 
8  ounces  of  old  developer. 

In  using  this  developer  it  is  important 
to  notice  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
as  a  slight  variation  in  this  respect  causes 
a  very  marked  difference  in  the  time  it 
takes  to  develop,  much  more  so  than  with 
pyro.  The  temperature  of  room  should 
be  from  70°  to  75°  F. 

Metol  Developer. — 

I. — Water 8  ounces 

Metol 100  grains 

Sulphite      of      soda, 

crystals 1  ounce 

II. — Water 10  ounces 

Potassium  carbonate  1  ounce 
Take  equal  parts  of  I  and  II  and  6 
parts  of  water.  If  more  contrast  is 
needed,  take  equal  parts  of  I  and  II  and 
3  parts  of  water,  with  5  drops  to  the 
ounce  of  a  iV  solution  of  bromide  of 
potassium. 

Metol  and  Hydrochinon  Developer. — 

I. — Pure  hot  water 80     ounces 

Metol 1     ounce 

Hydrochinon J  ounce 

Sulphite  soda,  crys- 
tals        6    ounces 


*For    double-coated    plates    use    5   ounces   of 
water. 


II. — Pure  water 80  ounces 

Carbonate     soda, 

crystals 5  ounces 

To  develop,  take  of 

Pure  water 2  ounces 

Solution  No.  1 1  ounce 

Solution  No.  II 1  ounce 

Metol-Bicarbonate  Developer. — Thor- 
oughly dissolve 

Metol 1  ounce 

In  water 60  ounces 

Then  add 

Sulphite    of    soda, 

crystals 6  ounces 

Bicarbonate  of  soda.     3  ounces 
To  prepare  with  hydrometer,  mix 
Sulphite  of  soda  so- 
lution, testing  75..    30  ounces 
Bicarbonate  of  soda 

solution,  testing  50  30  ounces 

Metol 1  ounce 

Dissolved  in  12  ounces  water. 

Ferrous -O xalate  Developer . — For 
transparencies  and  opals. 

I. — Oxalate  of  potash. . .     8  ounces 

Water 30  ounces 

Citric  acid 60  grains 

Citrate  of  ammonia 

solution. . 2  ounces 

II. — Sulphate  of  iron  ....      4  ounces 

Water 32  ounces 

Sulphuric  acid 16  drops 

III. — Citrate  of  ammonia 
solution  saturated. 

Dissolve  1  ounce  citric  acid  in  5  ounces 
distilled  water,  add  liquor  ammonia  un- 
til a  slip  of  litmus  paper  just  loses  the 
red  color,  then  add  water  to  make  the 
whole  measure  8  ounces. 

Add  1  ounce  of  II  to  2  of  I,  and  $  ounce 
of  water,  and  3  to  6  drops  of  10  per  cent 
solution  bromide  potassium. 

To  develop,  first  rinse  developing  dish 
with  water,  lay  film  or  plate  down,  and 
flow  with  sufficient  developer  to  well 
cover.  Careful  attention  must  be  given 
to  its  action,  and  when  detail  is  just 
showing  in  the  face,  or  half-tone  lights  in 
a  view,  pour  off  developer,  and  well  wash 
the  film  before  placing  in  the  fixing  bath. 
Tolidol  Developer. — Standard  formula 
for  dry  plates  and  films: 

Water 16     ounces 

Tolidol 24     grains 

Sodium      sul- 
phite      72  (144)  grains 

Sodium     car- 
bonate     96  (240)  grains 

The  figures  in  parenthesis  are  for  crys- 
tals. It  will  be  seen  that  in  every  case 


526 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


the  weight  of  sulphite  required  in  crys- 
tals is  double  that  of  dry  sulphite, 
while  the  weight  of  carbonate  crystals  is 
2|  times  as  much  as  dry  carbonate. 

For  tank  development  Dr.  John  M. 
Nicol  recommends  the  standard  formula 
diluted  with  6  times  the  amount  of  water, 
and  the  addition  of  1  drop  of  retarder  to 
every  ounce  after  dilution. 

To  obtain  very  strong  negatives: 

Water 16  ounces 

Tolidol 50  to  65  grains 

Sodium  sul- 
phite       80  (160)  grains 

Sodium  car- 
bonate     120  (300)  grains 

On  some  brands  of  plates  the  addition 
of  a  little  retarder  will  be  necessary. 

If  stock  solutions  are  preferred,  they 
may  be  made  as  follows: 

Solution   A 

Water 32  ounces 

Tolidol 1  ounce 

Sodium  sulphite. .  1  (2)  ounce 

Solution   B 

Water 32  ounces 

Sodium  sulphite. .      2  (4)  ounces 

Solution   C 

Water. 32  ounces 

Sodium  carbonate  4  (10)  ounces 
If  preferred,  stock  solutions  B  and  C 
can  be  made  by  hydrometer,  instead  of 
by  weight  as  above.     The  solutions  will 
then  show: 

Solution   B 
Sodium  sulphite. ...   40 

Solution    C 

Sodium  carbonate  . .    75 
Or  if  potassium  carbonate  is  preferred 
instead  of  sodium: 

Solution    C 
Potassium  carbonate  60 

For  standard  formula  for  dry  plates 
and  films,  mix 

Solution  A 1  part 

Solution  B 1  part 

Solution  C 1  part 

Water 7  parts 

For  strong  negatives  (for  aristo-pla- 
tino) : 

Solution  A I$to2     parts 

Solution  B 1     part 

Solution  C 1     part 

Water 4    to  4£  parts 

For  tank  development: 

Solution  A 1  part 

Solution  B 1  part 

Solution  C 1  part 

Water 35  parts 


For  developing  paper: 

Solution  A 2  parts 

Solution  B 2  parts 

Solution  C 1  part 

The  reading  of  the  hydrometer  for 
stock  solutions  is  the  same  whether 
dried  chemicals  or  crystals  are  used. 
No  water  is  used. 

Pyrocatechin-Phosphate  Developer. — 

Solution   A 
Crystallized  sulphite 

of  soda 386  grains 

Pyrocatechin 77  grains 

Water 8  ounces 

Solution   B 
Ordinary      crystal 

Phosphate  of  so- 
ium 725  grains 

Caustic  soda  (puri- 
fied in  sticks) 77  grains 

Water 8  ounces 

Mix  1  part  of  A  with  1  part  of  B  and 
from  1  to  3  parts  of  water.  If  the  ex- 
posure is  not  absolutely  normal  we 
recommend  to  add  to  the  above  develop- 
er a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  bromide 
of  potassium  (1.10). 

Pyrocatechin    Developer    (One    Solu- 
tion).— Dissolve  in  the  following  range: 
Sulphite  of  soda  crys- 
tallized     25  £  drachms 

Caustic  soda    (puri- 
fied in  sticks)  ....      3|  drachms 

Distilled  water 14     ounces 

Pyrocatechin 308     grains 

The  pyrocatechin  must  not  be  added 
until  the  sulphite  and  caustic  soda  are 
entirely  dissolved.  For  use  the  con- 
centrated developer  is  to  be  diluted  with 
from  10  to  20  times  as  much  water.  The 
normal  proportion  is  1  part  of  developer 
in  15  parts  of  water. 

Vogel's    Pyrocatechin    Combined  De- 
veloper and  Fixing  Solution. — 
Sulphite     of     soda 

crystallized 468     grains 

Water 2|  ounces 

Caustic   potash 
(purif  ie  d     in 

sticks) 108     grains 

Pyrocatechin 108     grains 

Mix  for  a  formally  fixing  plate  of 
5x7  inches. 

Developer 3     drachms 

Fixing  soda  solution 

(1:5) 5£  drachms 

Water 1     ounce 

The  process  of  developing  and  fixing 
with  this  solution  is  accomplished  in  a 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


527 


few  minutes.  The  picture  first  appears 
usually,  strengthens  very  quickly,  and 
shortly  after  the  fixing  is  entirely  done. 

Ellon's  Pyrocatechin  Developer. — 
Pyrocatechin,  2  per  cent  solution  (2 
grams  pyrocatechin  in  100  cubic  centi- 
meters of  water). 

Carbonate  of  potassium,  10  per  cent 
solution  (10  grams  carbonate  in  100 
cubic  centimeters  of  water). 

For  use  take  equal  parts  and  add  water 
as  desired. 

Imperial  Standard  Pyro  Developer.— 
I. — Metabisulphite     of 

potassium 120  grains 

Pyrogallic  acid ....      55  grains 
Bromide  of  potas- 
sium       20  grains 

Metol 45  grains 

Water 20  ounces 

II. — Carbonate  of  soda.        4  ounces 

Water 20  ounces 

For  use  mix  equal  parts  I  and  II. 
BardwelPs  Pyro -Acetone  Developer. — 

Water 4  ounces 

Sulphite    of   sodium 
(saturated    s  o  1  u  - 

tion) 4  drachms 

Acetone 2  drachms 

Pyro 10  grams 

Hauff's  Adurol  Developer. — One  so- 
lution. 

Water 10     ounces 

Sulphide  of  sodium, 

crystals 4     ounces 

Carbonate  of  potas- 
sium       3     ounces 

Adurol £  ounce 

For  studio  work  and  snap  shots  take 
1  part  with  3  parts  water. 

For  time  exposures  out-door  take  1 
part  with  5  parts  water. 

Glycin  Developer. — 

I. — Hot  water 10     ounces 

Sulphite    of  sodium, 

crystals 11  ounces 

Carbonate  of  sodium       |  ounce 
Glycin \  ounce 

Add  to  water  in  order  given. 

II. — Water 10    ounces 

Carbonate  of  potash      \\  ounces 
For  normal  exposure  take  I,  1  ounce; 
II,  2  ounces;  water,  1  ounce. 

Imogen  Developer. — 

I. — Hot  water 9     ounces 

Sulphite  of  sodium, 

crystals 385     grains 

Imogen 123     grains 


II. — Hot  water 4£  ounces 

Carbonate  of  sodium    2     ounces 
For  use  take  2  ounces  of  I  and  1  ounce 
of  II. 

Diogen  Developer. — 

Water 9    ounces 

Sulphite  of  sodium. .     3£  ounces 

Diogen 7    drachms 

Carbonate  of  potas- 
sium       4  £  ounces 

For  normal  exposure  take  4  drachms 
of  this  solution;  dilute  with  2  ounces,  1 
drachm  of  water,  and  add  2  drops  bromide 
of  potassium,  10  per  cent  solution. 

Ortol  Developer. — Formula  by  Pent- 
large. 

I. — Water 1  ounce 

Metabisulphite      o  f 

potassium 4  grains 

Ortol 8  grains 

II. — Water 1  ounce 

Sulphite  of  sodium. .  48  grains 
Carbonate  of  potas- 
sium     16  grains 

Carbonate  of  sodium  32  grains 
For  use  take  equal  parts  I  and  II,  and 
an  equal  bulk  of  water. 

Metacarbol  Developer. — 

Metacarbol 25  grains 

Sulphite     of    soda, 

crystals 100  grains 

Caustic  soda 50  grains 

Water 10  ounces 

Dissolve  the  metacarbol  in  water,  then 
add  the  sulphite,  and  when  dissolved  add 
the  caustic  soda  and  filter. 

DEVELOPING  POWDERS. 

By  weight 

I. — Pyrogallol 0.3  parts 

Sodium  bisulphite  . .      1.2  parts 
Sodium  carbonate  . .      1.2  parts 

II. — Eikonogen 1.1  parts 

Sodium  sulphite. ...      2.4  parts 
Potassium  carbonate     1.5  parts 

III. — Hydroquinone 0.6  parts 

Sodium  sulphite. ...      3.4  parts 
Potassium  bromide.      0.3  parts 
Sodium  carbonate  . .      7.0  parts 
These  three  formulas  each  yield  one 
powder.     The  powders  should  be  put  up 
in    oiled    paper,  and    carefully  inclosed, 
besides,  in    a   wrapper   of    black  paper. 
For  use,  one  powder  is  dissolved  in  about 
60  parts  of  distilled  water. 

DEVELOPING   PAPERS. 

Light. — The  paper  can  be  safely 
handled  8  feet  from  the  source  of  light 


528 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


which  may  be  Welsbach  gas  light,  cov- 
ered with  post-office  paper,  incandes- 
cent light,  ordinary  gas  light,  kerosene 
light,  or  reduced  daylight,  the  latter  pro- 
duced by  covering  a  window  with  one  or 
more  thicknesses  of  orange  post-office 
paper,  as  necessitated  by  strength  of  light. 
Expose  by  holding  the  printing  frame 
close  to  gas,  lamp,  or  incandescent  light, 
or  to  subdued  daylight.  Artificial  light 
is  recommended  in  preference  to  day- 
light because  of  uniformity,  and  it  being 
in  consequence  easier  to  judge  the  proper 
length  of  time  to  expose. 

Exposure. — The  amount  of  exposure 
required  varies  with  the  strength  of  the 
light;  it  takes  about  the  same  time  with  an 
ordinary  gas  burner  and  an  incandescent 
light;  a  Welsbach  gas  light  requires  only 
about  one-half  as  much  time  as  the  ordi- 
nary gas  burner,  and  a  kerosene  light  of 
ordinary  size  about  three  times  as  much 
as  an  ordinary  gas  burner.  If  day- 
light is  to  be  used  the  window  should  be 
covered  with  post-office  paper,  in  which 
a  sub-window  about  1  foot  square  for 
making  the  exposure  may  be  made. 
Cover  this  window  first  with  a  piece  of 
white  tissue  paper,  then  with  a  piece  of 
black  cloth  or  post-office  paper  to  ex- 
clude the  white  light  when  not  wanted. 
Make  exposure  according  to  strength  of 
light  at  from  1  to  2  feet  away  from  the 
tissue  paper.  Keep  the  printing  frame 
when  artificial  light  is  used  constantly  in 
motion  during  exposure. 

Timing  the  Exposure. — The  time 
necessary  for  exposing  is  regulated  by 
density  of  negative  and  strength  of  light. 
The  further  away  the  negative  is  from 
the  source  of  light  at  the  time  of  ex- 
posure the  weaker  the  light;  hence,  in 
order  to  secure  uniformity  in  exposure 
it  is  desirable  always  to  make  the  exposure 
at  a  given  distance  from  the  light  used. 
With  a  negative  of  medium  density  exposed 
1  foot  from  an  ordinary  gas  burner,  from  1 
to  10  minutes'  exposure  is  required. 

A  test  to  ascertain  the  length  of  ex- 
posure should  be  made.  Once  the 
proper  amount  of  exposure  is  ascer- 
tained with  a  given  light,  the  amount  of 
exposure  required  can  be  easily  approx- 
imated by  making  subsequent  exposures 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  same 
light;  the  only  difference  that  it  would 
then  be  necessary  to  make  would  be  to 
allow  for  variation  in  density  of  different 
negatives. 

Fixing. — Allow  the  prints  to  remain  in 
the  fixing  solution  10  to  20  minutes,  when 
they  should  be  removed  to  a  tray  con- 
taining clear  water. 


Washing. — Wash  1  hour  in  running 
water,  or  in  10  or  12  changes  of  clear 
water,  allowing  prints  to  soak  2  to  3 
minutes  in  each  change. 

Pyrocatechin  Formula. — 
Solution  A 

Pyrocatechin 2      parts 

Sulphite     of    soda, 

crystals 2.5  parts 

Water , .  . .    100     parts 

Solution   B 
Carbonate  of  soda .      10  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Before  using  mix  20  parts  of  Solution 
A,  and  $  part  of  Solution  B. 

Metol   Quinol. — 

Water 10     ounces 

Metol 7     grains 

Sodium  sulphite, 

crystals,  pure £  ounce 

Hydroquinone 30    grains 

Sodium     carbonate, 

dessicated 200    grains 

(or    400    grains 

of  crystallized 

carbonate). 
Ten    per    cent    bro- 
mide of  potassium 

solution,  about.  .  .      10     drops 

Amidol  Formula. — 

Water 4  ounces 

Sodium       sulphite, 

crystals,  pure  . . .    200  grains 

Amidol,  about 20  grains 

Ten  per  cent  bro- 
mide of  potas- 
sium solution, 

about 5  drops 

If  the  blacks  are  greenish,  add  more 
amidol;  if  whites  are  grayish,  add  more 
bromide  of  potassium. 

Hypo -Acid  Fixing  Bath. — 

Hypo 16  ounces 

Water 64  ounces 

Then  add  the  following  hardening 
solution: 

Water 5    ounces 

Sodium  sulphite, 

crystals |  ounce 

Commercial  acetic 
acid  (containing 
25  per  cent  pure 

acid) 3    ounces 

Powdered  alum Bounce 

Amidol  Developer. — 

Amidol 2  grains 

Sodium  sulphite.  .    .  30  grains 

Potassium  bromide.  1  grain 

Water..  1  ounce 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


529 


With  a  fairly  correct  exposure  this  will 
be  found  to  produce  prints  of  a  rich 
black  tone,  and  of  good  quality.  The 
whole  secret  of  successful  bromide 

Frinting  lies  in  correctness  of  exposure, 
t  is  generally  taken  for  granted  that  any 
poor,  flat  negative  is  good  enough  to 
yield  a  bromide  print,  but  this  is  not  so. 
A  negative  of  good  printing  quality  on 
printing-out  paper  will  also  yield  a  good 
print  on  bromide  paper,  but  considerable 
care  and  skill  are  necessary  to  <  "  ^ain  a 
good  result  from  a  poor  negativ  at.e.The 
above  developer  will  not  keep  in  t,Py '  tion, 
and  should  be  freshly  prepared  i-s  re- 
quired. The  same  formula  will  also  be 
found  useful  for  the  development  of 
lantern  plates,  but  will  only  yield  black- 
toned  slides. 

PLATINUM   PAPERS: 

General  Instructions. — To  secure  the 
most  brilliant  results  the  sensitized  paper, 
before,  during,  and  after  its  exposure  to 
light,  must  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible. 

The  paper  is  exposed  to  daylight,  in  the 
printing  frame,  for  about  one-third  of  the 
time  necessary  for  ordinary  silver  paper. 

The  print  is  then  immersed  in  the 
developer  for  about  30  seconds,  then 
cleared  in  3  acid  baths  containing  1 
part  of  muriatic  acid  C.  P.  to  60  parts 
of  water,  washed  for  a  short  time  in 
running  water,  the  whole  operation  of 
printing,  clearing,  and  washing  being 
complete  in  about  half  an  hour. 

As  a  general  rule  all  parts  of  the  pic- 
ture except  the  highest  lights  should  be 
visible  when  the  exposure  is  complete. 

When  examining  the  prints  in  the 
printing  frames,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  expose  them  unduly  to  light;  for 
the  degradation  of  the  whites  of  the 
paper  due  to  slight  action  of  light  is  not 
visible  until  after  development. 

Ansco  Platinum  Paper. — Print  until  a 
trace  of  the  detail  desired  is  slightly  visi- 
ble in  the  high  lights. 

Development. — Best  results  are  ob- 
tained with  the  temperature  of  the  de- 
veloper from  60°  to  80°  F.  Immerse 
the  print  in  the  developer  with  a  quick 
sweeping  motion  to  prevent  air  bells. 
Develop  in  artificial  or  weak  daylight. 
The  development  of  a  print  from  a  nor- 
mal negative  will  require  40  seconds  or 
more. 

Formula  for  Developer. — 

Water 50  ounces 

Neutral    oxalate    of 

potash 8  ounces 

Potassium      p  h  o  s  - 

phate  (monobasic)       1  ounce 


Care  must  be  used  to  obtain  the  mono- 
basic potassium  phosphate. 

Immediately  after  prints  are  devel- 
oped, place  them  face  down  in  the  first 
acid  bath,  composed  of 

Muriatic  acid,  C.  P.      1  ounce 
Water 60  ounces 

After  remaining  in  this  bath  for  a  pe- 
riod of  about  5  minutes,  transfer  to  the 
second  acid  bath  of  the  same  strength. 
The  prints  should  pass  through  at  least 
3  and  preferably  4  acid  baths,  to  re- 
move all  traces  of  iron  that  may  re- 
main in  the  pores  of  the  paper. 

When  thoroughly  cleared,  the  print 
should  be  washed  from  10  to  20  minutes 
in  running  water.  If  running  water  is 
not  available,  several  changes  of  water  in 
the  tray  will  be  necessary. 

"Water  Tone"  Platinum  Paper. — 
"Water  tone"  platinum  paper  is  very 
easily  affected  by  moisture;  it  will,  there- 
fore, be  noticed  when  printing  in  warm, 
damp  weather  that  the  print  will  show 
quite  a  tendency  to  print  out  black  in  the 
deep  shadows.  This  must  not  be  taken 
into  consideration,  as  the  same  amount 
of  exposure  is  necessary  as  in  dry  days. 

Print  by  direct  light  (sunlight  pre- 
ferred) until  the  shadows  are  clearly  out- 
lined in  a  deep  canary  color.  At  this  stage 
the  same  detail  will  be  observed  in  the 
half  tones  that  the  finished  print  will 
show.  For  developing,  use  plain  water, 
heated  to  120°  F.  (which  will  be  as  hot 
as  they  can  bear). 

The  development  will  be  practically 
instantaneous,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  air  bubbles  forming  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  prints.  Place  prints,  after 
developing,  directly  into  a  clearing  bath 
of  muriatic  acid,  1  drachm  to  12  ounces 
of  water,  and  let  them  remain  in  this 
bath  about  10  minutes,  when  they  are 
ready  for  the  final  washing  of  15  minutes 
in  running  water,  or  5  changes  of  about 
3  minutes  each.  Lay  out  between  blot- 
ters to  dry,  and  mount  by  attaching  the 
corners. 

Bradley  Platinum  Paper. — Developer. 

A. — For  black  tones: 
Neutral  oxalate  potas- 
sium       8  ounces 

Potassium  phosphate ..      1  ounce 
Water 30  ounces 

B. — For  sepia  tones: 

Of  above  mixed  solu- 
tion    8  ounces 

Saturated  bichloride 

mercury  solution  .  .  1  ounce 

Citrate  soda 5  grains 


530 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


If  deep  red  tones  are  desired  add  to  B 

Nitrate  uranium 10  grains 

Then  filter  and  use  as  a  developer. 

W.  &  C.  Platinotype. — Development. — 
The  whole  contents  of  the  box  of  the 
W.  &  C.  developing  salts  must  be  dis- 
solved at  one  time,  as  the  salts  are  mixed; 
and  if  this  be  not  done,  too  large  a  pro- 
portion of  one  of  the  ingredients  may  be 
used. 

Development  should  be  conducted  in 
a  feeble  white  light,  similar  to  that  used 
when  cutting  up  the  paper,  or  by  gas 
light. 

It  may  take  place  immediately  after 
the  print  is  exposed,  or  at  the  end  of  the 
day's  printing. 

Develop  by  floating  the  print,  exposed 
side  downwards,  on  the  developing  solu- 
tion. 

Development  may  take  30  seconds  or 
more. 

During  the  hot  summer  days  it  is  not 
advisable  to  unduly  delay  the  develop- 
ment of  exposed  prints.  If  possible 
develop  within  1  hour  after  printing. 

Either  porcelain  or  agate — preferably 
porcelain — dishes  are  necessary  to  hold 
the  developing  solution. 

To  clear  the  developed  prints:  These 
must  be  washed  in  a  series  of  baths  (not 
less  than  three)  of  a  weak  solution  of 
muriatic  acid  C.  P.  This  solution  is 
made  by  mixing  1  part  of  acid  in  60 
parts  of  water. 

As  soon  as  the  print  has  been  removed 
from  the  developing  dish  it  must  be  im- 
mersed face  downwards  in  the  first  bath 
of  this  acid,  contained  in  a  porcelain 
dish,  in  which  it  should  remain  about  5 
minutes;  meanwhile  other  prints  follow 
until  all  are  developed.  The  prints 
must  then  be  removed  to  a  second  acid 
bath  for  about  10  minutes;  afterwards  to 
the  third  bath  for  about  15  minutes. 
While  the  prints  remain  in  these  acid 
baths  they  should  be  moved  so  that  the 
solution  has  free  access  to  their  surfaces, 
but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  abrade 
them  by  undue  friction. 

Pure  muriatic  acid  must  be  used. 

If  commercial  muriatic  acid  be  used, 
the  prints  will  be  discolored  and  turn 
yellow. 

For  each  batch  of  prints  fresh  acid 
baths  must  be  used. 

After  the  prints  have  passed  through 
the  acid  baths  they  should  be  well 
washed  in  three  changes  of  water  during 
about  a  half  hour.  It  is  advisable  to  add 
a  pinch  of  washing  soda  to  the  second 
washing  water  to  neutralize  any  acid 
remaining  in  the  print.  Do  not  use 


water  that  contains  iron,  as  it  tends  to 
turn  paper  yellow.  Soft  water  is  the 
best  for  this  purpose. 

W.  &  C.  Sepia  Paper. — With  a  few 
exceptions  the  method  of  carrying  out 
the  operations  is  the  same  as  for  the 
"black"  kinds  of  platinotype  paper. 
The  following  points  should  be  attended 
to: 

The  "sepia"  paper  is  more  easily 
affected  by  faint  light,  and,  therefore, 
increased  care  must  be  taken  when 
printiJ  ;. 

To  Cjevelop,  add  to  each  ounce  of  the 
developing  solution  1J  drachms  of  sepia 
solution  supplied  for  this  purpose,  and 
proceed  as  described  for  black  paper. 

The  solution  must  be  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  150°  to  160°  F.,  to  obtain 
the  greatest  amount  of  brilliance  and  the 
warmest  color,  but  very  good  results  can 
be  obtained  by  using  a  cooler  developer. 

Variations  of  the  Sepia  Developer. — 
Primarily  the  object  of  the  sepia  solution 
in  the  developer  is  to  increase  the 
brightness  of  the  prints,  as,  for  example, 
when  the  negative  is  thin  and  flat,  or 
pense  and  flat,  the  addition  of  the  sepia 
solution  to  the  developer  clears  up,  to 
some  extent,  the  flatness  of  the  print  by 
taking  out  traces  of  the  finer  detail  in  the 
higher  lights,  which  is  often  a  decided 
improvement.  If,  however,  the  nega- 
tive be  dense,  with  clear  shadows,  the 
sepia  solution  may  be  discarded  alto- 
gether. This  will  prevent  the  loss  of 
any  of  the  finer  detail  and  greatly  reduce 
harshness  in  the  prints.  Sometimes  a 
half,  or  even  a  quarter,  of  the  quantity 
of  the  sepia  solution  recommended  as  an 
addition  to  the  developer  will  be  suffi- 
cient, depending  altogether  upon  the 
strength  of  the  negatives.  Prints  de- 
veloped without  the  solution  have  less  of 
the  sepia  quality  but  are  very  agreeable 
nevertheless.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  sepia  paper  is  totally  different 
from  the  black,  and  will  develop  sepia 
tones  on  a  developer  to  which  no  sepia 
solution  has  been  added.  The  sepia 
solution  clears  up  and  brightens  the  flat, 
muddy  (to  some  extent,  not  totally) 
effects  from  the  thinner  class  of  nega- 
tives. 

The  Glycerine  Process. — The  "glyc- 
erine process,"  or  the  process  of  de- 
veloping platinotype  prints  by  applica- 
tion of  the  developing  agent  with  the 
brush,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting and  fascinating  of  photographic 
processes,  owing  to  its  far-reaching 
possibilities. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


531 


By  this  method  of  developing  platino- 
type  paper,  many  negatives  which  have 
been  discarded  on  account  of  the  dim, 
flat,  non-contrasty  results  which  they 
yield,  in  the  hands  of  one  possessing  a 
little  artistic  skill,  produce  snappy,  ani- 
mated pictures.  On  the  other  hand, 
from  the  sharp  and  hard  negative,  soft, 
sketchy  effects  may  be  secured. 

There  are  required  for  this  process: 
Some  glass  jars;  some  soft  brushes,  vary- 
ing from  the  fine  spotter  and  the  Japan- 
ese brush  to  the  1^-inch  duster,  and  sev- 
eral pieces  of  special  blotting  paper. 

Manipulation. — Print  the  paper  a  trifle 
deeper  than  for  the  ordinary  method  of 
developing.  Place  the  print  face  up  on 
a  piece  of  clean  glass  (should  the  print 
curl  so  that  it  is  unmanageable,  moisten 
the  glass  with  glycerine),  and,  with  the 
broad  camel's-hair  brush,  thinly  coat  the 
entire  print  with  pure  glycerine,  blotting 
same  off  in  3  or  4  seconds;  then  recoat 
more  thickly  such  portions  as  are  desired 
especially  restrained,  or  the  details 
partly  or  entirely  eliminated.  Now 
brush  or  paint  such  portion  of  the  print 
as  is  first  desired  with  solution  of  1  part 
glycerine  and  4  parts  normal  developer, 
blotting  the  portion  being  developed 
from  time  to  time  to  avoid  developing 
too  far.  Full  strength  developer  (with- 
out glycerine)  is  employed  where  a  pro- 
nounced or  deep  shade  is  wanted. 

When  any  part  of  the  print  has  reached 
the  full  development  desired,  blot  that 
portion  carefully  with  the  blotter  and 
coat  with  pure  glycerine. 

A  brown  effect  may  be  obtained  by 
using  saturated  solution  of  mercury  in 
the  developer  (1  part  mercury  to  8  parts 
developer).  By  the  use  of  diluted  mer- 
cury the  "flesh  tones"  are  produced  in 
portraits,  etc. 

When  print  has  reached  complete 
development,  place  in  hydrochloric 
(muriatic)  acid  and  wash  as  usual. 

Eastman's  Sepia  Paper. — This  paper 
is  about  3  times  as  rapid  as  blue  paper. 
It  should  be  under  rather  than  over 
printed,  and  is  developed  by  washing  in 
plain  water.  After  2  or  3  changes  of 
water  fix  5  minutes  in  a  solution  of  hypo 
(H  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water),  and 
afterwards  wash  thoroughly. 

Short  fixing  gives  red  tones.  Longer 
fixing  produces  a  brown  tone. 

Development  of  Platinum  Prints. — 
In  the  development  of  platinotype  prints 
by  the  hot  bath  process,  distinctly  warmer 
tones  are  obtained  by  using  a  bath 
which  has  been  several  times  heated, 
colder  blacks  resulting  from  the  use  of  a 


freshly  prepared  solution,  and  colder 
tones  still  if  the  developing  solution  be 
faintly  acidified.  The  repeated  heating 
of  the  solution  of  the  neutral  salt  ap- 
parently has  the  effect  of  rendering  the 
bath  slightly  alkaline  by  the  conversion 
of  a  minute  proportion  of  the  oxalate  into 
potassium  carbonate.  If  this  be  the 
case,  it  allows  a  little  latitude  in  choice 
of  tone  which  may  be  useful.  Some 
photographers  recommend  the  use  of 
potassium  phosphate  with  the  neutral 
oxalate,  stating  that  the  solution  should 
be  rendered  acid  by  the  addition  of  a 
small  proportion  of  oxalic  acid.  When 
the  potassium  phosphate  was  first 
recommended  for  this  purpose,  probably 
the  acid  salt,  KH2PO4,  was  intended,  by 
the  use  of  which  cold  steely  black  tones 
were  obtained.  The  use  of  the  oxalic 
acid  with  the  ordinary  phosphate  K2HPO4, 
is  probably  intended  to  produce  the  same 
result. 

THE  CARBON  PROCESS. 

The  paper  used  is  coated  on  one 
surface  with  a  mixture  of  gelatin  and 
some  pigment  (the  color  of  which  de- 
pends upon  the  color  the  required  print 
is  to  be),  and  then  allowed  to  dry.  When 
required  for  printing  it  is  sensitized  by 
floating  upon  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potassium,  and  then  again  drying,  in  the 
dark  this  time.  The  process  is  based 
upon  the  action  of  light  upon  this  film  of 
chromatized  gelatin;  wherever  the  light 
reaches,  the  gelatin  is  rendered  insol- 
uble, even  in  hot  water. 

The  paper  is  exposed  in  the  usual  way. 
But  as  the  appearance  of  the  paper  be- 
fore and  after  printing  is  precisely  the 
same,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  when  it  is 
printed  by  examining  the  print.  This 
is  usually  accomplished  by  exposing  a 
piece  of  gelatine-chloride  paper  under 
a  negative  of  about  the  same  density, 
and  placing  it  alongside  of  the  carbon  print. 
When  the  gelatino-chloride  paper  is 
printed,  the  carbon  will  be  finished.  The 
paper  is  then  removed  from  the  printing 
frame  and  immersed  in  cold  water, 
which  removes  a  great  deal  of  the  bi- 
chromate of  potassium,  and  also  makes 
the  print  lie  out  flat.  It  is  then  floated 
on  to  what  is  known  as  a  support,  and 
pressed  firmly  upon  it,  face  down- 
wards, and  allowed  to  remain  for  5  or  10 
minutes.  Then  the  support,  together 
with  the  print,  is  placed  in  hot  water  for 
a  short  time,  and  when  the  gelatin 
commences  to  ooze  out  at  the  edges  the 
print  is  removed  by  stripping  from  the 
support,  this  process  leaving  the  greater 
quantity  of  the  gelatin  and  pigment 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


upon  the  support.  The  gelatin  and 
pigment  are  then  treated  with  hot  water 
by  running  the  hot  water  over  the  face 
of  the  support  by  means  of  a  sponge. 
This  removes  the  soluble  gelatin,  and 
leaves  the  gelatin,  together  with  the 
pigment  it  contains,  which  was  acted 
upon  by  light;  this  then  constitutes  the 
picture. 

The  reason  for  transferring  the  gela- 
tin film  is  quite  apparent,  since  the 
greater  portion  of  the  unacted-upon  gel- 
atin will  be  at  the  back  of  the  film,  and 
in  order  to  get  at  it  to  remove  it,  it  is 
necessary  to  transfer  it  to  a  support.  In 
this  condition  the  print  can  be -dried  and 
mounted,  but  on  consideration  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  picture  i^  in  a  reversed 
position,  that  is  to  say,  that  the  right- 
nand  side  of  the  original  has  become  the 
left,  and  vice  versa. 

If  the  picture  be  finished  in  this  con- 
dition, it  is  said  to  have  been  done  by  the 
single  transfer  method.  In  some  in- 
stances this  reversal  would  be  of  no  con- 
sequence, such  as  some  portraits,  but 
with  views  which  are  known  this  would 
never  do.  In  order  to  remedy  this  state 
of  affairs,  the  picture  is  transferred  once 
more,  by  pressing,  while  wet,  upon  an- 
other support,  and  allowed  to  dry  upon 
it;  when  separated,  the  picture  remains 
upon  the  latter  support,  and  is  in  its 
right  position.  This  is  what  is  known 
as  the  double  transfer  method.  When 
the  double  transfer  method  is  used,  the 
first  support  consists  of  a  specially  pre- 
pared support,  which  has  been  waxed  in 
order  to  prevent  the  pictures  from  ad- 
hering permanently  to  it;  this  is  then 
known  as  a  temporary  support.  The 
paper  upon  which  the  print  is  finally 
received  is  prepared  with  a  coating  of 
gelatin,  and  is  known  as  the  final  sup- 
port. 

LANTERN  SLIDES. 

The  making  of  a  good  slide  begins 
with  the  making  of  the  negative,  the 
operations  in  both  cases  being  closely 
allied,  and  he  who  has  mastered  the  first, 
which  is  the  corner  stone  to  all  successful 
results  in  any  branch  of  photography, 
may  well  be  expected  to  be  able  to  make 
a  good  lantern  slide.  A  slide  is  judged 
not  by  what  it  appears  to  be  when  held 
in  the  hand,  but  by  its  appearance  when 
magnified  two  to  five  thousand  times  on 
the  screen,  where  a  small  defect  in  the 
slide  will  show  up  as  a  gross  fault. 
Patience  and  cleanliness  are  absolutely 
necessary.  The  greatest  caution  should 
be  observed  to  keep  the  lantern  plates 
free  from  dust,  both  before  and  after 


exposure  and  development,  for  small  pin- 
holes  and  dust  spots,  hardly  noticeable 
on  the  slide,  assume  huge  proportions 
on  the  screen  and  detract  materially 
from  the  slide's  beauty. 

The  high  lights  in  a  slide  should,  in 
rare  cases  only,  be  represented  by  clear 
glass,  and  the  shadows  should  always  be 
transparent,  even  in  the  deepest  part. 
The  balance  between  these  extremes 
should  be  a  delicate  gradation  of  tone 
from  one  to  the  other.  The  contrast 
between  the  strongest  high  light  and  the 
deepest  shadow  should  be  enough  to 
give  brilliancy  without  hardness  and 
delicacy  or  softness  without  being  flat. 
This  is  controlled  also,  to  some  extent,  by 
the  subject  summer  sunshine  requiring 
a  more  vigorous  rendering  than  hazy 
autumn  effects,  and  herein  each  indi- 
vidual must  decide  for  himself  what  is 
most  necessary  to  give  the  correct  por- 
trayal of  the  subject.  It  is  a  good  idea 
to  procure  a  slide,  as  near  technically 
perfect  as  possible,  from  some  slide- 
making  friend,  or  dealer,  to  use  it  as  a 
standard,  and  to  make  slide  after  slide 
from  the  same  negative  until  a  satis- 
factory result  is  reached. 

A  black  tone  of  good  quality  is  usu- 
ally satisfactory  for  most  slides,  but  it  is 
very  agreeable  to  see  interspersed  a  va- 
riety of  tone,  and  beautiful  slides  can  be 
made,  where  the  subject  warrants,  in 
blue,  brown,  purple,  and  even  red  and 
green,  by  varying  the  exposure  and  de- 
velopment and  by  using  gold  or  uranium 
toning  baths  and  other  solutions  for  that 
purpose,  the  formulas  and  materials  for 
which  are  easily  obtainable  from  the 
magazines  and  from  stock  dealers,  re- 
spectively. 

It  must  be  understood,  however,  that 
these  toning  solutions  generally  act  as 
intensifiers,  and  that  if  toning  is  contem- 
plated, it  should  be  borne  in  mind  at  the 
time  of  developing  the  slide,  so  that  it 
may  not  finally  appear  too  dense.  Ton- 
ing will  improve  otherwise  weak  slides, 
but  will  not  help  under-exposed  ones,  as 
its  tendency  will  be  in  such  case  to  in- 
crease the  contrast,  which  in  such  slides 
is  already  too  great.  Another  method 
of  getting  a  fine  quality  of  slides  is  to 
make  rather  strong  exposures  to  over- 
develop, and  then  to  reduce  with  persul- 
phate of  ammonium. 

The  popular  methods  of  making  the 
exposure  are:  First,  by  contact  in  the 
printing  frame,  just  as  prints  are  made 
on  velox  or  other  developing  paper,  pro- 
vided the  subject  on  the  negative  is  of 
the  right  size  for  a  lantern  slide;  and  the 
other  and  better  method  is  the  camera 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


533 


method,  by  which  the  subject  of  any 
negative,  large  or  small,  or  any  part 
thereof,  can  be  reduced  or  enlarged, 
and  thus  brought  to  the  proper  size  de- 
sired for  the  slide.  This  is  quite  a 
knack,  and  should  be  considered  and 
studied  by  the  slide  maker  very  care- 
fully. 

Hard  and  inflexible  rules  cannot  be 
laid  down  in  this  relation.  Portrait 
studies  of  bust  or  three-fourths  figures 
or  baby  figures  need  not  be  made  for  a 
larger  opening  than  1J  by  2  inches,  and 
often  appear  to  good  advantage  if  made 
quite  a  bit  smaller.  Figure  or  group 
compositions,  with  considerable  back- 
ground or  accessories,  may,  of  course, 
have  a  larger  opening  to  suit  the  par- 
ticular circumstances.  Monuments,  tall 
buildings,  and  the  like  should  have  the 
benefit  of  the  whole  height  of  mat  open- 
ing of  2f  inches,  and  should  be  made  of 
a  size  to  fill  it  out  properly,  providing, 
however,  for  sufficient  foreground  and  a 
proper  sky  line.  Landscapes  and  marine 
views  generally  can  be  made  to  fill  out 
the  full  length  of  mat  opening,  which, 
however,  should  not  exceed  2£  inches, 
and  may  be  of  any  height  to  suit  the  sub- 
ject, up  to  2f  inches. 

The  subject  should  be  well  centered 
on  the  plate  and  the  part  intended  to  be 
shown  as  the  picture  should  be  well 
within  the  size  of  the  mat  opening  de- 
cided upon,  so  that  with  a  slight  varia- 
tion of  the  placing  of  the  mat  no  part  of 
the  picture  will  be  cut  off  by  the  carrier 
in  the  stereopticon.  The  horizon  line  in 
a  landscape,  and  more  particularly  in  a 
marine  view,  should  always  be  in  proper 
position,  either  below  or  above  the  center 
line  of  the  slide,  as  may  suit  the  subject, 
but  should  never  divide  the  picture  in  the 
middle  and  should  not  appear  to  be  run- 
ning either  up  or  down  hill.  And  the  ver- 
tical lines  in  the  pictures  should  not  be 
leaning,  but  should  run  parallel  with  the 
side  lines  of  the  mat;  this  refers  espe- 
cially to  the  vertical  lines  in  architecture, 
except,  however,  the  Tower  of  Pisa  and 
kindred  subjects,  which  should  in  every 
case  be  shown  with  their  natural  inclina- 
tions. 

As  to  time  of  exposure,  very  little  can 
be  said.  That  varies  with  the  different 
makes  of  plates,  with  the  quality  of  the 
light,  ana  the  nature  and  density  of 
each  individual  negative.  Therefore 
every  one  must  be  a  judge  unto  himself 
and  make  as  good  a  guess  as  he  can  for 
the  first  trial  from  each  negative  and 
gauge  further  exposures  from  the  results 
thus  obtained;  but  this  much  may  be 
said,  that  a  negative  strong  in  contrast 


should  be  given  a  long  exposure,  close 
to  the  light,  if  artificial  light  is  used,  or  in 
strong  daylight,  and  developed  with  a 
weak  or  very  much  diluted  developer  to 
make  a  soft  slide  with  full  tone  values. 
And  a  flat,  weak  negative  will  yield  bet- 
ter results  if  exposed  farther  from  the 
light  or  to  a  weaker  light,  and  developed 
by  a  normal  or  more  aggressive  de- 
veloper. Over  exposure  and  under  ex- 
posure show  the  same  results  in  slide 
plates  as  in  negative  plates,  and  the  treat- 
ment should  be  similar  in  both  kinds  of 
plates  except  that,  perhaps,  in  cases  of 
under  exposure  of  slide  plates,  the  better 
plan  would  be  to  cast  them  aside  and 
make  them  over,  as  very  little  can  be  done 
with  them.  For  getting  bright  and 
clear  effects  it  is  now  well  understood 
that  better  and  more  satisfactory  results 
are  obtained  by  backing  the  slide  plates 
as  well  as  by  backing  negative  plates. 
This  is  accomplished  by  coating  the  back 
or  glass  side  of  the  plate  with  the  follow- 
ing mixture: 

Gum  arabic £  ounce 

Caramel 1     ounce 

Burnt  sienna 2     ounces 

Alcohol 2     ounces 

Mix  and  apply  with  small  sponge  or 
wad  of  absorbent  cotton. 

It  should  coat  thin  and  smooth  and 
dry  hard  enough  so  it  will  not  rub  off 
when  handled.  If  the  plates  are  put  into 
a  light-proof  grooved  box  as  fast  as 
backed,  they  can  be  used  about  half  an 
hour  after  being  coated.  Before  devel- 
oping, this  backing  should  be  removed; 
this  is  best  done  by  first  wetting  the 
film  side  of  the  plate  under  the  tap, 
which  will  prevent  staining  it,  and  then 
letting  the  water  run  on  the  backing,  and, 
with  a  little  rubbing,  it  will  disappear 
in  a  few  moments,  when  development 
may  proceed.  Other  preparations  for 
this  purpose,  ready  for  use,  may  be 
found  at  the  stock  houses.  The  mat 
should  be  carefully  selected  or  cut  of  a 
size  and  shape  to  show  up  the  subject  to 
best  advantage,  and  should  cover  every- 
thing not  wanted  in  the  picture.  The 
opening  should  not  exceed  2|  x  2|  inches 
in  any  case,  and  must  not  be  ragged  or 
fuzzy,  but  clean  cut  and  symmetrical. 
The  lines  of  the  opening  of  square  mats 
should  be  parallel  with  the  outside  lines 
of  the  plate.  Oval,  or  round,  or  other 
variously  shaped  mats,  should  be  used 
sparingly,  and  in  special  cases  only 
where  the  nature  of  the  subject  will  war- 
rant their  use. 

Statuary  shows  up  to  best  advantage 
when  the  background  is  blocked  out. 


534 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


This  is  easily  done  with  a  small  camel's- 
hair  artist's  brush  and  opaque  or  india 
ink,  in  a  retouching  frame,  a  good  eye 
and  a  steady  hand  being  the  only  addi- 
tional requirements.  This  treatment 
may  also  be  applied  to  some  flower 
studies  and  other  botanical  subjects. 

Binding  may  be  performed  with  the 
aid  of  a  stationer's  spring  clamp,  such  as 
is  used  for  holding  papers  together,  and 
can  be  purchased  for  10  cents.  Cut  the 
binding  strips  the  length  of  the  sides  and 
ends  of  the  slide,  and  gum  them  on 
separately,  rubbing  them  firmly  in  con- 
tact with  the  glass  with  a  piece  of  cloth 
or  an  old  handkerchief,  which  might  be 
kept  handy  for  that  purpose,  so  that  the 
binding  may  not  loosen  or  peel  off  after 
the  slides  are  handled  but  half  a  dozen 
times.  Before  storing  the  slides  away 
for  future  use  they  should  be  properly 
labeled  and  named.  The  name  label 
should  be  affixed  on  the  right  end  of  the 
face  of  the  slide  as  you  look  at  it  in  its 
proper  position,  and  should  contain  the 
maker's  name  and  the  title  of  the  slide. 
The  thumb  label  should  be  affixed  to  the 
lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  face  of  the 
slide,  and  may  show  the  number  of  the 
slide. 

HOW     TO     UTILIZE     WASTE     MA- 
TERIAL. 

Undoubtedly  spoiled  negatives  form 
the  greatest  waste.  The  uses  to  which  a 
ruined  negative  may  be  put  are  mani- 
fold. Cut  down  to  3 J  inches  square  and 
the  films  cleaned  off,  they  make  excellent 
cover  glasses  for  lantern  slides.  An- 
other use  for  them  in  the  same  popular 
branch  of  photography  is  the  following: 
If,  during  development,  you  see  that 
your  negative  is  spoiled  through  uneven 
density,  over  exposure,  or  what  not,  ex- 
pose it  to  the  light  and  allow  it  to  blacken 
all  over.  Now  with  sealing  wax  fasten  a 
needle  to  a  penholder,  and  by  means  of 
this  little  tool  one  can  easily  manufacture 
diagram  slides  from  the  darkened  film 
(white  lines  on  black  ground). 

Take  a  spoiled  negative,  dissolve  out 
all  the  silver  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
ferricyanide  and  hypo.  Rinse,  dry,  rub 
with  sandpaper,  and  you  will  have  a 
splendid  substitute  for  ground  glass. 

Remove  the  silver  in  a  similar  manner 
from  another  negative,  but  this  time 
wash  thoroughly.  Squeegee  down  on 
this  a  print,  and  an  opaline  will  be  your 
reward.  From  such  an  opaline,  by  ce- 
menting on  a  few  more  glasses,  a  tasteful 
letter  weight  may  soon  be  made.  An- 
other way  in  which  very  thin  negatives 
may  be  used  is  this:  Bleach  them  in 


bichloride  of  mercury,  back  them  with 
black  paper,  and  positives  will  result. 
Old  negatives  also  make  good  trimming 
boards,  the  film  preventing  a  rapid  blunt- 
ing of  the  knife,  and  they  may  be  suc- 
cessfully used  as  mounting  tables.  Clean 
off  the  films,  polish  with  French  chalk, 
and  squeegee  your  prints  thereto. 
When  dry  they  may  be  removed  and  will 
have  a  fine  enameled,  if  hardly  artistic, 
appearance.  Many  other  uses  for  them 
may  also  be  found  if  the  amateur  is  at  all 
ingenious. 

Users  of  pyro,  instead  of  throwing  the 
old  developer  away,  should  keep  some  of 
it  and  allow  it  to  oxidize.  A  thin  nega- 
tive, if  immersed  in  this  for  a  few  min- 
utes, will  be  stained  a  deep  yellow  all 
over,  and  its  printing  quality  will  be 
much  improved. 

Old  hypo  baths  should  be  saved,  and, 
when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  silver  is 
thought  to  be  in  solution,  reduced  to 
recover  the  metal. 

Printing  paper  of  any  sort  is  another 
great  source  of  waste,  especially  to  the 
inexperienced  photographer.  Prints  are 
too  dark  or  not  dark  enough  success- 
fully to  undergo  the  subsequent  opera- 
tions. Spoiled  material  of  this  kind, 
however,  is  not  without  its  uses  in 
photography.  Those  who  swear  by  the 
"combined  bath,"  will  find  that  scraps  of 
printing-out  paper,  or  any  silver  paper, 
are  necessary  to  start  the  toning  action. 

Spoiled  mat  surface,  printing -out 
paper,  bromide  paper,  or  platinotype 
should  be  allowed  to  blacken  all  over. 
Here  we  have  a  dead-black  surface  use- 
ful for  many  purposes.  A  leak  in  the 
bellows  when  out  in  the  field  may  be 
repaired  temporarily  by  moistening  a 
piece  of  mat  printing-out  paper  and  stick- 
ing it  on  the  leak;  the  gelatin  will  cause 
it  to  adhere.  These  papers  may  also 
be  used  to  back  plates,  platinotypes,  of 
course,  requiring  some  adhesive  mixture 
to  make  them  stick. 

In  every  photographer's  possession 
there  will  be  found  a  small  percentage  of 
stained  prints.  Instead  of  throwing 
these  away,  they  may  often  be  turned  to 
good  account  in  the  following  manner: 
Take  a  large  piece  of  cardboard,  some 
mountant,  and  the  prints.  Now  proceed 
to  mount  them  tastefully  so  that  the 
corners  of  some  overlap,  arranging  in 
every  case  to  hide  the  stain.  If  you  have 
gone  properly  to  work,  you  will  have  an 
artistic  mosaic.  Now  wash  round  with 
india  ink,  or  paint  a  border  of  leaves, 
and  the  whole  thing  will  form  a  very 
neat  "tit  bit." 

Keep  the  stiff  bits  of  cardboard  be- 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


535 


tween  wnich  printing  paper  is  packed. 
They  are  useful  in  many  ways — from 
opaque  cards  in  the  dark  slide'to  parti- 
tions between  negatives  in  the  storing 
boxes. 

In  reclaiming  old  gold  solutions,  all 
liquids  containing  gold,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  baths  of  which  cyanide  forms  a 
part,  must  be  strongly  acidulated  with 
chlorhydric  or  sulphuric  acid,  if  they  are 
not  already  acid  in  their  nature.  They 
are  afterwards  diluted  with  a  large  pro- 
portion of  ordinary  water,  and  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  ferroprotoxide  (green 
vitriol)  is  poured  in  in  excess.  It  is 
recognized  that  the  filtered  liquid  no 
longer  contains  gold  when  the  addition 
of  a  new  quantity  of  ferric  sulphate  does 
not  occasion  any  cloudiness.  Gold 
precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  reddish  or 
blackish  powder  is  collected  on  a  filter 
and  dried  in  an  oven  with  weights  equal 
to  its  own  of  borax,  saltpeter,  and  car- 
bonate of  potash.  The  mass  is  after- 
wards introduced  gradually  into  a  fire- 
Eroof  crucible  and  carried  to  a  white-red 
eat  in  a  furnace.  When  all  the  matter 
has  been  introduced,  a  stronger  blast  is 
given  by  closing  the  furnace,  so  that  all 
the  metal  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible.  On  cooling,  a  gold  ingot, 
chemically  pure,  will  be  obtained.  This 
mode  of  reduction  is  also  suitable  for 
impure  chloride  of  gold,  and  for  the  re- 
moval of  gilding,  but  not  for  solutions 
containing  cyanides,  which  never  give  up 
all  the  gold  they  contain;  the  best  means 
of  treating  the  latter  consists  in  evaporat- 
ing them  to  dryness  in  a  cast-iron  boiler, 
and  in  calcining  the  residue  in  an  earthen 
crucible  at  the  white  red.  A  small 
quantity  of  borax  or  saltpeter  may  be 
added  for  facilitating  the  fusion,  but  it 
is  not  generally  necessary.  The  gold 
separated  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible.  It  is  red,  if  saltpeter  is  em- 
ployed; and  green,  if  it  is  borax. 

To  reclaim  silver  place  the  old  films, 
plates,  paper,  etc.,  in  a  porcelain  dish,  so 
arranged  that  they  will  burn  readily.  To 
facilitate  combustion,  a  little  kerosene  or 
denatured  alcohol  poured  over  the  con- 
tents will  be  found  serviceable. 

Before  blowing  off  the  burnt  paper, 
place  the  residue  in  an  agateware  dish, 
the  bottom  of  which  is  covered  with  a 
solution  of  saltpeter  and  water.  Place 
the  whole  on  the  fire,  and  heat  it  until 
the  silver  is  separated  as  a  nitrate. 

The  solution  being  complete,  add  to 
the  mass  a  little  water  and  hydrochloric 
acid,  when  in  a  short  time  the  serviceable 
silver  chloride  will  be  obtained.  If  the 
films  should  not  give  up  their  silver  as 


freely  as  the  plates,  then  add  a  little  more 
hydrochloric  acid  or  work  them  up 
separately.  Silver  reclaimed  in  this  way 
is  eminently  suitable  for  silver-plating 
all  sorts  of  objects. 

FIXING  AND   CLEARING  BATHS: 

The  Acid  Fixing  and  Clearing  Bath. — 
Add  2  ounces  of  S.  P.  C.  clarifier  (acid 
bisulphite  of  sodium)  solution  to  1  quart 
of  hypo  solution  1  in  5. 

Combined  Alum  and  Hypo  Bath. — 
Add  saturated  solution  of  sulphite  of 
sodium  to  saturated  solution  of  alum  till 
the  white  precipitate  formed  remains  un- 
dissolved,  and  when  the  odor  of  sul- 
phurous acid  becomes  perceptible. 

Mix  this  solution  with  an  equal  bulk 
of  freshly  prepared  hypo  solution  1  in  5, 
and  filter. 

This  bath  will  remain  clear. 

Clearing  Solution  (Edward's). — 

Alum 1  ounce      avoirdupois 

Citric  acid.  .   1  ounce      avoirdupois 
Sulphate     of 
iron,  crys- 
tals     3  ounces    avoirdupois 

Water 1  imperial  pint 

This  should  be  freshly  mixed. 
Clearing  Solution. — 
Saturated  solution  of 

alum 20  ounces 

Hydrochloric  acid 1  ounce 

Immerse  negative  after  fixing  and 
washing.  Wash  well  after  removal. 

Reducer  for  Gelatin  Dry-Plate  Nega- 
tives.— 

I. — Saturated  solution  of 
ferricyanide  of  po- 
tassium   1  part 

Hyposulphite  of  sodi- 
um solution  (1  in  10)    10  parts 

II. — Perchloride  of  iron   ..    30  grains 

Citric  acid 60  grains 

Water 1  pint 

Belitski's  Acid  Ferric -Oxalate  Re- 
ducer for  Gelatin  Plates. — 

Water 7     ounces 

Potassium  ferric  oxal- 

ate • 2£  drachms 

Crystallized       neutral 

sulphite  of  sodium.      2     drachms 
Powdered  oxalic  acid, 

from 30  to  45     grains 

Hyposulphite  of  soda.      1£  ounces 

The   solution   must   be   made   in   this 

order,    filtered,   and    be   kept   in   tightly 

closed  bottles;  and  as  under  the  influence 

of  light  the  ferric  salt  is  reduced  to  fer- 


536 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


rous,  the  preparation  must  be  kept  in 
subdued  light,  in  non-actinic  glass  bot- 
tles. 

Orthochromatic  Dry  Plates — Erythro- 
sine  Bath  (Mailman  and  Scolik). — Pre- 
liminary bath: 

Water 200  cubic  centimeters 

Stronger  am- 
monia. ...        2  cubic  centimeters 
Soak  a  plate  for  2  minutes. 

Color  bath: 
Erythrosine 

solution  (1 

in  1,000)  .      25  cubic  centimeters 
Stronger 

ammonia 

(0.900) ...        4  cubic  centimeters 
Water 175  cubic  centimeters 

The  plate  should  not  remain  longer  in 
the  bath  than  1J  minutes. 

PAPER-SENSITIZING  PROCESSES: 

Blueprint    Paper. — I. — The    ordinary 
blue  photographic  print  in  which  white 
lines  appear  on  a  blue  ground  may  be 
made  on  paper  prepared  as  follows: 
A. — Potassium    ferricya- 

nide 10  drachms 

Distilled  water 4  ounces 

B. — Iron  ammonia  citrate.   15  drachms 

Distilled  water 4  ounces 

Mix  when  wanted  for  use,  filter,  and 
apply  to  the  surface  of  the  paper. 

With  this  mixture  no  developer  is  re- 
quired. The  paper  after  exposure  is 
simply  washed  in  water  to  remove  the 
unaltered  iron  salts.  The  print  is  im- 
proved by  immersion  in  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  after  which  it  must  be  again 
well  washed  in  water. 

II. — The  following  process,  credited 
to  Captain  Abney,  yields  a  photographic 
paper  giving  blue  lines  on  a  white 
ground: 

Common  salt 3    ounces 

Ferric  chloride 8    ounces 

Tartaric  acid 3|  ounces 

Acacia 25     ounces 

Water 100    ounces 

Dissolve  the  acacia  in  half  the  water 
and  dissolve  the  other  ingredients  in  the 
other  half;  then  mix. 

The  liquid  is  applied  with  a  brush  to 
strongly  sized  and  well  rolled  paper  in  a 
subdued  light.  The  coating  should  be 
as  even  as  possible.  The  paper  should 
be  dried  rapidly  to  prevent  the  solution 
sinking  into  its  pores.  When  dry,  the 
paper  is  ready  for  exposure. 


In  sunlight,  1  or  2  minutes  is  generally 
sufficient  to  give  an  image;  while  in  a 
dull  light  as  much  as  an  hour  is  nec- 
essary. 

To  develop  the  print,  it  is  floated  im- 
mediately after  leaving  the  printing 
frame  upon  a  saturated  solution  of  po- 
tassium ferrocyanide.  None  of  the  de- 
veloping solution  should  be  allowed  to 
reach  the  back.  The  development  is 
usually  complete  in  less  than  a  minute. 
The  paper  may  be  lifted  off  the  solution 
when  the  face  is  wetted,  the  development 
proceeding  with  that  which  adheres  to 
the  print. 

When  the  development  is  complete, 
the  print  is  floated  on  clean  water,  and 
after  2  or  3  minutes  is  placed  in  a  bath, 
made  as  follows: 

Sulphuric  acid 3  ounces 

Hydrochloric  acid. .  .        8  ounces 
Water 100  ounces 

In  about  10  minutes  the  acid  will  have 
removed  all  iron  salts  not  turned  into  the 
blue  compound.  It  is  next  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried.  Blue  spots  may  be 
removed  by  a  4  per  cent  solution  of 
caustic  potash. 

The  back  of  the  tracing  must  be 
placed  in  contact  with  the  sensitive 
surface. 

III.  —Dissolve  3f  ounces  of  ammonia 
citrate  of  iron  in  18  ounces  of  water,  and 
put  in  a  bottle.  Then  dissolve  2f  ounces 
of  red  prussiate  of  potash  in  18  ounces  of 
water,  and  put  in  another  bottle.  When 
ready  to  prepare  the  paper,  have  the  sheets 
piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  coating  but 
one  at  a  time.  Darken  the  room,  and 
light  a  ruby  lamp.  Now,  mix  thor- 
oughly equal  parts  of  both  solutions  and 
apply  the  mixture  with  a  sponge  in  long 
parallel  sweeps,  keeping  the  application 
as  even  as  possible.  Hang  the  paper  in 
the  dark  room  to  dry  and  keep  it  dark 
until  used.  Any  of  the  mixture  left 
from  sensitizing  the  paper  should  be 
thrown  away,  as  it  deteriorates  rapidly. 

Often,  in  making  blueprints  by  sun- 
light, the  exposure  is  too  long,  and  when 
the  frame  is  opened  the  white  lines  of 
the  print  are  faint  or  obscure.  Usually 
these  prints  are  relegated  to  the  waste 
basket;  but  if,  after  being  washed  as 
usual,  they  are  sponged  with  a  weak 
solution  of  chloride  of  iron,  their  recla- 
mation is  almost  certain.  When  the  lines 
reappear,  the  print  should  be  thoroughly 
rinsed  in  clear  water. 

Often  a  drawing,  from  which  prints 
have  already  been  made,  requires  chang- 
ing. The  blueprints  then  on  hand  are 
worthless,  requiring  more  time  to  correct 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


537 


than  it  would  take  to  make  a  new  print. 
An  economical  way  of  using  the  worth- 
less prints  is  to  cancel  the  drawing  al- 
ready thereon,  sensitize  the  reverse  side, 
and  use  the  paper  again. 

How  to  Make  Picture  Postal  Cards 
and  Photographic  Letter  Heads. — I. — 
Well-sized  paper  is  employed.  If  the 
si/ing  should  be  insufficient,  resizing  can 
be  done  with  a  10  per  cent  gelatin  solu- 
tion, with  a  2  per  cent  arrowroot  paste, 
or  with  a  50  per  cent  decoction  of  carra- 
geen. This  size  is  applied  on  the  crude 
paper  with  a  brush  and  allowed  to  dry. 
The  well-sized  or  resized  papers  are 
superior  and  the  picture  becomes  strong- 
er on  them  than  on  insufficiently  sized 
paper.  Coat  this  paper  uniformly  with 
a  solution  of  154  grains  of  ferric  oxalate 
in  3|  fluidounces  of  distilled  water,  using 
a  brush,  and  allow  to  dry.  Next,  apply 
the  solution  of  15  J  grains  of  silver  nitrate 
in  3|  fluidounces  of  water  with  a  second 
brush,  and  dry  again.  Coating  and  dry- 
ing must  be  conducted  with  ruby  light  or 
in  the  dark. 

The  finished  paper  keeps  several  days. 
Print  deep  so  as  to  obtain  a  strong  pic- 
ture and  develop  in  the  following  bath: 

Distilled  water. ..        3  A  fluidounces 
Potassium     oxal- 
ate (neutral)  . .  340     grains 
Oxalic  acid 4     grains 

After  developing  the  well-washed 
prints,  fix  them  preferably  in  the  follow- 
ing bath: 

Distilled  water. .        3£  fluidounces 
Sodium     thiosul- 

phate 75     grains 

Gold   chloride 
solution    (1    in 

100) 80     minims 

Any  other  good  bath  may  be  em- 
ployed. 

II. — Starch  is  dissolved  in  water  and 
the  solution  is  boiled  until  it  forms  a 
thin  paste.  Carmine  powder  is  added, 
arid  the  mixture  is  rapidly  and  assidu- 
ously stirred  until  it  is  homogeneous 
throughout.  It  is  now  poured  through 
muslin  and  spread  by  means  of  a  suit- 
able pencil  on  the  paper  to  be  sensitized. 
Let  dry,  then  float  it,  prepared  side  down 
on  a  solution  of  potassium  chromate,  30 
parts  in  520  parts  of  distilled  water,  being 
careful  to  prevent  any  of  the  liquid  from 
getting  on  the  back  or  reverse  side.  Dry 
in  the  dark  room,  and  preserve  in  dark- 
ness. When  desired  for  use  lay  the  neg- 
ative on  the  face  of  the  paper,  and  expose 
to  the  full  sunlight  for  5  or  6  minutes  (or 


about  an  hour  in  diffused  light).  Wash- 
ing in  plenty  of  water  completes  the  proc- 
ess. 

A  Simple  Emulsion  for  Mat  or  Print- 
ing-Out Paper. — One  of  the  very  best 
surfaces  to  work  upon  for  coloring  in 
water  color  is  the  carbon  print.  Apart 
from  its  absolute  permanency  as  a  base, 
the  surface  possesses  the  right  tooth  for 
the  adhering  of  the  pigment.  It  is  just 
such  a  surface  as  this  that  is  required 
upon  other  prints  than  carbon,  both  for 
finished  mat  surfaces  and  for  the  pur- 
poses of  coloring.  The  way  to  ob- 
tain this  surface  upon  almost  any  kind 
of  paper,  and  to  print  it  out  so  that  the 
correct  depth  is  ascertained  on  sight, 
will  be  described.  Some  of  the  crayon 
drawing  papers  can  be  utilized,  as  well 
as  many  other  plain  photographic  papers 
that  may  meet  the  desires  of  the  pho- 
tographer. If  a  glossy  paper  is  desired, 
the  emulsion  should  be  coated  on  a 
baryta-coated  stock. 

There  will  be  required,  in  the  first 
place,  2  half-gallon  stoneware  crocks 
with  lids.  The  best  shape  to  employ  is 
a  crock  with  the  sides  running  straight, 
with  no  depressed  ridge  at  the  top.  One 
of  these  crocks  is  for  the  preparation  of 
the  emulsion,  the  other  to  receive  the 
emulsion  when  filtered.  An  enameled 
iron  saucepan  of  about  2  gallons  capac- 
ity will  be  required  in  which  to  stand 
the  crock  for  preparing  the  emulsion, 
and  also  to  remelt  the  emulsion  after  it 
has  become  set.  The  following  is  the 
formula  for  the  emulsion,  which  must  be 
prepared  and  mixed  in  the  order  given. 
Failure  will  be  impossible  if  these  details 
are  scrupulously  attended  to. 

Having  procured  2  half-gallon  stone- 
ware crocks  with  lids,  clean  them  out 
well  with  hot  and  cold  water,  and  place 
into  one  of  these  the  following: 

Distilled  water 10  ounces 

Gelatin      (Heinrich's, 

hard) 4  ounces 

Cut  the  gelatin  into  shreds  with  a 
clean  pair  of  scissors.  Press  these  shreds 
beneath  the  water  with  a  clean  strip 
of  glass  and  allow  to  soak  for  1  hour. 
Now  proceed  to  melt  the  water-soaked 
gelatin  by  placing  the  crock  into  hot 
water  in  the  enameled  saucepan,  the 
water  standing  about  half  way  up  on  the 
outside  of  the  crock.  Bring  the  water  to 
boiling  point,  and  keep  the  gelatin  oc- 
casionally stirred  until  it  is  completely 
dissolved.  Then  remove  the  crock  to 
allow  the  contents  to  cool  down  to  120°  F. 
Now  prepare  the  following,  which  can  be 
done  while  the  gelatin  is  melting: 


538 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


No. 

Rpchelle  salts.  .. 
Distilled  water. . 


90  grains 
1  ounce 


No.  2 

Chloride     of     ammo- 
nium      45  grains 

Distilled  water 1  ounce 

No.  3 
Nitrate    of     silver,. 

1  ounce  and 75  grains 

Citric    acid    (crushed 


crystals) .... 
Distilled  water. 


95  grains 
10  ounces 


No.  4 

Powdered  white  alum  90  grains 
Distilled  water  (hot) . .     5  ounces 

The  latter  solution  may  be  made  with 
boiling  water.  When  these  solutions 
are  prepared,  pour  into  the  hot  gelatin 
solution  No.  1,  stirring  all  the  while  with 
a  clean  glass  rod.  Then  add  No.  2. 
Rinse  the  vessel  with  a  little  distilled 
water,  and  add  to  the  gelatin.  Now, 
while  stirring  gradually,  add  No.  3,  and 
lastly  add  No.  4,  which  may  be  very  hot. 
This  will  cause  a  decided  change  in  the 
color  of  the  emulsion.  Lastly  add  2 
ounces  of  pure  alcohol  (photographic). 
This  must  be  added  very  gradually  with 
vigorous  stirring,  because  if  added  too 
quickly  it  will  coagulate  the  gelatin 
and  form  insoluble  lumps.  The  emul- 
sion must,  of  course,  be  mixed  under  a 
light  not  stronger  than  an  ordinary  small 
gas-jet,  or  under  a  yellow  light  obtained 
by  covering  the  windows  with  yellow 
paper.  The  cover  may  now  be  placed 
upon  the  crock,  and  the  emulsion  put 
aside  for  2  or  3  days  to  ripen. 

At  the  end  of  this  time  the  contents  of 
the  crock,  now  formed  into  a  stiff  emul- 
sion, may  be  remelted  in  hot  water  by 
placing  the  crock  in  the  enameled  sauce- 
pan over  a  gas  stove.  The  emulsion 
may  be  broken  up  by  cutting  it  with  a 
clean  bone  or  hard-rubber  paper  cutter 
to  facilitate  the  melting.  Stir  the  mix- 
ture occasionally  until  thoroughly  dis- 
solved, and  add  the  following  as  soon  as 
the  emulsion  has  reached  a  temperature 
of  about  150°  F.: 

Distilled  water 4  ounces 

Pure  alcohol 1  ounce 

The  emulsion  must  now  be  filtered 
into  the  second  crock.  The  filtering  is 
best  accomplished  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Take  an  ordinary  plain-top  kero- 
sene lamp  chimney,  tie  over  the  small 
end  two  thicknesses  of  washed  cheese 
cloth.  Invert  the  chimney  and  insert  a 
tuft  of  absorbent  cotton  about  the  size  of 


an  ordinary  egg.  Press  it  .  carefully 
down  upon  the  cheese  cloth.  Fix  the 
chimney  in  the  ring  of  a  retort  stand  (or 
cut  a  hole  about  3  inches  in  diameter  in  a 
wooden  shelf),  so  that  the  crock  may 
stand  conveniently  beneath.  In  the 
chimney  place  a  strip  of  glass,  resting 
upon  the  cotton,  to  prevent  the  cotton 
from  lifting.  Now  pour  in  the  hot  emul- 
sion and  allow  the  whole  of  it  to  filter 
through  the  absorbent  cotton.  This 
accomplished,  we  are  now  ready  for 
coating  the  paper,  which  is  best  done  in 
the  following  manner: 

Cut  the  paper  into  strips  or  sheets, 
say  12  inches  wide  and  the  full  length  of 
the  sheet.  This  will  be,  let  us  suppose, 
12  x  26  inches.  Attach,  by  means  of  the 
well-known  photographic  clips,  a  strip 
of  wood  at  each  end  of  the  paper  upon 
the  back.  Three  clips  at  each  end  will 
be  required.  Having  a  number  of 
sheets  thus  prepared,  the  emulsion 
should  be  poured  into  a  porcelain  pan  or 
tray,  kept  hot  by  standing  within  another 
tray  containing  hot  water.  The  emul- 
sion tray  being,  say,  11  x  14  size,  the 
paper  now  is  easily  coated  by  holding 
the  clipped  ends  in  each  hand,  then  hold- 
ing the  left  end  of  the  paper  up,  and  the 
right-hand  end  lowered  so  that  the  curve 
of  the  paper  just  touches  the  emulsion. 
Then  raise  the  right  hand,  at  the  same 
time  lowering  the  left  hand  at  the  same 
rate.  Then  lower  the  right  hand,  lifting 
the  left.  Repeat  this  operation  once 
more;  then  drain  the  excess  of  emulsion 
at  one  corner  of  the  tray,  say,  the  left- 
hand  corner.  Just  as  soon  as  the  emul- 
sion has  drained,  the  coated  sheet  of 
Eaper  may  be  hung  up  to  dry,  by  the 
ooks  attached  to  the  clips,  upon  a  piece 
of  copper  wire  stretched  from  side  to 
side  of  a  spare  closet  or  room  that  can  be 
kept  darkened  until  the  paper  is  dry.  In 
this  way  coat  as  much  paper  as  may  be 
required.  When  it  is  dry  it  may  be 
rolled  up  tight  or  kept  flat  under  pressure 
until  needed. 

If  any  emulsion  remains  it  may  be 
kept  in  a  cool  place  for  2  weeks,  and  still 
be  good  for  coating.  Be  sure  to  clean 
out  all  the  vessels  used  before  the  emul- 
sion sets,  otherwise  this  will  present  a 
difficult  task,  since  the  emulsion  sets  into 
an  almost  insoluble  condition. 

This  emulsion  is  so  made  that  it  does 
not  require  to  be  washed.  If  it  is  washed 
it  will  become  spoiled.  It  is  easy  to 
make  and  easy  to  use.  If  it  is  desired 
that  only  small  sheets  of  paper  are  to  be 
coated,  they  may  be  floated  on  the  emul- 
sion, but  in  this  case  the  paper  must  be 
damp,  .which  is  easily  accomplished  by 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


539 


wetting  a  sheet  of  blotting  paper,  then 
covering  this  with  two  dry  sheets  of  blot- 
ting paper.  Place  the  sheets  to  be 
coated  upon  these,  and  place  under 
pressure  during  the  night.  Next  day 
they  will  be  in  good  condition  for  floating. 

When  the  coated  paper  is  dry  it  may 
be  printed  and  toned  just  the  same  as  any 
other  printing-out  paper,  with  any  toning 
bath,  and  fixed  in  hyposulphite  of  soda 
as  usual.  Toning  may  be  carried  to  a 
rich  blue  black,  or  if  not  carried  too  far 
will  remain  a  beautiful  sepia  color. 
After  well  washing  and  drying,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  surface  corresponds 
with  that  of  a  carbon  print;  if  the  paper 
has  been  of  a  somewhat  absorbent  char- 
acter, the  surface  will  be  entirely  mat,  and 
will  give  an  excellent  tooth  for  coloring 
or  finishing  in  sepia,  black  and  white,  etc. 

How  to  Sensitize  Photographic  Print^ 
ing  Papers. — I. — The  older  form  of 
paper  is  one  in  which  the  chemicals  are 
held  by  albumen.  Silver  is  said  to  com- 
bine with  this,  forming  an  albuminate. 
Pictures  printed  on  this  would  be  too 
sharp  in  their  contrasts,  and  conse- 
quently "hard";  this  is  avoided  by  intro- 
ducing silver  chloride. 

To  prepare  this  form  of  paper,  beat  15 
ounces  of  fresh  egg  albumen  with  5 
ounces  of  distilled  water,  dissolve  in  it 
300  grains  of  ammonium  chloride,  set 
aside  for  a  time,  and  decant  or  filter. 
Suitable  paper  is  coated  with  this  solu- 
tion by  floating,  and  then  dried.  The 
paper  is  "sensitized"  by  floating  it  on 
a  solution  of  silver  nitrate  in  distilled 
water,  about  80  grains  to  the  ounce,  with 
a  drop  of  acetic  acid.  The  paper  is 
dried  as  before,  and  is  then  ready  for 
printing.  The  sensitizing  must,  of 
course,  be  done  in  the  dark  room. 

The  reaction  between  the  ammonium 
chloride  present  in  the  albumen  coating 
produces  a  certain  quantity  of  silver  chlo- 
ride, the  purpose  of  which  is  shown  above. 
Of  course,  variations  in  the  proportions 
of  this  ingredient  will  give  different  de- 
grees of  softness  to  the  picture. 

II. — The  bromide  and  chloride  papers 
which  are  now  popular  consist  of  the  or- 
dinary photographic  paper  sensitized  by 
means  of  a  thin  coating  of  bromide  or 
chloride  emulsion.  In  "Photographic 
Printing  Methods,"  by  the  Rev.  W.  H. 
Burbank,  the  following  method  is  given 
for  bromide  paper: 

A. — Gelatin  (soft) 42£  grains 

Bromide  of  potassium  26     grains 
Distilled  water.  .  1     ounce 


B. — Nitrate  of  silver. 
Distilled  water.. 


3J  grans 
1     ounce 


Dissolve  the  bromide  first,  then  add 
the  gelatin  and  dissolve  by  gentle  heat 
(95°  to  100°  F.).  Bring  the  silver  so- 
lution to  the  same  temperature,  and  add 
in  a  small  stream  to  the  gelatin  solution, 
stirring  vigorously,  of  course  in  non-ac- 
tinic light.  Keep  the  mixed  emulsion  at 
a  temperature  of  105°  F.  for  half  an  hour, 
or  according  to  the  degree  of  sensitive- 
ness required,  previously  adding  1  drop 
of  nitric  acid  to  every  5  ounces  of  the 
emulsion.  Allow  it  to  set,  squeeze 
through  working  canvas,  and  wash  2 
hours  in  running  water.  In  his  own 
practice  he  manages  the  washing  easily 
enough  by  breaking  the  emulsion  up 
into  an  earthen  jar  filled  with  cold  water, 
and  placed  in  the  dark  room  sink.  A 
tall  lamp  chimney  standing  in  the  jar 
immediately  under  the  tap  conducts 
fresh  water  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  and 
keeps  the  finely  divided  emulsion  in  con- 
stant motion;  a  piece  of  muslin,  laid  over 
the  top  of  the  jar  to  prevent  any  of  the 
emulsion  running  out,  completes  this 
simple,  inexpensive,  but  efficient  wash- 
ing apparatus. 

Next  melt  the  emulsion  and  add  one- 
tenth  of  the  whole  volume  of  glycerine 
and  alcohol;  the  first  to  prevent  trouble- 
some cockling  of  the  paper  as  it  dries,  the 
second  to  prevent  air  bubbles  and  hasten 
drying.  Then  filter. 

With  the  emulsion  the  paper  may  be 
coated  just  as  it  comes  from  the  stock 
dealer,  plain,  or,  better  still,  given  a 
substratum  of  insoluble  gelatin,  made  as 
follows: 

Gelatin If  grains 

Water 1     ounce 

Dissolve  and  filter;  then  add  11  drops 
of  a  1  in  50  filtered  chrome  alum  solution. 
The  paper  is  to  be  floated  for  half  a 
minute  on  this  solution,  avoiding  air 
bubbles,  and  then  hung  up  to  dry  in  a 
room  free  from  dust.  The  purpose  of 
this  substratum  is  to  secure  additional 
brilliancy  in  the  finished  prints  by  keep- 
ing the  emulsion  isolated  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  paper.  The  paper  should 
now  be  cut  to  the  size  desired. 

We  do  not  know  of  these  processes 
having  been  applied  to  postal  cards,  but 
unless  there  is  some  substance  in  the 
sizing  of  the  card  which  would  interfere, 
there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be. 
Of  course,  however,  a  novice  will  not  get 
the  results  by  using  it  that  an  experienced 
hand  would. 

Ferro-Prussiate  Paper. — The  follow- 
ing aniline  process  of  preparing  sensitive 
paper  is  employed  by  the  Prussian  and 
Hessian  railway  administrations.  The 


540 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


ordinary  paper  on  reels  is  used  for  the 
purpose,  and  sensitized  as  follows: 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  parts,  by 
weight,  of  powdered  potassium  bichro- 
mate are  dissolved  in  water;  the  solution 
should  be  completely  saturated;  10  parts 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  10  parts 
of  alcohol  (962),  and  30  parts  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  are  added  successively,  and 
the  whole  stirred  together.  The  solu- 
tion is  sponged  over  the  paper.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  have  the  room  absolutely 
dark,  or  to  work  by  a  red  light,  still  the 
light  should  be  obscured.  The  drying 
of  the  paper,  in  the  same  place,  takes 
about  10  minutes,  after  which  the  tracing 
to  be  reproduced  and  the  paper  are 
placed  in  a  frame,  as  usual,  and  exposed 
to  daylight.  On  a  sunny  day,  an  ex- 
posure of  35  seconds  is  enough;  in 
cloudy  weather,  60  to  70  seconds;  on  a 
very  dark  day,  as  much  as  5  minutes. 

After  exposure,  the  paper  is  fixed  by 
suspending  it  for  20  minutes  upon  a  bar 
in  a  closed  wooden  box,  on  the  bottom 
of  which  are  laid  some  sheets  of  blotting 
paper,  sprinkled  with  40  drops  of  ben- 
zine and  20  of  crude  aniline  oil.  The 
vapors  given  off  will  develop  the  design. 
Several  impressions  may  be  taken  at  the 
same  time. 

For  fixing,  crude  aniline  oil  is  to  be 
used  (anilinum  purum),  not  refined 
(purissimum),  for  the  reason  that  the 
former  alone  contains  the  substances 
necessary  for  the  operation.  The  re- 
produced design  is  placed  in  water  for  a 
few  minutes,  and  hung  up  to  dry. 

Pigment  Paper  for  Immediate  Use. — 
Pigment  paper  is  usually  sensitized  in 
the  bichromate  solution  on  the  evening 
before  it  is  desired  for  use.  If  it  is  not 
then  ussd  it  will  spoil.  By  proceeding 
as  follows  the  paper  may  be  used  within 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  after  treating  it 
in  the  bichromate  bath.  Make  a  solu- 
tion of 

Ammonium     bi- 
chromate         75     grains 

Water 3£  fluidounces 

Sodium  carbonate     15    grains 

Mix  0.35  ounces  of  this  solution  with  0.7 
ounces  alcohol,  and  with  a  broad  brush 
apply  to  surface  of  the  pigment  paper, 
as  evenly  as  possible.  Dry  this  paper 
as  quickly  as  possible  in  a  pasteooard 
box  of  suitable  size,  15  minutes  being 
usually  long  enough  for  the  purpose.  It 
may  then  be  used  at  once. 

Photographing  on  Silk. — China  silk  is 
thoroughly  and  carefully  washed  to  free 
it  from  dressing,  and  then  immersed  in 
the  following  solution: 


Sodium  chloride.  ...        4  parts 

Arrowroot  .........        4  parts 

Acetic  acid  .........      15  parts 

Distilled  water  ......    100  parts 

Dissolve  the  arrowroot  in  the  water  by 
warming  gently,  then  add  the  remaining 
ingredients.      Dissolve  4  parts  of  tannin 
in  100  parts  of  distilled  water  and  mix  the 
solutions.     Let  the   silk   remain   in   the 
bath  for  3  minutes,  then  hang  it  care- 
fully   on    a    cord    stretched    across    the 
room  to  dry.      The  sensitizing  mixture 
is  as  follows: 

Silver  nitrate  .......      90  parts 

Distilled  water  ......    750  parts 

Nitric  acid  .........        1  part 

Dissolve.  On  the  surface  of  this  so- 
lution the  silk  is  to  be  floated  for  1 
minute,  then  hung  up  till  superficially 
dry,  then  pinned  out  carefully  on  a  flat 
board  until  completely  dry.  This  must, 
of  course,  be  done  in  the  dark  room. 
Print,  wash,  and  tone  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. 

TONING  BATHS  FOR  PAPER. 

The  chief  complaints  made  against 
separate  baths  are  (1)  the  possibility 
of  double  tones,  and  (2)  that  the  prints 
sometimes  turn  yellow  and  remain  so. 
Such  obstacles  may  easily  be  removed  by 
exercising  a  little  care.  Double  tones 
may  be  prevented  by  soaking  the  prints 
in  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  common  salt 
before  the  preliminary  washing,  and  by 
not  touching  the  films  with  the  fingers; 
and  the  second  objection  could  not  be 
raised  provided  fresh  solution  were  used, 
with  no  excess  of  sulphocyanide,  if  this 
be  the  bath  adopted. 

A  very  satisfactory  solution  may  be 
made  as  follows: 

Sodium  phosphate.  ..    20    grains 
loride 


grans 


Gold  chl 

Distilled    (or    boiled) 

water  ............    10     ounces 

This  tones  very  quickly  and  evenly, 
and  the  print  will  be,  when  fixed,  exactly 
the  color  it  is  when  removed  from  the 
bath.      Good    chocolate    tints    may    be 
obtained,  turning  to  purple  gray  on  pro- 
longed immersion. 

Next  to  this,  as  regards  ease  of  ma- 
nipulation, the    tungstate    bath    may  be 
placed,  the  following  being  a  good  for- 
mula: 

Sodium  tungstate.  ...    40  grains 

Gold  chloride  .......      2  grains 

Water  ..............    12  ounces 

The  prints  should  be  toned  a  little 
further  than  required,  as  they  change 
color,  though  only  slightly,  in  the  hypo. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


541 


Provided  that  ordinary  care  be  ex- 
ercised, the  sulphocyanide  bath  cannot 
well  be  improved  upon.  The  formulas 
given  by  the  various  makers  for  their 
respective  papers  are  all  satisfactory, 
and  differ  very  little.  One  that  always 
acts  well  is 

Ammonium      sulpho- 
cyanide     28    grains 

Distilled  water 16     ounces 

Gold  chloride 2£  grains 

For  those  who  care  to  try  the  various 
baths,  and  to  compare  their  results,  here 
is  a  table  showing  the  quantities  of  dif- 
ferent agents  that  may  be  used  with 
sufficient  water  to  make  up  10  ounces: 


Gold   chlo- 
ride, 1  gr. 
to    1    oz. 
water.  .  .  . 
Borax  .... 
Sod.  bicar- 
bonate.. . 
Sod.    car- 
bonate 

12  dr. 
60  gr. 

16  dr. 
10  gr. 

16  dr. 
20  gr. 

11  dr. 

11  dr. 

14  dr. 

Sod.   phos- 
phate. 

20  gr. 

Sod.    tung- 
state... 

40  gr. 

Amm.   sul- 
phocya- 
nide 

17  5gr 

We  may  take  it  that  any  of  these  sub- 
stances reduce  gold  trichloride,  AuCl3  to 
AuCl;  this  AuCl  apparently  acts  as  an 
electrolyte,  from  which  gold  is  deposited 
on  the  silver  of  the  image,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  small  quantity  of  silver 
combines  with  the  chlorine  of  the  gold 
chloride  thus: 

AuCl  +  Ag  =  AgCl  +  Au 

When  toning  has  been  completed,  the 
prints  are  washed  and  placed  in  the  fix- 
ing bath,  when  the  sodium  thiosulphate 
E  resent  dissolves  any  silver  chloride  that 
as  not  been  affected  by  light. 

Besides  the  well-known,  every-day 
tones  we  see,  which  never  outstep  the 
narrow  range  between  chocolate  brown 
and  purple,  a  practically  infinite  variety 
of  color,, from  chalk  red  to  black,  may  be 
obtained  by  a  little  careful  study  of  ton- 
ing baths  instead  of  regarding  them  as 
mere  unalterable  machines.  Most  charm- 
ing tints  are  produced  with  platinum 
baths,  a  good  formula  being 

Strong  nitric  acid  ....      5  drops 

Water 4  ounces 

Chloro-platinite  of  po- 
tassium       1  grain 

The  final  tone  of  a  print  cannot  be 
judged  from  its  appearance  in  the  bath, 
but  some  idea  of  it  may  be  got  by  holding 


it  up  to  the  light  and  looking  through  it. 
A  short  immersion  gives  various  reds, 
while  prolonged  toning  gives  soft  grays. 

Results  very  similar  to  platinotype 
may  be  obtained  with  the  following 
combined  gold  and  platinum  bath: 

A. — Sodium  acetate 1  drachm 

Water 4  ounces 

Gold  chloride 1  grain 

B. — Chloro-platinite  of  po- 
tassium       1  grain 

Water 4  ounces 

Mix  A  and  B  and  neutralize  with  nitric 
acid.  (The  solution  will  be  neutral 
when  it  just  ceases  to  turn  red  litmus 
paper  blue.) 

Another  toning  agent  is  stannous 
chloride.  Two  or  three  grains  of  tin  foil 
are  dissolved  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid 
with  the  aid  of  heat.  The  whole  is  then 
made  up  to  about  4  ounces  with  water. 

Toning  Baths  for  Silver  Bromide 
Paper. — The  picture,  which  has  been 
exposed  at  a  distance  of  1|  feet  for  about 
8  to  10  seconds,  is  developed  in  the  cus- 
tomary manner  and  fixed  in  an  acid 
fixing  bath  composed  of 

Distilled  water..  1,000  cubic  centimeters 
Hyposulphite  of 

soda.  . 100  grams 

Sodium  sulphite          20  grams 
Sulphuric  acid. .     4  to  5  grams 

First    dissolve    the    sodium    sulphite, 


then  add  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  finally 
the  hyposulphite,  and  dissolve. 

Blue  tints  are  obtained  by  laying  the 
picture  in  a  bath  composed  as  follows: 

A. — Uranium  ni- 
trate         2  grams 

Water 200  cubic  centimeters 

B. — Red  p  r  u  s  - 
siate      o  f 

potash.  .  .        2  grams 
Water 200  cubic  centimeters 

C. — A  m  m  o  n  i  a- 

iron-alum     10  grams 

Water 100  cubic  centimeters 

Pure  hydro- 

chloric 

acid 15  cubic  centimeters 

Immediately  before  the  toning,  mix 
Solution  A.  .    200  cubic  centimeters 
Glacial   ace- 
tic acid...      20  cubic  centimeters 
Solution  B..    200   cubic  centimeters 
Solution  C. .     30  to  40  cubic  centi- 
meters 


Brown   tints, 
lutions: 


Use   the   following   so- 


542 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


A. — Uranium  ni- 
trate   12  grams 

Water 1,000  cubic  centimeters 

B. — Red  p  r  u  s  - 
siate  of 
potash.  .  .  9  grams 

Water 1,000  cubic  centimeters 

And  mix  immediately  before  use 
Solution  A.  .    100  cubic  centimeters 
Solution  B. .    100  cubic  centimeters 
Glacial   ace- 
tic acid ...      10  cubic  centimeters 
Pictures  toned  in  this  bath  are  then 
laid  into  the  following  solution: 

Water 1,500  cubic  centimeters 

Pure  hydro- 
chloric 

acid 5  cubic  centimeters 

Citric  acid.  .  20  grams 
To  Turn  Blueprints  Brown. — A  piece 
of  caustic  soda  about  the  size  of  a  bean 
is  dissolved  in  5  ounces  of  water  and  the 
blueprint  immersed  in  it,  on  which  it 
will  take  on  an  orange-yellow  color. 
When  the  blue  has  entirely  left  the  print 
it  should  be  washed  thoroughly  and  im- 
mersed in  a  bath  composed  of  8  ounces 
of  water  in  which  has  been  dissolved  a 
heaping  teaspoonf  ul  of  tannic  acid.  The 
prints  in  this  bath  will  assume  a  brown 
color  that  may  be  carried  to  almost  any 
tone,  after  which  they  must  again  be 
thoroughly  washed  and  allowed  to  dry. 

COMBINED     TONING     AND     FIXING 
BATHS. 

The  combined  toning  and  fixing 
bath  consists  essentially  of  five  parts — 
(1)  water,  the  solvent;  (2)  a  soluble 
salt  of  gold,  such  as  gold  chloride;  (3) 
the  fixing  agent,  sodium  thiosulphate; 
(4)  a  compound  which  will  readily  com- 
bine with  "nascent"  sulphur — i.  e.,  sul- 
phur as  it  is  liberated — this  is  usually  a 
soluble  lead  salt,  such  as  the  acetate  or 
nitrate,  and  (5)  an  auxiliary,  such  as  a 
sulphocyanide. 

The  simplest  bath  was  recommended 
by  Dr.  John  Nicol,  and  is  as  follows: 
Sodium  thiosulphate.      3  ounces 

Distilled  water 16  ounces 

When  dissolved,  add 

Gold  chloride.  ...    4  grains 
Distilled  water  ...    4  fluidrachms 
A  bath  which  contains  lead  is  due  to  Dr. 
Vogel,  whose  name  alone  is  sufficient  to 
warrant  confidence  in  the  formula: 
Sodium  thiosulphate  7  ounces 
Ammonium  sulpho- 
cyanide     1  ounce 

Lead  acetate 67  grains 

Alum 1  ounce 


Gold  chloride 12  grains 

Distilled  water 35  nuidounces 

A  bath  which  contains  no  lead  is  one 
which    has    produced    excellent    results 
and  is  due  to  the  experimental  research 
of  Dr.  Liesegang.     It  is  as  follows: 
Ammonium      sul- 
phocyanide. ...        1  ounce 
Sodium  chloride. .      1     ounce 

Alum *,  ounce 

Sodium  thios  ul- 


phate 

Distilled  water.  . 


4 

24 


ounces 
fluidounces 


Allow  this  solution  to  stand  for  24 
hours,  during  which  time  the  precipi- 
tated sulphur  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel;  decant  or  filter,  and  add 

Gold  chloride.  ...      8  grains 
Distilled  water.  ..      1  fluidounce 

It  is  curious  that,  with  the  two  baths 
last  described,  the  addition  to  them  of 
some  old,  exhausted  solution  makes  them 
work  all  the  better. 

ENLARGEMENTS. 

TIMES  OF  ENLARGEMENT  AND  REDUCTION 


00   . 

3  03 

U  C 
2 

j=! 
G 

I 
o 

I 

0 

a 

00 

flj 

0 

a 

co 

a* 

"o 
d 

OB 
V 

CO 

m 
0 

0 

G 

00 

18 

2} 

rH 

0* 

CO 

« 

? 

4 
4 

5 

6 
3 

3f 

8 
21 
10 
Si 

10 

2* 

12 

21 

15 
3 

14 
*i 

16 

2f 
20" 

2* 

12  i 

si 

2-,H,- 

22} 

2A 

3 

6 
6 

7 
8 

9 

12 
4 

15 

si 

18 
3| 

21 
3} 
24} 

4-,V 

24 
3? 

28~ 
4 

27 
S| 

14 

17$ 
4j 

21 
4* 

31i 

4 

12 
6 

16 

20 
5 

24 

28 
4| 

32 

36 
4} 

4i 

9 
9 

13} 

e| 

18 
6 

22* 
5| 

27 
51 

31} 

36 

54 

45A- 

5 

10 
10 

15 

20 

25 

61 

30 
6 

35 

g 

40 

45 

Si 
6 

11 
11 

12 

16* 

81 
18 
9 

22 

27* 

6-i 

30 

33 
6} 

36~ 

n 

38* 
6,\ 

44 

6? 

49} 
~54 

e| 

24 

8 

42 

7 

48 

7 

14 
14 

21 

10} 

28 

35 

42 

82 
fi 

49 

84 

56 

8 

63 

?£ 

8 

7 

16 
16 

Is 

18 

24 
12 

32 

io§ 

40 
10 

48 
91 

54 

56 

64 

72 
9 

27  36 
13}  12 

45 

in 

63 

72 
lOf 

81 

10J 

PHOTOGRAPHY 


543 


The  object  of  this  table  is  to  enable 
any  manipulator  who  is  about  to  enlarge 
(or  reduce)  a  copy  any  given  number  of 
times  to  do  so  without  troublesome  cal- 
culation. It  is  assumed  that  the  pho- 
tographer knows  exactly  what  the  focus 
of  his  lens  is,  and  that  he  is  able  to  meas- 
ure accurately  from  its  optical  center. 
The  use  of  the  table  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  illustration:  A  photogra- 
pher has  a  carte  to  enlarge  to  four  times 
its  size,  and  the  lens  he  intends  employ- 
ing is  one  of  6  inches  equivalent  focus. 
He  must  therefore  look  for  4  on  the 
upper  horizontal  line  and  for  6  in  the  first 
vertical  column,  and  carry  his  eye  to 
where  these  two  join,  which  will  be  at 
30-7 1.  The  greater  of  these  is  the  dis- 
tance the  sensitive  plate  must  be  from 
the  center  of  the  lens;  and  the  lesser,  the 
distance  of  the  picture  to  be  copied.  To 
reduce  a  picture  any  given  number  of 
times,  the  same  method  must  be  fol- 
lowed; but  in  this  case  the  greater  num- 
ber will  represent  the  distance  between 
the  lens  and  the  picture  to  be  copied,  the 
latter  that  between  the  lens  and  the 
sensitive  plate.  This  explanation  will 
be  sufficient  for  every  case  of  enlargement 
or  reduction. 

If  the  focus  of  the  lens  be  12  inches,  as 
this  number  is  not  in  the  column  of  focal 
lengths,  look  out  for  6  in  this  column  and 
multiply  by  2,  and  so  on  with  any  other 
numbers. 

To  make  a  good  enlargement  five 
points  should  be  kept  constantly  in  view, 


1.  Most  careful  treatment  of  the  orig- 
inal negative. 

2.  Making  a  diapositive  complete  in 
all  its  parts. 

3.  Scrupulous    consideration    of    the 
size  of  the  enlargement. 

4.  Correct  exposure  during  the  proc- 
ess of  enlargement. 

5.  The  most  minute  attention  to  the 
details    of    development,    including    the 
chemical  treatment  of  the  enlarged  neg- 
ative. 

The  original  negative  should  not  be 
too  dense,  nor,  on  the  contrary,  should  it 
be  too  thin.  If  necessary,  it  should  be 
washed  off,  or  strengthened,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Too  strong  a  negative  is  usu- 
ally weakened  with  ammonium  per- 
sulphate, or  the  fixing  hypo  solution  is 
quite  sufficient.  All  spots,  points,  etc., 
should  be  retouched  with  the  pencil  and 
carmine. 

The  diapositive  should  be  produced  by 
contact  in  the  copying  apparatus.  A 
border  of  black  paper  should  be  used  to 
prevent  the  entry  of  light  from  the  side. 


The  correct  period  of  exposure  de- 
pends upon  the  thickness  of  the  negative, 
the  source  of  the  light,  its  distance,  etc. 
Here  there  is  no  rule,  experience  alone 
must  teach. 

For  developing  one  should  use  not  too 
strong  a  developer.  The  metol-soda 
developer  is  well  suited  to  this  work,  as 
it  gives  especially  soft  lights  and  half 
tones.  Avoid  too  short  a  development. 
When  the  finger  laid  behind  the  thickest 
spot,  and  held  toward  the  light,  can  no 
longer  be  detected,  the  negative  is  dense 
enough. 

The  denser  negatives  should  be  ex- 
posed longer,  and  the  development 
should  be  quick,  while  with  thin,  light 
negatives  the  reverse  is  true;  the  ex- 
posure should  be  briefer  and  the  de- 
velopment long,  using  a  strong  developer, 
and  if  necessary  with  an  addition  of  po- 
tassium bromiae. 

The  silver  chloro-bromide  diapositive 
plates,  found  in  the  shops,  are  totally 
unsuited  for  enlargements,  as  they  give 
overdone,  hard  pictures. 

To  produce  good  artistic  results  in 
enlarging,  the  diapositive  should  be  kept 
soft,  even  somewhat  too  thin.  It  should 
undergo,  also,  a  thorough  retouching. 
All  improvements  are  easily  carried  out 
on  the  smaller  positive  or  negative  pic- 
tures. Later  on,  after  the  same  have 
been  enlarged,  corrections  are  much 
more  difficult  and  troublesome. 

VARNISHES: 

Cold  Varnish.  — 

I.  —  Pyroxylin  ..........    10  grains 

Amyl  alcohol  .......      1  ounce 

Amyl  acetate  .......      1  ounce 

Allow  to  stand,  shaking  frequently  till 
dissolved.  Label:  The  negative  should 
be  thoroughly  dried  before  this  solution 
is  applied,  which  may  be  done  either  by 
flowing  it  over  the  solution  or  with  a  flat 
brush.  The  negative  should  be  placed  in 
a  warm  place  for  at  least  12  hours  to 
thoroughly  dry. 


Label:  In  applying  this  varnish  great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  it  near 
a  light  or  open  fire.  It  can  be  flowed 
over  or  brushed  on  the  negative. 

Black  Varnish.  — 

Brunswick  black.  .  .      1|  ounces 
Benzol  .........  ..  .  .      1     ounce 

Label:  The  varnish  should  be  applied 
with  a  brush,  care  being  taken  not  to 
use  it  near  a  light  or  open  fire. 


544 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Dead  Black  Varnish. — 

Borax 

Shellac 

Glycerine 

Water.. 


30  grains 
60  grains 
30  minims 
2  ounces 


Boil  till  dissolved,  filter,  and  add  ani- 
line black,  120  grains. 

Label:  Apply  the  solution  with  a 
brush,  and  repeat  when  dry  if  necessary. 

Ordinary  Negative  Varnish. — 

Gum  sandarac 1     ounce 

Orange  shellac \  ounce 

Castor  oil 90    minims 

Methyl  alcohol 1     pint 

Allow  to  stand  with  occasional  agita- 
tion till  dissolved,  and  then  filter.  Label: 
The  negative  should  be  heated  before  a 
fire  till  it  can  be  comfortably  borne  on  the 
back  of  the  hand,  and  then  the  varnish 
flowed  over,  any  excess  being  drained 
off,  and  the  negative  should  then  be 
again  placed  near  the  fire  to  dry. 

Water  Varnish. — It  is  not  only  in  con- 
nection with  its  application  to  a  wet  col- 
lodion film  that  water  varnish  forms  a 
valuable  addition  to  the  stock  of  chem- 
icals in  all-round  photography;  it  is 
almost  invaluable  in  the  case  of  gelatin 
as  with  wet  collodion  films.  In  the  case 
of  gelatin  negatives  the  water  varnish  is 
applied  in  the  shape  of  a  wash  directly 
after  the  negatives  have  been  washed  to 
free  their  films  from  all  traces  of  hypo, 
or  in  other  words,  at  that  stage  when  the 
usual  drying  operation  would  begin. 
After  the  varnish  has  been  applied  the 
films  are  dried  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
its  application  will  soon  convince  anyone 
that  has  experienced  the  difficulty  of  re- 
touching by  reason  of  the  want  of  a  tooth 
in  the  film  to  make  a  lead-pencil  bite,  as 
the  saying  goes,  that  were  this  the  only 
benefit  accruing  from  its  application  it 
is  well  worthy  of  being  employed. 

The  use  of  water  varnish,  however, 
does  away  with  the  necessity  of  em- 
ploying collodion  as  an  additional  pro- 
tection to  a  negative,  and  is,  perhaps, 
the  best  known  remedy  against  damage 
from  silver  staining  that  experienced 
workers  are  acquainted  with.  As  a  var- 
nish it  is  not  costly,  neither  is  it  difficult 
to  make  in  reasonably  small  quantities, 
while  its  application  is  simplicity  itself. 
The  following  formula  is  an  excellent 
sample  of  water  varnish: 

Place  in  a  clean,  enameled  pan  1  pint 
of  water,  into  which  insert  4  ounces  of 
shellac  in  thin  flakes,  and  place  the  vessel 
on  a  fire  or  gas  stove  until  the  water  is 
raised  to  212°  F.  When  this  tempera- 
ture is  reached  a  few  drops  of  hot,  sat- 


urated solution  of  borax  is  dropped  into 
the  boiling  pan  containing  the  shellac 
and  water,  taking  care  to  stir  vigorously 
with  a  long  strip  of  glass  until  the  shellac 
is  all  dissolved.  Too  much  borax  should 
not  be  added,  only  just  sufficient  to 
cause  the  shellac  to  dissolve,  and  it  is 
better  to  stop  short,  if  anything,  before 
all  the  flakes  dissolve  out  than  to  add  too 
much  borax.  The  solution  is  then  fil- 
tered carefully  and,  when  cold,  the  water 
varnish  is  ready  for  use. 

FADED  PHOTOGRAPHS  AND  THEIR 
TREATMENT: 

Restoring  Faded  Photographs. — I. — 
As  a  precaution  against  a  disaster  first 
copy  the  old  print  in  the  same  size. 
Soak  the  faded  photograph  for  several 
hours  in  clean  water  and,  after  separating 
print  from  mount,  immerse  the  former  in 
nitric  acid,  highly  dilute  (1  per  cent),  for 
a  few  minutes.  Then  the  print  is  kept 
in  a  mercury  intensifier  (mercuric  chlo- 
ride, Bounce;  common  salt,  \  ounce;  hot 
water,  16  ounces,  used  cold),  until 
bleached  as  much  as  possible.  After 
half  an  hour's  rinsing,  a  very  weak  am- 
monia solution  will  restore  the  photo- 
graph, with  increased  vigor,  the  upper 
tones  being  much  improved,  though  the 
shadows  will  show  some  tendency  to 
clog.  The  net  result  will  be  a  decided 
improvement  in  appearance;  but,  at  this 
stage,  any  similarly  restored  photo- 
graphs should  be  recopied  if  their  im- 
portance warrants  it,  as  mercury  inten- 
sifier results  are  not  permanent.  It  may 
be  suggested  that  merely  rephotograph- 
ing  and  printing  in  platinotype  will 
probably  answer. 

II.— Carefully  remove  the  picture 
from  its  mount,  and  put  it  in  a  solution  of 
the  following  composition: 

By  weight 
Hydrochloric  acid.  ...     2  parts 

Sodium  chloride 8  parts 

Potassium  bichromate     8  parts 
Distilled  water 250  parts 

The  fluid  bleaches  the  picture,  but 
photographs  that  have  been  toned  with 
gold  do  not  quite  vanish.  Rinse  with 
plenty  of  water,  and  develop  again  with 
very  dilute  alkaline  developer. 

MOUNTANTS: 

See  also  Adhesives. 

I. — If  buckling  of  the  mount  is  to  be 
cured,  the  prints  must  be  mounted  in  a 
dry  state,  and  the  film  of  mountant  borne 
by  the  print  must  be  just  sufficient  to 
attach  it  firmly  to  the  mount  and  no 
more.  The  great  virtue  of  the  method 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


545 


here  described  consists  of  the  mar- 
velously  thin  film  of  tenacious  mountant 
applied  to  the  print  in  its  dry  condition, 
shrinkage  by  this  means  being  entirely 
obviated.  A  drawing  board  with  a  per- 
fectly smooth  surface  and  of  fair  dimen- 
sions, an  ivory  or  bone  burnisher  at- 
tached to  a  short  handle,  with  some 
common  glue,  are  the  principal  requi- 
sites. Take,  say,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
the  glue  broken  into  small  pieces  and 
cover  it  with  water  in  a  clean  gallipot, 
large  enough  to  allow  for  the  subsequent 
swelling  of  the  glue.  Place  on  one  side 
until  the  glue  has  become  thoroughly 
permeated  by  the  water,  then  pour  off 
the  excess  and  dissolve  the  glue  in  the 
water  it  has  absorbed,  by  placing  the 
gallipot  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water.  The 
solution  tested  with  a  piece  of  blue  lit- 
mus paper  will  show  a  distinctly  acid 
reaction,  which  must  be  carefully  neu- 
tralized by  adding  some  solution  of  car- 
bonate of  soda.  The  amount  of  water 
absorbed  by  the  glue  will  probably  be 
too  little  to  give  it  the  best  working  con- 
sistency, and,  if  this  is  the  case,  sufficient 
should  be  added  to  make  it  about  the 
thickness  of  ordinary  molasses.  Care- 
ful filtration  through  a  cambric  hand- 
kerchief, and  the  addition  of  about  10 
grains  of  thymol,  completes  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  mounting  solution.  As  glue 
deteriorates  by  frequent  and  prolonged 
heating,  it  is  preferable  to  make  up  a 
stock  solution,  from  which  sufficient  for 
the  work  in  hand  can  be  taken  in  the 
form  of  jelly,  melted,  and  used  up  at  once. 
The  finished  prints,  dried  and  trimmed 
to  the  required  size,  are  placed  on 
the  boards  they  are  to  occupy  when 
mounted,  and,  as  it  is  impossible  to  re- 
move a  print  for  readjustment  once  it  is 
laid  down  for  final  mounting,  the  wisest 
course  is  to  indicate  by  faint  pencil 
marks  on  the  mount  the  exact  position 
the  print  is  to  occupy;  then  it  may  be 
laid  down  accurately  and  without  any 
indecision.  A  small  gas  or  oil  stove  is 
required  on  the  mounting  table  to  keep 
the  glue  liquid,  but  maintaining  the  solu- 
tion in  a  constant  state  of  ebullition 
throughout  the  operation  is  unnecessary 
and  harmful  to  the  glue;  the  flame 
should  be  regulated  so  that  the  mountant 
is  kept  just  at  the  melting  point.  Place 
the  drawing  board  beside  the  gas  stove 
and  with  a  house-painter's  brush  of 
good  quality  and  size  spread  the  glue 
over  an  area  considerably  exceeding  the 
dimensions  of  the  print  to  be  mounted. 
A  thin  coating  of  glue  evenly  applied  to 
the  board  is  the  end  to  aim  at,  to  accom- 
plish which  the  brush  should  be  worked 


in  horizontal  strokes,  crossing  these  with 
others  at  right  angles.  Have  at  hand  a 
small  pile  of  paper  cut  into  pieces  some- 
what larger  than  the  print  to  be  mounted 
(old  newspaper  answers  admirably  for 
these  pieces),  lay  one  down  on  the  glued 
patch  and  press  it  well  into  contact  by 
passing  the  closed  hand  across  it  in  all 
directions.  Raise  one  corner  of  the 
paper,  and  slowly  but  firmly  strip  it 
from  the  board.  Repeat  the  operations 
of  gluing  the  board  (in  the  same  place) 
and  stripping  the  newspaper  2  or  3 
times,  when  a  beautifully  even  cushion 
of  glue  will  remain  on  the  board. 

Mounting  the  prints  is  the  next  step. 
The  cushion  of  glue  obtained  on  the 
board  has  to  be  coated  with  glue  for, 
say,  every  second  print,  but  the  amount 
applied  must  be  as  small  as  possible. 
After  applying  the  glue  the  print  is  laid 
down  upon  .it,  a  square  of  the  waste 
newspaper  laid  over  the  print,  which 
has  then  to  be  rubbed  well  into  contact 
with  the  glue.  Raise  a  corner  of  the 
print  with  the  point  of  a  penknife  and 
strip  it  from  the  board,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  newspaper.  Care  must  be  taken 
when  handling  the  print  in  its  glued  con- 
dition to  keep  the  fingers  well  beyond 
the  edges  of  the  print,  in  order  that  no 
glue  may  be  abstracted  from  the  edges. 
Lay  the  print  quickly  down  upon  its 
mount;  with  a  clean,  soft  linen  duster 
smooth  it  everywhere  into  contact,  place 
upon  it  a  square  of  photographic  drying 
board,  and  with  the  bone  burnisher  go 
over  it  in  all  directions,  using  consider- 
able pressure.  The  finished  result  is  a 
mounted  print  that  shows  no  signs  of 
buckling,  and  which  adheres  to  the 
mount  with  perfect  tenacity. 

II. — Gelatin 2  parts 

Water 4  parts 

Alcohol 8  parts 

The  alcohol  is  added  slowly  as  soon  as 
the  gelatin  is  well  dissolved  in  the  water, 
and  the  vessel  turned  continually  to 
obtain  a  homogeneous  mixture.  The 
solution  must  be  kept  hot  during  the 
operation  on  a  water  bath,  and  should 
be  applied  quickly,  as  it  soon  dries;  the 
print  must  be  placed  exactly  the  first 
time,  as  it  adheres  at  once.  The  solu- 
tion keeps  for  a  long  time  in  well-corked 
bottles. 

TRANSPARENT  PHOTOGRAPHS: 

I. — The  following  mixture  may  be 
employed  at  176°  F.,  to  render  photo- 
graphs transparent.  It  consists  of  4  parts 
paraffine  and  1  part  linseed  oil.  After 
immersion  the  photographs  are  at  once 


546 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


dried  between  blotting  paper.  For  fast- 
ening these  photographs  to  glass,  glue  or 
gelatin  solution  alone  cannot  be  em- 
ployed. This  is  possible  only  when  one- 
fourth  of  its  weight  of  sugar  has  been 
added  to  the  glue  before  dissolving.  The 
glasses  for  applying  the  photographs 
must  be  perfect,  because  the  slightest 
defects  are  visible  afterwards. 

II. — If  on  albumen  paper,  soak  the 
print  overnight  in  a  mixture  of  8  ounces 
of  castor  oil  and  1  ounce  of  Canada  bal- 
sam. Plain  paper  requires  a  much 
shorter  time.  When  the  print  is  thor- 
oughly soaked,  take  it  from  the  oil,  drain 
well,  and  lay  it  on  the  glass  face  down- 
ward, and  squeeze  till  all  is  driven  out 
and  the  print  adheres.  If  a  curved  glass 
is  used,  prepare  a  squeegee  with  edge  par- 
allel with  the  curvature  of  the  glass.  It 
will  take  several  hours  before  the  print  is 
dry  enough  to  apply  color  to  it. 

THE    GUM  -  BICHROMATE    PHOTO- 
PRINTING  PROCESS. 

Gum  bichromate  is  not  a  universal 
printing  method.  It  is  not  suited  for 
all  subjects  or  for  all  negatives,  but 
where  there  is  simplicity  and  breadth  in 
sizes  of  8£  x  6i  and  upward,  direct  or 
enlarged  prints  by  it  have  a  charm  al- 
together their  own,  and  afford  an  oppor- 
tunity for  individuality  greater  than  any 
other  method. 

While  almost  any  kind  of  paper  will 
do,  there  are  certain  qualities  that  the 
beginner  at  least  should  endeavor  to 
secure.  It  should  be  tough  enough  to 
stand  the  necessary  handling,  which  is 
considerably  more  than  in  either  the 
printing-out  or  developing  methods.  It 
must  not  be  so  hard  or  smooth  as  to  make 
coating  difficult,  nor  so  porous  as  to  ab- 
sorb or  let  the  coating  sink  in  too  much; 
but  a  few  trials  will  show  just  what  sur- 
face is  best.  Till  that  experience  is  ac- 
quired it  may  be  said  that  most  of  What- 
man's or  Michallet's  drawing  papers,  to 
be  had  at  any  artist's  materials  store,  will 
be  found  all  that  can  be  desired;  or, 
failing  these,  the  sizing  of  almost  any 
good  paper  will  make  it  almost  as  suit- 
able. 

For  sizing,  a  weak  solution  of  gelatin 
is  generally  employed,  but  arrowroot  is 
better;  half  an  ounce  to  a  pint  of  water. 
It  should  be  beaten  into  a  cream  with  a 
little  of  the  water,  the  rest  added,  and 
brought  to  the  boil.  When  cold  it  may 
be  applied  with  a  sponge  or  tuft  of  cotton, 
going  several  times,  first  in  one  direction 
and  then  in  the  other,  and  it  saves  a 
little  future  trouble  to  pencil  mark  the 
non-sized  side. 


The  quality  of  the  gum  is  of  less  im- 
portance than  is  generally  supposed,  so 
long  as  it  is  the  genuine  gum  arabic,  and 
in  round,  clean  "tears."  To  make  the 
solution  select  an  8-ounce,  wide-mouthed 
bottle,  of  the  tall  rather  than  the  squat 
variety,  and  place  in  it  6  ounces  of  water. 
Two  ounces  of  the  gum  are  then  tied 
loosely  in  a  piece  of  thin  muslin  and  sus- 
pended in  the  bottle  so  as  to  be  about 
two-thirds  covered  by  the  water.  Solu- 
tion begins  at  once,  as  may  be  seen  by 
the  heavier  liquid  descending,  and  if 
kept  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the 
room  may  not  be  complete  for  24  or  even 
48  hours;  but  the  keeping  qualities  of  the 
solution  will  be  greater  than  if  the  time 
had  been  shortened  by  heat.  When  all 
that  will  has  been  dissolved,  there  will 
still  be  a  quantity  of  gelatinous  matter  in 
the  muslin,  but  on  no  account  must  it  be 
squeezed  out,  as  the  semi-soluble  matter 
thus  added  to  the  solution  would  be  in- 
jurious. With  the  addition  of  a  few 
drops  of  carbolic  acid  and  a  good  cork 
the  gum  solution  will  keep  for  months. 

The  selection  of  the  pigments  is  not 
such  a  serious  matter  as  some  of  the 
writers  would  lead  us  to  believe.  Tube 
water  colors  are  convenient  and  save  the 
trouble  of  grinding,  but  the  cheap  colors 
in  powder  take  a  better  grip  and  give 
richer  images.  The  best  prints  are  made 
with  mixtures  of  common  lampblack, 
red  ocher,  sienna,  umber,  and  Vandyke 
brown,  the  only  objection  to  their  em- 
ployment being  the  necessity  of  rather 
carefully  grinding.  This  may  be  done 
with  a  stiffish  spatula  and  a  sheet  of 
finely  ground  glass,  the  powder  mixed 
with  a  little  gum  solution  and  rubbed 
with  the  spatula  till  smooth,  but  better 
still  is  a  glass  paper  weight  in  the  shape 
of  a  cone  with  a  base  of  about  li  inches 
in  diameter,  bought  in  the  stationer's  for 
25  cents. 

The  sensitizer  is  a  10  per  cent  solution 
of  potassium  bichromate,  and  whatever 
be  the  pigment  or  whatever  the  method 
of  preparing  the  coating,  it  may  be  useful 
to  keep  in  mind  that  the  right  strength 
or  proportion,  or  at  least  a  strength  of 
coating  that  answers  very  well,  is  equal 
parts  of  that  and  the  gum  solution. 

In  preparing  the  coating  measure  the 
gum  solution  in  a  cup  from  a  toy  tea  set 
that  holds  exactly  1  ounce,  it  being  easier 
to  get  it  all  out  of  this  than  out  of  a  conic- 
al graduate.  From  20  to  30  grains  of 
the  color  or  mixture  of  colors  in  powder  is 
placed  on  the  slab — the  ground  surface 
of  an  "opal"  answers  well — and  enough 
of  the  gum  added  to  moisten  it,  and  work 
the  paper  weight  "muller,"  aided  by  the 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


547 


spatula,  as  long  as  any  grittiness  remains, 
or  till  it  is  perfectly  smooth,  adding  more 
and  more  gum  till  it  is  like  a  thick  cream. 
It  is  then  transferred  to  a  squat  teacup 
and  1  ounce  of  the  bichromate  solution 
gradually  added,  working  it  in  with  one 
of  the  brushes  to  perfect  homogeneity. 
Of  course,  it  will  be  understood  that  this 
mixture  should  be  used  all  at  once,  or 
rather  only  as  much  as  is  to  be  used  at 
once  should  be  made,  as  notwithstanding 
what  has  been  said  to  the  contrary,  it  will 
not  keep.  After  each  operation,  both  or 
all  of  the  brushes  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  putting  them  away. 

Not  the  least  important  are  the 
brushes;  one  about  2  inches  wide  and 
soft  for  laying  on  the  coating,  the  other, 
unless  for  small  work,  twice  that  breadth 
and  of  what  is  known  as  "badger"  or  a 
good  imitation  thereof,  for  softening. 

The  paper  can  be  bought  in  sheets  of 
about  17  x  22  inches.  Cut  these  in  two, 
coating  pieces  of  about  17  x  11.  The 
sheet  is  fastened  to  a  drawing  board  by 
drawing  pins,  one  at  each  corner.  The 
coating  brush — of  camel's  hair,  but  it  is 
said  that  hog's  is  better — is  filled  with 
the  creamy  mixture,  which  has  been 
transferred  to  a  saucer  as  more  con- 
venient, and  with  even  strokes,  first  one 
way  and  then  the  other,  drawn  all  over 
the  paper.  It  is  easier  to  do  than  to  de- 
scribe, but  all  three  joints,  wrist,  elbow, 
and  shoulder  take  part,  and  unless  the 
surface  of  the  paper  is  too  smooth,  there 
is  really  no  difficulty  to  speak  of. 

By  the  time  the  whole  surface  has  been 
covered  the  paper  will  have  expanded  to 
an  extent  that  makes  it  necessary  to  re- 
move three  of  the  pins  and  tighten  it,  and 
then  comes  the  most"  important  and  the 
only  really  difficult  part  of  the  work,  the 
softening.  The  softener  is  held  exactly 
as  one  holds  the  pen  in  writing,  and  the 
motion  confined  altogether  to  the  wrist, 
bringing  only  the  points  of  the  hair  in 
contact  with  the  coating,  more  like  stip- 
pling than  painting. 

If  much  of  the  coating  has  been  laid 
on,  and  too  much  is  less  of  an  evil  than 
too  little,  the  softener  will  soon  have 
taken  up  so  much  as  to  require  washing. 
This  is  done  at  the  tap,  drying  on  a  soft 
cloth,  and  repeat  the  operation,  the 
strokes  or  touches  gradually  becoming 
lighter  and  lighter,  till  the  surface  is  as 
smooth  and  free  from  markings  as  if  it 
had  been  floated. 

Just  how  thick  the  coating  should  be  is 
most  easily  learned  by  experience,  but  as, 
unlike  ordinary  carbon,  development 
begins  from  the  exposed  surface,  it  must 
be  as  deep;  that  is,  as  dark  on  the  paper 


as  the  deepest  shadow  on  the  intended 
print,  and  it  should  not  be  deeper. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  bichromate 
colloid  is  not  sensitive  while  wet,  the 
coating  is  best  done  in  subdued  light, 
indeed,  generally  at  night.  Hang  the 
sheets  to  dry  in  the  dark  room. 

Exposure  should  be  made  with  some 
form  of  actino-meter. 

Development  may  be  conducted  in 
various  ways,  and  is  modified  according 
to  the  extent  of  the  exposure.  Float  the 
exposed  sheet  on  water  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  from  the  .tap.  The  expo- 
sure should  admit  of  complete,  or  nearly 
complete,  development  in  that  position 
in  from  5  to  10  minutes;  although  it 
should  not  generally  be  allowed -to  go  so 
far.  By  turning  up  a  corner  from  time 
to  time  one  may  see  how  it  goes,  and  at 
the  suitable  stage  depending  on  what  one 
really  wants  to  do,  the  otherwise  plain 
outcome  of  the  negative  is  modified, 
gently  withdrawn  from  the  water,  and 
pinned  up  to  dry. 

The  modifying  operation  may  be  done 
at  once,  where  the  exposure  has  been 
long  enough  to  admit  it,  but  generally, 
and  especially  when  it  has  been  such  as 
to  admit  of  the  best  result,  the  image  is 
too  soft,  too  easily  washed  off  to  make  it 
safe.  But  after  having  been  dried  and 
again  moistened  by  immersion  in  water, 
the  desired  modification  may  be  made 
with  safety. 

The  moistened  print  is  now  placed  on 
a  sheet  of  glass,  the  lower  end  of  which 
rests  on  the  bottom  of  the  developing 
tray,  and  supported  by  the  left  hand  at  a 
suitable  angle;  or,  better  still,  in  some 
other  way  so  as  to  leave  both  hands  free. 
In  this  position,  and  with  water  at  va- 
rious temperatures,  camel's-hair  brushes 
of  various  sizes,  and  a  rubber  syringe,  it 
is  possible  to  do  practically  anything. 

TABLES  AND  SCALES: 

Comparative  Exposures  of  Various 
Subjects. — 

Seconds 
Open    panorama,    with    fields    and 

trees 1 

Snow,  ice,  marine  views 1 

Panorama,  with  houses,  etc 2 

Banks  of  rivers 3 

Groups   and   portraits   in   open   air 

(diffused  light) 6 

Underneath  open  trees 6 

Groups  under  cover 10 

Beneath  dense  trees 10 

Ravines,  excavations 10 

Portraits  in  light  interiors 10 

Portraits  taken  4  feet  from  a  win- 
dow, indoors,  diffused  light 30 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


TABLE     SHOWING     DISPLACEMENT 

ON  GROUND  GLASS  OF  OBJECTS 

IN  MOTION 

By  Henry  L.  Tolman 

From  the  Photographic  Times 

Lens  6-inch  Equivalent  Focus,  Ground 
Glass  at  Principal  Focus 
of  Lens 


Miles 
per 
Hour. 

Feet 
per  Sec- 
ond. 

Distance  on 
Ground  Glass, 
in  inches,  with 
Object  30  Feet 
away. 

Same 
with 
Object 
60  Feet 
away. 

Same 
with  Ob- 
ject 120 
Feet 
away. 

1 

u 

.29 

.15 

.073 

2 

•  3" 

.59 

.29 

.147 

3 

H 

.88 

.41 

.220 

4 

6 

1.17 

.59 

.293 

5 

n 

1.47 

.73 

.367 

6 

9 

1.76 

.88 

.440 

7 

10| 

2.05 

.03 

.513 

8 

12 

2.35 

.17 

.587 

9 

13 

2.64 

.32 

.660 

10 

14$ 

2.93 

.47 

.733 

11 

16 

3.23 

.61 

.807 

12 

17^ 

3.52 

.76 

.880 

13 

19 

3.81 

.91 

.953 

14 

20  \ 

4.11 

2.05 

1.027 

15 

22 

4.40 

2.20 

1.100 

20 

29 

5.87 

2.93 

1.467 

25 

37 

7.33 

3.67 

1.833 

30 

44 

8.80 

4.40 

2.200 

35 

51 

10.27 

5.13 

2.567 

40 

59 

11.73 

5.97 

2.933 

W.  D.  Kilbey,  in  the  American  Annual 
of  Photography,  gives  still  another  table 
for  the  exposure  that  should  be  given  to 
objects  in  motion. 

According  to  his  method  the  table  is 
made  out  for  a  distance  from  the  camera 
100  times  that  of  the  focus  of  the  lens; 
that  is,  for  a  6-inch  focus  lens  at  50 
feet,  a  7-inch  at  58  feet,  an  8-inch  at  67 
feet,  a  9-inch  at  75  feet,  or  a  12-inch  at 
100  feet. 

Toward      At  Right 
the        Angles  to 
Camera,  the  Camera. 


Man  walking  slowly, 
street  scenes 

Cattle  grazing 

Boating 

Man  walking,  children 
playing,  etc 

Pony  and  trap,  trot- 
ting  

Cycling,  ordinary.  .  . . 

Man  running  a  race 
and  jumping 

Cycle  racing 

Horses  galloping 


sec. 


| 

A    " 


TsTT 


If  the  object  is  twice  the  distance,  the 
length  of  allowable  exposure  is  doubled, 
and  vice  versa. 

To  Reduce  Photographs. — When  one 
wishes  to  copy  a  drawing  or  photograph 
he  is  usually  at  a  loss  to  know  how  high 
the  plate  will  be  when  any  particular  base 
is  selected.  A  plan  which  has  the  merit 
of  being  simple  and  reliable  has  been  in 
use  in  engravers'  offices  for  years. 

Here  are  the  details: 


Reducing  Scale  for  Copying  Photographs. 

Turn  the  drawing  face  down  and  rule 
a  diagonal  line  from  the  left  bottom  to 
the  right  top  corner.  Then  measure 
from  the  left,  on  the  bottom  line,  the 
width  required.  Rule  a  vertical  line  from 
that  point  until  it  meets  the  diagonal. 
Rule  from  that  point  to  the  left,  and  the 
resulting  figure  will  have  the  exact  pro- 
portions of  the  reduction.  If  the  depth 
wanted  is  known,  and  the  width  is  re- 
quired, the  former  should  be  measured 
on  the  left  upright  line,  carried  to  the 
diagonal,  and  thence  to  the  lower  hori- 
zon. The  accompanying  diagram  ex- 
plains the  matter  simply. 

COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY: 

A  Three -Color  Process. — Prepare  7 
solutions,  4  of  which  are  used  for  color 
screens,  the  remaining  3  serving  as  dyes 
for  the  plates. 

A. — Screen  Solutions. — 
Blue  violet.  By  weight 

Methylene  blue ....        5  parts 
Tetraethyldiamido- 
oxytriphenyl  car- 
binol 2  parts 

By  weight 

Methyl  violet 5  parts 

Alcohol 200  parts 

Water,  distilled. .  . .    300  parts 

Green.  By  weight 

Malachite  green ...      10  parts 

Alcohol 200  parts 

Water,  distilled..  . .    300  parts 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


549 


Yellow.  By  weight 

Acridin   yellow   N. 

0 10  parts 

Alcohol 200  parts 

Water,  distilled. .  . .   300  parts 

Red.  By  weight 

Congo  rubin 10  parts 

Alcohol 200  parts 

Water,  distilled. .  . .    300  parts 

B. — Dyes  (Stock  Solutions). — 

By  weight 

I. — Acridin    yellow    or 
acridin      orange, 

N.  0 1  part 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Water,  distilled 400  parts 

By  weight 

II. — Congo  rubin 1  part 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Water,  distilled 400  parts 

By  weight 

III. —  Tetraethyldiamido- 
oxytriphenyl  car- 

binol 1  part 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Water,  distilled. .  . .  400  parts 
The  screen  solutions,  after  being  fil- 
tered through  paper  filters  into  clean 
dishes,  are  utilized  to  bathe  6  clean  glass 
plates  previously  coated  with  2  per  cent 
raw  collodion;  we  require  1  plate  for  blue 
violet,  2  plates  for  red,  2  plates  for  yel- 
low, and  1  plate  for  green,  which  in  order 
to  obtain  the  screens  are  combined  in 
the  following  way:  Yellow  and  red 
plate,  yellow  and  green  plate.  For 
special  purposes  the  other  red  plate  may 
be  combined  with  the  blue  violet.  An- 
other method  of  preparing  the  screens 
is  to  add  the  saturated  solutions  drop  by 
drop  to  a  mixture  of  Canada  balsam  and 
2  per  cent  castor  oil  and  cement  the 
glasses  together.  Those  who  consider 
the  screens  by  the  first  method  too  trans- 
parent, coat  the  glass  plates  with  a  mix- 
ture of  2  to  3  per  cent  raw  collodion  and 
1  per  cent  color  solution.  Others  prefer 
gelatin  screens,  using 

By  weight 
Hard  gelatin  (Nel- 
son's)          8  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Absolute  alcohol. ..      10  parts 

Pigment 1  part 

This  is  poured  over  the  carefully  leveled 
and  heated  plate  after  having  been  fil- 
tered through  flannel. 

The  collodion  screens  are  cemented 
together  by  moistening  the  edges  with 
Canada  balsam  (containing  castor  oil) 
and  pressing  the  plates  together  in  a 


printing  frame,  sometimes  also  binding 
the  edges  with  strips  of  Japanese  paper. 
On  the  evening  before  the  day  of  work, 
good  dry  plates  of  about  18°  to  24°  W. 
are  dyed  in  the  following  solution: 

By  weight 

Stock  solution,  No.  1  16  parts 

Distilled  water 100  parts 

Alcohol 5  parts 

Nitrate     of    silver 

(1.500) 50  parts 

Ammonia 1-2  parts 

This  bath  sensitizes  almost  uninter- 
ruptedly to  line  A.  The  total  sensi- 
tiveness is  high,  and  the  plate  develops 
cleanly  and  fine.  Blue  sensitiveness  is 
very  much  reduced,  and  the  blue  screen 
is  used  for  exposure.  As  far  as  the 
author's  recollection  goes,  the  plate  for 
the  yellow  color  has  never  been  color- 
sensitized,  many  operators  using  the 
commercial  Vogel-Obernetter  eosin  sil- 
ver plates  made  by  Perutz,  of  Munich; 
others  again  only  use  ordinary  dry 
plates  with  a  blue-violet  screen.  This 
is,  however,  a  decided  mistake,  necessi- 
tating an  immense  amount  of  retouch- 
ing, as  otherwise  it  produces  a  green 
shade  on  differently  colored  objects  of 
the'print. 

For  the  red  color  plate  the  dry  plate 
is  dyed  in 

By  weight 

Stock  solution,  No.  2     10  parts 

Distilled  water 100  parts 

Nitrate     of    silver 

(1.500) 100  parts 

Ammonia 2  parts 

The  resulting  absorption  band  is 
closed  until  E,  reaching  from  violet  to 
red  (over  C).  This  red  pigment  was 
examined  by  Eder,  who  obtained  very 
good  results,  using  ammonia  in  the  solu- 
tion. 

The  corresponding  screen  is  a  com- 
bination of  malachite  green  with  acridin 
yellow  or  acridin  orange  N.  O. 

For  the  blue  color  plate  the  dye  is 
made  up  as  follows: 

By  weight 
Stock  solution,  No.  3  0.5-1  part 

Distilled  water 100  parts 

Nitrate    of    silver 

(1.500) 100  parts 

Ammonia 1-2  parts 

This  dye  yields  a  strong  band,  com- 
mencing at  B,  reaching  to  C  £  D;  since 
the  orange  screen  used  herewith  neces- 
sitates a  long  exposure,  the  action  seems 
to  extend  into  the  infra-red  (beyond  A). 

As  a  rule,  cyanine  is  used  instead  of 
the  tetraethyldiamidooxytriphenyl  car- 


550 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


binol  (HC1  salt),  but  the  former  is  apt 
to  produce  fogged  plates.  Methyl  vio- 
let or  crystal  violet  has  also  been  sug- 
gested. 

Exposures  should  be  made  in  direct 
sunlight  or  with  artificial  pure  white 
light  (acetylene);  electric  light  is  too 
variable. 

The  most  suitable  methods  of  repro- 
duction are  half-tone,  and  the  prototype 
methods;  also  Turati's  Isotypie.  The 
greatest  difficulty  in  3-color  printing 
nowadays  is  presented  by  the  want  of 
accurate  printing.  We  must  use  the 
proper  paper  and  pure  fast  colors;  the 
inking  rollers  should  be  smooth,  not  too 
soft,  and  free  from  pores  or  weals.  The 
blocks  must  be  firmly  fixed  typehigh, 
otherwise  they  take  color  irregularly.  A 
good  printing  machine  is,  of  course, 
most  essential. 

To  supplement  the  above  working 
directions:  After  having  kept  the  plates 
for  2  or  3  minutes  (constantly  moving 
the  dish)  in  the  dyes,  they  are  removed 
into  a  dish  containing  filtered  alcohol, 
which  extracts  the  superfluous  pigment. 
Plates  thus  treated  dry  much  more 
rapidly,  develop  cleaner,  and  show  no 
fogging. 

Most  of  the  above  dyes  may  be  .ob- 
tained from  the  "Berliner  Actienge- 
sellschaft  fiir  Anilinfabrikation,"  the 
acridin  only  from  the  "Farbwerk  Miihl- 
heim,  a/Main,  vorm.  A.  Leonhard  & 
Company." 

Solution  for  Preparing  Color  Sensitive 
Plates. — H.  Vollenbruch  maintains  that 
plates  sensitized  with  erythrosin  silver 
citrate  are  not  only  more  sensitive  to 
color  impressions,  but  also  have  better 
keeping  qualities  than  ordinary  ery- 
throsin bathed  plates. 

For  depression  of  the  over-active  blue 
rays  he  recommends  the  addition  of 
picric  acid  to  the  coloring  solution.  The 
picric  acid  erythrosin  silver  citrate  am- 
monia solution  is  prepared  as  follows: 

Solution  I 

Citrate  of  potassa     1  gram 
Distilled  water  . .    10  cubic  centimeters 

Solution  II 

Silver  nitrate 1  gram 

Distilled  water  .  .    10  cubic  centimeters 

Both  solutions  are  mixed  and  a  white 
precipitate  is  formed  which  is  allowed  to 
subside.  The  clear  supernatant  liquid 
is  poured  off  carefully,  precipitate  washed 
with  water,  allowed  again  to  subside,  and 
the  wash  water  again  decanted.  This 
process  is  repeated  two  or  three  times. 


Finally  a  large  bulk  of  water  (20  cubic 
centimeters)  is  added  to  the  precipitate 
and  well  shaken;  5  cubic  centimeters  of 
this  is  reserved,  the  remainder  is  treated 
to  ammonia,  drop  by  drop,  until  the 
precipitate  is  redissolved.  Now  add  the 
5  cubic  centimeters  of  reserved  solution 
and  shake  the  whole  until  every  particle 
is  dissolved.  Then  make  up  the  solu- 
tion to  50  cubic  centimeters  and  filter; 
this  forms  Solution  III. 

Solution  IV 

Distilled  water  . .  300  cubic  centimeters 
Pure  erythrosin..  1  grain 

Under  lamplight  the  50  cubic  centi- 
meters of  Solution  III  are  poured  slowly 
with  repeated  shaking  in  Solution  IV,  by 
which  the  originally  beautiful  red  is  con- 
verted into  a  dirty  turbid  bluish  red 
somewhat  viscid  fluid;  add — 

Solution  V 

Picric  acid 4  grams 

Absolute  alcohol.  30  cubic  centimeters 

Shake  well,  and  add  to  the  whole  33 
cubic  centimeters  ammonia  (specific 
gravity,  0.91),  wherewith  the  beautiful 
red  color  is  restored. 

After  the  filtration  call  this  Solution 
VI.  This  solution  keeps  well.  The 
slight  deposit  formed  is  redissolved  on 
shaking. 

The  plates  are  sensitized  as  follows: 
The  plate  to  be  sensitized  is  first  laid  in  a 
tray  of  distilled  water  for  2  or  3  minutes, 
then  bathed  in  a  mixture  of  1  cubic  cen- 
timeter ammonia  for  1  minute  and  finally 
for  2  minutes  in  a  bath  composed  of  the 
following: 

Color  Solution  VI  10  cubic  centimeters 
Distilled  water. . .  300  cubic  centimeters 

The  plate  is  well  drained  and  dried  in 
a  perfectly  dark  room.  These  plates 
keep  well  for  several  months. 

MICROPHOTOGRAPHS. 

The  instruments  used  are  an  objective 
of  very  short  focus  and  a  small  camera 
with  a  movable  holder.  This  camera 
and  the  original  negative  to  be  reduced 
are  fastened  to  the  opposite  ends  of  a 
long,  heavy  board,  similar  to  the  ar- 
rangement in  use  for  the  making  of  lan- 
tern slides.  The  camera  must  be  mov- 
able in  the  direction  of  the  objective  axis, 
and  the  negative  must  be  fastened  to  a 
vertically  stationary  stand.  It  is  then 
uniformly  lighted  from  the  reversed  side 
by  either  daylight  or  artificial  light.  Some 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  getting  a 
sharp  focus  of  the  picture.  The  ordi- 
nary ground  glass  cannot  be  used,  not 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


551 


being  fine  enough,  and  the  best  medium 
for  this  purpose  is  a  perfectly  plain  piece 
of  glass,  coated  with  pretty  strongly 
iodized  collodion,  and  sensitized  in  the 
silver  bath,  the  same  way  as  in  the  wet 
process.  The  focusing  is  done  with  a 
small  lens  or  even  with  a  microscope. 
The  plate  intended  for  the  picture  has, 
of  course,  to  lie  in  exactly  the  same  plane 
as  the  plate  used  for  focusing.  To  be 
certain  on  this  point,  it  is  best  to  focus 
upon  the  picture  plate,  inserting  for  this 
purpose  a  yellow  glass  between  objective 
and  plate.  If  satisfactory  sharpness  has 
been  obtained,  the  apparatus  is  once  for 
all  in  order  for  these  distances.  Bromide 
of  silver  gelatin  plates,  on  account  of 
their  comparatively  coarse  grain,  are  not 
suitable  for  these  small  pictures,  and  the 
collodion  process  has  to  come  to  the 
rescue. 

Dagron,  in  Paris,  a  prominent  spe- 
cialist in  this  branch,  gives  the  following 
directions:  A  glass  plate  is  well  rubbed  on 
both  sides  with  a  mixture  of  1,000  parts 
of  water,  50  parts  powdered  chalk,  and 
200  parts  of  alcohol,  applied  with  a  cot- 
ton tuft,  after  which  it  is  gone  over  with 
a  dry  cotton  tuft,  and  thereafter  cleaned 
with  a  fine  chamois  leather.  The  side 
used  for  taking  the  picture  is  then  finally 
cleaned  with  old  collodion.  The  collo- 
dion must  be  a  little  thinner  than  ordi- 
narily used  for  wet  plates.  Dissolve 

Ether 400  parts 

Alcohol 100  parts 

Collodion  cotton. ...        3  parts 
Iodide  ammonia. ...        4  parts 
Bromide  ammonia.  .        1  part 
The  plate  coated  herewith  is  silvered 
in  a  silver  bath  of  7  or  8  per  cent.      From 
12  to  15  seconds  are  sufficient  for  this. 

The  plate  is  then  washed  in  a  tray  or 
under  a  faucet  with  distilled  water,  to 
liberate  it  from  the  free  nitrate  of  silver 
and  is  afterwards  placed  upon  blotting 
paper  to  drip  off.  The  still  moist  plate 
is  then  coated  with  the  albumen  mixture: 

Albumen 150  cubic  centimeters 

Add 

Water 15  cubic  centimeters 

Iodide  potassium       3  grams 

Ammonia 5  grams 

White  sugar 2  grams 

Iodine,  a  small  cake. 

With  a  v/ooden  quirl  this  is  beaten  to 
snow  (foam)  for  about  10  minutes,  after 
which  it  must  stand  for  14  hours  to.settle. 
The  albumen  is  poured  on  to  the  plate 
the  same  as  collodion,  and  the  surplus 
filtered  back.  After  drying,  the  plate  is 
laid  for  15  seconds  in  a  silver  bath,  con- 


sisting of  100  parts  of  water,  10  parts 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  10  cubic  centimeters 
of  acetic  acid.  The  plate  is  then  care- 
fully washed  and  left  to  dry.  If  care- 
fully kept,  it  will  retain  its  properties  for 
years.  To  the  second  silver  bath,  when 
it  assumes  a  dirty  coloration,  is  added  25 
parts  kaolin  to  each  100  parts,  by  shak- 
ing the  same  well,  and  the  bath  is  then 
filtered,  after  which  a  little  nitrate  of 
silver  and  acetic  acid  is  added. 

After  each  exposure  the  plate  holder 
is  moved  a  certain  length,  so  that  10  or 
more  reproductions  are  obtained  upon 
one  and  the  same  plate.  The  time  of 
exposure  depends  upon  the  density  of 
the  negative  ^  and  differs  according  to 
light.  It  varies  between  a  second  and  a 
minute. 

The  developer  is  composed  as  follows: 

Water 100      parts 

Gallic  acid 0.3  parts 

Pyro 0.1  part 

Alcohol 2.5  parts 

The  exposed  plate  is  immersed  in  this 
bath,  and  after  10  to  20  seconds,  from  1 
to  2  drops  of  a  2  per  cent  nitrate  of  silver 
solution  are  added  to  each  100  cubic 
centimeters  of  the  solution,  whereby  the 
picture  becomes  visible.  To  follow  the 
process  exactly,  the  plate  has  to  be  laid — 
in  yellow  light — under  a  weakly  enlarg- 
ing microscope,  and  only  a  few  drops  of 
the  developer  are  put  upon  the  same. 
As  soon  as  the  picture  has  reached  the 
desired  strength,  it  is  rinsed  and  fixed  in 
a  fixing  soda  solution,  1  to  5.  Ten  to  15 
seconds  are  sufficient  generally.  Finally 
it  is  washed  well. 

After  the  drying  of  the  plate,  the  sev- 
eral small  pictures  are  cut  with  a  dia- 
mond and  fastened  to  the  small  enlarg- 
ing lenses.  For  this  purpose,  the  latter 
are  laid  upon  a  metal  plate  heated  from 
underneath,  a  drop  of -Canada  balsam  is 

Eut  to  one  end  of  the  same,  and,  after  it 
as  become  soft,  the  small  diappsitive 
is  taken  up  with  a  pair  of  fine  pincers, 
and  is  gradually  put  in  contact  with  the 
fastener.  Both  g.asses  are  then  allowed 
to  lie  until  the  fastener  has  become  hard. 
If  bubbles  appear,  the  whole  method  of 
fastening  the  picture  has  to  be  repeated. 

Photographs  on  Brooches. — These  may 
be  produced  by  means  of  a  paper  (celuidin 
paper)  whose  upper  layer  after  exposure 
by  means  of  ordinary  negative  can  be 
detached  in  lukewarm  water.  The  pic- 
ture copied  on  this  paper  is  first  laid  in 
tepid  water.  After  a  few  minutes  it  is 
taken  out  and  placed  on  the  article  in 
question,  naturally  with  the  face  upon  it. 
The  enamel  surface  upon  which  the  pic 


552 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


ture  is  laid  is  previously  coated  with 
gelatin  solution  to  insure  a  safe  ad- 
hesion. When  dry,  the  article  is  placed 
in  water  in  which  the  paper  is  loosened 
and  the  photographic  image  now  ad- 
heres firmly  to  the  object.  It  may  now 
be  colored  further  and  finally  is  coated 
with  a  good  varnish. 

FLASHLIGHT    POWDERS    AND    AP- 
PARATUS. 

Flash  powders  to  be  ignited  by  simply 
applying  the  flame  of  a  match  or  laying 
on  an  oued  paper  and  igniting  that,  may 
be  made  by  the  following  formulas: 

I. — Magnesium 6  parts 

Potassium  chlorate..    Imparts 

II. — Aluminum 4  parts 

Potassium  chlorate..   10  parts 

Sugar 1  part 

The  ingredients  in  each  case  are  to  be 
powdered  separately,  and  then  lightly 
mixed  with  a  wooden  spatula,  as  the 
compound  may  be  ignited  by  friction 
and  burn  with  explosive  violence. 

It  is  best  to  make  only  such  quantity 
as  may  be  needed  for  use  at  the  time, 
which  is  10  or  15  grains. 

To  Prevent  Smoke  from  Flashlight. — 
Support  over  the  point  where  the  ignition 
is  to  take  place  a  large  flat  pad  of  damp 
wool  lint.  This  may  be  done  by  tacking 
the  lint  to  the  underside  of  a  board  sup- 
ported on  legs.  When  ignition  takes 
place  the  products  of  combustion  for  the 
most  part  will  become  absorbed  by  the 
wool. 

A  Flashlight  Apparatus  with  Smoke 
Trap.— A  light  box,  not  too  large  to  be 
conveniently  carried  out  into  the  open 
air,  is  the  first  essential,  and  to  the  open 
front  of  this  grooves  must  be  fitted,  in 
which  grooves  a  lid  will  slide  very  easily, 
a  large  sheet  of  'millboard  being  con- 
venient as  a  sliding  lid.  The  box  being 
so  placed  that  the  sliding  lid  can  be 
drawn  out  upward,  a  thread  is  attached 
to  the  lower  edge  of  the  lid,  after  which 
the  thread  is  passed  over  a  pulley  fixed 
inside  the  box  near  the  top,  when  the  end 
is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  box,  so 
that  the  thread  holds  the  sliding  lid 
up.  The  lid  will  then  slide  down  the 
grooves  quickly,  and  close  the  box,  if  the 
thread  is  severed,  the  thread  being  cut 
at  the  right  instant  by  placing  the  lower 
part  across  the  spot  where  the  flash  is 
to  be  produced.  So  small  is  the  cloud 
of  smoke  at  the  first  instant  that  prac- 


tically the  whole  of  it  can  be  caught  in  a 
drop  trap  of  the  above-mentioned  kind, 
apparatus  is  not  required  again 


drop  trap 
If  the  at) 


for  immediate  use,  the  smoke  may  be 
allowed  to  settle  down  in  the  box;  but  in 
other  cases  the  box  may  be  taken  out 
into  the  open  air,  and  the  smoke  buffeted 
out  with  a  cloth.  In  the  event  of  sev- 
eral exposures  being  required  in  imme- 
diate succession,  the  required  number  of 
apparatus  might  be  set  up,  as  each  need 
not  cost  much  to  construct. 

INTENSIFIERS  AND  REDUCERS: 

Intensifier  (Mercuric)  with  Sodium 
Sulphite,  for  Gelatin  Dry  Plates. — • 
Whiten  the  negative  in  the  saturated 
solution  of  mercuric  chloride,  wash  and 
blacken  with  a  solution  of  sulphite  of 
sodium,  1  in  5.  Wash  well. 

The  reduction  is  perfect,  with  a  posi- 
tive black  tone. 

Intensifier  with  Iodide  of  Mercury. — • 
Dissolve  1  drachm  of  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury in  7  ounces  of  water  and  3  drachms 
of  iodide  of  potassium  in  3  ounces  of 
water,  and  pour  the  iodide  solution  into 
the  mercury  till  the  red  precipitate  formed 
is  completely  dissolved. 

For  use,  dilute  with  water,  flow  over 
the  negative  till  the  proper  density  is 
reached,  and  wash,  when  the  deposit  will 
turn  yellow.  Remove  the  yellow  color 
by  flowing  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  hypo 
over  the  plate,  and  give  it  the  final  wash- 
ing. 

Agfa  Intensifier. — One  part  of  agfa 
solution  in  9  parts  water  (10  per  cent 
solution).  Immerse  negative  from  4  to* 
6  minutes. 

Intensifying  Negatives  Without  Mer- 
cury.— Dissolve  1  part  of  iodine  and  2 
parts  of  potassium  iodide  in  10  parts  of 
water.  When  required  for  use,  dilute  1 
part  of  this,  solution  with  100  parts  of 
water.  Wash  the  negative  well  and 
place  in  this  bath,  allowing  it  to  remain 
until  it  has  become  entirely  yellow,  and 
the  image  appears  purely  dark  yellow  on 
a  light-yellow  ground.  The  negative 
should  then  be  washed  in  water  until 
the  latter  runs  off  clearly,  when  it  is 
floated  with  the  following  solution  until 
the  whole  of  the  image  has  become  uni- 
formly brown: 

Schlippe's  salt 60  grains 

Water 1  ounce 

Caustic  soda  solution, 

10  per  cent 6  drops 

Finally  the  negative  is  again  thor- 
oughly washed  and  dried.  The  addi- 
tion of  the  small  quantity  of  caustic 
soda  is  to  prevent  surface  crystallization. 
It  is  claimed  that  with  this  intensifier  the 
operation  may  be  carried  out  to  a  greater 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


553 


extent  than  with  bichloride  of  mercury; 
that  it  gives  clear  shadows,  and  that  it 
possesses  the  special  advantage  of  re- 
moving entirely  any  yellow  stain  the 
negative  may  have  acquired  during  de- 
velopment and  fixing.  Furthermore, 
with  this  intensifying  method  it  is  not 
necessary  to  wash  the  negative,  even 
after  fixing,  as  carefully  as  in  the  case  of 
the  intensifying  processes  with  mercury, 
because  small  traces  of  hypo  which  may 
have  been  left  in  the  film  will  be  rendered 
innocuous  by  the  free  iodine.  The  iodine 
solution  may  be  employed  repeatedly  if 
its  strength  is  kept  up  by  the  addition  of 
concentrated  stock  solution. 

Uranium  Intensifier. — 
Potassium       ferricya- 

nide  (washed) 48  grains 

Uranium  nitrate 48  grains 

Sodium  acetate 48  grains 

Glacial  acetic  acid. ...      1  ounce 
Distilled  water  to. ...  10  ounces. 
Label:     Poison.      Immerse  the  well- 
washed  negative  till  the  desired  intensi- 
fication is  reached,  rinse  for  5  minutes 
and    dry.     This    intensifier    acts    very 
strongly    and    should    not   therefore    be 
allowed  to  act  too  long. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FORMULAS: 

Renovating  a  Camera. — The  follow- 
ing formula  should  be  applied  to  the 
mahogany  of  the  camera  by  means  of  a 
soft  rag,  rubbing  it  well  in,  finally  polishing 
lightly  with  a  clean  soft  cloth: 

Raw  linseed  oil 6    ounces 

White  wine  vinegar. . .      3    ounces 
Methylated  spirit ....      3    ounces 
Butter  of  antimony. . .        \  ounce 
Mix  the  oil  with  vinegar  by  degrees, 
shaking  well  to  prevent  separation  after 
each  addition,  then  add  the  spirit  and 
antimony,  and  mix  thoroughly.      Shake 
before  using. 

Exclusion  of  Air  from  Solutions. — 
Water  is  free  from  air  only  when  it  has 
been  maintained  for  several  minutes  in 
bubbling  ebullition.  In  order  to  keep 
out  the  air  from  the  bottle,  when  using 
the  contents,  the  air-pressure  contriv- 
ances are  very  convenient;  one  glass 
tube  reaching  through  the  rubber  stop- 
per into  the  bottle  to  the  bottom,  while 
the  second  tube,  provided  with  a  rubber 
pressing-ball,  only  runs  into  the  flask 
above.  If  the  long  bent  tube  is  fitted 
with  a  rubber  tube,  a  single  pressure  suf- 
fices to  draw  off  the  desired  quantity  of 
the  developer.  It  is  still  more  convenient 
to  pour  a  thin  layer  of  good  sweet  oil  on 
top  of  the  developer  besides.  The  de- 


veloper is  not  injured  thereby,  and  the 
exclusion  of  air  is  perfect. 

Bottle  Wax.  —  Many  ready-prepared 
solutions,  such  as  developers  and  other 
preparations  from  which  light  has  to  be 
excluded,  should  be  packed  in  bottles 
whose  neck,  after  complete  drying  of  the 
stopper,  is  dipped  in  a  pot  with  molten 
sealing  wax.  A  good  recipe  is  the  fol- 


. - 

lowing, pigments  being  added  if  desired: 
For  black  take:  Colophony,  6  parts; 
paraffine,  3  parts.  Melt  together  and 


,  . 

add  20  parts  of  black.  For  yellow,  only 
7  parts  of  chrome  yellow.  For  blue,  7 
parts  of  ultramarine. 

Bleaching  Photographic  Prints  White. 
—  To  make  a  salt  print,  ink  over  it  with 
waterproof  ink,  then  bleach  out  white  all 
but  the  black  lines.     Sensitize  Clemen's 
mat  surface  paper  on  a  40-grain  bath  of 
nitrate    of    silver.     After    fuming    and 
printing,   the    print  is   thoroughly   fixed 
in    hyposulphite    of   soda   solution,    and 
washed    in    running    water    until    every 
trace  of  the  hypo  is  out  of  the  print.      On 
this  the  permanency  of  the  bleaching  op- 
eration depends.     The  bleaching  bath  is: 
Bichloride  of  mercury     1  ounce 
Water  ..............     5  ounces 

Alcohol  .............      1  ounce 

Hydrochloric  acid..  ..      1  drachm 

If  the  drawing  has  been  made  with 
non-waterproof  ink,  then  alcohol  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  water  in  the  formula. 
For  safety,  use  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
mercury.  The  bleaching  solution  is 
poured  on  and  off  the  drawing,  and,  when 
the  print  is  bleached  white,  the  mercury  is 
washed  off  the  drawing  by  holding  it  for 
a  few  moments  under  running  water. 
Photographs  bleached  in  this  way  will 
keep  white  for  years. 

To  Render  Negatives  Permanent.  —  A 
fine  negative,  one  that  we  would  like  to 
preserve,  may  be  rendered  permanent 
by  placing  it,  after  it  has  been  fixed,  in  a 
10  per  cent  solution  of  alum,  and  letting 
it  remain  a  few  minutes.  This  makes 
the  plate  wonderfully  clear  and  clean, 
and  absolutely  unalterable.  The  alum 
acts  upon  the  gelatin,  rendering  it  in- 
soluble. 

Stripping  Photograph  Films.  —  This 
is  generally  done  by  immersing  the  plate 
in  formaldehyde  solution  until  the  film 
has  become  almost  insoluble  and  im- 
permeable. Then  it  is  placed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  sodium  carbonate  until  the  gela- 
tin has  absorbed  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  it.  When  the  negative  is  immersed 
in  weak  hydrochloric  acid,  carbon  di- 


554 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


oxide  is  liberated,  and  the  little  bub- 
bles of  gas  which  lodge  themselves  be- 
tween the  film  and  the  glass  cause  a 
separation  of  the  two,  so  that  the  film 
may  be  stripped  off.  After  having  har- 
dened the  film  with  formaldehyde,  it 
is  a  lengthy  process  to  get  it  saturated 
with  sodium  carbonate.  It  is  advisable 
to  use  a  combined  bath  of  1  part  of  car- 
bonate, 3  of  40  per  cent  formaldehyde, 
and  20  of  water;  its  tanning  action  is  en- 
hanced by  the  alkaline  reaction,  and  two 
operations  are  superseded  by  one.  Af- 
ter 10  minutes'  soaking,  the  surface  of 
the  film  must  be  wiped  and  the  plate 
dried.  A  sharp  knife  is  then  used  to  cut 
all  around  the  film  a  slight  distance 
from  the  edge,  and  when  this  is  done  the 
negative  is  put  into  a  5  per  cent  solution 
of  nydrochloric  acid,  when  the  film  will 
probably  float  off  unaided;  but,  if  neces- 
sary, may  be  assisted  by  gently  raising 
one  corner. 

Phosphorescent  Photographs.  —  The 
necessary  chemicals  belong  to  the  class  of 
phosphorescent  bodies,  among  others, 
calcium  sulphite,  strontium  sulphite, 
barium  sulphide,  calcareous  spar,  fluor- 
spar. These  placed  in  the  magnesium 
light  or  sunlight,  acquire  the  property  of 
giving  forth,  for  a  shorter  or  longer  time, 
a  light  of  their  own.  The  best  examples 
of  these  substances  are  the  well-known 
"Balmains  light  colors,"  which  yield  a 
very  clear  and  strong  light  after  ex- 
posure. They  consist  of  calcium  sul- 
phide, 10,000  parts;  bismuth  oxide,  13 
parts;  sodium  hyposulphite,  1,000  parts. 

According  to  Professor  Schnauss, 
plates  for  phosphorographs  are  prepared 
as  follows:  Dissolve  10  parts  of  pure 
gelatin  in  50  parts  of  hot  water,  add  and 
dissolve  30  parts  of  "light"  color  (as 
above),  and  1  part  of  glycerine. 

If  a  plate  or  a  paper,  prepared  as 
above  detailed,  be  placed  under  a  dia- 
positiye,  in  a  copying  apparatus,  and 
submitted  to  the  action  of  sunlight  for  a 
few  minutes,  when  taken  out  in  a  dark 
room  a  phosphorescent  picture  of  the 
diapositive  will  be  found.  It  is  also  a 
known  fact  that  duplicate  negatives  or 
positives  may  be  made  with  this  phos- 
phorograph  by  simply  bringing  the  latter 
in  contact  in  a  copying  apparatus,  with 
the  ordinary  silver  bromide  plate  for  30 
seconds,  in  the  dark  room,  and  then  de- 
veloping the  same. 

Printing  Names  on  Photographs. — 
The  name  or  other  matter  to  be  printed 
on  the  photograph  is  set  up  in  type,  and 
printed  on  cardboard;  from  this  make 
an  exposure  on  a  transparency  plate, 


developing  it  strongly.  After  the  print 
has  been  made  from  the  regular  printing 
negative,  it  is  placed  under  the  dense 
transparency  of  the  regular  negative, 
and  the  name  printed  in.  The  only 
precaution  necessary  is  to  time  the 
transparency  negative  properly,  and  de- 
velop strongly,  so  as  to  get  good  con- 
trast. Photographers  will  find  this  a 
much  easier  and  quicker  method  than 
the  old  one  of  printing  on  tissue  paper 
and  fastening  the  paper  to  the  negative 
by  means  of  varnish;  moreover,  the 
result  is  black  instead  of  white,  usually 
much  more  pleasing. 

Spots  on  Photographic  Plates. — Spots 
on  photographic  plates  may  be  caused 
by  dust  or  by  minute  bubbles  in  the 
emulsion,  both  of  which  are  easily  pre- 
ventable, but  some  spots  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  either  of  these  causes.  On 
investigating  this  trouble,  Mumford 
found  that  it  is  due  to  the  presence  on 
the  surface  of  the  film  of  small  colonies 
of  microorganisms  which,  under  condi- 
tions favorable  to  their  growth,  are  capa- 
ble of  producing  large  mold  colonies, 
from  which  the  organisms  can  easily  be 
separated.  Experiments  were  instituted 
in  order  to  find  whether  these  growths 
can  be  produced  on  the  plate  by  arti- 
ficial means,  by  inoculating  the  surface 
with  a  fluid  culture  of  one  of  these 
organisms,  with  affirmative  results,  but 
with  one  slight  difference,  namely,  that 
in  the  inoculated  film,  on  microscopic 
examination,  no  dust  particle  was  visible 
in  the  center  of  each  spot,  which  had 
formerly  been  the  case.  As  these  micro- 
organisms do  not  exist  in  the  air  as  iso- 
lated units,  but  travel  upon  small  or  large 
dust  particles  in  the  case  under  consid- 
eration, the  carrying  medium  most 
probably  is  the  fine  impalpable  dust 
from  which  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
free  the  air  of  a  building.  In  order 
that  these  organisms  may  grow  into 
colonies  of  sufficient  size  to  cause  spots, 
they  must  be  able  to  grow  rapidly,  there 
being  only  about  12  hours  before  the 
plate  is  dry  in  which  they  can  grow;  and 
they  must  also  be  capable  of  growing  at 
the  rather  high  temperature  of  70°  F. 
On  testing  some  of  the  organisms  caus- 
ing the  spots  it  was  found  that  they  grew 
best  under  exactly  such  conditions.  A 
bacteriological  examination  of  some  of 
the  gelatin  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
plates,  both  in  the  raw  state  and  in  the 
form  of  emulsion,  also  revealed  the  fact 
that  there  were  numerous  organisms 
present.  No  means  for  the  prevention 
of  this  troublesome  defect  is  suggested; 


PHOTOGRAPHY— PIGMENTS 


555 


most  dry-plate  manufacturers  use  the 
precaution  to  add  a  small  quantity  of  a 
chemical  antiseptic  to  the  emulsion,  but 
it  is  not  possible  to  employ  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  destroy  any  organisms  that 
may  be  present  without  damaging  the 
plate  for  photographic  purposes. 

To  Remove  Pyro  Stains  from  the  Fin- 
gers.— Make  a  strong  solution  of  chlori- 
nated lime;  dip  the  fingers  which  are 
stained  in  this,  and  rub  the  stains  with  a 
large  crystal  of  citric  acid.  Apply  the 
lime  solution  and  acid  alternately  until 
the  stain  is  removed;  then  rinse  with 
water. 

To  Remove  Pvro  Stain  from  Nega- 
tives.— Immerse  in  a  clearing  bath  as 
follows: 

Protosulphate  of  iron .      3  ounces 

Alum 1  ounce 

Citric  acid 1  ounce 

Water 20  ounces 

Prevention  is  better  than  cure,  how- 
ever; therefore  immerse  the  negatives  in 
the  above  directly  they  are  taken  from 
the  fixing  bath.  After  clearing  the  neg- 
atives, they  should  be  well  washed. 

PHOTOGRAPHY  WITHOUT  LIGHT: 

See  Catatypy. 

PIANO  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

PICKLE  FOR  BRASS: 

See  Brass  and  Plating. 

PICKLE  FOR  BRONZE: 

See  Bronze  Coloring. 

PICKLE  FOR  COPPER: 

See  Copper  and  Plating. 

PICKLE    VINEGAR: 

See  Vinegar. 

PICKLING  OF    GERMAN-SILVER 
ARTICLES: 

See  Plating. 

PICKLING     IRON     SCRAP     BEFORE 
ENAMELING: 

See  Enameling. 

PICRIC  ACID  STAINS,  TO  REMOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

PICTURE  COPYING: 

See  Copying. 

PICTURE  FRAMES,  REPAIRING: 
See  Adhesives  and  Lutes. 

PICTURE  POSTAL  CARDS: 

See  Photography. 


Pigments 

(See  also  Paints.) 

Nature,  Source,  and  Manufacture  of 
Pigments. — A  pigment  is  a  dry  earthy  or 
clayey  substance  that,  when  mixed  with 
oil,  water,  etc.,  forms  a  paint.  Most 
pigments  are  of  mineral  origin,  but  there 
are  vegetable  pigments,  as  logwood,  and 
animal  pigments,  as  cochineal.  In 
modern  practice  the  colors  are  produced 
mainly  by  dyeing  certain  clays,  which 
excel  in  a  large  percentage  of  silicic  acid, 
with  aniline  dyestuffs.  The  coloring 
matters  best  adapted  for  this  purpose 
are  those  of  a  basic  character.  The  col- 
ors obtained  in  this  manner  excel  in  a 
vivid  hue,  and  fastness  to  light  and  water. 

Following  is  a  general  outline  of  their 
manufacture:  One  hundred  parts,  by 
weight,  of  washed  clay  in  paste  form  are 
finely  suspended  in  6  to  8  times  the  volume 
of  water  and  acidulated  with  about  1| 
parts,  by  volume,  of  5  per  cent  hydrochlo- 
ric or  acetic  acid,  and  heated  by  means 
of  steam  almost  to  the  boiling  tempera- 
ture. There  is  next  introduced,  ac- 
cording to  the  shade  desired,  1  to  2  parts, 
by  weight,  of  the  dyestuff,  such  as  aura- 
min,  diamond  green,  Victoria  blue,  etc., 
with  simultaneous  stirring  and  heating, 
for  1  to  2  hours,  or  until  a  sample  filtered 
off  from  the  liquor  shows  no  dyestuff. 
Next  the  clay  dyed  in  this  manner  is 
isolated  by  filtration  and  washed  with 
hot  water  and  dried.  The  colors  thus 
obtained  may  be  used  as  substitutes  for 
mineral  colors  of  all  description. 

The  method  of  manufacture  varies 
greatly.  According  to  the  Bennett  and 
Mastin  English  patent  the  procedure 
is  as  follows:  Grind  together  to  a  paste 
in  water,  substances  of  a  clayey,  stony, 
earthy,  or  vitreous  nature,  and  certain 
metallic  oxides,  or  "prepared  oxides," 
such  as  are  commonly  used  in  the  pot- 
tery trades;  dry  and  powder  the  paste, 
and  subject  the  powder  to  the  heat  of  a 
furnace,  of  such  a  temperature  that  the 
requisite  color  is  obtained,  and  for  such 
length  of  time  that  the  color  strikes 
through  the  whole  substance.  For  ex- 
ample, 8  parts  of  black  oxide  of  cobalt, 
12  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc,  and  36  parts  of 
alumina,  when  incorporated  with  20 
times  their  combined  bulk  of  clay  and 
treated  as  described,  yield  a  rich  blue 
pigment  in  the  case  of  a  white  clay,  arid 
a  rich  green  in  the  case  of  a  yellow  clay. 
Long-continued  firing  in  this  case  im- 
proves the  color. 

Many  minerals  included  in  formulas 
for  pigments  have  little  or  no  coloring 
power  in  themselves;  nevertheless  they 


556 


PIGMENTS 


are  required  in  producing  the  most  beau- 
tiful shades  of  color  when  blended  one 
with  another,  the  color  being  brought 
out  by  calcination. 

Mixing  Oil  Colors  and  Tints. — It  must 
not  be  expected  that  the  formulas  given 
will  produce  the  exact  effect  desired,  be- 
cause the  strength  of  the  various  brands 
of  colors  vary  to  a  great  extent,  and 
therefore  the  painter  must  exercise  his 
own  judgment.  The  table  simply  gives 
an  idea  of  what  can  be  produced  by  fol- 
lowing the  formulas  given,  when  chem- 
ically pure  material  is  employed  in  the 
mixing.  It  is  also  recommended  that 
the  parts  mentioned  be  weighed  out  in 
paste  form,  and  the  white  or  black  and 
each  color  separately  thinned  and 
strained  before  mixing  them  together, 
because  the  arriving  at  the  proper  hue  of 
color  or  depth  and  tone  of  tint  will  be 
simplified  by  using  that  precaution.  By 
thinning  it  is  not  meant  that  they  should 
be  quite  ready  for  application,  but  of 
such  consistency  that  they  will  pass  an 
ordinary  strainer  with  the  aid  of  a 
brush. 

Unless  otherwise  indicated,  the  ma- 
terials are  understood  to  be  ground  fine 
in  paste  form. 

NOTE. — The  majority  of  the  following 
are  by  Joseph  Griggs,  in  the  Painters' 
Magazine: 

GROUNDS  FOR  GRAINING  COLORS: 

Ash  Ground. — Four  hundred  parts  white 
lead;  4  parts  French  ocher;  1  part  raw 
Turkey  umber. 

Ash. — Raw  umber;  raw  sienna;  and  a 
little  black  or  Vandyke  brown. 

Hungarian  Ash. — Raw  sienna  and  raw 
and  burnt  umber. 

Bun  Ash. —  Raw  sienna;  burnt  umber; 
and  Vandyke  brown. 

Cherry  Ground. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  5  parts  burnt  sienna;  1  part 
raw  sienna. 

Natural  Cherry. — Raw  and  burnt 
sienna  and  raw  umber. 

Stained  Cherry. — Burnt  sienna;  burnt 
umber;  and  Vandyke  brown. 

Chestnut. — Raw  sienna;  burnt  umber; 
Yandyke  brown;  and  a  little  burnt 
sienna. 

Maple. — Raw  sienna  and  raw  umber. 

Silver  Maple. — Ivory  black  over  a 
nearly  white  ground. 

Light  Maple  Ground. — One  hundred 
parts  white  lead;  1  part  French  ocher. 

Dark    Maple    Ground. — One    hundred 


parts  white  lead;  1  part  dark  golden 
ocher. 

Oak. — Raw  sienna;  burnt  umber;  a 
little  black. 

Pollard  Oak. — Raw  and  burnt  sienna, 
or  burnt  umber  and  Vandyke  brown. 

Light  Oak  Ground. — Fifty  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  French  ocher. 

Dark  Oak  Ground. — Fifty  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  dark  golden  ocher. 

Satinwood. — Add  a  little  ivory  black 
to  maple  color. 

Mahogany. — Burnt  sienna;  burnt  um- 
ber; and  Vandyke  brown. 

Mahogany  Ground. — Ten  parts  white 
lead;  5  parts  orange  chrome;  and  1  part 
burnt  sienna. 

Rosewood. — Vandyke  brown  and  a 
little  ivory  black. 

Rosewood  Ground. — Drop  black. 

Walnut  Ground. — Fifty  parts  white 
lead;  3  parts  dark  golden  ocher;  1  part 
dark  Venetian  red;  and  1  part  drop 
black. 

Black  Walnut. — Burnt  umber  with  a 
little  Vandyke  brown  for  dark  parts. 

French  Burl  Walnut. — Same  as  black 
walnut. 

Hard  Pine. — Raw  and  burnt  sienna; 
add  a  little  burnt  umber. 

Cypress. — Raw  and  burnt  sienna  and 
burnt  umber. 

Whitewood. — Ground  same  as  for 
light  ash;  graining  color,  yellow  ocher, 
adding  raw  umber  and  black  for  dark 
streaks. 

POSITIVE  COLORS: 

Blue. — Twelve  parts  borate  of  lime;  6 
parts  oxide  of  zinc;  10  parts  litharge;  9  parts 
feldspar;  4  parts  oxide  of  cobalt. 

Blue  Black  A. — Nine  parts  lamp- 
black; 1  part  Chinese  or  Prussian  blue. 

Blue  Black  B. — Nineteen  parts  drop 
black;  1  part  Prussian  blue. 

Bright  Mineral. — Nine  parts  light  Ve- 
netian red;  1  part  red  lead. 

Brilliant  Green. — Nine  parts  Paris 
green;  1  part  C.  C.  chrome  green,  light. 

Bronze  Green,  Light. — Three  parts 
raw  Turkey  umber;  1  part  medium 
chrome  yellow. 

Bronze  Green,  Medium. — Five  parts 
medium  chrome  yellow;  3  parts  burnt 
Turkey  umber;  1  part  lampblack. 

Bronze  Green,  Dark. — Twenty  parts 
drop  black;  2  parts  medium  chrome  yel- 
low; and  1  part  dark  orange  chrome. 


PIGMENTS 


557 


Bottle  Green. — Five  parts  commercial 
chrome  green,  medium,  and  1  part 
drop  black. 

Brown. — Ten  parts  crude  antimony; 
12  parts  litharge;  2  parts  manganese; 
1  part  oxide  of  iron. 

Brown  Stone. — Eighteen  parts  burnt 
umber;  2  parts  dark  golden  ocher;  and  1 
part  burnt  sienna. 

Cherry  Red. — Equal  parts  of  best 
imitation  vermilion  and  No.  40  carmine. 

Citron  A. — Three  parts  medium  chrome 
yellow  and  2  parts  raw  umber. 

Citron  B. — Six  parts  commercial  chrome 
green,  light,  and  1  part  medium  chrome 
yellow. 

Coffee  Brown. — Six  parts  burnt  Tur- 
key umber;  2  parts  French  ocher;  and  1 
part  burnt  sienna. 

Emerald  Green. — Use  Paris  green. 

Green. — Twenty  parts  litharge;  12  parts 
flint;  2  parts  oxide  of  copper;  2J  parts  ground 
glass;  2 \  parts  whiting;  1J  parts  oxide  of 
chrome. 

Flesh  Color. — Nineteen  parts  French 
ocher;  1  part  deep  English  vermilion. 

Fern  Green. — Five  parts  lemon  chrome 
yellow  and  1  part  each  of  light  chrome 
green  and  drop  black. 

Foliage  Green. — Three  parts  medium 
chrome  yellow  and  1  part  of  ivory  or 
drop  black. 

Foliage  Brown. — Equal  parts  of  Van- 
dyke brown  and  orange  chrome  yellow. 

Golden  Ocher. — Fourteen  parts  French 
yellow  ocher  and  1  part  medium  chrome 
yellow  for  the  light  shade,  and  9  parts 
Oxford  ocher  and  1  part  orange  chrome 
yellow  for  the  dark  shade. 

Gold  Russet. — Five  parts  lemon  chrome 
yellow  and  1  part  light  Venetian  red. 

Gold  Orange. — Equal  parts  of  dry 
orange  mineral  and  light  golden  ocher  in 
oil. 

Indian  Brown. — Equal  parts  of  light 
Indian  red,  French  ocher,  and  lamp 
black. 

Mahogany,  Cheap. — Three  parts  dark 
golden  ocher  and  1  part  of  dark  Venetian 
red. 

Maroon,  Light. — Five  parts  dark  Ve- 
netian red;  1  part  drop  black. 

Maroon,  Dark. — Nine  parts  dark  In- 
dian red;  1  part  lampblack. 

Olive  Green. — Seven  parts  light  golden 
ocher;  1  part  drop  black. 

Ochrous  Olive. — Nine  parts  French 
ocher;  1  part  raw  umber. 


Orange-  Brown. — Equal  parts  burnt 
sienna  and  orange  chrome  yellow. 

Oriental  Red. — Two  parts  Indian  red, 
light,  in  oil;  1  part  dry  red  lead. 

Purple  A. — Eight  parts  crocus  martis; 
2  parts  red  hematite;  1  part  oxide  of  iron. 

Purple  B. — Two  parts  rose  pink;  1 
part  ultramarine  blue. 

Purple  Black. — Three  parts  lamp- 
black and  1  part  rose  pink,  or  9  parts 
drop  black  and  1  part  rose  pink. 

Purple  Brown. — Five  parts  Indian 
red,  dark,  and  1  part  each  of  ultramarine 
blue  and  lampblack. 

Roman  Ocher. — Twenty-three  parts 
French  ocher  and  1  part  each  burnt 
sienna  and  burnt  umber. 

Royal  Blue,  Dark. — Eighteen  parts 
ultramarine  blue  and  2  parts  Prussian 
blue.  To  lighten  use  as  much  white 
lead  or  zinc  white  as  is  required. 

Royal  Purple. — Two  parts  ultramarine 
blue;  1  part  No.  40  carmine  or  carmine 
lake. 

Russet.  —  Fourteen  parts  orange 
chrome  yellow  and  1  part  C.  P.  chrome 
green,  medium. 

Seal  Brown. — Ten  parts  burnt  umber; 
2  parts  golden  ocher,  light;  1  part  burnt 
sienna. 

Snuff  Brown. — Equal  parts  burnt  um- 
ber and  golden  ocher,  light. 

Terra  Cotta. — Two  parts  white  lead;  1 
part  burnt  sienna;  also  2  parts  French 
ocher  to  1  part  Venetian  red. 

Turkey  Red. — Strong  Venetian  red  or 
red  oxide. 

Tuscan  Red.  Ordinary. — Nine  parts 
Indian  red  to  1  part  rose  pink. 

Brilliant. — Four  parts  Indian  red  to  1 
part  red  madder  lake. 

Violet. — Three  parts  ultramarine  blue; 
2  parts  rose  lake;  1  part  best  ivory  black. 

Yellow. — Four  and  one-half  parts  tin 
ashes;  1  part  crude  antimony;  1  part 
litharge;  and  1  part  red  ocher. 

Yellow,  Amber. — Ten  parts  medium 
chrome  yellow;  7  parts  burnt  umber;  3 
parts  burnt  sienna. 

Yellow,  Canary. — Five  parts  white 
lead;  2  parts  permanent  yellow;  1  part 
lemon  chrome  yellow. 

Yellow,  Golden. — Ten  parts  lemon 
chrome  yellow;  3  parts  orange  chrome, 
dark;  5  parts  white  lead. 

Yellow,  Brimstone.  —  Three  parts 
white  lead;  1  part  lemon  chrome  yellow; 
1  part  permanent  yellow- 


558 


PIGMENTS 


Azure  Blue. — Fifty  parts  white  lead; 

1  part  ultramarine  blue. 

Blue  Gray. — One  hundred  parts  white 
lead;  3  parts  Prussian  blue;  1  part  lamp- 
black. 

Bright  Blue.— Twenty  parts  zinc 
white;  1  part  imitation  cobalt  blue. 

Blue  Grass. — Seven  parts  white  lead; 

2  parts  Paris  green;  1  part  Prussian  blue. 
Deep  Blue. — Fifteen  parts  white  lead; 

1  part  Prussian  blue  or  Antwerp  blue. 
French    Blue. — Five    parts    imitation 

cobalt  blue;  2  parts  French  zinc  white. 

Green  Blue. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  5  parts  lemon  chrome  yellow; 

3  parts  ultramarine  blue. 

Hazy  Blue. — Sixty  parts  white  lead;  16 
parts  ultramarine  blue;  1  part  burnt 
sienna. 

Mineral  Blue. — Five  parts  white  lead; 

4  parts   imitation   cobalt   blue;   2  parts 
red  madder  lake;   1   part  best  ivory  or 
drop  black. 

Orient  Blue. — Twenty-five  parts  white 
lead;  2  parts  Prussian  blue;  1  part  lemon 
chrome  yellow. 

Royal  Blue. — Thirty-four  parts  white 
lead;  19  parts  ultramarine  blue;  2  parts 
Prussian  blue;  1  part  rose  madder  or 
rose  lake. 

Sapphire  Blue. — Two  parts  French 
zinc  white  and  1  part  best  Chinese  blue. 

Sky  Blue. — One  hundred  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  Prussian  blue. 

Solid  Blue. — Five  parts  white  lead;  1 
part  ultramarine  blue. 

Turquoise  Blue. — Twenty  parts  white 
lead;  3  parts  ultramarine  blue;  1  part 
lemon  chrome  yellow. 

RED  TINTS: 

Cardinal  Red. — Equal  parts  of  white 
lead  and  scarlet  lake. 

Carnation  Red. — Fifteen  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  scarlet  lake. 

Claret. — Twenty-one  parts  oxide  of 
zinc;  4  parts  crocus  martis;  4  parts  oxide 
of  chrome;  3  parts  red  lead;  3  parts  bor- 
acic  acid. 

Coral  Pink. — Fifteen  parts  white  lead; 

2  parts   bright    vermilion;    1    part   deep 
orange  chrome. 

Deep  Rose. — Ten  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  red  lake. 

Deep  Purple.— Five  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  ultramarine  blue;  1  part  rose  pink. 

Deep  Scarlet. — Fifteen  parts  bright 
vermilion;  2  parts  red  lake;  5  parts  white 
lead. 


Flesh  Pink.  —  One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  1  part  orange  chrome  yellow; 
1  part  red  lake. 

Indian  Pink. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  1  part  light  Indian  red. 

Lavender. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  2 
parts  ultramarine  blue;  1  part  red  lake. 

Light  Pink. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  1 
part  bright  vermilion. 

Lilac. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  1  part 
best  rose  pink. 

Mauve. — Fifteen  parts  white  lead;  2 
parts  ultramarine  blue;  1  part  carmine 
lake  or  red  lake. 

Orange  Pink. — Two  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  dark  orange  chrome  or  American 
vermilion. 

Purple. — Five  parts  white  lead;  2 
parts  ultramarine  blue;  1  part  red  mad- 
der lake. 

Royal  Pink. — Five  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  carmine  lake  or  red  madder  lake. 

Royal  Rose. — Twenty  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  rich  rose  lake. 

Red  Brick. — Ten  parts  white  lead;  3 
parts  light  Venetian  red;  1  part  yellow 
ocher. 

Reddish  Terra  Cotta. — Two  parts 
white  lead;  1  part  rich  burnt  sienna. 

Salmon. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  5 
parts  deep  orange  chrome. 

Shell  Pink. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  2 
parts  bright  vermilion;  1  part  orange 
chrome;  1  part  burnt  sienna. 

Violet. — Fifteen  parts  white  lead;  4 
parts  ultramarine  blue;  3  parts  rose 
lake;  1  part  drop  black. 

GREEN  TINTS: 

Apple  Green. — Fifty  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  chrome  green,  light  or  medium 
shade. 

Citrine  Green. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  2  parts  medium  chrome 
yellow;  1  part  drop  black. 

Citron  Green. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  3  parts  medium  chrome 
yellow;  1  part  lampblack. 

Emerald  Green. — Ten  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  Paris  (emerald)  green. 

Grass  Green  A. — Five  parts  white 
lead;  7  parts  Paris  green. 

Grass  Green  B. — Ten  parts  oxide  of 
chrome;  2  parts  tin  ashes;  5  parts  whit- 
ing; 1  part  crocus  martis;  1  part  bi- 
chromate potash. 

Gray  Green. — Five  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  Verona  green. 


PIGMENTS 


559 


Marine  Green. — Ten  parts  white  lead; 

1  part  ultramarine  green. 

Nile  Green. — Fifty  parts  white  lead; 
6  parts  medium  chrome  green;  1  part 
Prussian  blue. 

Olive  Green. — Fifty  parts  white  lead; 

2  parts  medium  chrome  yellow;  3  parts 
raw  umber;  1  part  drop  black. 

Olive  Drab. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  8 
parts  raw  umber;  5  parts  medium  chrome 
green;  1  part  drop  black. 

Pea  Green. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  1 
part  light  chrome  green. 

Satin  Green. — Three  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  Milori  green. 

Sage  Green. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  3  parts  medium  chrome 
green;  1  part  raw  umber. 

Sea  Green. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  1 
part  dark  chrome  green. 

Stone  Green. — Twenty-five  parts  white 
lead;  2  parts  dark  chrome  green;  3  parts 
raw  umber. 

Velvet  Green. — Twenty  parts  white 
lead;  7  parts  medium  chrome  green;  2 
parts  burnt  sienna. 

Water  Green. — Fifteen  parts  white 
lead;  10  parts  French  ocher;  1  part  dark 
chrome  green. 

BROWN  TINTS: 

Chocolate. — Twenty-five  parts  white 
lead;  3  parts  burnt  umber. 

Cocoanut. — Equal  parts  white  lead 
and  burnt  umber. 

Cinnamon. — Ten  parts  white  lead;  2 
parts  burnt  sienna;  1  part  French  ocher. 

Dark  Drab. — Forty  parts  white  lead; 

1  part  burnt  umber. 

Dark  Stone. — Twenty  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  raw  umber. 

Fawn. — Fifty  parts  white  lead;  3 
parts  burnt  umber;  2  parts  French 
ocher. 

Golden  Brown. — Twenty-five  parts 
white  lead;  4  parts  French  ocher;  1  part 
burnt  sienna. 

Hazel  Nut  Brown. — Twenty  parts  white 
lead;  5  parts  burnt  umber;  1  part  me- 
dium chrome  yellow. 

Mulberry. — Ten  parts  manganese;  2 
parts  cobalt  blue;  2  parts  saltpeter. 

Purple  Brown. — Fifty  parts  white 
lead;  6  parts  Indian  red;  2  parts  ultra- 
marine blue;  1  part  lampblack. 

Red  Brown. — Twelve  parts  hematite 
ore;  3  parts  manganese;  7  parts  litharge; 

2  parts  yellow  ocher. 


Seal  Brown. — Thirty  parts  white  lead; 
5  parts  burnt  umber;  1  part  medium 
chrome  yellow. 

Snuff  Brown. — Twenty-five  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  burnt  umber;  1  part  Oxford 
ocher. 

GRAY  TINTS: 

Ash  Gray. — Thirty  parts  white  lead; 
2  parts  ultramarine  blue;  1  part  burnt 
sienna. 

Cold  Gray. — Five  hundred  parts  white 
lead;  6  parts  lampblack;  1  part  Antwerp 
blue. 

Dcve  Color. — Twelve  parts  manga- 
nese; 5  parts  steel  filings;  3  parts  whiting; 
1  part  oxide  of  cobalt. 

Dove  Gray. — Two  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  5  parts  ultramarine  blue;  2 
parts  drop  black. 

French  Gray. — One  hundred  and  fifty 
parts  white  lead;  2  parts  lampblack;  1 
part  orange  chrome  yellow;  I  part 
chrome  red  (American  vermilion). 

Lead  Color. — Fifty  parts  white  lead; 
1  part  lampblack  (increase  proportion 
of  white  lead  for  light  tints). 

Lustrous  Gray. — Ten  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  graphite  (plumbago). 

Olive  Gray. — Two  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  2  parts  lampblack;  1  part 
medium  chrome  green. 

Pure  Gray. — One  hundred  parts  white 
lead;  1  part  drop  black. 

Pearl  Gray. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  1  part  ultramarine  blue;  1 
part  drop  black. 

Silver  Gray. — One  hundred  and  fifty 
parts  white  lead;  2  parts  lampblack;  3 
parts  Oxford  ocher. 

Warm  Gray. — One  hundred  parts 
white  lead;  3  parts  drop  black;  2  parts 
French  ocher;  1  part  light  Venetian  red. 

NOTE. — For  inside  work  and  whenever 
desirable,  the  white  lead  may  be  replaced 
by  zinc  white  or  a  mixture  of  the  two 
white  pigments  may  be  used.  Be  it  also 
remembered  that  pure  colors,  as  a  rule, 
will  produce  the  cleanest  tints  and  that 
fineness  of  grinding  is  an  important 
factor.  It  will  not  be  amiss  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  the  excessive  use 
of  driers,  especially  of  dark  japans  or 
liquid  driers,  with  delicate  tints  is  bad 
practice,  and  liable  to  ruin  otherwise 
good  effects  in  tints  or  delicate  solid 
colors. 

COLOR  TESTING. 

Expense  and  trouble  deter  many  a 
painter  from  having  a  color  examined, 


560 


PIGMENTS 


although  such  an  examination  is  often 
very  necessary.  For  the  practical  man 
it  is  less  important  to  know  what  per- 
centage of  foreign  matter  a  paint  con- 
tains, but  whether  substances  are  con- 
tained therein,  which  may  act  injuriously 
in  some  way  or  other. 

If  a  pigment  is  to  be  tested  for  arsen- 
ic, pour  purified  hydrochloric  acid  into 
a  test  tube  or  a  U-shaped  glass  vessel 
which  withstands  heat,  add  a  little  of 
the  pigment  or  the  colored  fabric,  wall 
paper,  etc.  (of  pigment  take  only  enough 
to  strongly  color  the  hydrochloric  acid 
simply  in  the  first  moment),  and  finally 
a  small  quantity  of  stannous  chloride. 
Now  heat  the  test  tube  with  its  contents 
moderately  over  a  common  spirit  lamp. 
If  the  liquid  or  mass  has  assumed  a 
brown  or  brownish  color  after  being 
heated,  arsenic  is  present  in  the  pigment 
or  fabric,  etc. 

An  effective  but  simple  test  for  the 
durability  of  a  color  is  to  paint  strips  of 
thick  paper  and  nail  them  on  the  wall  in 
the  strongest  light  possible.  A  strip  of 
paper  should  then  be  nailed  over  one- 
half  of  the  samples  of  color  so  as  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  light.  On  removing 
this  the  difference  in  shade  between  the 
exposed  and  unexposed  portions  will  be 
very  apparent.  Some  colors,  such  as 
the  vermilionettes,  will  show  a  marked 
difference  after  even  a  few  weeks. 

Testing  Body  Colors  for  Gritty  Ad- 
mixtures.— The  fineness  of  the  pow- 
dered pigment  is  not  a  guarantee  of  the 
absence  of  gritty  admixtures.  The  latter 
differ  from  the  pigment  proper  in  their 
specific  gravity.  If  consisting  of  metallic 
oxides  or  metallic  sulphides  the  sandy 
admixtures  are  lighter  than  the  pigments 
and  rise  to  the  surface  upon  a  syste- 
matic shaking  of  the  sample.  In  the 
case  of  other  pigments,  e.  g.,  aluminas 
and  iron  varnish  colors,  they  collect  at 
the  bottom.  For  carrying  out  the  test,  a 
smoothly  bored  metallic  tube  about  | 
to  £  inch  in  diameter  and  6  to  7  inches 
long  is  used.  Both  ends  are  closed  with 
screw  caps  and  at  one  side  of  the 
tube  some  holes  about  £  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  are  bored,  closed  by  pieces  of 
a  rubber  hose  pushed  on.  The  tube  is 
filled  with  the  pigment  powder,  screwed 
up  and  feebly  shaken  for  some  time  in  a 
vertical  position  (the  length  of  time  vary- 
ing according  to  the  fineness  of  the  pow- 
der). Samples  may  now  be  taken  from 
all  parts  of  the  tube.  Perhaps  glass 
tubes  would  be  preferable,  but  lateral 
apertures  cannot  be  so  readily  made. 
After  the  necessary  samples  have  been 


collected  in  this  manner,  they  must  be 
prepared  with  a  standard  sample,  which 
is  accomplished  either  by  feeling  the  pow- 
der between  the  fingers  or  by  inspecting 
it  under  a  microscope,  or  else  by  means 
of  the  scratching  test,  which  last  named 
is  the  usual  way.  The  requisites  for 
these  scratch  tests  consist  of  two  soft, 
well-polished  glass  plates  (2^x2^  inches) 
which  are  fixed  by  means  of  cement  in 
two  stronger  plates  of  hard  wood  suit- 
ably hollowed  out.  The  surface  of  the 
glass  must  project  about  |  inch  over  the 
wooden  frame.  If  a  sample  of  the  pig- 
ment powder  is  placed  on  such  a  glass 
plate,  another  plate  is  laid  on  top  and 
both  are  rubbed  slowly  together;  this 
motion  will  retain  a  soft,  velvety  charac- 
ter in  case  the  pigment  is  free  from 
gritty  admixtures;  if  otherwise,  the  glass 
is  injured  and  a  corresponding  sound 
becomes  audible.  Next  the  powder  is 
removed  from  the  plate,  rubbing  the 
latter  with  a  soft  rag,  and  examining 
the  surface  with  a  microscope.  From  the 
nature  of  the  scratches  on  the  plate  the 
kind  of  gritty  ingredients  can  be  readily 
determined.  The  human  finger  is  suffi- 
ciently sensitive  to  detect  the  presence  of 
gritty  substances,  yet  it  is  not  capable  of 
distinguishing  whether  they  consist  of  im- 
perfectly reduced  or  badly  sifted  grains 
of  pigment  or  real  gritty  admixtures. 

To  Determine  the  Covering  Power  of 
Pigments. — To  determine  the  covering 
power  of  white  lead,  or  any  other  pig- 
ment, take  equal  quantities  of  several 
varieties  of  white  lead  and  mix  them 
with  a  darker  pigment,  black,  blue,  etc., 
the  latter  also  in  equal  proportions.  The 
white  ^  lead  which  retains  the  lightest 
color  is  naturally  the  most  opaque.  In 
a  similar  manner,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
mixing  power  of  the  dark  pigments  can 
be  ascertained.  If  experiments  are 
made  with  a  variety  of  white  lead  or 
zinc  white,  by  the  admixture  of  dark  pig- 
ments, the  color  which  tints  the  wnite 
lead  or  zinc  white  most,  also  possesses 
the  greatest  covering  or  mixing  power. 

To  Detect  the  Presence  of  Aniline  in 
a  Pigment. — Lay  a  little  of  the  color 
upon  letter  paper  and  pour  a  drop  of 
spirit  on  it.  If  it  is  mixed  with  aniline 
tne  paper  is  colored  right  through  there- 
by, while  a  pure  pigment  does  not  alter 
the  shade  of  the  paper  and  will  never 
penetrate  it. 

Vehicle  for  Oil  Colors. — Petroleum,  20 
to  30  pounds;  tallow,  3  to  5  pounds; 
cotton-seed  oil,  5  to  7  pounds;  col- 
ophony, 5  to  7  pounds.  The  pigments 


PIGMENTS— PLASTER 


561 


having  been  ground  up  with  this  mix- 
ture, the  mixed  paint  can  be  made  still 
better  by  adding  to  it  about  a  sixth 
of  its  weight  of  the  following  mixture: 
Vegetable  oil,  8  to  20  pounds;  saponified 
rosin,  6  to  16  pounds;  turpentine,  4  to  30 
ounces. 

Frankfort  Black. — Frankfort  black, 
also  known  as  German  black,  is  a  name 
applied  to  a  superior  grade  of  lamp- 
black. In  some  districts  of  Germany 
it  is  said  to  be  made  by  calcining  wine 
lees  and  tartar.  The  material  is  heated 
in  large  cylindrical  vessels  having  a  vent 
in  the  cover  for  the  escape  of  smoke  and 
vapors  that  are  evolved  during  the  proc- 
ess. When  no  more  smoke  is  observed, 
the  operation  is  finished.  The  residuum 
in  the  vessels  is  then  washed  several  times 
in  boiling  water  to  extract  the  salts  con- 
tained therein  and  finally  is  reduced  to 
the  proper  degree  of  fineness  by  grinding 
on  a  porphyry. 

Paris  Green. — Emerald  or  Paris  green 
is  rather  permanent  to  light,  but  must 
not  be  mixed  with  pigments  containing 
sulphur,  because  of  the  tendency  to 
blacken  when  so  mixed.  It  will  not  re- 
sist acids,  ammonia,  and  caustics. 

PIGMENT  PAPER: 

See  Photography. 

PILE  OINTMENTS. 
I. — "Extract"    witch- 
hazel 

Lanum 

Petrolatum 

Glycerine 

Tannic  acid 

Powdered  opium. 


II. — Tannic  acid 

Bismuth  subni- 

trate 

Powdered  opium, 

Lanum 

Petrolatum 


2  fluidounces 

2  ounces 
6  ounces 

4  fluidounces 
1  drachm 

1  drachm 

20  grains 

1  drachm 
10  grains 

3  drachms 

5  drachms 


PINE  SYRUP: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

PINEAPPLE  ESSENCE: 
See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

PINEAPPLE   LEMONADE: 

See  Beverages. 

PING  PONG   FRAPPE: 

See  Beverages,  under  Lemonades, 

PINS  OF  WATCHES: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

PINION  ALLOY: 

gee  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 


PINK  SALVE: 
See  Ointments. 

PINKEYE: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

PIPE-JOINT  CEMENT: 
See  Cement. 

PIPE  LEAKS: 

See  Leaks. 

PIPES,  RUST -PREVENTIVE  FOR: 

See  Rust  Preventives. 

PISTACHIO   ESSENCE: 
See  Essences  and  Extracts. 


PLANTS: 

Temperature  of  Water  for  Watering 
Plants. — Experiments  were  made  sev- 
eral years  ago  at  the  Wisconsin  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  to  determine 
whether  cold  water  was  detrimental  to 
plants.  Plants  were  grown  under  glass 
and  in  the  open  field,  and  in  all  cases 
the  results  were  similar.  Thus,  coleus 
planted  in  lots  of  equal  size  and  vigor 
were  watered  with  water  at  35°,  50°,  65°, 
and  86°  F.  At  the  end  of  60  days  it  was 
impossible  to  note  any  difference,  and 
when  the  experiment  was  repeated  with 
water  at  32°,  40°,  70°,  and  100°  F.,  the 
result  was  the  same.  Beans  watered  with 
water  at  32°,  40°,  70°,  and  100°  F.,  were 
equally  vigorous;  in  fact,  water  at  32° 
and  40°  F.  gave  the  best  results.  Lettuce 
watered  with  water  at  32°  F.  yielded 
slightly  more  than  the  other  lots.  From 
these  experiments  it  was  concluded  that 
for  vegetable  and  flowering  plants  com- 
monly grown  under  glass,  ordinary  well 
or  spring  water  may  be  used  freely  at 
any  time  of  the  year  without  warming. 

PLANT  PRESERVATIVES: 

See  Flowers. 

Plaster 

(See  also  Gypsum.) 

Therapeutic  Grouping  of  Medicinal 
Plasters. — The  vehicle  for  medicated 
plasters  requires  some  other  attribute 
than  simply  adhesiveness.  From  a  study 
of  the  therapy  of  plasters  they  may  be 
put  in  three  groups,  similarly  to  the 
ointments  with  reference  to  their  general 
therapeutic  uses,  which  also  governs  the 
selection  of  the  respective  vehicles. 

1. — Epidermatic:  Supportive,  protec- 
tive, antiseptic,  counter-irritant,  vesi- 
cant. Vehicle:  Rubber  or  any  suitably 


562 


PLASTER 


adhesive.  Official  plasters:  Emp.  ad- 
hesivum,  E.  capsici. 

2. — Endermatic:  Anodyne,  astrin- 
gent, alterative,  resolvent,  sedative, 
stimulant.  Vehicle:  Oleates  or  lead 
plaster,  sometimes  with  rosins  or  gum 
rosins.  Official  plasters:  Emp.  Bella- 
donnse,  E.  opii,  E.  plumbi,  E.  saponis. 

3. — Diadermatic:  For  constitutional 
or  systemic  effects.  Vehicle:  Lanolin 
or  plaster-mull.  Official  plasters:  Emp. 
hydrargyri. 

Methods  of  Preparing  Rubber  Plas- 
ters.— Mechanic  Roller  Pressure  Method. 
—This  method  of  incorporating  the  rub- 
ber with  certain  substances  to  give  it  the 
necessary  body  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  is  at 
present  the  only  one  employed.  But  since 
it  requires  the  use  of  the  heaviest  ma- 
chinery— some  of  the  apparatus  weighing 
many  tons — and  enormous  steam  power, 
its  application  for  pharmaceutical  pur- 
poses is  out  of  the  question. 

As  is  well  known,  the  process  consists 
in:  1.  Purification  of  the  rubber  by 
mascerating  and  pressing  it  and  re- 
moving foreign  impurities  by  elutriating 
it  with  water.  2.  Forming  a  homoge- 
neous mass  of  the  dried  purified  rubber 
by  working  it  on  heated  revolving  rollers 
and  incorporating  sufficient  quantities  of 
orris  powder  and  oleoresins.  3.  In- 
corporating the  medicinal  agent,  i.  e., 
belladonna  extract,  with  the  rubber  mass 
by  working  it  on  warmed  revolving  rollers. 
4.  Spreading  the  prepared  plaster. 

Solution  in  Volatile  Solvents. — This 
process  has  been  recommended  from 
time  to  time,  the  principal  objection 
being  the  use  of  so  relatively  large  quan- 
tities of  inflammable  solvents. 

The  German  Pharmacopoeia  Method. 
— The  following  is  the  formula  of  "Arz- 
neibuch  fur  das  Deutsche  Reich,"  1900: 
Emplastrum  adhesivum:  Lead  plaster, 
waterfree,  40  parts;  petrolatum,  2.5  parts; 
liquid  petrolatum,  2.5  parts,  are  melted 
together,  and  to  the  mixture  add  rosin, 
35  parts;  dammar,  10  parts,  previously 
melted.  To  the  warm  mixture  is  added 
caoutchouc,  10  parts;  dissolved  in  ben- 
zine, 75  parts,  and  the  mixture  stirred 
on  the  water-bath  until  all  the  benzine 
is  lost  by  evaporation. 

The  Coleplastrum  adhesivum  of  the 
Austrian  Society  is  still  more  complex, 
the  formula  containing  the  following: 
Rosin  oil,  empyreumatic,  150  parts;  co- 
paiba, 100  parts;  rosin,  100  parts;  lard, 
50  parts;  wax,  30  parts;  dissolved  in  ether, 
1,200  parts,  in  which  caoutchouc,  250 
parts,  has  been  previously  dissolved;  to  this 


is  then  added  orris  powder,  220  parts;  saR= 
darac,  50  parts;  ether,  400  parts.  The 
mixture,  when  uniform,  is  spread  on 
cloth. 

Solution  of  Rubber  in  Fixed  Solvent: 
Petrolatum  and  Incorporation  with  Lead 
Acetate. — India  rubber  dissolves,  though 
with  difficulty,  in  petrolatum.  The  heat 
required  to  melt  the  rubber  being  com- 
paratively high,  usually  considerably 
more  than  212°  F.,  as  stated  in  the 
U.  S.  P.,  it  is  necessary  to  melt  the  rubber 
first  and  then  add  the  petrolatum,  in 
order  to  avoid  subjecting  the  latter  to  the 
higher  temperature.  The  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  rubber  and  petrolatum  is 
of  a  soft  jelly  consistence,  not  especially 
adhesive,  but  when  incorporated  with 
the  lead  oleate  furnishes  a  very  adhesive 
plaster.  While  at  first  5  per  cent  of  each 
rubber  and  petrolatum  was  used,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  petrolatum  would 
melt  and  exude  around  the  edges  of  the 
plaster  when  applied  to  the  skin,  and  the 
quantity  was  therefore  reduced  to  2  per 
cent  of  each.  This  mass  affords  a  plas- 
ter which  is  readily  adhesive  to  the  body, 
does  not  run  nor  become  too  soft.  Plas- 
ters spread  on  cloth  have  been  kept  for 
months  exposed  to  the  sun  in  the  sum- 
mer weather  without  losing  their  stabil- 
ity or  permanency. 

The  lead  oleate  made  by  the  inter- 
action of  hot  solution  of  soap  and  lead 
acetate,  thoroughly  washed  with  hot 
water,  and  freed  from  water  by  working 
the  precipitated  oleate  on  a  hot  tile,  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to  the  lead  plaster 
made  by  the  present  official  process.  The 
time-honored  method  of  boiling  litharge, 
olive  oil,  and  water  is  for  the  requirements 
of  the  pharmacists  most  tedious  and  un- 
satisfactory. Since  in  the  beginning  of 
the  process,  at  least,  a  temperature  higher 
than  that  of  212°  F.  is  required,  the  water 
bath  cannot  be  employed,  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  this  limiting  device  the  product  is 
usually  "scorched."  When  the  steam  bath 
under  pressure  can  be  used  this  objection 
does  not  apply.  But  the  boiling  process 
requires  from  3  to  4  hours,  with  more  or 
less  attention,  while  the  precipitation 
method  does  not  take  over  half  an  hour. 
Besides,  true  litharge  is  difficult  to  ob- 
tain, and  any  other  kind  will  produce  un- 
satisfactory results. 

The  following  is  the  process  employed: 
Lead  oleate  (Emplastrum  plumbi): 
Soap,    granular   and 

dried 100  parts 

Lead  acetate GO  parts 

Distilled  water,  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity. 


PLASTER 


563 


Dissolve  the  soap  in  350  parts  hot 
distilled  water  and  strain  the  solution. 
Dissolve  the  lead  acetate  in  250  parts 
hot  distilled  water  and  filter  the  solution 
while  hot  into  the  warm  soap  solution, 
stirring  constantly.  When  the  precipi- 
tate which  has  formed  has  separated, 
decant  the  liquid  and  wash  the  precipi- 
tate thoroughly  with  hot  water.  Remove 
the  precipitate,  let  it  drain,  free  from 
water  completely  by  kneading  it  on  a  warm 
slab,  form  it  into  rolls,  wrap  in  paraffine 
paper,  and  preserve  in  tightly  closed  con- 
tainers. 

Emplastrum  adhesivum: 
Rubber,  cut  in  small 

pieces 20  parts 

Petrolatum 20  parts 

Lead  plaster 960  parts 

Melt  the  rubber  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  302°  F.,  add  the  petrolatum, 
and  continue  the  heat  until  the  rubber 
is  dissolved.  Add  the  lead  plaster  to 
the  hot  mixture,  continue  the  heat  until 
i*  becomes  liquid;  then  let  it  cool  and 
;;tir  until  it  stiffens. 

Court  Plaster  or  Sticking  Plaster. — I. 
— Brush  silk  over  with  a  solution  of  isin- 
glass, in  spirits  or  warm  water,  dry  and 
repeat  several  times.  For  the  last  ap- 
plication apply  several  coats  of  balsam 
of  Peru.  This  is  used  to  close  cuts  or 
wounds,  by  warming  and  applying  it. 
It  does  not  wash  off  until  the  skin  par- 
tially heals. 

II. — Isinglass,  1  part;  water,  10  parts; 
dissolve,  strain  the  solution,  and  gradu- 
ally add  to  it  of  tincture  of  benzoin,  2 
parts;  apply  this  mixture  gently  warmed, 
by  means  of  a  camel's-hair  brush,  to  the 
surface  of  silk  or  sarcenet,  stretched  on  a 
frame,  and  allow  each  coating  to  dry 
before  applying  the  next  one,  the  appli- 
cation being  repeated  as  often  as  neces- 
sary; lastly,  give  the  prepared  surface  a 
coating  of  tincture  of  benzoin  or  tincture 
of  balsam  of  Peru.  Some  manufacturers 
apply  this  to  the  unprepared  side  of  the 
plaster,  and  others  add  to  the  tincture 
a  few  drops  of  essence  of  ambergris  or 
essence  of  musk. 

III.  (Deschamps). — A  piece  of  fine 
muslin,  linen,  or  silk  is  fastened  to  a  flat 
board,  and  a  thin  coating  of  smooth, 
strained  flour  paste  is  given  to  it;  over 
this,  when  dry,  two  coats  of  colorless 
gelatin,  made  into  size  with  water, 
quantity  sufficient,  are  applied  warm. 
Said  to  be  superior  to  the  ordinary  court 
plaster. 

Coloring  of  Modeling  Plaster. — I. — If 
burnt  gypsum  is  stirred  up  with  water  con- 


taining formaldehyde  and  with  a  little 
alkali,  and  the  quantity  of  water  necessary 
for  the  induration  of  the  plaster  contain- 
ing in  solution  a  reducible  metallic  salt  is 
added  thereto,  a  plaster  mass  of  perfectly 
uniform  coloring  is  obtained.  The  hard- 
ening of  the  plaster  is  not  affected  there- 
by. According  to  the  concentration  of 
the  metallic  salt  solutions  and  the  choice 
of  the  salts,  the  most  varying  shades  of 
color,  as  black,  red,  brown,  violet,  pearl 
gray,  and  bronze  may  be  produced. 
The  color  effect  may  be  enhanced  by 
the  addition  of  certain  colors.  For  the 
production  of  a  gray-colored  gypsum 
mass,  for  example,  the  mode  of  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows:  Stir  15  drachms  of 
plaster  with  one-fourth  its  weight  of 
water,  containing  a  few  drops  of  formal- 
dehyde and  a  little  soda  lye  and  add  10 
drops  of  a  one-tenth  normal  silver  solu- 
tion, which  has  previously  been  mixed 
with  the  amount  of  water  necessary  for 
hardening  the  gypsum.  The  mass  will 
immediately  upon  mixing  assume  a 
pearl-gray  shade,  uniform  throughout. 
In  order  to  produce  red  or  copper-like, 
black  or  bronze-like  shades,  gold  salts, 
copper  salts  or  silver  salts,  bismuth 
salts  or  lead  salts,  singly  or  mixed,  are 
used.  Naturally,  these  colorings  admit 
of  a  large  number  of  modifications.  In 
lieu  of  formaldehyde  other  reducing 
agents  may  be  employed,  such  as  solu- 
tions of  sulphurous  acid  or  hydrogen 
peroxide  with  a  little  alkali.  Metals  in 
the  elementary  state  may  likewise  be 
made  use  of,  e.  g.,  iron,  which,  stirred 
with  a  little  copper  solution  and  plaster, 
produces  a  brown  mass  excelling  in 
special  hardness,  etc.  This  process  of 
coloring  plaster  is  distinguished  from  the 
former  methods  in  that  the  coloration  is" 
caused  by  metals  in  the  nascent  state  and 
that  a  very  fine  division  is  obtained.  The 
advantage  of  the  dyeing  method  consists 
in  that  colorings  can  be  produced  with 
slight  quantities  of  a  salt;  besides,  the 
fine  contours  of  the  figures  are  in  no  way 
affected  by  this  manner  of  coloring,  and 
another  notable  advantage  lies  in  the 
mass  being  colored  throughout,  whereby 
a  great  durability  of  the  color  against 
outside  actions  is  assured.  Thus  a  peel- 
ing off  of  the  color  or  other  way  of  be- 
coming detached,  such  as  by  rubbing  off, 
is  entirely  excluded. 

II. — Frequently,  in  order  to  obtain 
colored  plaster  objects,  ocher  or  pow- 
dered colors  are  mixed  with  the  plaster. 
This  method  leaves  much  to  be  desired, 
because  the  mixture  is  not  always  per- 
fect, and  instead  of  the  expected  uniform 
color,  blotches  appear.  Here  is  a  more 


564 


PLASTER 


certain  recipe:  Boil  brazil  wood,  log- 
wood, or  yellow  wood,  in  water,  according 
to  the  desired  color,  or  use  extracts  of  the 
woods.  When  the  dye  is  cold  mix  it  with 
the  plaster.  The  dye  must  be  passed 
through  a  cloth  before  use.  One  may 
also  immerse  the  plaster  articles,  medals, 
etc.,  in  this  dye,  but  in  this  case  they 
must  be  left  for  some  time  and  the  oper- 
ation repeated  several  times. 

Treatment  of  Fresh  Plaster. — Freshly 
plastered  cement  surfaces  on  walls  may 
be  treated  as  follows: 

The  freshly  plastered  surface  first 
remains  without  any  coating  for  about 
14  days;  then  it  is  coated  with  a  mixture 
of  50  parts  water  and  10  parts  ammonia 
carbonate  dissolved  in  hot  water;  leave 
this  coat  alone  for  a  day,  paint  it  again 
and  wait  until  the  cement  has  taken  on 
a  uniform  gray  color,  which  takes  place 
as  a  rule  in  12  to  14  days.  Then  prime 
the  surface  thus  obtained  with  pure  var- 
nish and  finish  the  coating,  after  drying, 
with  ordinary  varnish  paint  or  turpentine 
paint. 

Plaster  for  Foundry  Models. — Gum 
lac,  1  part;  wood  spirit,  2  parts;  lamp- 
black in  sufficient  quantity  to  dye. 

Plaster  from  Spent  Gas  Lime. — Spent 
lime  from  gas  purifiers,  in  which  the  sul- 
phur has  been  converted  into  calcium 
sulphate,  by  exposure  to  weather,  if 
necessary,  is  mixed  with  clay  rich  in 
alumina.  The  mixture  is  powdered, 
formed  into  balls  or  blocks  with  water, 
and  calcined  at  a  temperature  below 
that  at  which  the  setting  qualities  of  cal- 
cium sulphate  are  destroyed.  Slaked 
lime,  clay,  and  sand  are  added  to  the 
<jalcined  product,  and  the  whole  is  finely 
powdered. 

Plaster  Mold. — Nearly  all  fine  grades 
of  metals  can  be  cast  in  plaster  molds, 
provided  only  a  few  pieces  of  the  cast- 
ings are  wanted.  Dental  plaster  should 
be  used,  with  about  one-half  of  short 
asbestos.  Mix  the  two  well  together, 
and  when  the  mold  is  complete  let  it  dry 
in  a  warm  place  for  several  days,  or  until 
all  the  moisture  is  excluded.  If  the  mold 
is  of  considerable  thickness  it  will  answer 
the  purpose  better.  When  ready  for 
casting,,  the  plaster  mold  should  be 
warmed,  and  smoked  over  a  gas  light; 
then  the  metal  should  be  poured  in,  in  as 
cool  a  state  as  it  will  run. 

Cleaning  of  Statuettes  and  Other 
Plaster  Objects. — Nothing  takes  the  dust 
more  freely  than  plaster  objects,  more  or 
less  artistic,  which  are  the  modest  orna- 
ments of  our  dwellings.  They  rapidly 


contract  a  yellow-gray  color,  of  unpleas- 
ant appearance.  Here  is  a  practical 
method  for  restoring  the  whiteness: 
Take  finely  powdered  starch,  quite 
white,  and  make  a  thick  paste  with  hot 
water.  Apply,  when  still  hot,  with  a 
flexible  spatula  or  a  brush  on  the  plaster 
object.  The  layer  should  be  quite  thick. 
Let  it  dry  slowly.  On  drying,  the 
starch  will  split  and  scale  off.  All  the 
soiled  parts  of  the  plaster  will  adhere, 
and  be  drawn  off  with  the  scales.  This 
method  of  cleaning  does  not  detract  from 
the  fineness  of  the  model. 

Hardening  and  Toughening  Plaster 
of  Paris. — I. — Plaster  of  Paris  at  times 
sets  too  rapidly;  therefore  the  following 
recipe  for  toughening  and  delaying  dry- 
ing will  be  useful.  To  calcined  plaster 
of  Paris  add  4  per  cent  of  its  weight  of 
powdered  marshmallow  root,  whicn  will 
keep  it  from  setting  for  about  an  hour, 
and  augment  its  hardness  when  set,  or 
double  the  quantity  of  marshmallow 
root  powder,  and  the  plaster  will  become 
very  firm,  and  may  be  worked  2  or  3 
hours  after  mixing,  and  may  be  carved 
and  polished  when  hard.  It  is  essential 
that  these  powders,  which  are  of  different 
densities  and  specific  gravities,  should  be 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  plaster  of 
Paris  be  quite  fresh,  and  it  must  be 
passed  through  fine  hair  sieves  to  ensure 
its  being  an  impalpable  powder.  To 
ensure  thorough  mixing,  pass  the  com- 
bined powders  through  the  hair  sieve 
three  times.  Make  up  with  water  suffi- 
cient for  the  required  model  or  models. 
Should  any  of  the  powder  be  left  over  it 
may  be  kept  by  being  put  in  an  air-tight 
box  and  placed  in  a  warm  room. 

The  marshmallbw  root  powder  may 
be  replaced  by  dextrin,  gum  arabic,  or 
glue.  The  material  treated  is  suitable 
while  yet  in  a  soft  state,  for  rolling,  glass- 
tube  developing,  making  plates,  etc. 

II. — Plaster  of  Paris  may  be  caused  to 
set  more  quickly  if  some  alum  be  dis- 
solved in  the  water  used  for  rendering  it 
plastic.  If  the  gypsum  is  first  moistened 
with  a  solution  of  alum  and  then  again 
burned,  the  resulting  co'mpound  sets  very 
quickly  and  becomes  as  hard  as  marble. 
Borax  may  be  similarly  employed.  The 
objects  may  also  be  be  treated  wilh  a  solu- 
tion of  caustic  baryta.  But  it  has  been 
found  that  no  matter  how  deep  this  pen- 
etrates, the  baryta  is  again  drawn 
toward  the  surface  when  the  water 
evaporates,  a  portion  efflorescing  on  the 
outside,  and  only  a  thin  layer  remaining 
in  the  outer  shell,  where  it  is  converted 
into  carbonate.  This  at  the  same  time 


PLASTER— PLATING 


565 


stops  up  the  pores,  rendering  it  impos- 
sible to  repeat  the  operation.  It  was 
later  found  that  the  whole  mass  of  the 
cast  might  be  hardened  by  applying  to  it 
with  a  brush  made  of  glass  bristles,  a  hot 
solution  of  baryta.  To  prevent  sepa- 
ration of  the  crystallized  baryta  at  the 
surface,  the  object  must  be  raised  to  a 
temperature  of  140°  to  175°  F.  To  pro- 
duce good  results,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  to  the  plaster  before  casting 
certain  substances  with  which  the  baryta 
can  combine.  These  are  silicic  acid  in 
some  form,  or  the  sulphates  of  zinc, 
magnesium,  copper,  iron,  aluminum, 
etc.  With  some  of  these  the  resulting 
object  may  be  colored.  As  it  is,  how- 
ever, difficult  to  insure  the  production  of 
uniform  tint,  it  is  better  when  employing 
salts  producing  color,  to  mix  the  plaster 
with  about  5  per  cent  of  quicklime,  or, 
better,  to  render  it  plastic  with  milk  of 
lime.,  and  then  to  soak  the  object  in  a 
solution  of  metallic  sulphate. 

Preservation  of  Plaster  Casts. — Upon 
complete  drying,  small  objects  are  laid 
for  a  short  while  in  celluloid  varnish  of  4 
per  cent,  while  large  articles  are  painted 
with  it,  from  the  top  downward,  using  a 
soft  brush.  Articles  set  up  outside  and 
exposed  to  the  weather  are  not  protected 
by  this  treatment,  while  others  can  be 
readily  washed  off  and  cleaned  with 
water.  To  cover  100  square  feet  of 
surface,  If  pints  of  celluloid  varnish  are 
required. 

To  Arrest  the  Setting  of  Plaster  of 
Paris. — Citric  acid  will  delay  the  setting 
of  plaster  of  Paris  for  several  hours.  One 
ounce  of  acid,  at  a  cost  of  about  5  cents, 
will  be  sufficient  to  delay  the  setting  of 
100  pounds  of  plaster  of  Paris  for  2  or  3 
hours.  Dissolve  the  acid  in  the  water 
before  mixing  the  plaster. 

Weatherproofing  Casts.  —  I.  —  Bre- 
thauer's  method  of  preparing  plaster  of 
Paris  casts  for  resisting  the  action  of  the 
weather  is  as  follows:  Slake  1  part  of 
finely  pulverized  lime  to  a  paste,  then  mix 
gypsum  with  limewater  and  intimately 
mix  both.  From  the  compound  thus 
prepared  the  figures  are  cast.  When 
perfectly  dry  they  are  painted  with  hot 
linseed  oil,  repeating  the  operation  sev- 
eral times,  then  with  linseed-oil  varnish, 
and  finally  with  white  oil  paint.  Stat- 
ues, etc.,  prepared  in  this  way  have  been 
constantly  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
weather  for  4  years  without  suffering  any 
change. 

II. — Jacobsen  prepares  casts  which 
retain  no  dust,  and  can  be  washed  with 


lukewarm  soap  water  by  immersing 
them  or  throwing  upon  them  in  a  fine 
spray  a  hot  solution  of  a  soap  prepared 
from  stearic  acid  and  soda  lye  in  ten 
times  its  quantity,  by  weight,  of  hot 
water. 

Reproduction  of  Plaster  Originals, — 
This  new  process  consists  in  making  a 
plaster  mold  over  the  original  in  the 
usual  manner.  After  the  solidification 
of  the  plaster  the  mass  of  the  original  is 
removed,  as  usual,  by  cutting  out  and 
rinsing  out.  The  casting  mold  thus 
obtained  is  next  filled  out  with  a  ceramic 
mass  consisting  of  gypsum,  1  part;  pow- 
dered porcelain,  5  parts;  and  flux,  1  part. 
After,  the  mass  has  hardened  it  is  baked 
in  the  mold.  This  renders  the  latter 
brittle  and  it  falls  apart  on  moistening 
with  water  while  the  infusion  remains  as 
a  firm  body,  which  presents  all  the  de- 
tails of  the  original  in  a  true  manner. 

PLASTER  ARTICLES,  REPAIRING  OF: 

See  Adhesives  and  Lutes. 

PLASTER  GREASE: 

See  Lubricants. 

PLASTER,  PAINTS  FOR: 
See  Paints. 

PLASTER    OF    PARIS,    MOLDS    FOR 
CASTING: 

See  Casting. 

PLASTIC  COMPOSITIONS: 

See  Celluloid  and  Matrix  Mass. 

PLASTER,  IRRITATING: 

See  Ointments. 

PLATES,  CARE  OF  PHOTOGRAPHIC: 

See  Photography. 

PLATINA,  BIRMINGHAM: 

See  Alloys,  under  Brass. 

Plating 

The  plating  of  metal  surfaces  is  ac- 
complished in  four  different  ways:  (1) 
By  oxidation,  usually  involving  dipping 
in  an  acid  bath;  (2)  by  electrodeppsition, 
involving  suspension  in  a  metallic  solu- 
tion, through  which  an  electric  current  is 
passed;  (3)  by  applying  a  paste  that  is 
fixed,  as  by  burning  in;  (4)  by  pouring 
on  molten  plating  metal  and  rolling.  For 
convenience  the  methods  of  plating  are 
arbitrarily  classified  below  under  the  fol- 
lowing headings: 

1.  Bronzing. 

2.  Coloring  of  Metals. 

3.  Electrodeposition  Processes. 

4.  Gilding  and  Gold- Plating. 


566 


PLATING 


5.  Oxidizing  Processes. 

6.  Patina  Oxidizing  Processes. 

7.  Platinizing. 

8.  Silvering  and  Silver- Plating. 

9.  Tinned  Lead- Plating. 
10.  Various  Recipes. 

BRONZING: 

Art  Bronzes. — These  are  bronzes  of 
different  tints,  showing  a  great  variety 
according  to  the  taste  and  fancy  of  the 
operator. 

I. — After  imparting  to  an  object  a 
coating  of  vert  antique,  it  is  brushed  to 
remove  the  verdigris,  and  another  coat 
is  applied  with  the  following  mixture: 
Vinegar,  1,000  parts,  by  weight;  pow- 
dered bloodstone,  125  parts,  by  weight; 
plumbago,  25  parts,  by  weight.  Finish 
with  a  waxed  brush  and  a  coat  of  white 
varnish. 

II. — Cover  the  object  with  a  mixture 
of  vinegar,  1,000  parts,  by  weight;  pow- 
dered bloodstone,  125  parts,  by  weight; 
plumbago,  25  parts,  by  weight;  sal  am- 
moniac, 32  parts,  by  weight;  ammonia, 
32  parts,  by  weight;  sea  salt,  32  parts,  by 
weight.  Finish  as  above. 

Antique  Bronzes. — In  order  to  give 
new  bronze  castings  the  appearance  and 
patina  of  old  bronze,  various  composi- 
tions are  employed,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing are  the  principal  ones: 

I. —  Vert  Antique:  Vinegar,  1,000 
parts,  by  weight;  copper  sulphate,  16 
parts,  by  weight;  sea  salt,  32  parts,  by 
weight;  sal  ammoniac,  32  parts,  by 
weight;  mountain  green  (Sanders  green), 
70  parts,  by  weight;  chrome  yellow,  30 
parts,  by  weight;  ammonia,  32  parts,  by 
weight. 

II. — Vert  Antique:  Vinegar,  1,000 
parts,  by  weight;  copper  sulphate,  16 
parts,  by  weight;  sea  salt,  32  parts,  by 
weight;  sal  ammoniac,  32  parts,  by 
weight;  mountain  green,  70  parts,  by 
weight;  ammonia,  32  parts,  by  weight. 

III. — Dark  Vert  Antique:  To  obtain 
darker  vert  antique,  add  a  little  plum- 
bago to  the  preceding  mixtures. 

IV. — Vinegar,  1,000  parts,  by  weight; 
sal  ammoniac,  8  parts,  by  weight;  potas- 
sium bioxalate,  1  part,  by  weight. 

Brass  Bronzing. — I. — Immerse  the 
articles,  freed  from  dirt  and  grease,  into  a 
cold  solution  of  10  parts  of  potassium 
permanganate,  50  parts  of  iron  sulphate, 
5  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid,  in  1,000 
parts  of  water.  Let  remain  30  seconds; 
then  withdraw,  rinse  off,  and  dry  in  fine, 
soft  sawdust.  If  the  articles  have  be- 


come too  dark,  or  if  a  reddish-brown 
color  be  desired,  immerse  for  about  1 
minute  into  a  warm  (60°  C.  or  140°  F.) 
solution  of  chromic  acid,  10  parts;  hy- 
drochloric acid,  10  parts;  potassium  per- 
manganate, 10  parts;  iron  sulphate,  50 
parts;  water,  1,000  parts.  Treat  as  be- 
fore. If  the  latter  solution  alone  be 
used  the  product  will  be  a  brighter  dark 
yellow  or  reddish-brown  color.  By  heat- 
ing in  a  drying  oven  the  tone  of  the 
colors  is  improved. 

II. — Rouge,  with  a  little  chloride  of 
platinum  arid  water,  will  form  a  choco- 
late brown  of  considerable  depth  of  tone 
and  is  exceedingly  applicable  to  brass 
surfaces  which  are  to  resemble  a  copper 
bronze. 

Copper  Bronzing. — I. — After  cleaning 
the  pieces,  a  mixture  made  as  follows  is 
passed  over  them  with  a  brush:  Castor 
oil,  20  parts;  alcohol,  80  parts;  soft 
soap,  40  parts;  water,  40  parts.  The  day 
after  application,  the  piece  has  become 
bronzed;  and  if  the  time  is  prolonged, 
the  tint  will  change.  Thus,  an  affinity 
of  shades  agreeable  to  the  eye  can  be 

Srocured.  The  piece  is  dried  in  hot  saw- 
ust,  and  colorless  varnish  with  large  ad- 
dition of  alcohol  is  passed  over  it.  This 
formula  for  bronzing  galvanic  apparatus 
imparts  any  shade  desired,  from  Bar- 
bodienne  bronze  to  antique  green,  pro- 
vided the  liquid  remains  for  some  time 
in  contact  with  the  copper. 

II. — Acetate  of  copper,  6  parts;  sal 
ammoniac,  7  parts;  acetic  acid,  1  part; 
distilled  water,  100' parts.  Dissolve  all 
in  water  in  an  earthen  or  porcelain  vessel. 
Place  on  the  fire  and  Leat  slightly;  next, 
with  a  brush  give  the  objects  to  be 
bronzed  2  or  3  coats,  according  to  the 
shade  desired.  It  is  necessary  that  each 
coat  be  thoroughly  dry  before  applying 
another. 

Bronzing  of  Gas  Fixtures. — Gas  fix- 
tures which  have  become  dirty  or  tar- 
nished from  use  may  be  improved  in 
appearance  by  painting  with  bronze 
paint  and  then,  if  a  still  better  finish  is 
required,  varnishing  after  the  paint  is 
thoroughly  dry  with  some  light-colored 
varnish  that  will  give  a  hard  and  brilliant 
coating. 

If  the  bronze  paint  is  made  up  with 
ordinary  varnish  it  is  liable  to  become 
discolored  from  acid  which  may  be 
present  in  the  varnish.  One  method 
proposed  for  obviating  this  is  to  mix  the 
varnish  with  about  5  times  its  volume  of 
spirit  of  turpentine,  add  to  the  mixture 
dried  slaked  lime  in  the  proportion  of 
about  40  grains  to  the  pint,  agitate  well, 


PLATING 


567 


repeating  the  agitation  several  times,  and 
finally  allowing  the  suspended  matter  to 
settle  and  decanting  the  clear  liquid. 
The  object  of  this  is,  of  course,  to  neu- 
tralize any  acid  which  may  be  present. 
To  determine  how  effectively  this  has 
been  done,  the  varnish  may  be  chem- 
ically tested. 

Iron  Bronzing. — I. — The  surface  of  a 
casting  previously  cleaned  and  polished 
is  evenly  painted  with  a  vegetable  oil, 
e.  g.,  olive  oil,  and  then  well  heated,  care 
being  taken  that  the  temperature  does 
not  rise  to  a  point  at  which  the  oil  will 
burn.  The  cast  iron  absorbs  oxygen  at 
the  moment  when  the  decomposition  of 
the  oil  begins,  and  a  brown  layer  of  oxide 
is  formed  which  adheres  firmly  to  the 
surface  and  which  may  be  vigorously 
polished,  giving  a  bronze-like  appearance 
to  the  surface  of  the  iron. 

II. — To  give  polished  iron  the  ap- 
pearance of  bronze  commence  by  clean- 
ing the  objects,  then  subject  them  for 
about  5  minutes  to  the  vapor  of  a  mix- 
ture of  concentrated  hydrochloric  and 
nitric  acids;  then  smear  them  with  vase- 
line and  heat  them  until  the  vaseline  be- 
gins to  decompose.  The  result  is  a  fine 
bronzing. 

Liquid  for  Bronze  Powder. — Take  2 
ounces  gum  animi  and  dissolve  in  ^  pint 
Jinseed  oil  by  adding  gradually  while  the 
oil  is  being  heated.  Boil,  strain,  and 
dilute  with  turpentine. 

Bronzing  Metals. — I. — The  following 
composition  is  recommended  for  bronz- 
ing metal  objects  exposed  to  the  air: 
Mix  about  equal  parts  of  siccative,  recti- 
fied oil  of  turpentine,  caoutchouc  oil,  and 
dammar  varnish,  and  apply  this  com- 
position on  the  objects,  using  a  brush. 
This  bronze  has  been  found  to  resist  the 
influences  of  the  weather. 

II. — Cover  the  objects  with  alight  lay 
of  linseed  oil,  and  then  heat  over  a  co 
fire,  prolonging   the   heat   until   the  de- 
sired shade  is  reached. 

III. — Expose  the  objects  to  be  bronzed 
for  about  5  minutes  to  the  vapors  of  a 
bath  composed  of  50  parts  of  nitric  acid 
and  50  parts  of  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Then  rub  the  articles  with 
vaseline  and  heat  until  the  vaseline  is 
decomposed.  The  objects  to  be  bronzed 
must  always  be  perfectly  polished. 

IV. — To  bronze  iron  articles  they 
should  be  laid  in  highly  heated  coal  dust; 
the  articles  must  be  covered  up  in  the 
glowing  dust,  and  the  heat  must  be  the 
same  throughout.  The  iron  turns  at 


.  er 
coal 


first  yellow,  then  blue,  and  finally  rather 
black.  Withdraw  the  objects  when  they 
have  attained  the  blue  shade  or  the  black 
color;  then  while  they  are  still  hot,  rub 
them  with  a  wad  charged  with  tallow. 

*  V. — For  electrolytic  bronzing  of 
metals  the  baths  employed  differ  from 
the  brass  baths  only  in  that  they  contain 
tin  in  solution  instead  of  zinc.  Accord- 
ing to  Eisner,  dissolve  70  parts,  by 
weight,  of  cupric  sulphate  in  1,000  parts 
of  water  and  add  a  solution  of  8  parts  of 
stannic  chloride  in  caustic  lye.  For  a 
positive  pole  plate  put  in  a  bronze  plate. 
The  bath  works  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. 

VI. — A  good  bath  consists  of  10  parts 
of  potash,  2  parts  of  cupric  chloride,  1 
part  of  tin  salt,  1  part  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium dissolved  in  100  parts  of  water. 

VII. — Mix  a  solution  of  32  parts  of 
copper  sulphate  in  500  parts  of  water 
with  64  parts  of  cyanide  of  potassium. 
After  the  solution  has  become  clear,  add 
4  to  5  parts  of  stannic  chloride  dissolved 
in  potash  lye. 

VIII. — Precipitate  all  soda  from  a 
solution  of  blue  vitriol  by  phosphate  of 
sodium,  wash  the  precipitate  well,  and 
dissolve  in  a  concentrated  solution  of 
pyrophosphate  of  copper.  Also,  satu- 
rate a  solution  of  the  same  salt  with  tin 
salt.  Of  both  solutions  add  enough  in 
such  proportion  to  a  solution  of  50  parts, 
by  weight,  of  pyrophosphate  of  sodium  in 
1,000  parts  of  water  until  the  solution 
appears  clear  and  of  the  desired  color. 
A  cast  bronze  plate  serves  as  an  anode. 
From  time  to  time  a  little  soda,  or  if  the 
precipitate  turns  out  too  pale,  copper  so- 
lution should  be  added. 

Tin  Bronzing. — The  pieces  are  well 
washed  and  all  grease  removed;  next 
plunged  into  a  solution  of  copperas 
(green  vitriol),  1  part;  sulphate,  1  part; 
water,  20  parts.  When  dry  they  are 
plunged  again  into  a  bath  composed  of 
verdigris,  4  parts;  dissolved  in  distilled 
wine  vinegar,  11  parts.  Wash,  dry,  and 
polish  with  English  red. 

Zinc  Bronzing. — The  zinc  article  must 
be  first  electro-coppered  before  proceed- 
ing to  the  bronzing.  The  process  used 
is  always  the  same;  the  different  shades 
are,  however,  too  numerous  to  cover  all  of 
them  in  one  explanation.  The  bronzing 
of  zinc  clocks  is  most  frequently  done  on 
a  brown  ground,  by  mixing  graphite, 
lampblack,  and  sanguine  stirred  in  water 
in  which  a  little  Flanders  Dutch  glue  is 
dissolved.  The  application  is  made  by 
means  of  a  brush.  When  it  is  dry  a 


568 


PLATING 


spirit  varnish  is  applied;  next,  before  the 
varnish  is  perfectly  dry,  a  little  powdered 
bronze  or  sanguine  or  powdered  bronze 
mixed  with  sanguine  or  with  graphite, 
according  to  the  desired  shades.  For 
green  bronze,  mix  green  sanders  with 
chrome  yellow  stirred  with  spirit  in 
which  a  little  varnish  is  put.  When  the 
bronzing  is  dry,  put  on  the  varnish  and 
the  powdered  bronze  as  above  described. 
After  all  has  dried,  pass  the  brush  over  a 
piece  of  wax,  then  over  the  bronzed 
article,  being  careful  to  charge  the  brush 
frequently  with  wax. 

COLORING  OF  METALS: 

Direct  Coloration  of  Iron  and  Steel  by 
Cupric  Selenite. — Iron  precipitates  cop- 
per and  selenium  from  their  salts.  Im- 
mersed in  a  solution  of  cupric  selenite, 
acidulated  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid, 
it  precipitates  these  two  metals  on  its  sur- 
face in  the  form  of  a  dull  black  deposit, 
but  slightly  adherent.  But,  if  the  object 
is  washed  with  water,  then  with  alcohol, 
and  rapidly  dried  over  a  gas  burner,  the 
deposit  becomes  adherent.  If  rubbed 
with  a  cloth,  this  deposit  turns  a  blue 
black  or  a  brilliant  black,  according  to 
the  composition  of  the  bath. 

The  selenite  of  copper  is  a  greenish 
salt  insoluble  in  water,  and  but  slightly 
soluble  in  water  acidulated  with  nitric  or 
sulphuric  acid.  It  is  preferable  to  mix  a 
solution  of  cupric  sulphate  with  a  solu- 
tion of  selenious  acid,  and  to  acidulate 
with  nitric  acid,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
precipitation  of  the  selenite  of  copper. 

This  process,  originated  by  Paul  Mal- 
herbe,  is  quite  convenient  for  blackening 
or  bluing  small  objects  of  iron  or  steel, 
such  as  metallic  pens  or  other  small 
pieces.  It  does  not  succeed  so  well  for 
objects  of  cast  iron;  and  the  selenious 
acid  is  costly,  which  is  an  obstacle  to  its 
employment  on  large  metallic  surfaces. 

The  baths  are  quickly  impoverished, 
for  insoluble  yellow  selenite  of  iron  is 
deposited. 

Brilliant  Black  Coloration. — Selenious 
acid,  6  parts;  cupric  sulphate,  10  parts; 
water,  1,000  parts;  nitric  acid,  4  to  6  parts. 

Blue-Black  Coloration. — Selenious  acid, 
10  parts;  cupric  sulphate,  10  parts;  water, 
1,000  parts;  nitric  acid,  4  to  6  parts. 

By  immersing  the  object  for  a  short 
time  the  surface  of  the  metal  can  be  col- 
ored in  succession  yellow,  rose,  purple, 
violet  and  blue. 

Coloration  of  Copper  and  Brass  with 
Cupric  Selenite.— When  an  object  of 
copper  or  brass  is  immersed  in  a  solution 
of  selenite  of  copper  acidulated  with 


nitric  acid,  the  following  colors  are  ob- 
tained, according  to  the  time  of  the  im- 
mersion: Yellow,  orange,  rose,  purple, 
violet,  and  blue,  which  is  the  last  color 
which  can  be  obtained.  In  general,  the 
solution  should  be  slightly  acid;  other- 
wise the  color  is  fugacious  and  punctate. 

a.  b. 

Selenious  acid         6.5  2.9  parts 
Sulphate  of 

copper 12.5  20.0  parts 

Nitric  acid 2.0  2.5  parts 

Water 1,000.0  1,000.0  parts 

Production  of  Rainbow  Colors  on 
Metals  (iron,  copper,  brass,  zinc,  etc.) — 
I. — The  following  process  of  irisation 
is  due  to  Puscher.  It  allows  of  covering 
the  metals  with  a  thick  layer  of  metallic 
sulphide,  similar  to  that  met  with  in  na- 
ture— in  galena,  for  example. 

These  compounds  are  quite  solid  and 
are  not  attacked  by  concentrated  acids 
and  alkalies,  while  dilute  reagents  are 
without  action.  In  5  minutes  thousands 
of  objects  of  brass  can  be  colored  with 
the  brightest  hues.  If  they  have  been 
previously  cleaned  chemically,  the  colors 
deposited  on  the  surface  adhere  with  such 
strength  that  they  can  be  worked  with 
the  burnisher. 

Forty-five  parts  of  sodium  hyposulphite 
are  dissolved  in  500  parts  of  water;  a 
solution  of  15  parts  of  neutral  acetate  of 
lead  in  500  parts  of  water  is  poured  in. 
The  clear  mixture,  which  is  composed  of 
a  double  salt  of  hyposulphite  of  lead  and 
of  sodium,  possesses,  when  heated  to  212° 
F.,  the  property  of  decomposing  slowly 
and  of  depositing  brown  flakes  of  lead 
sulphide.  If  an  article  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  brass,  tombac,  iron,  or  zinc  is 
put  into  this  bath  while  the  precipitation 
is  taking  place,  the  object  will  be  covered 
with  a  film  of  lead  sulphide,  which  will 
give  varied  and  brilliant  colors,  according 
to  its  thickness.  For  a  uniform  colora- 
tion, it  is  necessary  that  the  pieces  should 
be  heated  quite  uniformly.  However, 
iron  assumes  under  this  treatment  only 
a  blue  color,  and  zinc  a  bronze  color. 
On  articles  of  copper  the  first  gold  color 
which  appears  is  defective.  Lead  and 
tin  are  not  colored. 

By  substituting  for  the  neutral  acetate 
of  lead  an  equal  quantity  of  cupric  sul- 
phate and  proceeding  in  a  similar  way, 
brass  or  imitation  gold  is  covered  with 
a  very  beautiful  red,  succeeded  by  an 
imperfect  green,  and  finally  a  magnifi- 
cent brown,  with  iridescent  points  of 
greenish  red.  The  latter  coating  is  fairly 
permanent. 

Zinc  is  not  colored  in  this  solution,  and 


PLATING 


569 


precipitates  in  it  a  quantity  of  flakes  of 
greenish  brown  (cupric  sulphide),  but  if 
about  one-third  of  the  preceding  so- 
lution of  lead  acetate  is  added,  a  solid 
black  color  is  developed,  which,  when 
covered  with  a  light  coating  of  wax, 

fains    much    in    intensity    and    solidity, 
t  is  also  useful  to  apply  a  slight  coating 
of  wax  to  the  other  colors. 

II. — Beautiful  designs  may  be  ob- 
tained, imitating  marble,  with  sheets  of 
copper  plunged  into  a  solution  of  lead, 
thickened  by  the  addition  of  gum  traga- 
canth,  and  heated  to  212°  F.  After- 
wards they  are  treated  with  the  ordinary 
lead  solution.  The  compounds  of  an- 
timony, for  example  the  tartrate  of  anti- 
mony and  potash,  afford  similar  colora- 
tions, but  require  a  longer  time  for  their 
development.  The  solutions  mentioned 
do  not  change,  even  after  a  long  period, 
and  may  be  employed  several  times. 

III. — By  mixing  a  solution  of  cupric 
sulphate  with  a  solution  of  sodium  hypo- 
sulphite, a  double  hyposulphite  of  sodi- 
um and  of  copper  is  obtained. 

If  in  the  solution  of  this  double  salt  an 
article  of  nickel  or  of  copper,  cleaned 
with  nitric  acid,  then  with  soda,  is  im- 
mersed, the  following  colors  will  appear 
in  a  few  seconds:  Brilliant  red,  green, 
rose,  blue,  and  violet.  To  isolate  a  color, 
it  is  sufficient  to  take  out  the  object  and 
wash  it  with  water.  The  colors  obtained 
on  nickel  present  a  moire  appearance, 
similar  to  that  of  silk  fabrics. 

IV. — Tin  sulphate  affords  with  so- 
dium hyposulphite  a  double  salt,  which 
is  reduced  by  heat,  with  production  of  tin 
sulphide.  The  action  of  this  double 
salt  on  metallic  surfaces  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  double  salts  of  copper  and 
lead.  Mixed  with  a  solution  of  cupric 
sulphate,  all  the  colors  of  the  spectrum 
will  be  readily  obtained. 

V. — Coloration  of  Silver. — The  ob- 
jects of  copper  or  brass  are  first  covered 
with  a  layer  of  silver,  when  they  are 
dipped  in  the  following  solution  at  the 
temperature  of  205°  to  212°  F.:  Water, 
3,000  parts;  sodium  hyposulphite,  300 
parts;  lead  acetate,  100  parts. 

VI. — Iron  precipitates  bismuth  from 
its  chlorhydric  solution.  On  heating 
this  deposit,  the  colors  of  the  rainbow 
are  obtained. 

Coloration  by  Electrolysis. — I. — Col- 
ored Rings  by  Electrolysis  (Nobili,  Bec- 
querel). — In  order  to  obtain  the  Nobili 
rings  it  is  necessary  to  concentrate  the 
current  coming  from  one  of  the  poles  of 
the  battery  through  a  platinum  wire, 


whose  point  alone  is  immersed  in  the 
liquid  to  be  decomposed,  while  the  other 
pole  is  connected  with  a  plate  of  metal 
in  the  same  liquid.  This  plate  is  placed 
perpendicularly  to  the  direction  of  the 
wire,  and  at  about  0.04  inches  from  the 
point. 

Solutions  of  sulphate  of  copper,  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  sulphate  of  manganese,  ace- 
tate of  lead,  acetate  of  copper,  acetate 
of  potassium,  tartrate  of  antimony  and 
potash,  phosphoric  acid,  oxalic  acid, 
carbonate  of  soda,  chloride  of  manga- 
nese, and  manganous  acetate,  may  be  em- 
ployed. 

II. — A  process,  due  to  M.  O.  Mathey, 
allows  of  coloring  metals  by  precipitating 
on  their  surface  a  transparent  metallic 
peroxide.  The  phenomenon  of  electro- 
chemical coloration  on  metals  is  the 
same  as  that  which  takes  place  when  an 
object  of  polished  steel  is  exposed  to 
heat.  It  first  assumes  a  yellow  color, 
from  a  very  thin  coating  of  ferric  oxide 
formed  on  its  surface.  By  continuing 
the  heating,  this  coating  of  oxide  in- 
creases in  thickness,  and  appears  red, 
then  violet,  then  blue.  Here,  the  color- 
ation is  due  to  the  increase  in  the  thick- 
ness of  a  thin  coating  of  a  metallic  oxide 
precipitated  by  an  alkaline  solution. 

The  oxides  of  lead,  tin,  zinc,  chromium, 
aluminum,  molybdenum,  tungsten,  etc., 
dissolved  in  potash,  may  be  employed; 
also  protoxide  of  iron,  zinc,  cadmium, 
cobalt,  dissolved  in  ammonia. 

Lead  Solution. — Potash,  400  parts; 
litharge  or  massicot,  125  parts.  Boil  10 
minutes,  filter,  dilute  until  the  solution 
marks  25°  Be. 

Iron  Solution. — Dissolve  ferrous  sul- 
phate in  boiling  water,  and  preserve 
sheltered  from  air.  When  desired  for 
use,  pour  a  quantity  into  a  vessel  and  add 
ammonia  until  the  precipitate  is  redis- 
solved.  This  solution,  oxidizing  rapidly 
in  the  air,  cannot  be  used  for  more  than 
an  hour. 

III. — Electro-chemical  coloration  suc- 
ceeds very  well  on  metals  which  are  not 
oxidizable,  such  as  gold  and  platinum, 
but  not  well  on  silver.  This  process  is 
employed  for  coloring  watch  hands  and 
screws.  The  object  is  placed  at  the  pos- 
itive pole,  under  a  thickness  of  1^  inches 
of  the  liquid,  and  the  negative  electrode 
is  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  bath.  In 
a  few  seconds  all  the  colors  possible  are 
obtained.  Generally,  a  ruby-red  tint  is 
sought  for. 

IV.  —  Coloration  of  Nickel.  —  The 
nickel  piece  is  placed  at  the  positive  pole 
in  a  solution  of  lead  acetate.  A  netting 


570 


PLATING 


of  copper  wires  is  arranged  at  the  nega- 
tive pole  according  to  the  contours  of  the 
design,  and  at  a  snort  distance  from  the 
object.  The  coloration  obtained  is  uni- 
form if  the  distance  of  the  copper  wires 
from  the  object  is  equal  at  all  points. 

Coloring  of  Brass. — I. — (a)  Brown 
bronze:  Acid  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
and  bismuth  or  nitric  acid.  (6)  Light 
bronze:  Acid  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
and  of  copper,  (c)  Black:  Solution  of 
nitrate  of  copper.  In  all  cases,  however, 
the  brass  is  colored  black,  if  after  having 
been  treated  with  the  acid  solution,  it  is 
placed  for  a  very  short  time  in  a  solution 
of  potassium  sulphide,  of  ammonium 
sulphydrate,  or  of  hydrogen  sulphide. 

II. — The  brass  is  immersed  in  a  dilute 
solution  of  mercurous  nitrate;  the  layer 
of  mercury  formed  on  the  brass  is  con- 
verted into  black  sulphide,  if  washed 
several  times  in  potassium  sulphide.  By 
substituting  for  the  potassium  sulphide 
the  sulphide  of  antimony  or  that  of  ar- 
senic, beautiful  bronze  colors  are  ob- 
tained, varying  from  light  brown  to  dark 
brown. 

III. — Clean  the  brass  perfectly.  Af- 
terwards rub  with  sal  ammoniac  dissolved 
in  vinegar.  Strong  vinegar,  1,000  parts; 
sal  ammoniac,  30  parts;  alum,  15  parts; 
arsenious  anhydride,  8  parts. 

IV.; — A  solution  of  chloride  of  plati- 
num is  employed,  which  leaves  a  very 
light  coating  of  platinum  on  the  metal, 
and  the  surface  is  bronzed.  A  steel  tint 
or  gray  color  is  obtained,  of  which  the 
shade  depends  on  the  metal.  If  this  is 
burnished,  it  takes  a  blue  or  steel  gray 
shade,  which  varies  with  the  duration  of 
the  chemical  action,  the  concentration, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  bath.  A 
dilute  solution  of  platinum  is  prepared 
thus:  Chloride  of  platinum,  1  part;  water, 
5,000  parts. 

Another  solution,  more  concentrated 
at  the  temperature  of  104°  F.,  is  kept 
ready.  The  objects  to  be  bronzed  are 
attached  to  a  copper  wire  and  immersed 
for  a  few  seconds  in  a  hot  solution  of 
tartar,  30  parts  to  5,000  parts  of  water. 
On  coming  from  this  bath  they  are 
washed  2  or  3  times  with  ordinary  water, 
and  a  last  time  with  distilled  water,  and 
then  put  in  the  solution  of  platinum 
chloride,  stirring  them  from  time  to  time. 
When  a  suitable  change  of  color  has 
been  secured,  the  objects  are  passed  to 
the  concentrated  solution  of  platinum 
chloride  (40°).  They  are  stirred,  and 
taken  out  when  the  wished-for  color  has 
been  reached.  They  are  then  washed 
2  or  3  times,  and  dried  in  wood  sawdust. 


V. — To  give  to  brass  a  dull  black 
color,  as  that  used  for  optical  instruments, 
the  metal  is  cleaned  carefully  at  first, 
and  covered  with  a  very  dilute  mixture 
of  neutral  nitrate  of  tin,  1  part;  chloride 
of  gold,  2  parts.  At  the  end  of  10  min- 
utes this  covering  is  removed  with  a 
moist  brush.  If  an  excess  of  acid  has 
not  been  employed,  the  surface  of  the 
metal  will  be  found  to  be  of  a  fine  dull 
black. 

The  nitrate  of  tin  is  prepared  by  de- 
composing the  chloride  of  this  metal 
with  ammonia  and  afterwards  dissolving 
in  nitric  acid  the  oxide  of  tin  formed. 

VI. — For  obtaining  a  deposit  of  bis- 
muth the  brass  is  immersed  in  a  boiling 
bath,  prepared  by  adding  50  to  60  parts  of 
bismuth  to  nitric  acid  diluted  with  1,000 
parts  of  water,  and  containing  32  parts 
of  tartaric  acid. 

VII. — The  electrolysis  of  a  cold  solu- 
tion of  25  to  30  parts  per  1,000  parts  of 
the  double  chloride  of  bismuth  and  am- 
monium produces  on  brass  or  on  copper 
a  brilliant  adherent  deposit  of  bismuth, 
whose  appearance  resembles  that  of  old 
silver. 

Production  of  Rainbow  Hues. — Var- 
ious colors. — I. — Dissolve  tartrate  of 
antimony  and  of  potash,  30  parts;  tar- 
taric acid,  30  parts;  water,  1,000  parts. 
Add  hydrochloric  acid,  90  to  120  parts; 

fulverized  antimony,  90  to  ^  120  parts, 
mmerse  the  object  of  brass  in  this  boil- 
ing liquid,  and  it  will  be  covered  with  a 
film,  wnich,  as  it  thickens,  reflects  quite  a 
series  of  beautiful  tints,  first  appearing 
iridescent,  then  the  color  of  gold,  copper, 
or  violet,  and  finally  of  a  grayish  blue. 
These  colors  are  adherent,  and  do  not 
change  in  the  air. 

II. — The  sulphide  of  tin  may  be  depos- 
ited on  metallic  surfaces,  especially  on 
brass,  communicating  shades  varying 
with  the  thickness  of  the  deposit.  For 
this  purpose,  Puscher  prepares  the  fol- 
lowing solutions:  Dissolve  tartaric  acid, 
20  parts,  in  water,  1,000  parts;  add  a 
salt  of  tin,  20  parts;  water,  125  parts. 
Boil  the  mixture,  allow  it  to  repose,  and 
filter.  Afterwards  pour  the  clear  portion 
a  little  at  a  time,  shaking  continually, 
into  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  80 
parts;  water,  250  parts.  On  boiling,  sul- 
phide of  tin  is  formed,  with  precipitation 
of  sulphur.  On  plunging  the  pieces  of 
brass  in  the  liquid,  they  are  covered, 
according  to  the  period  of  immersion, 
with  varied  shades,  passing  from  goM 
yellow  to  red,  to  crimson,  to  blue,  and 
finally  to  light  brown. 

III.— The  metal  is  treated  with  the 


PLATING 


571 


following  composition:  Solution  A. — 
Cotton,  well  washed,  50  parts;  salicylic 
acid,  2  parts,  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid, 
1,000  parts,  and  bichromate  of  potash, 
100  parts.  Solution  B. — Brass,  20 
parts;  nitric  acid,  density  1.51,  350 
parts;  nitrate  of  soda,  10  parts.  Mix 
the  two  solutions,  and  dilute  with  1,500 
parts  of  water.  These  proportions  may 
be  modified  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  brass  to  be  treated.  This  prepara- 
tion is  spread  on  the  metal,  which  im- 
mediately changes  color.  When  the 
desired  tint  is  obtained,  the  piece  is 
quickly  plunged  in  an  alkaline  solution; 
a  soda  salt,  50  parts;  water,  1,000  parts. 
The  article  is  afterwards  washed,  and 
dried  with  a  piece  of  cloth.  Beautiful 
red  tin;s  are  obtained  by  placing  the 
objects  between  2  plates,  or  better  yet, 
2  pieces  of  iron  wire-cloth. 

IV. — Put  in  a  flask  100  parts  of  cupric 
carbonate  and  750  parts  of  ammonia  and 
shake.  This  liquid  should  be  kept  in 
well-stoppered  bottles.  When  it  has 
lost  its  strength,  this  may  be  renewed 
by  pouring  in  a  little  ammonia.  The 
objects  to  be  colored  should  be  well 
cleaned.  They  are  suspended  in  the 
liquid  and  moved  back  and  forth.  After 
a  few  minutes  of  immersion,  they  are 
washed  with  water  and  dried  in  wood 
sawdust.  Generally,  a  deep-blue  color 
is  obtained. 

V. — Plunge  a  sheet  of  perfectly  clean 
brass  in  a  dilute  solution  of  neutral 
acetate  of  copper,  and  at  the  ordinary 
temperature,  and  in  a  short  time  it  will 
be  found  covered  with  a  fine  gold  yellow. 

VI. — Immerse  the  brass  several  times 
in  a  very  dilute  solution  of  cupric  chlo- 
ride, and  the  color  will  be  deadened  and 
bronzed  a  greenish  gray. 

A  plate  of  brass  heated  to  302°  F.  is 
colored  violet  by  rubbing  its  surface 
gently  with  cotton  soaked  with  cupric 
chloride. 

yil. — On  heating  brass,  perfectly 
polished,  until  it  can  be  no  longer  held 
in  the  hand,  and  then  covering  it  rapidly 
and  uniformly  with  a  solution  of  an- 
timony chloride  by  means  of  a  wad  of 
cotton,  a  fine  violet  tint  is  communi- 
cated. 

VIII. — For  greenish  shades,  a  bath 
may  be  made  use  of,  composed  of  water, 
100  parts;  cupric  sulphate,  8  parts;  sal 
ammoniac,  2  parts. 

IX. — For  orange-brown  and  cinna- 
mon-brown shades:  Water,  1,000  parts; 
potassium  chlorate,  10  parts;  cupric 
sulphate,  10  parts, 


X. — For  obtaining  rose-colored  hues, 
then  violet,  then  blue:  Water,  400  parts; 
cupric  sulphate,  30  parts;  sodium  hypo- 
sulphite, 20  parts;  cream  of  tartar,  10 
parts. 

XI. — For  yellow,  orange,  or  rose- 
colored  shades,  then  blue,  immerse  the 
objects  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in 
the  following  bath:  Water,  400  parts, 
ammoniacal  ferrous  sulphate,  20  parts; 
sodium  hyposulphite,  40  parts;  cupric 
sulphite,  30  parts;  cream  of  tartar,  10 
parts.  By  prolonging  the  boiling,  the 
blue  tint  gives  place  to  yellow,  and 
finally  to  a  fine  gray. 

XII. — A  yellowish  brown  may  be  ob- 
tained with  water,  50  parts;  potassium 
chlorate,  5  parts;  nickel  carbonate,  2 
parts;  sal  nickel,  5  parts. 

XIII. — A  dark  brown  is  obtained 
with  water,  50  parts;  sal  nickel,  10  parts; 
potassium  chlorate,  5  parts. 

XIV. — A  yellowish  brown  is  obtained 
with  water,  350  parts;  a  crystallized 
sodium  salt,  10  parts;  orpiment,  5  parts. 

XV. — Metallic  moire  is  obtained  by 
mixing  two  liquids:  (a)  Cream  of  tar- 
tar, 5  parts;  cupric  sulphate,  5  parts; 
water,  250  parts.  (6)  Water,  125  parts; 
sodium  hyposulphite,  15  parts. 

XVI. — A  beautiful  color  is  formed 
with  one  of  the  following  baths:  (a) 
Water,  140  parts;  ammonia,  5  parts;  po- 
tassium sulphide,  1  part.  (6)  Water,  100 
parts;  ammonium  sulphydrate,  2  parts. 

Bronzing  of  Brass. — The  object  is 
boiled  with  zinc  grains  and  water  satu- 
rated with  ammoniacal  chlorhydrate.  A 
little  zinc  chloride  may  be  added  to 
facilitate  the  operation,  which  is  com- 
pleted as  above. 

It  may  also  be  terminated  by  plunging 
the  object  in  the  following  solution: 
Water,  2,000  parts;  vinegar,  100  parts; 
sal  ammoniac,  475  parts;  pulverized 
verdigris,  500  parts. 

ELECTRODEPOSITION  PROCESSES. 

The  electrodeposition  process  is  that 
used  in  electroplating  and  electrotyping. 
It  consists  in  preparing  a  bath  in  which 
a  metal  salt  is  in  solution,  the  articles  to 
be  plated  being  suspended  so  that  they 
hang  in  the  solution,  but  are  insulated. 
The  bath  being  provided  with  an  anode 
and  cathode  for  the  passing  of  an  elec- 
tric current,  and  the  article  being  con- 
nected with  the  cathode  or  negative 
pole,  the  salts  are  deposited  on  its  sur- 
face (on  the  unprotected  parts  of  its 
surface),  and  thus  receive  a  coating  or 
plating  of  the  metal  in  solution. 


572 


PLATING 


When  a  soft  metal  is  deposited  upon  a 
hard  metal  or  the  latter  upon  a  metal 
softer  than  itself,  the  exterior  metal 
should  be  polished  and  not  burnished, 
and  for  this  reason:  If  silver  is  deposited 
upon  lead,  for  instance,  the  great  pres- 
sure which  is  required  in  burnishing  to 
produce  the  necessary  polish  would  cause 
the  softer  metal  to  expand,  and  conse- 
quently a  separation  of  the  two  metals 
would  result.  On  the  other  hand,  silver 
being  softer  than  steel,  if  the  burnisher 
is  applied  to  silver-coated  steel  the  ex- 
terior metal  will  expand  and  separate 
from  the  subjacent  metal. 

Many  articles  which  are  to  receive 
deposits  require  to  have  portions  of 
their  surfaces  topped  off,  to  prevent  the 
deposit  spreading  over  those  parts;  for 
instance,  in  taking  a  copy  of  one  side  of 
a  bronze  medallion,  the  opposite  side 
must  be  coated  with  some  kind  of  var- 
nish, wax,  or  fat,  to  prevent  deposition; 
or,  in  gilding  the  inside  of  a  cream  jug 
which  has  been  silvered  on  the  outside, 
varnish  must  be  applied  all  around  the 
outer  side  of  the  edge,  for  the  same 
reason.  For  gilding  and  other  hot  so- 
lutions, copal  varnish  is  generally  used; 
but  for  cold  liquids  and  common  work, 
an  ordinary  varnish,  such  as  engravers 
use  for  similar  purposes,  will  do  very 
well.  In  the  absence  of  other  sub- 
stances, a  solution  of  sealing  wax,  dis- 
solved in  naphtha,  may  be  employed. 

Plating  of  Aluminum. — The  light 
metal  may  be  plated  with  almost  any 
other  metal,  but  copper  is  most  com- 
monly employed.  Two  formulas  for  cop- 
pering aluminum  follow: 

I. — Make  a  bath  of  cupric  sulphate, 
30  parts;  cream  of  tartar,  30  parts;  soda, 
25  parts;  water,  1,000  parts.  After  well 
scouring  the  objects  to  be  coppered,  im- 
merse in  the  bath.  The  coppering  may 
also  be  effected  by  means  of  the  battery 
with  the  following  mixture:  Sodium  phos- 
phate, 50  parts;  potassium  cyanide,  50 
parts;  copper  cyanide,  50  parts;  distilled 
water,  1,000  parts. 

II. — First  clean  the  aluminum  in  a 
warm  solution  of  an  alkaline  carbonate, 
thus  making  its  surface  rough  and 
porous;  next  v/ash  it  thoroughly  in  run- 
ning water,  and  dip  it  into  a  not  solution 
of  hydrochloric  acid  of  about  5  per  cent 
strength.  Wash  it  again  in  clean  water, 
and  then  place  it  in  a  somewhat  concen- 
trated acid  solution  of  copper  sulphate, 
until  a  uniform  metallic  deposit  is 
formed;  it  is  then  again  thoroughly 
washed  and  returned  to  the  copper  sul- 
phate bath,  when  an  electric  current  is 


passed  until  a  coating  of  copper  of  the 
required  thickness  is  obtained. 

Brassing. — The  following  recipe  is 
recommended  for  the  bath:  Copper  ace- 
tate, 50  parts,  by  weight;  dry  zinc  chlo- 
ride, 25  parts,  by  weight;  crystallized 
sodium  sulphite,  250  parts,  by  weight; 
ammonium  carbonate,  35  parts,  by 
weight;  potassium  cyanide,  110  parts,  by 
weight.  Dissolve  in  3,000  parts  of  water. 

Coppering. — I. — This  is  the  Dessolle 
process  for  the  galvanic  application  of 
copper.  The  special  advantage  claimed 
is  that  strong  currents  can  be  used,  and 
a  deposit  obtained  of  0.004  inch  in  1^ 
hours.  After  having  cleaned  the  object 
to  be  coppered,  with  sand  or  in  an  acid 
bath,  a  first  coat  is  deposited  in  an  ordi- 
nary electrolytic  bath;  then  the  object  is 
placed  in  a  final  bath,  in  which  the  elec- 
trolyte is  projected  on  the  electrode,  so 
as  to  remove  all  bubbles  of  gas  or  other 
impurities  tending  to  attach  themselves 
to  the  surface.  The  electrolyte  employed 
is  simply  a  solution  of  cupric  sulphate  in 
very  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  For  the  pre- 
liminary bath  the  double  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium and  copper  is  ma.de  use  of. 

II. — Those  baths  which  contain  cya- 
nide work  best,  and  may  be  used  for  all 
metals.  The  amount  of  the  latter  must 
not  form  too  large  an  excess.  The  ad- 
dition of  a  sulphide  is  very  dangerous. 
It  is  of  advantage  that  the  final  bath 
contain  an  excess  of  alkali,  but  only 
as  ammonia  or  ammonium  carbonate. 
For  a  copper  salt  the  acetate  is  pref- 
erable. According  to  this,  the  solution 
A  is  prepared  in  the  warm,  and  solution 
B  is  added  with  heating.  Solution  A: 
Neutral  copper  acetate,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  crystallized  sodium  sulphite,  30 
parts,  by  weight;  ammonium  carbonate, 
5  parts,  by  weight;  water,  500  parts,  by 
weight.  Solution  B:  Potassium  cyanide 
(98  to  99  per  cent),  35  parts,  by  weight; 
and  water,  500  parts,  by  weight. 

Coppering  Glass. — I. — Glass  vessels 
may  be  coated  with  copper  by  electro- 
lytic process,  by  simply  varnishing  the 
outer  surface  of  the  vessel,  and  when  the 
varnish  is  nearly  dry,  brushing  plum- 
bago well  over  it.  A  conducting  wire  is 
then  attached  to  the  varnished  surface, 
which  may  be  conveniently  done  by  em- 
ploying a  small  piece  of  softened  gutta 
percha  or  beeswax,  taking  care  to  employ 
the  plumbago  to  the  part  which  unites 
the  wire  to  the  plumbagoed  surface. 

II. — Dissolve  gutta  percha  in  essence 
of  turpentine  or  benzine;  apply  a  coat  of 
the  solution  on  the  glass  in  the  places  to 


PLATING 


573 


be  coppered  and  allow  to  dry;  next  rub 
it  with  graphite  and  place  in  the  electric 
bath.  The  rubber  solution  is  spread 
with  a  brush. 

Coppering  Plaster  Models,  etc. — Busts 
and  similar  objects  may  be  coated  by 
saturating  them  with  linseed  oil,  or  bet- 
ter, with  beeswax,  then  well  blacklead- 
ing,  or  treating  them  with  phosphorous, 
silver  and  gold  solutions,  attaching  a 
number  of  guiding  wires,  connected  with 
all  the  most  hollow  and  distant  parts,  and 
then  immersing  them  in  the  sulphate  of 
copper  solution  and  causing  just  suffi- 
cient copper  to  be  deposited  upon  them, 
by  the  battery  process,  to  protect  them, 
but  not  to  obliterate  the  fine  lines  or 
features. 

Coppering  Zinc  Plate. — The  zinc  plate 
should  first  be  cleaned  with  highly  di- 
luted hydrochloric  acid  and  the  acid 
completely  removed  with  water.  Then 
prepare  an  ammoniacal  copper  solution 
from  3  parts  copper  sulphate,  3  parts 
spirits  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  50  parts 
water.  If  possible  the  zinc  articles  are 
dipped  into  this  solution  or  else  the  sur- 
face is  coated  a  few  times  quickly  and 
uniformly  with  a  flat,  soft  brush,  leaving 
to  dry  between  the  coats.  When  suffi- 
cient copper  has  precipitated  on  the  zinc, 
brush  off  the  object  superficially. 

Cobaltizing  of  Metals. — Following  are 
various  processes  for  cobaltizing  on  cop- 
per or  other  metals  previously  coppered: 
I. — Cobalt,  50  parts,  by  weight;  sal  am- 
moniac, 25  parts;  liquid  ammonia,  15 
parts;  distilled  water,  1,000  parts.  Dis- 
solve the  cobalt  and  the  sal  ammoniac  in 
the  distilled  water,  and  add  the  liquid 
ammonia. 

II. — Pure  potash  in  alcohol,  50  parts, 
by  weight;  cobalt  chloride,  10  parts; 
distilled  water,  1,000  parts.  Dissolve 
the  cobalt  in  half  the  distilled  water  and 
the  potash  in  the  other  half  and  unite  the 
two. 

III. — Potassium  sulphocyanide,  13 
parts,  by  weight;  cobalt  chloride,  10 
parts;  pure  potash  in  alcohol,  2  parts; 
distilled  water,  1,000  parts.  Proceed  as 
described  above.  All  these  baths  are 
used  hot  and  require  a  strong  current. 

Nickel  Plating  with  the  Battery.— The 
nickel  bath  is  prepared  according  to  the 
following  formula: 

I. — Nickel  and  ammo- 
nium sulphate. .  .      10  parts 

Boracic  acid 4  parts 

Distilled  water  ....    175  parts 
A  sheet   of  nickel  is   used  as  an 
anode. 


Perfect  cleanliness  of  the  surface  to  be 
coated  is  essential  to  success.  With 
nickel  especially  is  this  the  case,  as  traces 
of  oxide  will  cause  it  to  show  dark 
streaks.  Finger  marks  will  in  any  case 
render  the  deposit  liable  to  peel  off. 

Cleansing  is  generally  accomplished 
either  by  boiling  in  strong  solution  of 
potassium  hydrate,  or,  when  possible, 
by  heating  to  redness  in  a  blow-pipe 
flame  to  burn  off  any  adhesive  grease,  and 
then  soaking  in  a  pickle  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  to  remove  any  oxide  formed 
during  the  heating.  In  either  case  it  is 
necessary  to  subject  the  article  to  a 
process  of  scratch  brushing  afterwards; 
that  is,  long-continued  friction  with  wire 
brushes  under  water,  which  not  only 
removes  any  still  adhering  oxide,  but 
renders  the  surface  bright. 

To  certain  metals,  as  iron,  nickel,  and 
zinc,  metallic  deposits  do  not  readily 
adhere.  This  difficulty  is  overcome  by 
first  coating  them  with  copper  in  a  bath 
composed  as  follows: 

II. — Potassium  cyanide.        2  parts 

Copper  acetate,  in 

crystals 2  parts 

Sodium  carbonate, 

in  crystals 2  parts 

Sodium  bisulphite  . .        2  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Moisten  the  copper  acetate  with  a 
small  quantity  of  water  and  add  the  so- 
dium carbonate  dissolved  in  20  parts  of 
water.  When  reaction  is  complete,  all 
the  copper  acetate  being  converted  into 
carbonate,  add  the  sodium  bisulphite, 
dissolved  in  another  20  parts  of  water; 
lastly,  add  the  potassium  cyanide,  dissolved 
in  the  remainder  of  the  water.  The  finished 
product  should  be  a  colorless  liquid. 

If  a  dynamo  is  not  available  for  the 
production  of  a  current,  a  Daniell's 
battery  is  to  be  recommended,  and  the 
"tank"  for  a  small  operation  may  be  a 
glass  jar.  The  jar  is  crossed  by  copper 
rods  in  connection  with  the  battery;  the 
metal  to  be  deposited  is  suspended 
from  the  rod  in  connection  with  the  posi- 
tive pole,  and  is  called  the  anode.  The 
articles  to  be  coated  are  suspended  by 
thin  copper  wires  from  the  rod  in  con- 
nection with  the  negative  pole;  these 
form  the  cathode.  The  worker  should 
bear  in  mind  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
apply  a  thick  coating  of  nickel  without 
its  peeling. 

Replating  with  Battery. — It  is  well 
known  to  electro-metallurgists  that  met- 
als deposited  by  electricity  do  not  adhere 
so  firmly  to  their  kind  as  to  other  metals. 
Thus  gold  will  adhere  more  tenaciously 


574 


PLATING 


to  silver,  copper,  or  brass,  than  it  will  to 
gold  or  to  a  gilt  surface,  and  silver  will 
attach  itself  more  closely  to  copper  or 
brass  than  to  a  silver-plated  surface. 
Consequently,  it  is  the  practice  to  re- 
move, by  stripping  or  polishing  the  sil- 
ver from  old  plated  articles  before  elec- 
troplating them.  If  this  were  not  done, 
the  deposited  coating  would  in  all  prob- 
ability "strip,"  as  it  is  termed,  when 
the  burnisher  is  applied  to  it — that  is, 
the  newly  deposited  metal  would  peel 
off  the  underlying  silver.  It  must  be 
understood  that  these  remarks  apply  to 
cases  in  which  a  good,  heavy  deposit  of 
silver  is  required,  for,  of  course,  the  mere 
film  would  not  present  any  remarkable 
peculiarity. 

Silver  Plating. — The  term  silver  de- 
posit designates  a  coating  of  silver  which 
is  deposited  upon  glass,  porcelain,  china, 
or  other  substances.  This  deposit  may 
be  made  to  take  the  form  of  any  desired 
design,  and  to  the  observer  it  has  the  ap- 
pearance (in  the  case  of  glass)  of  having 
been  melted  on. 

Practically  all  of  the  plated  articles 
are  made  by  painting  the  design  upon 
the  glass  or  other  surface  by  means  of  a 
mixture  of  powdered  silver,  a  flux  and  a 
liquid  to  make  the  mixture  in  the  form 
of  a  paint  so  that  it  may  be  readily  spread 
over  the  surface.  This  design  is  then 
fired  in  a  muffle  until  the  flux  melts  and 
causes  the  silver  to  become  firmly 
attached  to  the  glass.  A  thin  silver 
deposit  is  thus  produced,  which  is  a  con- 
ductor of  electricity,  and  upon  which  any 
thickness  of  silver  deposit  may  be  pro- 
duced by  electroplating  in  the  usual  cya- 
nide silver-plating  bath. 

To  be  successful  in  securing  a  lasting 
deposit  a  suitable  flux  must  be  used. 
This  flux  must  melt  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  the  glass  upon  which  it  is  put, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  softening  of  the 
articles  by  the  necessary  heat  and  the 
accompanying  distortion.  Second,  a 
suitable  muffle  must  be  had  for  firing  the 
glass  articles  upon  which  the  design  has 
been  painted.  Not  only  must  a  muffle 
be  used  in  which  the  heat  can  be  abso- 
lutely controlled,  but  one  which  allows 
the  slow  cooling  of  the  articles.  If  this 
is  not  done  they  are  apt  to  crack  while 
cooling. 

The  manufacture  of  the  flux  is  the 
most  critical  part  of  the  silver  deposit 
process.  Witnout  a  good  flux  the  oper- 
ation will  not  be  a  success.  This  flux  is 
frequently  called  an  enamel  or  frit. 
After  a  series  of  experiments  it  was 
found  that  the  most  suitable  flux  is  a 


borate  of  lead.  This  is  easily  prepared, 
fuses  before  the  glass  softens,  and  ad- 
heres tenaciously  to  the  glass  surface. 

To  make  it,  proceed  as  follows:  Dis- 
solve I  pound  of  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of 
lead)  in  1  quart  of  water  and  heat  to 
boiling.  Dissolve  ^  pound  of  borax  in 
1  quart  of  hot  water  and  add  to  the  sugar 
of  lead  solution.  Borate  of  lead  follows 
as  a  white  precipitate.  This  is  filtered 
out  and  washed  until  free  from  impuri- 
ties. It  is  then  dried. 

The  precipitated  borate  of  lead  is  then 
melted  in  a  porcelain  or  clay  crucible. 
When  in  the  melted  condition  it  should 
be  poured  into  a  basin  of  cold  water. 
This  serves  to  granulate  and  render  it 
easily  pulverized.  After  it  has  been 
poured  into  water  it  is  removed  and 
dried.  Before  using  in  the  paint  it  is 
necessary  that  this  fused  borate  of  lead 
be  ground  in  a  mortar  as  fine  as  possible. 
Unless  this  is  done  the  deposit  will  not  be 
smooth. 

The  silver  to  be  used  should  be  finely 
powdered  silver,  which  can  be  purchased 
in  the  same  manner  as  bronze  powders. 

The  mixture  used  for  painting  the  de- 
sign upon  the  glass  is  composed  of  2 
parts  of  the  powdered  silver,  and  1  part 
of  the  fused  borate  of  lead.  Place  the 
parts  in  a  mortar  and  add  just  enough 
oil  of  lavender  to  make  the  mass  of  a 
paint-like  consistency.  The  whole  is 
then  ground  with  the  pestle  until  it  is  as 
fine  as  possible.  The  amount  of  oil  of 
lavender  which  is  used  must  not  be  too 
great,  as  it  will  then  be  found  that  a 
thick  layer  cannot  be  obtained  upon  the 
glass. 

The  glass  to  be  treated  must  be 
cleaned  by  scouring  with  wet  pumice 
stone  and  washing  soda.  The  glass 
should  be  rinsed  and  dried.  The  design 
is  then  painted  on  the  glass  with  a  brush, 
painting  as  thick  as  possible  and  yet 
leaving  a  smooth,  even  surface.  The 
glass  should  be  allowed  to  dry  for  24 
hours,  when  it  is  ready  for  firing. 

When  placed  in  the  gas  muffle,  the 
glass  should  be  subjected  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  a  very  low  red  heat.  The  borate 
of  lead  will  melt  at  this  temperature,  and 
after  holding  this  heat  a  short  time  to 
enable  the  borate  of  lead  to  melt  and 
attach  itself,  the  muffle  is  allowed  to 
cool. 

After  cooling,  the  articles  are  removed 
and  scratch  brushed  and  placed  in  a 
silver  bath  for  an  electro  deposit  of 
silver  of  a  thickness  desired. 

Before  the  plating  the  glass  article  is 
dipped  into  a  cyanide  dip,  or,  if  found 
necessary,  scoured  lightly  with  pumice 


PLATING 


575 


stone  and  cyanide,  and  then  given  a  dip 
in  the  customary  blue  dip  or  mercury 
solution,  so  as  to  quickly  cover  all  parts 
of  the  surface.  It  next  passes  to  the 
regular  cyanide  silver  solution,  and  is 
allowed  to  remain  until  the  desired  de- 
posit is  obtained. 

A  little  potassium  cyanide  and  some 
mono-basic  potassium  citrate  in  powder 
form  is  added  from  time  to  time  to  the 
bath  generally  used,  which  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  freshly  precipitated  silver  cya- 
nide in  a  potassium  cyanide  solution. 
After  this  the  glass  is  rinsed  and  dried, 
and  may  be  finished  by  buffing. 

Steel  Plating. — The  following  is  a 
solution  for  dipping  steel  articles  before 
electroplating:  Nitrate  of  silver,  1  part; 
nitrate  of  mercury,  1  part;  nitric  acid 
(specific  gravity,  1.384),  4  parts;  water, 
120  parts.  The  article,  free  from 
grease,  is  dipped  in  the  pickle  for  a 
second  or  two. 

The  following  electroplating  bath  is 
used:  Pure  crystallized  ferrous  sulphate, 
40  parts,  by  weight,  and  ammonium 
chloride,  100  parts,  by  weight,  in  1,000 
parts,  by  weight,  of  water.  It  is  of  ad- 
vantage to  add  to  this  100  parts,  by 
weight,  of  ammonium  citrate,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  precipitation  of  basic  iron 
salts,  especially  at  the  anode. 

Tin  Plating  by  Electric  Bath. — Most 
solutions  give  a  dead- white  film  of  tin, 
and  this  has  to  be  brightened  by  friction 
of  some  sort,  either  by  scratch  brushing, 
burnishing,  polishing,  or  rubbing  with 
whiting.  The  bright  tin  plates  are  made 
bright  by  rolling  with  polished  steel 
rollers.  Small  articles  may  be  bright- 
tinned  by  immersion  in  melted  tin,  after 
their  surfaces  have  been  made  chemically 
clean  and  bright,  all  of  which  processes 
entail  much  time  and  labor.  Benzoic 
acid,  boric  acid,  or  gelatin  may  be  tried 
with  a  well-regulated  current  and  the 
solution  in  good  working  order,  but  all 
will  depend  upon  the  exact  working  of 
the  solution,  the  same  conditions  being 
set  up  as  are  present  in  the  deposition  of 
other  metals.  These  substances  may  be 
separately  tried,  in  the  proportion  of  1 
ounce  to  each  gallon  of  the  tin  solution, 
by  boiling  the  latter  and  adding  either 
one  during  the  boiling,  as  they  dissolve 
much  easier  with  the  tin  salts  than  in 
water  separately.  Tin  articles  are  usu- 
ally brightened  and  polished  with  Vienna 
lime  or  whiting,  the  first  being  used  with 
linen  rags  and  the  latter  with  chamois 
leather.  Tin  baths  must  be  used  hot,  not 
below  75°  F.,  with  a  suitable  current  ac- 
cording to  their  composition.  Too  strong 


a  current  produces  a  bad  color,  and  the 
deposit  does  not  adhere  well.  A  current 
of  from  2  to  6  volts  will  be  sufficient. 
Small  tinned  articles  are  brightened  by 
being  shaken  in  a  leather  bag  containing 
a  quantity  of  bran  or  by  revolving  in  a 
barrel  with  the  same  substance;  but  large 
objects  have  to  be  brightened  by  other 
means,  such  as  scratch  brushing  and 
mopping  to  give  an  acceptable  finish  to 
the  deposited  metal. 

GILDING  AND  GOLD  PLATING  : 

Genuine  gilding  readily  takes  up  mer- 
cury, while  imitation  gilding  does  not  or 
only  very  slowly.  Any  coating  of  var- 
nish present  should,  however,  be  re- 
moved before  conducting  the  test.  Mer- 
curous  nitrate  has  no  action  on  genuine 
gold,  but  on  spurious  gilding  a  white 
spot  will  form  which  quickly  turns  dark. 
A  solution  of  neutral  copper  chloride 
does  not  act  upon  genuine  gold,  but  on 
alloys  containing  copper  a  black  spot 
will  result.  Gold  fringe,  etc.,  retains 
its  luster  in  spirit  of  wine,  if  the  gilding 
is  genuine;  if  not,  the  gilding  will  burn 
and  oxidize.  Imitation  gilding  might 
be  termed  "snuff  gilding,  '  as  in  Ger- 
many it  consists  of  dissolved  brass,  snuff, 
saltpeter,  hydrochloric  acid,  etc.,  and  is 
used  for  tin  toys.  An  expert  will  im- 
mediately see  the  difference,  as  genuine 
gilding  has  a  different,  more  compact 
pore  formation  and  a  better  color. 
There  are  also  some  gold  varnishes 
which  are  just  as  good. 

The  effect  of  motion  while  an  article  is 
receiving  the  deposit  is  most  clearly  seen 
during  the  operation  of  gilding.  If  a 
watch  dial,  for  instance,  be  placed  in  the 
gilding  bath  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
few  moments  undisturbed  and  the  solu- 
tion of  gold  has  been  much  worked,  it  is 
probable  that  the  dial  will  acquire  a 
dark  fox-red  color;  but  if  it  be  quickly 
moved  about,  it  instantly  changes  color 
and  will  sometimes  even  assume  a  pale 
straw  color.  In  fact,  the  color  of  a  de- 
posit may  be  regulated  greatly  by  motion 
of  the  article  in  the  bath — a  fact  which 
the  operator  should  study  with  much 
attention,  when  gilding. 

The  inside  of  a  vessel  is  gilded  by 
filling  the  vessel  with  the  gilding  solu- 
tion, suspending  a  gold  anode  in  the 
liquid,  and  passing  the  current.  The 
lips  of  cream  jugs  and  the  upper  parts  of 
vessels  of  irregular  outline  are  gilded  by 
passing  the  current  from  a  gold  anode 
through  a  rag  wetted  with  the  gilding 
solution  and  laid  upon  the  part. 

Sometimes,  when  gilding  the  insides  of 
mugs,  tankards,  etc.,  which  are  richly 


576 


PLATING 


chased  or  embossed,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  hollow  parts  do  not  receive  the  de- 
posit at  all,  or  very  partially.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  article  must  be  rinsed 
and  well  scratch  brushed,  and  a  little 
more  cyanide  added  to  the  solution. 
The  anode  must  be  slightly  kept  in 
motion  and  the  battery  power  increased 
until  the  hollow  surfaces  are  coated. 
Frequent  scratch  brushing  aids  the  de- 
posit to  a  great  extent  by  imparting  a 
slight  film  of  brass  to  the  surface. 

In  gilding  chains,  brooches,  pins, 
rings,  and  other  articles  which  have  been 
repaired,  i.  e.,  hard  soldered,  sometimes, 
it  is  found  that  the  gold  will  not  deposit 
freely  upon  the  soldered  parts;  when 
such  is  the  case,  a  little  extra  scratch 
brushing  applied  to  the  part  will  assist 
the  operation  greatly  and  it  has  some- 
times been  found  that  dry  scratch  brush- 
ing for  an  instant — that  is,  without  the 
stream  of  beer  usually  employed — ren- 
ders the  surface  a  better  and  more  uni- 
form conductor  and  consequently  it  will 
more  readily  receive  the  deposit.  In 
fact,  dry  scratch  brushing  is  very  useful 
in  many  cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to 
impart  an  artificial  coating  of  brass  upon 
an  article  to  which  silver  or  gold  will  not 
readily  adhere.  In  scratch  brushing 
without  the  employment  of  beer  or  some 
other  liquid,  however,  great  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  continue  the  operation 
too  long,  as  the  minute  particles  of  metal 
given  off  by  the  scratch  brush  would  be 
likely  to  prove  prejudicial  to  the  health 
of  the  operator,  were  he  to  inhale  them 
to  any  great  extent. 

The  following  solutions  are  for  gilding 
without  a  battery:  I. — In  1,000  parts  of 
distilled  water  dissolve  in  the  following 
order: 

Crystalline    sodium 

pyrophosphate  ....   80  parts 
Twelve  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  hydrocyanic 

acid 8  parts 

Crystalline  gold  chlo- 
ride        2  parts 

Heat  to  a  boiling  temperature,  and  dip 
the  article,  previously  thoroughly  cleaned, 
therein. 

II. — Dissolve  in  boiling  distilled  water, 
1  part  of  chloride  of  gold  and  4  parts  of 
cyanide  of  potassium.  Plunge  the  objects 
into  this  solution,  while  still  hot,  and  leave 
them  therein  for  several  hours,  keeping 
them  attached  to  a  copper  wire  or  a  very 
clean  strip  of  zinc.  They  will  become 
covered  with  a  handsome  gold  coating. 

Aluminum  Gilding. — I. — Dissolve  6 
parts  of  gold  in  aqua  regia  and  dilute  the 


solution  with  distilled  water;  on  the 
other  hand,  put  30  parts  of  lime  in  150 
parts  of  distilled  water;  at  the  end  of  2 
hours  add  the  gold  solution  to  the  lime, 
shake  all  and  allow  to  settle  for  5  to  6 
hours,  decant  and  wash  the  precipitate, 
which  is  lime  aurate.  Place  this  aurate 
of  lime  in  1,000  parts  of  distilled  water, 
with  20  parts  of  hyposulphite  of  soda; 
put  all  on  the  fire  for  8  to  10  minutes, 
without  allowing  to  boil;  remove  and 
filter.  The  filtered  liquor  serves  for 
gilding  in  the  cold,  by  plunging  into  this 
bath  the  aluminum  articles  previously 
pickled  by  passing  through  caustic  pot- 
ash and  nitric  acid.  This  gilding  is  ob- 
tained without  the  aid  of  the  battery. 

II. — The  gold  bath  is  prepared  with 
gold  dissolved  in  the  usual  way,  and  the 
addition  of  salts,  as  follows:  Gold,  20 
parts,  by  weight;  sulphate  of  soda,  20 
parts;  phosphate  of  soda,  660  parts; 
cyanuret  of  potassium,  40  parts;  water, 
1,000  parts.  The  bath  ought  to  be  of 
the  temperature  of  68°  to  77°  F. 

Amalgam  Gold  Plating.— Gold  amal- 
gam is  chiefly  used  as  a  plating  for  silver, 
copper,  or  brass.  The  article  to  be 
plated  is  washed  over  with  diluted  nitric 
acid  or  potash  lye  and  prepared  chalk, 
to  remove  any  tarnish  or  rust  that  might 
prevent  the  amalgam  from  adhering. 
After  having  been  polished  perfectly 
bright,  the  amalgam  is  applied  as  evenly 
as  possible,  usually  with  a  fine  scratch 
brush.  It  is  then  set  upon  a  grate  over 
a  charcoal  fire,  or  placed  into  an  oven 
and  heated  to  that  degree  at  which  mer- 
cury exhales.  The  gold,  when  the  mer- 
cury has  evaporated,  presents  a  dull 
yellow  color.  Cover  it  with  a  coating  of 
pulverized  niter  and  alum  in  equal  parts, 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  water,  and  heat 
again  till  it  is  melted,  then  plunge  into 
water.  Burnish  up  with  a  steel  or 
bloodstone  burnisher. 

Brass  Gilding. — On  brass,  which  is  an 
electropositive  metal,  an  electromagnetic 
metal,  such  as  gold,  can  be  deposited 
very  cheaply  from  the  dilute  solutions 
of  its  salts.  The  deposit  is  naturally 
very  thin,  but  still  quite  adhesive.  In 
preparing  it,  the  proportions  stated  be- 
low have  to  be  accurately  observed, 
otherwise  no  uniform,  coherent  coating 
will  result,  but  one  that  is  uneven  and 
spotted. 

I. — In  750  parts,  by  weight,  of  water 
dissolve:  Phosphate  of  soda,  5  parts,  and 
caustic  potash,  3  parts,  and  in  250  parts 
of  water,  gold  chloride,  1  part,  and  po- 
tassium cyanide,  16  parts.  Mix  both 


PLATING 


577 


solutions  well  and  cause  the  mixture  to 
boil,  whereupon  the  brass  articles  to  be 
gilded  are  immersed.  The  gold  in  the 
mixture  can  be  utilized  almost  entirely. 
When  the  solution  does  not  gild  well  any 
more  a  little  potassium  cyanide  is  added, 
and  it  is  used  for  pre-gilding  the  articles, 
which  can  then  be  gilded  again  in  a  fresh 
solution.  This  solution  is  very  weak. 
A  stronger  one  can  be  prepared  mechan- 
ically by  dissolving  2  to  3  parts  of  gold 
chloride  in  very  little  water  to  which  1 
part  of  saltpeter  is  added.  Into  this 
solution  dip  linen  rags,  let  them  dry  in  a 
dark  place,  and  cause  them  to  char  into 
tinder,  which  is  rubbed  up  in  a  porcelain 
dish.  Into  the  powder  so  made,  dip  a 
soft,  slightly  charred  cork,  moistened 
with  a  little  vinegar,  or  else  use  only  the 
finger,  and  rub  the  gold  powder  upon 
the  brass  articles. 

II. — To  Give  Brass  a  Golden  Color, 
it  is  dipped  until  the  desired  shade  is  ob- 
tained into  a  solution  of  about  175°  F., 
produced  as  follows:  Boil  4  parts  of 
caustic  soda,  4  parts  of  milk  sugar,  and 
100  parts  of  water  for  15  minutes;  next 
add  4  parts  of  blue  vitriol,  dissolved  in  as 
little  water  as  possible. 

Copper  and  Brass  Gilding. — The  solu- 
tions used  to  gild  copper  can  be  gener- 
ally used  also  for  brass  articles.  Copper 
gilding  acquires  importance  because  in 
order  to  gild  iron,  steel,  tin,  and  zinc,  they 
must  first  be  coated  with  copper,  if  the 
boiling  method  is  to  be  employed.  Fol- 
lowing is  Langbein's  bath  for  copper  and 
brass: 

Dissolve  1  part,  by  weight,  of  chloride 
of  gold  and  16  parts,  by  weight,  of  potas- 
sium cyanide  in  250  parts,  by  weight,  of 
water;  dissolve  also  and  separately,  5 
parts,  by  weight,  of  sodium  phosphate 
and  3  parts,  by  weight,  of  caustic  potash 
in  750  parts,  by  weight,  of  cold  water. 
Mix  these  solutions  and  bring  them  to  a 
boil.  If  the  action  subsides,  add  from 
3  to  5  parts,  by  weight,  more  potassium 
cyanide.  The  polished  iron  and  steel 
objects  must  first  be  copper-plated  by 
dipping  them  into  a  solution  of  5  parts, 
by  weight,  of  blue  vitriol  and  2  parts,  by 
weight,  of  sulphuric  acid  in  1,000  parts, 
by  weight,  of  water.  They  may  now  be 
dipped  into  a  hot  solution  containing  6 
parts,  by  weight,  of  gold  chloride  and 
22  £  parts,  by  weight,  of  soda  crystals  in 
75  parts,  by  weight,  of  water.  This 
coating  of  gold  may  be  polished. 

Cold  Chemical  Gilding. — The  chem- 
ical gilding  by  the  wet  process  is  accom- 
plished by  E.  E.  Stahl  with  the  aid  of  three 
baths:  A  gold  bath,  a  neutralization 


bath,  and  a  reduction  bath.  The  gold 
bath  is  prepared  from  pure  hydrochloric 
acid,  200  parts;  nitric  acid,  100  parts; 
and  pure  gold.  The  gold  solution  evap- 
orated to  crystallization  is  made  to  con- 
tain 1|  per  cent  of  gold  by  diluting  with 
water.  The  neutralization  bath  con- 
sists of  soda  lye  of  6°,  of  pure  sodium 
hydroxide,  and  distilled  water.  The 
reduction  bath  contains  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  90  per  cent  alcohol  and 
distilled  water,  wherein  pure  hydrogen 
has  been  dissolved.  The  gilding  proper 
is  conducted  by  first  entering  the  article 
in  the  gold  bath,  next  briskly  moving  it 
about  in  the  neutralization  bath,  and 
finally  adding  the  reducing  bath  with 
further  strong  agitation  of  the  liquid. 
The  residues  from  the  gilding  are  melted 
with  3  parts  each  of  potash,  powdered 
borax,  and  potash  niter,  thus  recovering 
the  superfluous  gold.  The  gilding  or 
silvering  respectively  produces  a  deposit 
of  gold  or  silver  of  very  slight  thickness 
and  of  the  luster  of  polishing  gold.  Be- 
sides the  metal  solution  an  "anti-reducer" 
is  needed,  consisting  of  50  grams  of  recti- 
fied and  rosinified  turpentine  oil  and  10 
grams  of  powdered  roll  sulphur.  From 
this  is  obtained,  by  boiling,  a  syrupy 
balsam,  to  which  is  added,  before  use, 
lavender  oil,  well-ground  basic  bismuth 
nitrate,  and  the  solution  for  gilding  or 
silvering.  The  last  takes  place  by  a 
hydrochloric  solution  of  aluminum  with 
the  above  balsam. 

Colored  Gilding. — A  variety  of  shades 
of  green  and  red  gold  can  be  obtained 
by  the  electro-chemical  process,  which 
method  may  be  employed  for  the  decora- 
tion of  various  objects  of  art.  In  order  to 
produce  red  gold  in  the  different  shades, 
a  plate  of  pure  copper  is  hung  into  a  rather 
concentrated  gold  bath  (5  to  6  parts,  by 
weight,  per  1,000  parts  of  liquid),  which 
is  connected  with  the  battery  in  such  a 
manner  that  gold  is  deposited  on  the  ar- 
ticle immersed  in  the  bath.  By  the  action 
of  the  electric  current  copper  is  dissolved 
as  well  from  the  copper  plate  and  is  sepa- 
rated simultaneously  with  the  gold,  so 
that,  after  a  certain  time,  a  deposit  con- 
taining a  gold  copper  alloy,  conforming  in 
color  to  the  quantities  of  gold  and  copper 
contained  in  it,  is  obtained  by  the  electric 
process.  When  the  desired  snade  of  color 
of  the  deposit  is  reached  the  copper  plate 
is  taken  out  and  replaced  by  another  con- 
sisting of  the  copper  gold  alloy,  likewise 
produced  by  electrodeposition,  and  the 
articles  are  now  gilt  in  this  liquid.  In 
some  large  manufactories  of  gold  articles 
this  last  coloring  is  used  even  for  pure 


578 


PLATING 


gold  articles,  to  give  them  a  popular 
color.  To  produce  green  gold  (alloy  of 
gold  and  silver),  a  silver  plate  is  first 
employed,  which  is  dipped  into  the  gold 
bath  and  from  which  enough  silver  is  dis- 
solved until  the  separating  alloy  shows 
the  desired  shade.  The  silver  plate  is 
then  exchanged  for  a  gold-silver  plate  of 
the  respective  color,  and  the  articles  are 
gilt  with  green  gold. 

Gilding  German  Silver. — In  gilding 
German  silver  the  solution  may  be 
worked  at  a  low  temperature,  the  solu- 
tion being  weakened  and  a  small  sur- 
face of  anode  exposed.  German  silver 
has  the  power  of  reducing  gold  from  its 
solution  in  cyanide  (especially  if  the 
solution  be  strong)  without  the  aid  of  the 
battery;  therefore,  the  solution  should 
be  weaker,  in  fact,  so  weak  that  the  Ger- 
man silver  will  not  deposit  the  gold  per  se  ; 
otherwise  the  deposit  will  take  place  so 
rapidly  that  the  gold  will  peel  off  when 
being  burnished  or  even  scratch  brushed. 

Gilding  of  Glass. — I. — In  order  to 
produce  a  good  gilding  on  glass,  the  gold 
salt  employed  must  be  free  from  acid. 
Prepare  three  solutions,  viz.: 

a.  20  parts  acid-free  gold  chloride  in 
150  parts  of  distilled  water. 

6.  5  parts  dry  sodium  hydrate  in  80 
parts  of  distilled  water. 

c.  2t  parts  of  starch  sugar  in  30  parts 
distilled  water;  spirit  of  wine,  20  parts; 
and  commercial  pure  40  per  cent  alde- 
hyde, 20  parts.  These  liquids  are  quickly 
mixed  together  in  the  proportion  of  200, 
50,  and  5  parts,  whereupon  the  mixture  is 
poured  on  the  glass  previously  cleaned 
with  soda  solution,  and  the  gilding  will 
be  effected  in  a  short  time.  The  gold 
coating  is  said  to  keep  intact  for  years. 

II. — Coat  the  places  to  be  gilded 
thinly  with  a  saturated  borax  solution, 
lay  the  gold  leaf  on  this  and  press  down 
well  and  uniformly  with  cotton-wool. 
Heat  the  glass  over  a  spirit  flame,  until 
the  borax  melts,  and  allow  to  cool  off. 
If  the  glass  is  to  be  decorated  with  gilt 
letters  or  designs,  paint  the  places  to  be 
gilded  with  water-glass  solution  of  40° 
Be.;  lay  on  the  gold  leaf,  and  press 
down  uniformly.  Then  heat  the  ob- 
ject to  86°  P.,  so  that  it  dries  a  little, 
sketch  the  letters  or  figures  on  with  a 
lead  pencil,  erase  the  superfluous  gold, 
and  allow  the  articles  to  dry  completely 
at  a  higher  temperature. 

Green  Gilding. — This  can  be  obtained 
conveniently  by  the  galvanic  process,, 
by  means  of  anodes  of  sheet  platinum 


with  the  following  composition:  Water, 
10,000  parts,  by  weight;  sodium  phos- 
phate, 200  parts;  sodium  sulphate,  35 
parts;  potassium  carbonate,  10  parts; 
1  ducat  gold  from  gold  chloride,  potas- 
sium cyanide  (100  per  cent),  20  parts. 
Dissolve  the  first  three  salts  in  10,000 
parts  of  cold  water  and  add,  with  stir- 
ring, the  gold  chloride  and  potassium 
cyanide.  Before  the  first  use  boil  down 
the  solution  thoroughly  about  one-half, 
replacing  the  evaporating  water  and 
filter  after  cooling,  in  case  a  sediment 
should  appear.  To  this  gold  bath  very 
carefully  add  some  silver  bath.  The 
platinum  sheets  which  are  to  serve  as 
anodes  are  employed  If  inches  long,  $ 
inch  broad,  and  Too  of  an  inch  thick. 
With  these  anodes  the  gold  tone  can  be 
somewhat  regulated  by  hanging  more  or 
less  deeply  into  the  solution  during  the 
gilding.  The  current  should  have  a  tension 
of  3  to  4  volts.  In  the  case  of  batteries 
three  Busen  elements  are  connected  for 
current  tension.  It  is  difficult  to  pro- 
duce old  gold  on  silver,  especially  if  the 
raised  portions  are  to  appear  green. 
It  is  most  advantageous  first  to  lightly 
copper  the  silver  goods,  taking  the  cop- 
per off  again  on  the  high  places  by 
brushing  with  pumice  stone.  After  that 
hang  at  once  in  the  above  gold  bath. 
If  the  embossed  portions  should  be  too 
mat,  brighten  slightly  by  scratching 
with  a  very  fine  brass  wire  brush.  In 
this  manner  a  handsome  brown  shade  is 
obtained  in  the  deep  places  and  a  green 
color  on  the  raised  portions.  This  proc- 
ess requires  practice.  Since  this  method 
will  produce  only  a  very  light  gilding,  a 
coating  of  white  varnish  will  protect  the 
articles  from  tarnishing. 

Incrusting  with  Gold. — The  article  is 
first  made  perfectly  bright,  and  those 
places  which  are  to  be  gilt  are  covered 
with  a  matt  consisting  of  white  lead 
ground  with  gum  water,  made  into  a 
paste  which  can  be  applied  like  a  thick 
paint  by  means  of  a  pen  or  brush.  Those 

E laces  of  the  metal  surface  not  covered 
y  the  paint  are  coated  with  asphalt 
varnish — a  solution  of  asphaltum  in 
benzine  to  which  oil  of  .turpentine  is 
added  to  render  it  less  volatile.  After 
this  is  done  lay  the  article  in  water,  so 
that  the  white  lead  paint  comes  off,  and 
put  it  into  a  gilding  bath.  By  the  elec- 
tric current  gold  is  precipitated  on  the 
bright  parts  of  the  metal.  When  the 
layer  of  gold  is  thick  enough  lift  the  ob- 
ject from  the  bath,  wash,  let  dry  and  lay 
it  into  a  vessel  filled  with  benzol.  The 
asphalt  dissolves  in  the  benzol,  and  the 


PLATING 


579 


desired  design  appears  in  gold  on  the 
bronze  or  silver  ground.  This  operation 
may  also  be  performed  by  coating  the 
whole  article  with  asphalt  varnish  and 
executing  the  design  by  means  of  a  blunt 
graver  which  only  takes  away  the  var- 
nish covering  without  scratching  the 
metal  itself.  On  the  parts  thus  bared 
gold  is  deposited  by  the  electric  current 
and  the  varnish  coating  is  then  removed. 

Ivory  Gilding. — I. — The  pattern  is 
painted  with  a  fine  camel's-hair  pencil, 
moistened  with  gold  chloride.  Hold 
the  ivory  over  the  mouth  of  a  bottle  in 
which  hydrogen  gas  is  generated  (by  the 
action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  on  zinc 
waste).  The  hydrogen  reduces  the 
auric  chloride  in  the  painted  places  into 
metallic  gold,  and  the  gold  film  precipi- 
tated in  this  manner  will  quickly  obtain  a 
considerable  luster.  The  gold  film  is 
very  thin,  but  durable. 

II. — This  is  especially  suitable  for 
monograms.  Take  gold  bronze  and 
place  as  much  as  can  be  taken  up  with 
the  point  of  a  knife  in  a  color-cup, 
moistening  with  a  few  drops  of  genuine 
English  gold  paint.  Coat  the  raised 
portions  sparingly  with  gold,  using  a  fine 
pencil;  next,  coat  the  outer  and  inner 
borders  of  the  design.  When  the  work 
is  done,  and  if  the  staining  and  gilding 
have  been  unsuccessful,  which  occurs 
frequently  at  the  outset,  lay  the  work 
for  5  or  10  minutes  in  warmed  lead  water 
and  brush  off  with  pumice  stone.  By 
this  process  very  fine  shades  are  often 
obtained  which  cannot  be  produced  by 
mere  staining.  Since  the  gold  readily 
wears  off  on  the  high  places  of  the  work, 
it  is  well  to  lightly  coat  these  portions 
with  a  thin  shellac  solution  before  gild- 
ing. This  will  cause  the  gilding  to  be 
more  permanent. 

Mat  Gilding. — To  obtain  a  handsome 
mat  gilding  the  article,  after  having 
been  neatly  polished,  is  passed  through 
a  sand-blast,  such  as  is  found  in  glass- 
grinding  and  etching  establishments; 
next,  the  object  is  carefully  cleansed 
of  fine  sand  (if  possible,  by  annealing 
and  decocting),  whereupon  it  is  gilt  and 
subsequently  brushed  mat  with  the  brass 
brush.  Where  there  is  no  sand-blast, 
the  article  is  deadened  with  the  steel 
wire  brush,  which  will  produce  a  satis- 
factory result,  after  some  practice.  After 
that,  treatment  is  as  above.  The  above- 
mentioned  applies  in  general  only  to 
silver  articles.  In  case  of  articles  of 
gold,  brass,  or  tombac,  it  is  better  to 
previously  silver  them  strongly,  since 
they  are  too  hard  for  direct  treatment 


with  the  steel  wire  brush,  and  a  really 
correct  mat  cannot  be  attained.  The 
brushes  referred  to  are,  of  course,  cir- 
cular brushes  for  the  lathe. 

Dead -Gilding  of  an  Alloy  of  Copper 
and  Zinc. — The  parts  which  are  to  be 
deadened  must  be  isolated  from  those 
which  are  to  be  polished,  and  also  from 
those  which  are  to  be  concealed,  and 
which  therefore  are  not  to  be  gilded. 
For  this  purpose  they  are  coated  with  a 
paste  made  of  Spanish  white  mixed  with 
water.  The  articles  prepared  in  this 
manner  are  then  attached  by  means  of 
iron  wire  to  an  iron  rod  and  suspended 
in  a  furnace  constructed  for  this  process. 
The  floor  of  this  furnace  is  covered  on 
four  sides  with  plates  of  enameled  earth- 
enware for  receiving  the  portions  spat- 
tered about  of  the  salt  mixture  given  off 
later. 

In  the  middle  is  an  oven  constructed 
like  a  cooking  stove,  on  which  is  an  iron 
tripod  for  carrying  the  deadening  pan; 
this  latter  is  cemented  into  a  second  pan 
of  cast  iron,  the  intervening  space  being 
filled  up  with  stove  cement.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  pan  is  the  bottom  or  sill,  pro- 
vided with  a  thick  cast-iron  plate,  form- 
ing the  hearth.  On  all  four  sides  of  the 
latter  are  low  brick  walls,  connecting 
with  the  floor  of  the  furnace,  and  the 
whole  is  covered  with  thick  sheet  meta,!. 
On  the  side  of  the  furnace  opposite  the 
side  arranged  for  carrying  the  pans,  is  a 
boiler  in  which  boiling  water  is  kept. 
On  the  same  side  of  the  furnace,  but  out- 
side it,  is  a  laige  oval  tub  of  a  capacity  of 
about  700  or  800  quarts,  which  is  kept 
filled  with  water.  The  upper  portions 
of  the  staves  of  this  tub  are  covered  with 
linen  to  absorb  all  parts  that  are  spat- 
tered about. 

Powder  for  Gilding  Metals. — I. — In  a 
solution  of  perchloride  of  gold  soak 
small  pieces  of  linen  which  are  dried 
over  the  solution  so  that  the  drops  fall- 
ing therefrom  are  saved.  When  the  rags 
are  dry  burn  them,  carefully  gather- 
ing the  ashes,  which  ashes,  stirred  with 
a  little  water,  are  used  for  gilding  either 
with  pumice  stone  or  with  a  cork.  For 
the  hollows,  use  a  small  piece  of  soft 
wood,  linden,  or  poplar. 

II. — Dissolve  the  pure  gold  or  the  leaf 
in  nitro-muriatic  acid  and  then  precipi- 
tate it  by  a  piece  of  copper  or  by  a  solu- 
tion of  iron  sulphate.  The  precipitate, 
if  by  copper,  must  be  digested  with  dis 
tilled  vinegar  and  then  washed  by  pour- 
ing water  over  it  repeatedly  and  dried. 
This  precipitate  will  be  in  the  form  of 
very  fine  powder;  it  works  better  and  is 


580 


PLATING 


more   easily   burnished   than   gold   leaf 
ground  with  honey. 

Gilding  Pastes. — I. — A  good  gilding 
paste  is  prepared  as  follows:  Slowly 
melt  an  ounce  of  pure  lard  over  the  fire, 
add  £  a  teaspoonful  of  juice  of  squills, 
and  stir  up  the  mixture  well,  subse- 
quently adding  10  drops  of  spirit  of  sal 
ammoniac.  If  the  mixture  is  not  stiff 
enough  after  cooling,  the  firmness  may 
be  enhanced  by  an  admixture  of  &  to  & 
ounce  of  pure  melted  beef-tallow.  A 
larger  addition  of  tallow  is  necessary  if 
the  white  of  an  egg  is  added.  After 
each  addition  the  mixture  should  be 
stirred  up  well  and  the  white  of  egg 
should  be  added,  not  to  the  warm,  but 
almost  cold,  mixture. 

II. — Alum,  3  parts,  by  weight;  salt- 
peter, 6  parts;  sulphate  of  zinc,  3  parts; 
common  salt,  3  parts.  Mix  all  into  a 
thick  paste,  dip  the  articles  into  it,  and 
heat  tnem,  until  nearly  black,  on  a  piece 
of  sheet  iron  over  a  clear  coke  or  char- 
coal fire;  then  plunge  them  into  cold 
water. 

Red  Gilding. — This  is  obtained  by  the 
use  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  verdi- 
gris and  powdered  tartar,  with  which  the 
article  is  coated;  subsequently  burning  it 
off  on  a  moderate  coal  fire.  Cool  in 
water,  dip  the  article  in  a  pickle  of  tartar, 
scratch  it,  and  a  handsome  red  shade 
will  be  the  result,  which  has  not  attacked 
the  gilding  in  any  way. 

Regilding  Mat  Articles. — In  order  to 
regenerate  dead  gold  trinkets  without 
having  to  color  them  again — which  is,  as 
a  rule,  impossible,  because  the  gold  is  too 
weak  to  stand  a  second  coloring — it  is 
advisable  to  copper  these  articles  over 
before  gilding  them.  After  the  copper 
has  deposited  all  over,  the  object,  well 
cleaned  and  scratched,  is  hung  in  the 
gilding.  By  this  manipulation  much 
time  and  vexation  is  saved,  such  as  every 
jeweler  will  have  experienced  in  gilding 
mat  gold  articles.  The  article  also  ac- 
quires a  faultless  new  appearance.  Here 
are  two  recipes  for  the  preparation  of 
copper  baths: 

I. — Distilled  boiling  water,  2,000 
parts,  by  weight;  sodium  sulphate,  10 
parts;  potassium  cyanide,  15  parts;  cu- 
pric  acetate,  15  parts;  sodium  carbonate, 
20  parts;  ammonia,  12  parts. 

II. — Dissolve  crystallized  verdigris,  20 
parts,  by  weight,  and  potassium  cyanide, 
42  parts,  in  1,000  parts  of  boiling  water. 

Silk  Gilding. — This  can  only  be  ac- 
complished by  the  electric  process.  The 


fiber  is  first  rendered  conductive  by  im- 
pregnation with  silver  nitrate  solution 
and  reduction  of  same  with  grape  sugar 
and  diluted  alkali,  or,  best  of  all,  with 
Raschig's  reduction  salt.  In  place  of  the 
silver  nitrate,  a  solution  of  lead  acetate 
or  copper  acetate  may  be  employed. 
The  silk  thus  impregnated  is  treated  in 
the  solution  of  an  alkaline  sulphide,  e.  g., 
sodium  sulphide,  ammonium  sulphide, 
or  else  with  hydrogen  sulphide,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  conductive  coating  of  metallic 
sulphide.  Upon  this  gold  can  be  pre- 
cipitated by  electrodeposition  in  the  usual 
way. 

Spot  Gilding. — Gilding  in  spots,  pro- 
ducing a  very  fine  appearance,  is  done 
by  putting  a  thin  coat  of  oil  on  those 
parts  of  the  metal  where  the  gilding  is  not 
to  appear;  the  gold  will  then  be  deposited 
in  those  spots  only  where  there  is  no  oil, 
and  the  oil  is  easily  removed  when  the 
work  is  finished. 

Gilding  Steel. — Pure  gold  is  dissolved 
in  aqua  regia;  the  solution  is  allowed  to 
evaporate  until  the  acid  in  excess  has 
gone.  The  precipitate  is  placed  in  clean 
water,  3  times  the  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  added  and  the  whole  left  to  stand 
for  24  hours  in  a  well-closed  flask,  until 
the  ethereal  gold  solution  floats  on  top. 
By  moistening  polished  steel  with  the 
solution  a  very  handsome  gilding  is  ob- 
tained. By  the  application  of  designs 
with  any  desired  varnish  the  appearance 
of  a  mixture  of  gold  and  steel  may  be  im- 
parted to  the  article. 

Wood  Gilding.  —  I.  —  The  moldings, 
ledges,  etc.,  to  be  gilded  are  painted  with 
a  strong  solution  of  joiners'  glue,  which 
is  left  to  harden  well,  whereupon  8  to  10 
coatings  of  glue  mixed  with  whitening 
are  given.  Each  coat  must,  of  course, 
be  thoroughly  dry,  before  commencing 
the  next.  After  this  has  been  done, 
paint  with  a  strong  mixture  of  glue  and 
minium,  and  while  this  is  still  wet,  put  on 
the  gold  leaflets  and  press  them  down 
with  cotton.  To  impart  the  fine  gloss, 
polish  with  a  burnishing  agate  after  the 
superfluous  gold  has  been  removed. 

II. — Proceed  as  above,  but  take  silver 
leaf  instead  of  gold  leaf,  and  after  all 
is  thoroughly  dry  and  the  superfluous 
silver  has  been  removed,  apply  a  coating 
of  good  gold  lacquer.  The  effect  will 
be  equally  satisfactory. 

Zinc  Gilding. — I. — Gilding  by  means 
of  zinc  contact  may  be  accomplished 
with  the  following  formula:  Two  parts,  by 
weight,  of  gold  chloride;  5  parts,  by 
weight,  of  ootassium  cyanide;  10  parts, 


PLATING 


581 


by  weight,  of  sulphite  of  soda;  and  60 
parts,  by  weight,  of  sodium  phosphate 
are  dissolved  in  1,000  parts  of  water. 
When  used  the  bath  must  be  hot.  A 
cold  bath  without  the  addition  of  potas- 
sium cyanide  may  also  be  used  for  gild- 
ing, and  this  consists  of  7  parts,  by 
weight,  of  gold  chloride;  30  parts,  by 
weight,  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash;  30 
parts,  by  weight,  of  potash;  30  parts,  by 
weight,  of  common  salt  in  1,000  parts  of 
water. 

II. — To  gild  zinc  ^  articles,  dissolve 
20  parts  of  gold  chloride  in  20  parts  of 
distilled  water,  and  80  parts  of  potassium 
cyanide  in  80  parts  of  water,  mix  the 
solutions,  stir  a  few  times,  filter,  and  add 
tartar,  5  parts,  and  fine  chalk,  100  parts. 
The  resulting  paste  is  applied  with  a 
brush.  Objects  of  copper  and  brass  are 
previously  coated  with  zinc.  This  is 
done  in  the  following  manner:  Heat  a 
concentrated  sal  ammoniac  solution  to 
the  boiling  point  with  addition  of  zinc 
dust  and  immerse  the  thoroughly  cleaned 
objects  until  a  uniform  zinc  coating  has 
formed.  Or  boil  the  articles  in  a  con- 
centrated caustic  soda  solution  with  zinc 
dust. 

OXIDIZING  PROCESSES: 

Aluminum  Plating. — I. — To  plate  iron 
and  other  metals  with  pure  aluminum, 
deoxidize  the  pieces  with  a  solution  of 
borax  and  place  them  in  an  enameling 
oven,  fitted  for  receiving  metallic  vapors. 
Raise  the  temperature  to  1,882°  to  2,732° 
F.  Introduce  the  aluminum  vapors 
generated  by  heating  a  quantity  of  the 
metal  on  the  sand  bath.  When  the 
vapors  come  in  contact  with  the  metallic 
surfaces,  the  aluminum  is  deposited. 
The  vapors  that  have  not  been  used  or 
are  exhausted  may  be  conducted  into  a 
vessel  of  water. 

To  Copper  Aluminum, 

take 
II. — Sulphate  of  copper.     30  parts 

Cream  of  tartar 30  parts 

Soda 25  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

The  articles  to  be  coppered  are  merely 
dipped  in  this  bath,  but  they  must  be 
well  cleaned  previously. 

Antimony  Baths. — I. — By  dissolving 
15  parts,  by  weight,  of  tartar  emetic 
and  15  parts  of  prepared  tartar  in  500 
parts  of  hot  water  and  adding  45-60 
parts  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  45-60 
parts  of  powdered  antimony,  brass  be- 
comes coated  in  the  boiling  liquid  with 
beautiful  antimony  colors.  In  this 
manner  it  is  possible  to  impart  to  brass, 


golden,  copper-red,  violet,  or  bluish-gray 
shades,  according  to  a  shorter  or  longer 
stay  of  the  objects  in  the  liquid.  These 
antimony  colors  possess  a  handsome 
luster,  are  permanent,  and  never  change 
in  the  air. 

II. — Carbonate  of  soda,  200  parts,  by 
weight;  sulphide  of  antimony,  50  parts; 
water,  1,000  parts.  Heat  the  whole  in 
a  porcelain  capsule  for  1  hour,  keeping 
constantly  in  ebullition;  next,  filter  the 
solution,  which,  on  cooling,  leaves  a 
precipitate,  which  boil  again  with  the 
liquid  for  one-half  hour,  whereupon  the 
bath  is  ready  for  use. 

To  Coat  Brass  Articles  with  Antimony 
Colors. — Dissolve  15  parts,  by  weight,  of 
tartar  emetic  and  15  parts,  by  weight,  of 
powdered  tartar  in  500  parts,  by  weight, 
of  hot  water  and  add  50  parts,  by  weight, 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  powdered  antimony.  Into 
this  mixture,  heated  to  a  boil,  the  im- 
mersed articles  become  covered  with 
luster  colors,  a  golden  shade  appearing 
at  first,  which  is  succeeded  by  one  of 
copper  red.  If  the  objects  remain  longer 
in  the  liquid,  the  color  passes  into  violet 
and  finally  into  bluish  gray. 

Brassing. — I. — To  brass  small  articles 
of  iron  or  steel  drop  them  into  a  quart  of 
water  and  £  ounce  each  of  sulphate  of 
copper  and  protochloride  of  tin.  Stir 
the  articles  in  this  solution  until  desired 
color  is  obtained. 

II. — Brassing  Zinc,  Steel,  Cast  Iron, 
etc. — Acetate  of  copper,  ^  100  parts,  by 
weight;  cyanide  of  potassium,  250  parts; 
bisulphite  of  soda,  200  parts;  liquid  am- 
monia, 100  parts;  protochloride  of  zinc, 
80  parts;  distilled  water,  10,000  parts. 
Dissolve  the  cyanide  of  potassium  and 
the  bisulphite  of  soda.  On  the  other 
hand,  dissolve  the  ammonia  in  three- 
fourths  of  the  water  and  the  proto- 
chloride of  zinc  in  the  remaining  water; 
next,  mix  the  two  solutions.  This  bath 
is  excellent  for  brassing  zinc  and  is  used 
cold. 

III. — Acetate  of  copper,  125  parts,  by 
weight;  cyanide  of  potassium,  400  parts; 
protochloride  of  zinc,  100  parts;  liquid 
ammonia,  100  parts;  distilled  water, 
8,000  to  10,000  parts.  Proceed  as  above 
described. 

IV. — Acetate  of  copper,  150  parts,  by 
weight;  carbonate  of  soda,  1,000  parts; 
cyanide  of  potassium,  550  parts;  bisul- 
phite of  soda,  200  parts;  protochloride 
of  zinc,  100  parts.  Proceed  as  above. 
This  bath  serves  for  iron,  cast  iron,  and 
steel,  and  is  used  cold. 


582 


PLATING 


Colored  Rings  on  Metal.— Dissolve  200 
parts,  by  weight,  of  caustic  potash  in 
2,000  parts  of  water  and  add  50  parts  of 
litharge.  Boil  this  solution  for  half  an 
hour,  taking  care  that  a  little  of  the 
litharge  remains  un  dissolved.  When 
cold,  pour  off  the  clear  fluid;  it  is  then 
ready  for  use.  Move  the  object  to  and 
fro  in  the  solution;  a  yellow-brown  color 
appears,  becoming  in  turn  white,  yellow, 
red,  and  finally  a  beautiful  violet  and 
blue.  As  soon  as  the  desired  color  is 
obtained,  remove  the  article  quickly 
from  the  solution,  rinse  in  clean  water, 
and  dry  in  sawdust. 

Green  or  Gold  Color  for  Brass. — 
French  articles  of  brass,  both  cast  and 
made  of  sheet  brass,  mostly  exhibit  a 
golden  color,  which  is  produced  by  a 
copper  coating.  This  color  is  prepared 
as  follows:  Dissolve  50  parts,  by  weight, 
of  caustic  soda  and  40  parts  of  milk 
sugar  in  1,000  parts  of  water  and  boil 
a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  solution 
finally  acquires  a  dark-yellow  color. 
Now  add  to  the  mixture,  which  is  re- 
moved from  the  fire,  40  parts  of  concen- 
trated cold  blue  vitriol  solution.  A  red 
precipitate  is  obtained  from  the  vitriol, 
which  falls  to  the  bottom  at  167°  F. 
Next  a  wooden  sieve,  fitted  to  the  vessel, 
is  put  into  the  liquid  with  the  polished 
brass  articles.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
second  minute  the  golden  color  is  usually 
dark  enough.  The  sieve  with  the  arti- 
cles is  taken  out  and  the  latter  are 
washed  and  dried  in  sawdust.  If  they 
remain  in  the  copper  solution  they  soon 
assume  a  green  color,  which  in  a  short 
time  passes  into  yellow  and  bluish  green, 
and  finally  into  the  iridescent  colors. 
These  shades  must  be  produced  slowly 
at  a  temperature  of  133°  to  135°  F. 

To  Give  a  Green  Color  to  Gold  Jew- 
elry.—  Take  verdigris,  120  parts,  by 
weight;  sal  ammoniac,  120  parts;  ni- 
trate of  potassium,  45  parts;  sulphate 
of  zinc,  16  parts.  Grind  the  whole  and 
mix  with  strong  vinegar.  Place  on  the 
fire  and  boil  in  it  the  articles  to  be  col- 
ored. 

Nickeling  by  Oxidation. — I. — Nickel- 
ing may  be  performed  on  all  metals  cold, 
by  means  of  nickelene  by  the  Mitressey 
process,  without  employing  electrical 
apparatus,  and  any  desired  thickness 
deposited.  It  is  said  to  be  more  solid 
than  nickel. 

First  Bath.— Clean  the  objects  and 
take  5  parts,  by  weight,  of  American 
potash  per  25  parts,  by  weight,  of  watei. 
If  the  pieces  are  quite  rusted,  take  2 


parts,  by  weight,  of  chlorhydric  acid  per 
1  part,  by  weight,  of  water.  The  bath 
is  employed  cold. 

Second  Bath.— Put  250  parts,  by 
weight,  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  25,000 
parts,  by  weight,  of  water.  After  dis- 
solution add  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid,  drop  by  drop,  stirring  the  liquid 
with  a  wooden  stick  until  it  becomes  as 
clear  as  spring  water. 

Take  out  the  pieces  thus  cleaned  and 
place  them  in  what  is  called  the  copper 
bath,  attaching  to  them  leaves  of  zinc; 
they  will  assume  a  red  tint.  Then  pass 
them  into  the  nickeling  bath,  which  is 
thus  composed: 

By  weight 

Cream  of  tartar 20  parts 

Sal    ammoniac,   in 

powder 10  parts 

Kitchen  salt 5  parts 

Oxychlorhydrate     o  f 

tin 20  parts 

Sulphate   of  nickel, 

single 30  parts 

Sulphate  of  nickel, 

double 50  parts 

Remove  the  pieces  from  the  bath  in  a 
few  minutes  and  rub  them  with  fine  sand 
on  a  moist  rag.  Brilliancy  will  thus  be 
obtained.  To  improve  the  appearance, 
apply  a  brass  wire  brush.  The  nickel- 
ing is  said  to  be  more  solid  and  beauti- 
ful than  that  obtained  by  the  electrical 
method. 

Brilliancy  may  be  also  imparted  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  buff  glued  on  a 
wooden  wheel  and  smeared  with  Eng- 
lish red  stuff.  This  will  give  a  glazed 
appearance. 

II. — Prepare  a  bath  of  neutral  zinc 
chloride  and  a  neutral  solution  of  a 
nickel  salt.  The  objects  are  immersed 
in  the  bath  with  small  pieces  of  zinc 
and  kept  boiling  for  some  time.  This 
process  has  given  satisfactory  results. 
It  is  easy  to  prepare  the  zinc  chloride 
by  dissolving  it  in  hydrochloric  acid,  as 
well  as  a  saturated  solution  of  ammo- 
niacal  nickel  sulphate  in  the  proportion 
of  two  volumes  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the 
zinc  chloride.  The  objects  should  be 
boiled  for  15  minutes  in  the  bath. 
Nickel  salt  may  also  be  employed,  pref- 
erably in  the  state  of  chloride. 

Pickling  Solutions. — Oxidized  copper, 
brass,  and  German  silver  articles  must 
be  cleansed  by  acid  solutions.  In  the 
case  of  brass  alloys,  this  process,  through 
which  the  object  acquires  a  dull  yel- 
low surface,  is  known  as  dipping  or 
yellowing.  The  treatment  consists  of 


PLATING 


583 


several  successive  operations.  The  ar- 
ticle is  first  boiled  in  a  lye  composed  of 
1  part  caustic  soda  and  10  parts  water, 
or  in  a  solution  of  potash  or  soda  or  in 
limewater;  small  objects  may  be  placed 
in  alcohol  or  benzine.  When  all  the 
grease  has  been  removed,  the  article  is 
well  rinsed  with  water,  and  is  then  ready 
for  the  next  pickling.  It  is  first  plunged 
into  a  mixture  of  1  part  sulphuric  acid 
and  10  parts  water,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main in  it  till  it  acquires  a  reddish  tinge. 
It  is  then  immersed  in  40°  Be.  nitric 
acid,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the 
red  tinge,  and  then  for  a  few  seconds  into 
a  bath  of  1  part  nitric  acid,  1.25  parts 
sulphuric  acid  of  66°  Be.,  0.01  part  com- 
mon salt,  and  0.02  parts  lampblack. 
The  article  must  then  be  immediately 
and  carefully  washed  with  water  till  no 
trace  of  acid  remains.  It  is  then  ready 
for  galvanizing  or  drying  in  bran  or 
beech  sawdust.  When  articles  united 
with  soft  solder  are  pickled  in  nitric  acid, 
the  solder  receives  a  gray-black  color. 

Palladiumizing  Watch  Movements. — 
Palladium  is  successfully  employed  for 
coating  parts  of  timepieces  and  other 
pieces  of  metals  to  preserve  them  against 
oxidation.  To  prepare  a  palladium 
bath  use  the  following  ingredients: 
Chloride  of  palladium,  10  parts,  by 
weight;  phosphate  of  ammonia,  100 
parts;  phosphate  of  soda,  300  parts; 
benzoic  acid,  8  parts;  water,  2,000 
parts. 

Metal  Browning  by  Oxidation. — The 
article  ought  first  to  be  cleaned  with 
either  nitric  acid  or  muriatic  acid,  then 
immersed  in  an  acid  affecting  the  metal 
and  dried  in  a  warm  place.  A  light 
coating  is  thus  formed.  For  a  second 
coating  acetic  or  formic  acid  is  used 
preferably  for  aluminum,  nickel,  and 
copper;  but  for  iron  and  steel,  muriatic 
or  nitric  acid.  After  cleaning,  the  arti- 
cle is  placed  in  a  solution  of  tannin  or 
gallic  acid,  and  is  then  dried  in  a  warm 
place  as  before.  The  second  coating  is 
of  a  yellowish-brown  color.  On  placing 
it  near  the  fire,  the  color  can  be  deepened 
until  it  becomes  completely  black;  care 
must  be  taken  to  withdraw  it  when  the 
desired  shade  is  produced.  Instead  of 
the  acids  employed  for  the  first  coating, 
ammonia  may  be  used. 

Silvering  by  Oxidation. — The  oxidiz- 
ing of  silver  darkens  it,  and  gives  an  an- 
tique appearance  that  is  highly  prized. 

I. — The  salts  of  silver  are  colorless 
when  the  acids,  the  elements  of  which 


enter  into  their  composition,  are  not  col- 
ored, but  they  generally  blacken  on  ex- 
posure to  light.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to 
blacken  silver  and  obtain  its  oxide;  it  is 
sufficient  to  place  it  in  contact  with  a 
sulphide,  vapor  of  sulphur,  sulphohydric 
acids,  such  as  the  sulphides  or  polysul- 
phides  of  potash,  soda,  dissolved  in  water 
and  called  eau  de  barege.  The  chlorides 
play  the  same  part,  and  the  chloride  of 
lime  in  solution  or  simply  Javelle  water 
may  be  used.  It  is  used  hot  in  order  to 
accelerate  its  action.  The  bath  must  be 
prepared  new  for  each  operation  for  two 
reasons:  (1)  It  is  of  little  value;  (2) 
the  sulphides  precipitate  rapidly  and 
give  best  effects  only  at  the  time  of  their 
direct  precipitations.  The  quantity  of 
the  reagent  in  solution,  forming  the  bath, 
depends  upon  the  thickness  of  the  deposit 
of  silver.  When  this  is  trifling,  the  oxi- 
dation penetrates  the  entire  deposit  and 
the  silver  exfoliates  in  smaller  scales, 
leaving  the  copper  bare.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  in  this  case  to  operate 
with  dilute  baths  inclosing  only  about 
45  grains  of  oxidizant  at  most  per  quart. 
The  operation  is  simple:  Heat  the  nec- 
essary quantity  of  water,  add  the  sul- 
phide or  chloride  and  agitate  to  effect 
the  solution  of  the  mixture,  and  then  at 
once  plunge  in  the  silver-plated  articles, 
leaving  them  immersed  only  for  a  few 
seconds,  which  exposure  is  sufficient  to 
cover  it  with  a  pellicle  of  deep  black-blue 
silver.  After  withdrawing  they  are 
plunged  in  clean  cold  water,  rinsed  and 
dried,  and  either  left  mat  or  else  pol- 
ished, according  to  the  nature  of  the 
articles. 

Should  the  result  not  be  satisfactory, 
the  articles  are  brightened  by  immersing 
them  in  a  lukewarm  solution  of  cyanide 
of  potassium.  The  oxide,  the  true  name 
of  which  would  be  the  sulphuret  or 
chloruret,  can  be  raised  only  on  an  object 
either  entirely  of  silver  or  silver  plated. 

II. — Rub  the  article  with  a  mixture  of 
graphite,  6  parts,  and  powdered  blood- 
stone, 1  part,  moistened  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. Allow  to  dry  and  brush  with 
soft  brushes  passed  over  wax.  Or  else, 
brush  with  a  soft  brush  wet  with  alco- 
holic or  aqueous  platinic  chloride  solu- 
tion of  1  in  20. 

III. — Sulphurizing  is  effected  with  the 
following  methods:  Dip  in  a  solution 
heated  to  about  175°  F.,  of  potassium 
sulphide,  5  parts,  by  weight;  ammo- 
nium carbonate,  10  parts;  water,  1,000 
parts;  or,  calcium  sulphide,  1  to  2  parts; 
sal  ammoniac,  4  parts;  water,  1.000 
parts. 


584 


PLATING 


IV. — In  the  following  solution  articles 
of  silver  obtain  a  warm  brown  tone: 
Copper  sulphate,  20  parts,  by  weight; 
potassium  nitrate,  10  parts;  ammonium 
chloride,  20  parts.  By  means  of  bro- 
mine, silver  and  silver  alloys  receive  a 
black  coloring.  On  engraved  surfaces 
a  niello-like  effect  may  be  produced 
thereby. 

Oxidized  Steel. — I. — Mix  together  bis- 
muth chloride,  1  part;  mercury  bichlo- 
ride, 2  parts;  copper  chloride,  1  part;  hy- 
drochloric acid,  6  parts;  alcohol,  5  parts; 
and  water,  5  parts.  To  use  this  mixture 
successfully  the  articles  to  be  oxidized 
must  be  cleaned  perfectly  and  freed 
from  all  grease,  which  is  best  accom- 
plished by  boiling  them  in  a  soda  solu- 
tion or  by  washing  in  spirit  of  wine. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  touch  the 
article  with  the  fingers  again  after  this 
cleaning.  However  clean  the  hand 
may  be,  it  always  has  grease  on  it  and 
leaves  spots  after  touching,  especially  on 
steel.  Next  the  object  is  dipped  into 
the  liquid,  or  if  this  is  not  possible  the 
solution  is  applied  thin  but  evenly  with  a 
brush,  pencil,  or  rabbit's  foot.  When 
the  liquid  has  dried,  the  article  is  placed 
for  a  half  hour  in  simple  boiling  water. 
If  a  very  dark  shade  is  desired  the  proc- 
ess is  repeated  until  the  required  color 
is  attained. 

II. — Apply,  by  means  of  a  sponge,  a 
solution  of  crystallize^  iron  chloride,  2 
parts;  solid  butter  of  antimony,  2  parts; 
and  gallic  acid,  1  part  in  5  parts  of  water. 
Dry  the  article  in  the  air  and  repeat  the 
treatment  until  the  desired  snade  is 
reached.  Finally  rinse  with  water, 
dry,  and  rub  with  linseed-oil  varnish. 

Tinning  by  Oxidation. — A  dipping 
bath  for  tinning  iron  is  prepared  by  dis- 
solving 300  parts,  by  weight,  ammonia 
alum  (sulphate  of  akimina  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia)'  and  10  parts  of  melted 
stannous  chloride  (tin  salt)  in  20,000 
parts  of  warm  water.  As  soon  as  the 
solution  boils,  the  iron  articles,  previ- 
ously pickled  and  rinsed  in  fresh  water, 
are  plunged  into  the  fluid;  they  are  im- 
mediately covered  with  a  layer  of  tin  of 
a  beautiful  dull-white  color,  which  can 
be  made  bright  by  treatment  in  a  tub  or 
sack.  Small  quantities  of  tin  salt  are 
added  from  time  to  time  as  may  be  re- 
quired to  replace  the  tin  deposited  on 
tne  iron.  This  bath  is  also  well  adapted 
for  tinning  zinc,  but  here  also,  as  with 
iron,  the  deposit  is  not  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent oxidation  of  the  metal  below. 
Larger  articles  tinned  in  this  way  are 


polished  by  scratch  brushing.  In  tin- 
ning zinc  by  this  process,  the  ammonia 
alum  may  be  replaced  by  any  other  kind 
of  alum,  or  aluminum  sulphate  may  be 
used  alone;  experience  has  shown,  how- 
ever, that  this  cannot  be  done  with  iron, 
cast  iron,  or  steel.  If  it  is  desired  to  tin 
other  metals  besides  iron  and  zinc  in  the 
solution  which  we  have  described,  the 
battery  must  be  resorted  to;  if  the  latter 
is  used,  the  above  solution  should  be  ap- 
plied in  preference  to  any  other. 

PATINA  OXIDIZING  PROCESSES: 

Patina  of  Art  Bronzes.  —  For  all 
patinas,  whether  the  ordinary  brown 
of  commerce,  the  green  of  the  Barye 
bronzes,  or  the  dark-orange  tint  of  the 
Florentine  bronzes,  a  brush  is  used  with 
pigments  varying  according  to  the  shade 
desired  and  applied  to  the  metal  after  it 
is  warmed.  Recipes  are  to  be  met  with 
on  every  hand  that  have  not  been  pat- 
ented. But  the  details  of  the  operation 
are  the  important  thing,  and  often  the 
effect  is  produced  by  a  handicraft  which 
it  is  difficult  to  penetrate. 

I. — A  dark  tint  may  be  obtained  by 
cleaning  the  object  and  applying  a  coat 
of  hydrosulphate  of  ammonia;  then, 
after  drying  it,  by  rubbing  with  a  brush 
smeared  with  red  chalk  and  plumbago. 
The  copper  may  also  be  moistened  with 
a  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  platina 
and  warmed  slightly,  or  still  by  plunging 
it  in  a  warm  solution  of  the  hydrochlo- 
rate  of  antimony.  For  the  verde  an- 
tique a  solution  is  recommended  com- 
posed of  200  grams  of  acetic  acid  of  8° 
strength,  the  same  quantity  of  common 
vinegar,  30  parts,  by  weight,  of  car- 
bonate of  ammonia;  10  parts,  by  weight, 
of  sea  salt;  with  the  same  quantities  of 
cream  of  tartar  and  acetate  of  copper 
and  a  little  water.  To  obtain  the 
bronze  of  medals  several  processes  afford 
a  selection:  For  example,  the  piece  may 
be  dipped  in  a  bath  consisting  of  equal 
parts  of  the  perchloride  and  the  sesquia- 
zotate  of  iron,  warming  to  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  liquid,  and  rubbing  with  a 
waxed  brush. 

II. — Dissolve  copper  nitrate,  10  parts, 
by  weight,  and  kitchen  salt,  2  parts,  in 
500  parts  of  water  and  add  a  solution  of 
ammonium  acetate  obtained  by  neu- 
tralization of  10  parts  of  officinal  spirit  of 
sal  ammoniac  with  acetic  acid  to  a  faintly 
acid  reaction,  and  filling  up  with  water 
to  500  parts.  Immerse  the  bronze,  allow 
to  dry,  brush  off  superficially  and  repeat 
this  until  the  desired  shade  of  color  has 
been  obtained. 


PLATING 


585 


A  Permanent  Patina  for  Copper. — 
Green. — 

I. — Sodium   chloride.        37  parts 
Ammonia  water.  .        75  parts 
Ammonium    chlo- 
ride         37  parts 

Strong  wine  vin- 
egar  5,000  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve.  Apply  to  object  to 
be  treated,  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil. 
Repeat  the  operation  until  the  desired 
shade  of  green  is  reached. 

Yellow  Green.- — 

II. — Oxalic  acid 5  parts 

Ammonium     chlo- 
ride        10  parts 

Acetic  acid,  30  per 

cent  dilution.  .  .  .    500  parts 
Mix  and  dissolve.     Use  as  above  in- 
dicated.     The    following    will    produce 
the  same  result: 

III. — Potassium  oxalate, 

acid 4  parts 

Ammonium  chlo- 
ride   ..16-17  parts 

Vinegar  contain- 
ing 6  per  cent  of 
acetic  acid 1,000  parts 

IV. — Bluish  Green. — After  using  the 
first  formula  (for  green)  pencil  over  with 
the  following  solution: 

Ammonium  chlo- 
ride    40  parts 

Ammonium  car- 
bonate   120  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve. 
Greenish  Brown. — 
V. — Potassium     s  u  1  - 

phuret 5  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve.  With  this,  pencil 
over  object  to  be  treated,  let  dry,  then 
pencil  over  with  10  parts  a  mixture  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  ammonia  water  and 
acetic  acid  and  5  parts  of  ammonium 
chloride  thinned  with  1,000  parts  of 
water.  Let  dry  again,  then  brush  off 
well.  Repeat,  if  necessary,  until  the 
desired  hue  is  attained. 

Another  Blue  Green. — 
VI. —  Corrosive  sublimate.          25  parts 
Potassium  nitrate..          86  parts 

Borax 56  parts 

Zinc  oxide 113  parts 

Copper  acetate  .  .  .220-225  parts 
Mix  and  heat  together  on  the  surface 
of  the  object  under  treatment. 


VII. — Brown. — The  following  is  a 
Parisian  method  of  producing  a  beau- 
tiful deep  brown: 

Potassium  oxalate, 

acid 3  parts 

Ammonium     chlo- 
ride        15  parts 

Water,  distilled. ...  280  parts 
Mix  and  dissolve.  The  object  is  pen , 
ciled  over  with  this  several  times,  each 
time  allowing  the  solution  to  dry  be- 
fore putting  on  any  more.  The  process 
is  slow,  but  makes  an  elegant  finish. 

Green  Patina  Upon  Copper. — To  pro- 
duce a  green  patina  upon  copper  take 
tartaric  acid,  dilute  it  half  and  half  with 
boiling  water;  coat  the  copper  with  this; 
allow  to  dry  for  one  day  and  rub  the  ap- 
plied layer  off  again  the  next  day  with 
oakum.  The  coating  must  be  done  in 
dry  weather,  else  no  success  will  be  ob- 
tained. Take  hydrochloric  acid  and 
dilute  it  half  and  half  with  boiling  water, 
but  the  hydrochloric  acid  should  be 
poured  in  the  water,  not  vice-versa, 
which  is  dangerous.  In  this  hydro- 
chloric acid  water  dissolve  as  much  zinc 
as  it  can  solve  and  allow  to  settle.  The 
clear  liquid  is  again  diluted  half  with 
boiling  water  and  the  copper  is  coated 
with  tnis  a  few  times. 

Black  Patina. — Black  patina  is  ob- 
tained by  coating  with  tallow  the  pieces 
to  be  oxidized  and  lighting  with  a  rosin 
torch.  Finally,  wipe  the  reliefs  and  let 
dry. 

Blue -Black  Patina. — Use  a  dilute  so- 
lution of  chloride  of  antimony  in  water 
and  add  a  little  free  hydrochloric  acid. 
Apply  with  a  soft  brush,  allow  the  article 
to  dry  and  rub  with  a  flannel.  If  ex- 
pense is  no  object,  employ  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  palladium,  which  gives  a 
magnificent  blue  black.  It  is  necessary, 
however,  to  previously  clean  the  articles 
thoroughly  in  a  hot  solution  of  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  in  order  to  remove  the  dirt 
and  greasy  matter,  which  would  prevent 
the  patina  from  becoming  fixed. 

Red  Patina. — The  following  is  a  new 
method  of  making  a  red  patina,  the  so- 
called  blood  bronze,  on  copper  and 
copper  alloys.  The  metallic  object  is 
first  made  red  hot,  whereby  it  becomes 
covered  with  a  coating  consisting  of 
cupric  oxide  on  the  surface  and  cuprous 
oxide  beneath.  After  cooling,  it  is 
worked  upon  with  a  polishing  plate  until 
the  black  cupric  oxide  coating  is  removed 
and  the  cuprous  oxide  appears.  The 
metal  now  shows  an  intense  red  color, 


586 


PLATING 


with  a  considerable  degree  of  luster,  both 
of  which  are  so  permanent  that  it  can  be 
treated  with  chemicals,  such  as  blue 
vitriol,  for  instance,  without  being  in  the 
least  affected. 

If  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  marbled 
surface,  instead  of  an  even  red  color, 
borax  or  some  chemical  having  a  similar 
action  is  sprinkled  upon  the  metal  during 
the  process  of  heating.  On  the  places 
covered  by  the  borax,  oxidation  is  pre- 
vented, and  after  polishing,  spots  of  the 
original  metallic  color  will  appear  in  the 
red  surface.  These  can  be  colored  by 
well-known  processes,  so  as  to  give  the 
desired  marbled  appearance. 

PLATINIZING: 

Platinizing  Aluminum.  —  Aluminum 
vessels  coated  with  a  layer  of  platinum 
are  recommended  in  place  of  platinum 
vessels,  when  not  exposed  to  very  high 
temperatures.  The  process  of  platin- 
izing is  simple,  consisting  in  rubbing  the 
aluminum  surface,  previously  polished, 
with  platinic  chloride,  rendered  slightly 
alkaline.  The  layer  of  platinum  is  made 
thicker  by  repeated  application.  Potash 
lye  is  carefully  addea  to  a  solution  of 
5  to  10  per  cent  of  platinic  chloride  in 
water  till  a  slightly  alkaline  reaction  is 
produced  on  filtering  paper  or  a  porce- 
lain plate  by  means  of  pnenolphthalein. 
This  solution  must  always  be  freshly 
prepared,  and  is  the  best  for  the  purpose. 
Neither  galvanizing  nor  amalgamating 
will  produce  the  desired  result.  Special 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  aluminum 
is  free  from  iron,  otherwise  black  patches 
will  arise  which  cannot  be  removed. 
Vessels  platinized  in  this  way  must  not 
be  cleaned  with  substances  such  as  sea- 
sand,  but  with  a  5  to  10  per  cent  solution 
of  oxalic  acid  in  water,  followed  by  thor- 
ough rinsing  in  water.  These  vessles 
are  said  to  be  specially  suitable  for  evap- 
orating purposes. 

Platinizing  Copper  and  Brass. — I. — The 
articles  are  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of 
platinum  in  a  boiling  solution  of  platinum 
sal  ammoniac,  1  part;  sal  ammoniac,  8 
parts;  and  water,  40  parts,  and  next  pol- 
ished with  chalk.  A  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  platinum  sal  ammoniac  and  tar- 
tar may  also  be  rubbed  on  the  objects. 
Steel  and  iron  articles  can  be  platinized 
with  an  ethereal  solution  of  platinic 
chloride.  For  small  jewelry  the  boiling 
solution  of  platinic  chloride,  10  parts; 
cooking  salt,  200  parts;  and  water,  1,000 
parts,  is  employed,  which  is  rendered  alka- 
line with  soda  lye.  In  this,  one  may 
also  work  with  zinc  contact. 


II. — Heat  800  parts  of  sal  ammoniac 
and  10  parts  of  platinum  sal  ammoniac 
to  the  boiling  point  with  400  parts  of 
water,  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  place  the 
articles  to  be  platinized  into  this,  where- 
by they  soon  become  covered  with  a 
coating  of  platinum.  They  are  then  re- 
moved from  the  liquid,  dried  and  pol- 
ished with  whiting. 

Platinizing  on  Glass  or  Porcelain. — 
First  dissolve  the  platinum  at  a  moder- 
ate temperature  in  aqua  regia,  and  next 
evaporate  the  solution  to  dryness,  ob- 
serving the  following  rules:  When  the 
solution  commences  to  turn  thick  it  is 
necessary  to  diminish  the  fire,  while 
carrying  the  evaporation  so  far  that  the 
salt  becomes  dry,  but  the  solution  should 
not  be  allowed  to  acquire  a  brown  color, 
which  occurs  if  the  heat  is  too  strong. 
The  result  of  this  first  operation  is 
chloride  of  platina.  When  the  latter 
has  cooled  off  it  should  be  dissolved  in 
alcohol  (95  per  cent).  The  dissolution 
accomplished,  which  takes  place  at  the 
end  of  1  or  2  hours,  throw  the  solution 
gradually  into  four  times  its  weight  of 
essence  of  lavender,  then  put  into  a  well- 
closed  flask. 

For  use,  dip  a  brush  into  the  solution 
and  apply  it  upon  the  objects  to  be  plat- 
inized, let  dry  and  place  in  the  muffle, 
leaving  them  in  the  oven  for  about  one- 
half  hour.  In  this  operation  one  should 
be  guided  as  regards  the  duration  of 
the  baking  by  the  hardness  or  fusibility 
of  the  objects  treated.  The  platiniza- 
tion  accomplished,  take  a  cotton  cloth, 
dipped  into  whiting  in  the  state  of  pulp, 
and  rub  the  platinated  articles  with  this, 
rinsing  with  water  afterwards. 

Platinizing  Metals. — Following  are 
several  processes  of  platinizing  on  met- 
als: 

It  is  understood  that  the  metals  to  be 
covered  with  platinum  must  be  copper 
or  coppered.  All  these  baths  require 
strong  batteries. 

I. — Take  borate  of  potash,  300  parts, 
by  weight;  chloride  of  platina,  12  parts; 
distilled  water,  1,000  parts. 

II. — Carbonate  of  soda,  250  parts,  by 
weight;  chloride  of  platina,  10  parts;  dis- 
tilled water,  1,000  parts. 

III. — Sulphocyanide  of  potash,  12 
parts,  by  weight;  chloride  of  platina,  12 
parts;  carbonate  of  soda,  12  parts;  dis- 
tilled water,  1,000  parts. 

IV. — Borate  of  soda,  500  parts,  by 
weight;  chloride  of  platina,  12  parts;  dis- 
tilled water,  1,000  parts. 


PLATING 


587 


SILVERING,   SILVER-PLATING,  AND 
DESILVERING: 

See  also  Silvering  by  Oxidation,  under 
Oxidation  Processes,  under  Plating. 

Antique  Silver — There  are  various 
processes  for  producing  antique  silver, 
either  fat  or  oxidized: 

To  a  little  copal  varnish  add  some 
finely  powdered  ivory  black  or  graphite. 
Thin  with  spirits  of  turpentine  and  rub 
with  a  brush  dipped  into  this  varnish 
the  objects  to  be  treated.  Allow  to  dry 
for  an  hour  and  wipe  off  the  top  of  the 
articles  with  some  rag,  so  that  the  black 
remains  only  in  the  hollows.  If  a  softer 
tint  is  desired,  apply  again  with  a  dry 
brush  and  wipe  as  the  first  time.  The 
coating  of  black  will  be  weaker  and  the 
shade  handsomer. 

Britannia  Silver -Plating.  —  I.  —  The 
article  should  first  be  cleaned  and  then 
rubbed  by  means  of  a  wet  cloth  with  a 
pinch  of  powder  obtained  by  mixing  to- 
gether: Nitrate  of  silver,  1  part;  cyanide 
of  potassium,  2  parts;  chalk,  5  parts. 
Then  wipe  with  a  dry  cloth,  and  polish 
well  with  rouge  to  give  brilliancy. 

II. — By  the  electric  method  the  metal 
is  simply  plunged  into  a  hot  saturated 
solution  of  crude  potassium  carbonate, 
and  the  plating  is  then  done  directly, 
using  a  strong  electrical  current.  The 
potassium  carbonate  solution  dissolves 
the  surface  of  the  britannia  metal  and 
thus  enables  the  silver  to  take  a  strong 
hold  on  the  article. 

To  Silver  Brass,  Bronze,  Copper,  etc. 
— I. — In  order  to  silver  copper,  brass, 
bronze,  or  coppered  metallic  articles, 
dissolve  10  parts  of  lunar  caustic  in  500 
parts  of  distilled  water,  and  35  parts  of 
potassium  cyanide  (98  per  cent)  in  500 
parts  of  distilled  water;  mix  both  solu- 
tions with  stirring,  heat  to  176°  to  194° 
F.  in  an  enameled  vessel,  and  enter  the 
articles,  well  cleansed  of  fat  and  impuri- 
ties, until  a  uniform  coating  has  formed. 

II. — Zinc,  brass,  and  copper  are  sil- 
vered by  applying  a  paste  of  the  follow- 
ing composition:  Ten  parts  of  silver 
nitrate  dissolved  in  50  parts  of  distilled 
water,  and  25  parts  of  potassium  cya- 
nide dissolved  m  distilled  water;  mix, 
stir,  and  filter.  Moisten  100  parts  of 
whiting  and  400  parts  of  powdered  tartar 
with  enough  of  the  above  solution  to 
make  a  paste-like  mass,  which  is  applied 
by  means  of  a  brush  on  the  well-cleaned 
objects.  After  the  drying  of  this  coat- 
ing, rinse  off,  and  dry  in  sawdust. 

III. — To  silver  brass  and  copper  by 
friction,  rub  on  the  articles,  previously 


cleaned  of  grease,  a  paste  of  silver 
chloride,  10  parts;  cooking  salt,  20  parts; 
powdered  tartar,  20  parts;  and  the  nec- 
essary water,  using  a  rag. 

Desilvering. — I.— It  often  happens  in 
plating  that,  notwithstanding  all  pre- 
cautions, some  pieces  have  failed  and  it 
is  necessary  to  commence  the  work 
again.  For  removing  the  silver  that  has 
been  applied,  a  rapid  method  is  to  take 
sulphuric  acid,  100  parts,  and  nitrate  of 
potash,  10  parts.  Put  the  sulphuric 
acid  and  the  nitrate  of  potash  (saltpeter) 
in  a  vessel  of  stoneware  or  porcelain, 
heated  on  the  water  bath.  When  the 
silver  has  been  removed  from  the  cop- 
per, rinse  the  object  several  times  and 
recommence  the  silvering.  This  bath 
may  be  used  repeatedly,  taking  care  each 
time  to  put  it  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 
When  it  has  been  saturated  with  silver 
and  has  no  more  strength,  decant  the 
deposit,  boil  the  liquor  to  dryness,  add 
the  residue  to  the  deposit,  and  melt  in  a 
crucible  to  regenerate  the  metal. 

II. — To  dissolve  the  silver  covering  of 
a  metallic  object,  a  bath  is  made  use  of, 
composed  of  66  per  cent  sulphuric  acid, 

3  parts,  and  40  per  cent  nitric  acid,   1 
part.      This  mixture  is  heated  to  about 
176°  F.,  and  the  objects  to  be  desilvered 
are  suspended  in  it  by  means  of  a  copper 
wire.      The  operation  is  accomplished  in 
a  few  seconds.     The  objects  are  washed 
and  then  dried  in  sawdust. 

To  Silver  Glass  Balls  and  Plate  Glass. 
— The  following  is  a  method  for  silvering 
the  glass  balls  which  are  used  as  orna- 
ments in  gardens,  glass  panes,  and  con- 
cave mirrors:  Dissolve  300  parts  of 
nitrate  of  silver  and  200  parts  of  am- 
monia in  1,300  parts  of  distilled  water. 
Add  35  parts  of  tartaric  acid  dissolved  in 

4  times    its    weight    of   water.       Dilute 
the  whole  with  15,000  to  17,000  parts  of 
distilled  water.     Prepare  a  second  solu- 
tion   containing    twice    the    amount    of 
tartaric  acid  as  the  preceding  one.      Ap- 
ply each  of  these  solutions  successively 
for  15  to  20  minutes  on  the  glass  to  be 
silvered,    which    must    previously    have 
been  cleaned  and  dried.      When  the  sil- 
vering is  sufficient,  wash  the  object  with 
hot   water,    let    dry,    and    cover   with    a 
brown  varnish. 

Iron  Silver -Plating. — I. — Iron  articles 
are  plated  with  quicksilver  in  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  mercury  before  being  sil- 
vered. The  quicksilver  is  then  removed 
by  heating  to  572°  F.  The  articles  may 
also  be  first  tinned  to  economize  the 
silver.  Steel  is  dipped  in  a  mixture  of 


588 


PLATING 


nitrate  of  silver  and  mercury,  each  dis- 
solved separately  in  the  proportion  of  5 
parts,  by  weight,  to  300  parts,  by  weight, 
of  water,  then  wiped  to  remove  the  black 
film  of  carbon,  and  silvered  till  a  sample 
dipped  in  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol  ceases 
to  turn  red.  According  to  H.  Krupp, 
articles  made  of  an  alloy  of  nickel,  cop- 
per, and  zinc,  such  as  knives,  forks, 
spoons,  etc.,  should  be  coated  electric- 
ally with  nickel,  put  into  a  solution  of 
copper  like  that  used  for  galvanic  cop- 
pering, and  then  electroplated. 

II. — A  brilliant  silver  color  may  be 
imparted  to  iron  (from  which  all  grease 
has  been  previously  removed)  by  treat- 
ing it  with  the  following  solution:  Forty 
parts,  by  weight,  chloride  of  antimony; 
10  parts,  by  weight,  powdered  arsenious 
acid;  and  80  parts  levigated  hematite 
are  mixed  with  1,000  parts  of  90  per 
cent  alcohol  and  gently  heated  for  half 
an  hour  on  a  water  bath.  A  partial  so- 
lution takes  place,  and  a  small  cotton  pad 
is  then  dipped  in  the  liquid  and  applied 
with  a  gentle  pressure  to  the  iron.  A 
thin  film  consisting  of  arsenic  and  an- 
timony is  precipitated,  as  described  by 
Dr.  Langbein,  in  his  "Handbuch  der 

galv.  Metallniederschlage."  The  bril- 
ancy  of  the  effect  depends  upon  the 
care  with  which  the  iron  has  previously 
been  polished. 

To  Silver-Plate  Metals. — I. — Nitrate 
of  silver,  30  parts,  by  weight;  caustic 
potash,  30  parts;  distilled  water,  100  parts. 
Put  the  nitrate  of  silver  into  the  water; 
one-quarter  hour  afterwards  add  the  pot- 
ash, and,  when  the  solution  is  done,  fil- 
ter. It  is  sufficient  to  dip  the  objects  to 
be  silvered  into  this  bath,  moving  them 
about  in  it  for  1  or  2  minutes  at  most; 
then  rinsing  and  drying  in  sawdust.  It 
is  necessary  to  pickle  the  pieces  before 
using  the  bath.  To  make  the  nitrate  of 
silver  one's  self,  take  30  parts  of  pure 
silver  and  60  parts  of  nitric  acid,  and 
when  the  metal  is  dissolved  add  the 
caustic  potash  and  the  water. 

II. — Kayser's  silvering  liquid,  which 
is  excellent  for  all  kinds  of  metals,  is 
prepared  from  lunar  caustic,  11  parts; 
sodium  hyposulphite,  20  parts;  sal  am- 
moniac, 12  parts;  whiting,  20  parts;  and 
distilled  water,  200  parts.  The  articles 
must  be  cleaned  well. 

Mosaic  Silver. — This  compound  con- 
sists of  tin,  3  parts,  by  weight;  bismuth, 
3  parts;  and  mercury,  1£  parts.  The 
alloy  of  these  metals  is  powdered  finely, 
thus  forming  a  silvery  mass  used  for 
imitation  silvering  of  metals,  paper, 
wood,  etc.  In  order  to  impart  to  metals, 


especially  articles  of  copper  and  brass,  au 
appearance  similar  to  silver,  they  are 
made  perfectly  bright.  The  powder  of 
the  mosaic  silver  is  mixed  witn  six  times 
the  volume  of  bone  ashes,  adding  enough 
water  to  cause  a  paste  and  rubbing  this 
on  the  metallic  surface  by  means  of  a 
cork  of  suitable  shape.  In  order  to 
silver  paper  by  means  of  this  preparation 
it  is  ground  with  white  of  egg,  diluted 
mucilage,  or  varnish,  and  treated  like  a 
paint. 

Pastes  for  Silvering. — I. — Carbonate 
of  lime,  65  parts;  sea  salt,  60  parts; 
cream  of  tartar,  35  parts;  nitrate  of 
silver,  20  parts.  Bray  all  in  a  mortar, 
not  adding  the  carbonate  of  lime  until 
the  other  substances  are  reduced  to  a 
fine  powder.  Next,  add  a  little  water  to 
form  a  homogeneous  paste,  which  is 
preserved  in  blue  bottles  away  from  the 
fight.  For  use,  put  a  little  of  this  paste 
on  a  small  pad  and  rub  the  article  with  it. 

II. — Articles  of  zinc,  brass,  or  copper 
may  also  be  silver-plated  by  applying  to 
them  a  pasty  mass  of  the  following 
composition:  First  dissolve  10  parts,  by 
weight,  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  distilled  water;  also  25  parts, 
by  weight,  of  potassium  cyanide  in  suffi- 
cient distilled  water  to  dissolve  it.  Pour 
the  two  together,  stir  well,  and  filter. 
Now  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  whiting  or 
levigated  chalk  and  400  parts,  by  weight, 
of  potassium  bitartrate,  finely  powdered, 
are  moistened  with  the  above  solution 
sufficiently  to  form  a  soft  paste,  which 
may  be  applied  to  the  objects,  previously 
well  cleansed,  with  a  brush.  After  this 
coating  has  dried  well,  rinse  it  off,  and 
dry  the  object  in  clean  sawdust. 

Resilvering. — I. — Take  100  parts,  by 
weight,  of  distilled  water  and  divide  it 
into  two  equal  portions.  In  the  one  dis- 
solve 10  parts  of  silver  nitrate  and  in  the 
other  25  parts  of  potassium  cyanide. 
The  two  solutions  are  reunited  in  a  single 
vessel  as  soon  as  completed.  Next  pre- 
pare a  mixture  of  100  parts  of  Spanish 
white,  passed  through  a  fine  sieve,  10 
parts  of  cream  of  tartar,  pulverized,  and 
1  part  of  mercury.  This  powder  is 
stirred  in  a  portion  of  the  above  liquid 
so  as  to  form  a  rather  thick  paste.  The 
composition  is  applied  by  means  of  the 
finger,  covered  with  a  rag,  on  the  object 
to  be  silvered.  The  application  must  be 
as  even  as  possible.  Let  the  object  dry 
.and  wash  in  pure  water.  The  excess  of 
powder  is  removed  with  a  brush. 

II. — The  following  is  a  process  used 
when  the  jeweler  has  to  repair  certain 
pieces  from  which  silvering  has  come  off 


PLATING 


589 


in  places,  and  which  he  would  like  to 
repair  without  having  recourse  to  the 
battery,  and  specially  without  having  to 
take  out  the  stones  or  pearls:  Take 
nitrate  of  silver,  25  parts,  by  weight; 
cyanide  of  potassium,  50  parts;  cream  of 
tartar,  20  parts;  Paris  white,  200  parts; 
distilled  water,  200  parts;  mercury,  2  parts. 
Dissolve  the  nitrate  of  silver  in  half  of 
the  distilled  water  and  the  cyanide  in 
the  other  half;  mix  the  two  liquids;  next 
bray  well  in  a  mortar  the  mercury,  Paris 
white,  and  cream  of  tartar.  Preserve 
the  products  of  these  two  operations 
separately,  and  when  you  wish  to  use 
them  make  a  rather  soft  paste  of  the  two, 
which  apply  with  a  little  cotton  or  a 
brush  on  the  portion  to  be  silvered.  Let 
dry  and  subsequently  rub  with  a  soft 
brush. 

Tin  Silver-Plating. — 'Prepare  a  solu- 
tion of  3  parts,  by  weight,  of  bismuth 
subnitrate  in  10  parts  of  nitric  acid  of 
1.4  specific  gravity,  to  which  add  a  solu- 
tion of  10  parts  of  tartar  and  40  parts  of 
hydrochloric  acid  in  1,000  parts  of  water. 
In  the  mixture  of  these  solutions  im- 
merse the  tin  articles  freed  from  grease 
and  oxide.  The  pulverous  bismuth 
precipitated  on  the  surface  is  rubbed  off, 
whereupon  the  objects  appear  dark  steel 
gray.  For  silvering  prepare  a  mixture 
of  10  parts  of  silver  chloride;  30  parts  of 
cooking  salt;  20  parts  of  tartar,  and  100 
parts  of  powdered  chalk,  which  is  rubbed 
in  a  slightly  moist  state  on  the  bismuth 
surface  of  the  tin  articles,  using  a  flannel 
rag.  The  silver  separates  only  in  a 
very  thin  layer,  and  must  be  protected 
against  power  and  light  before  tarnish- 
ing by  a  coating  of  preservative  or  cel- 
luloid varnish. 

Zinc  Contact  Silver-Plating. — Accord- 
ing to  Buchner,  10  parts,  by  weight,  of 
silver  nitrate  is  dissolved  in  water  and 
precipitated  by  the  addition  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  the  form  of  silver  chloride, 
which  is  washed  several  times  in  clean 
water;  now  dissolve  70  parts,  by  weight, 
of  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac  in  water,  and 
add  to  it  40  parts,  by  weight,  of  soda  crys- 
tals, 40  parts,  by  weight,  of  pure  potas- 
sium cyanide,  and  15  parts,  by  weight,  of 
common  salt.  Now  thin  down  the 
compound  with  sufficient  distilled  water 
to  make  a  total  of  1,000  parts. 

Tin  Plating  of  Lead. — Lead  plates  are 
best  tinned  by  plating.  For  this  purpose 
a  table  with  a  perfectly  even  iron  surface 
and  provided  with  vertical  raised  edges 
to  prevent  the  melted  metal  from  flowing 
away,  is  employed.  The  lead  is  poured 


on  this  table,  and  covered  with  grease  to 
prevent  oxidation  of  the  surface.  As 
soon  as  the  lead  is  congealed,  melted  tin 
is  poured  over  it,  care  being  taken  that 
the  tin  is  sufficiently  heated  to  remelt  the 
surface  of  the  lead  and  combine  thorough- 
ly with  it.  When  the  plate  is  sufficiently 
cooled,  it  is  turned  over,  and  the  lower 
surface  treated  in  the  same  way.  The 
plate,  thus  tinned  on  both  sides,  is  then 
placed  between  rollers,  and  can  be  rolled 
into  very  thin  sheets  without  injury  to 
the  tin  coating.  These  sheets,  doubly 
coated  with  tin  by  this  process,  are  spe- 
cially adapted  for  lining  cases  intended 
for  the  transport  of  biscuits,  chocolate, 
candies,  tea,  snuff,  etc.  If  lead  plates 
are  only  to  be  tinned  superficially,  they 
are  heated  to  a  tolerably  high  tempera- 
ture, and  sprinkled  with  powdered  rosin; 
melted  tin  is  then  rubbed  on  the  surface 
of  the  plate  with  a  ball  of  tow.  It  is 
advisable  to  give  the  lead  a  fairly  thick 
coating  of  tin,  as  the  latter  is  rendered 
thinner  by  the  subsequent  rolling. 

VARIOUS  RECIPES: 

To  Ascertain  whether  an  Article  is 
Nickeled,  Tinned,  or  Silvered.— -When 
necessary  to  ascertain  quickly  and  accur- 
ately the  nature  of  the  white  metal  cover- 
ing an  object,  the  following  process  will 
be  found  to  give  excellent  results: 

Nickeled  Surface. — If  the  article  has  a 
nickel  coating,  a  drop  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  deposited  on  a  spot  clean  and  free 
from  grease,  will  quickly  develop  a  green- 
ish tint.  If  the  object  is  kept  for  5  or  10 
minutes  in  a  solution  composed  of  60 
parts  of  sea  salt  and  110  parts  of  water, 
it  will  receive  a  very  characteristic  red- 
dish tint.  A  drop  of  sulphuret  of  so- 
dium does  not  change  a  nickeled  surface. 

Tinned  Surface. — A  tinned  object  may 
be  recognized  readily  by  applying  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which,  even  diluted,  will 
remove  the  tin.  The  salt  solution,  used 
as  previously  described,  produces  a  gray 
tint,  faint  in  certain  cases.  The  sul- 
phuret of  sodium  dissolves  tin. 

Silvered  Surface. — In  the  case  of  a  sil- 
vered article  a  drop  of  nitric  acid  will 
remove  the  silver,  while  hydrochloric 
acid  will  scarcely  attack  it.  The  salt 
solution  will  produce  no  effect.  The 
sulphuret  of  sodium  will  blacken  it 
rapidly. 

PLATINIZING: 

See  Plating. 

PLATINOTYPE   PAPER: 

See  Photography. 


590 


PLATINUM   PAPERS— POLISHES 


PLATINUM  PAPERS  AND  THEIR  DE- 
VELOPMENT: 

See  Photography,  under  Developing 
Papers. 

PLATINUM    WASTE,  TO    SEPARATE 
SILVER  FROM: 

See  Silver. 

PLUMBAGO: 

See  Lubricants. 

PLUMES: 

See  Feathers. 

PLUSH : 

To  Make  Plush  Adhere  to  Metal. — 
Wash  off  with  ordinary  soda  water  the 
bottom  of  a  tin  box,  wiping  it  dry  with 
cloth.  Coat  the  tin  with  the  juice  of 
onion  and  press  on  this  space  a  piece  of 
strong  paper,  smoothing  it  out  so  that 
there  will  be  no  blisters.  When  this  has 
dried,  the  paper  will  adhere,  so  that  it 
can  be  removed  only  by  scraping  with  a 
sharp  instrument.  Then  give  a  coat  of 
hot  glue  to  the  paper  and  press  the  plush 
down  into  the  glue,  and  when  dry  and 
hard,  the  plush  can  be  removed  only  by 
placing  the  tin  box  in  boiling  water. 

PLUSH,  TO  REMOVE  GREASE  SPOTS 
FROM: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

POISONS,  ANTIDOTES  FOR: 

See  Antidotes. 

Polishes 

Polishes  for  Aluminum.  —  I.  —  M. 
Mouray  recommends  the  use  of  an  emul- 
sion of  equal  parts  of  rum  and  olive  oil, 
made  by  shaking  these  liquids  together 
in  a  bottle.  When  a  burnishing  stone  is 
used,  the  peculiar  black  streaks  first 
appearing  should  not  cause  vexation, 
since  they  do  not  injure  the  metal  in  the 
least,  and  may  be  removed  with  a  woolen 
rag.  The  object  in  question  may  also 
be  brightened  in  potash  lye,  in  which 
case,  however,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
have  the  lye  too  strong.  For  cleaning 
purposes  benzol  has  been  found  best. 

II. — Aluminum  is  susceptible  of  tak- 
ing a  beautiful  polish,  but  it  is  not  white 
like  that  of  silver  or  nickel,  rather 
slightly  bluish,  like  tin.  The  shade  can 
be  improved.  First,  the  grease  is  to  be 
removed  from  the  object  with  pumice 
stone.  Then,  for  polishing,  use  is  made 
of  an  emery  paste  mingled  with  tallow, 
forming  cakes  which  are  rubbed  on  the 
polishing  brushes.  Finally,  rouge  pow- 
der is  employed  with  oil  of  turpentine. 


Polishes  for  Bars,  Counters,  etc. 

I. — Linseed  oil 8  ounces 

Stale  ale.  ..........      8  ounces 

Hydrochloric  acid  . .  1  ounce 
Alcohol,  95  per  cent.  1  ounce 
White  of  1  egg. 

Mix.  Shake  before  using.  Clean 
out  the  dust,  dirt,  etc.,  using  an  appro- 
priate brush,  or  a  bit  of  cloth  wrapped 
around  a  stick,  then  apply  the  above, 
with  a  soft  brush,  or  a  bit  of  cotton 
wrapped  in  a  bit  of  silk — or,  in  fact,  any 
convenient  method,  of  applying  it. 

II. — Japan  wax 1     av.  ounce 

Oil  of  turpentine     3    fluidounces 

Linseed  oil 16    fluidounces 

Alcohol 3     fluidounces 

Solution   of   pot- 
ash       1|  fluidounces 

Water  to  make  32  fluidounces. 
Dissolve  the  wax  in  the  turpentine, 
add  the  other  ingredients,  diluting  the 
potash  solution  with  the  water  before 
adding  to  the  other  ingredients,  and  stir 
briskly  until  well  mixed. 

POLISHES     FOR     BRASS,     BRONZE, 
COPPER,  ETC. 

Objects  of  polished  copper,  bronze, 
brass,  and  other  alloys  of  copper  tarnish 
through  water  and  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  give  them  again  their  bright  ap- 
pearance. Pickle  the  articles  in  an  acid 
bath;  wash  them  next  in  a  neutral  bath; 
dry  them,  and  subsequently  rub  them 
with  a  polishing  powder.  Such  is  the 
general  formula;  the  processes  indicated 
below  are  but  variants  adapted  to  divers 
cases  and  recommended  by  disinterested 
experimenters: 

Sharp  Polishes. — The  following  three 
may  be  usec^  on  dirty  brasses,  copper 
articles,  etc.,  where  scratching  is  not  ob- 
jectionable: 

I. — Quartz  sand,  pow- 
dered and  levigat- 
ed   20  parts 

Paris  red 30  parts 

Vaseline 50  parts 

Mix  intimately  and  make  a  pomade. 

II. — Emery    flour,    finest 

levigated 50  parts 

Paris  red 50  parts 

Mutton  suet 40  parts 

Oleic  acid 40  parts 

III. — Levigated    emery 

powder 100  parts 

Anhydrous  sodium 

carbonate 5  parts 

Tallow  soap 20  parts 

Water 100  parts 


POLISHES 


591 


Copper  Articles. — Make  a  mixture  of 
powdered  charcoal,  very  fine,  4  parts; 
spirit  of  wine,  3  parts;  and  essence  of 
turpentine,  2  parts.  To  this  add  water 
in  which  one-third  of  its  weight  of  sorrel 
salt  or  oxalic  acid  has  been  stirred,  and 
rub  the  objects  with  this  mixture. 

Bronze  Articles. — Boil  the  objects  in 
soap  lye,  wash  in  plenty  of  water,  and 
dry  in  sawdust. 

Highly  Oxidized  Bronzes. — First  dip 
in  strong  soda  lye,  then  in  a  bath  con- 
taining 1  part  of  sulphuric  acid  to  12 
parts  of  water.  Rinse  in  clean  water, 
and  next  in  water  containing  a  little  am- 
monia. Dry  and  rub  with  a  polishing 
powder  or  paste. 

POLISHES  FOR  FLOORS. 

I. — Throw  a  handful  of  permanganate 
potash  crystals  into  a  pail  of  boiling 
water,  and  apply  the  mixture  as  hot  as 
possible  to  tne  floor  with  a  large  flat 
brush.  If  the  stain  produced  is  not 
dark  enough,  apply  one  or  two  more 
coats  as  desired,  leaving  each  wash  to 
dry  thoroughly  before  applying  another. 
If  it  is  desired  to  polish  the  surface  with 
beeswax,  a  coat  of  size  should  be  applied 
to  the  boards  before  staining,  as  this 
gives  depth  and  richness  to  the  color. 
After  3  or  4  days,  polish  well  with  a  mix- 
ture of  turpentine  and  beeswax.  A  few 
cents  will  cover  the  cost  of  both  size  and 
permanganate  of  potash. 

II. — Potash 1  part 

Water 4  parts 

Yellow  beeswax  ....  5  parts 
Hot  water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Emulsify  the  wax  by  boiling  it  in  the 
water  in  which  the  potash  has  been  dis- 
solved; stir  the  whole  time.  The  exact 
amount  of  boiling  is  determined  by  the 
absence  of  any  free  water  in  the  mass. 
Then  remove  the  vessel  from  the  fire, 
and  gently  pour  in  a  little  boiling  water, 
and  stir  the  mixture  carefully.  If  a  fat- 
like  mass  appears  without  traces  of 
watery  particles,  one  may  know  the  mass 
is  in  a  fit  condition  to  be  liquefied  by  the 
addition  of  more  hot  water  without  the 
water  separating.  Then  put  in  the  water 
to  the  extent  of  200  to  225  parts,  and 
reheat  the  compound  for  5  to  10  minutes, 
without  allowing  it  to  reach  the  boiling 
point.  Stir  constantly  until  the  mixture 
is  cool,  so  as  to  prevent  the  separation  of 
the  wax,  when  a  cream-like  mass  results 
which  gives  a  o^uick  and  brilliant  polish 
on  woodwork,  u  applied  in  the  usual  way, 
on  a  piece  of  flannel  rag,  and  polished 
by  rubbing  with  another  piece  of  flannel. 


Colored  Floor  Polishes. — Yellow :  Caus- 
tic soda  solution,  7%  parts,  mixed  with  1| 
to  2  parts  of  finely  powdered  ocher,  heated 
with  2£  parts  of  yellow  wax,  and  stirred 
until  uniformly  mixed.  A  reddish-brown 
color  may  be  obtained  by  adding  2  parts 
of  powdered  umber  to  the  above  mixture. 

Nut  Brown. — I. — Natural  umber,  £ 
part;  burnt  umber,  1  part;  and  yellow 
ocher,  1  part,  gives  a  fine  red-brown 
color  when  incorporated  with  the  same 
wax  and  soda  mixture. 

II. — Treat  5  pounds  of  wax  with  15 
pounds  of  caustic  soda  lye  of  3°  Be.  so 
that  a  uniform  wax  milk  results;  boil 
with  £  pound  of  annatto,  3  pounds  of 
yellow  ocher,  and  2  pounds  of  burnt 
umber. 

Mahogany  Brown. — Boil  5  pounds  of 
wax  with  15  pounds  of  caustic  soda  lye 
as  above.  Then  add  7  pounds  of  burnt 
umber  very  finely  powdered,  making  it 
into  a  uniform  mass  by  boiling  again. 

Yellow  pcher. — The  wax  milk  obtained 
as  above  is  boiled  with  5  pounds  of  yel- 
low ocher. 

The  mass  on  cooling  has  the  consist- 
ency of  a  salve.  If  it  is  to  be  used  for 
rubbing  the  floor  it  is  stirred  with  suf- 
ficient boiling  water  so  as  to  form  a 
fluid  of  the  consistency  of  thin  syrup  or 
oil.  This  is  applied  very  thin  on  the 
floor,  using  a  brush;  then  it  is  allowed 
to  dry  only  half  way,  and  is  rubbed  with 
a  stiff  floor  brush.  The  polishing  is 
continued  with  a  woolen  rag  until  a 
mirror-like  gloss  is  obtained.  It  is  best 
not  to  paint  the  whole  room  and  then 
brush,  but  the  deals  should  be  taken  one 
after  the  other,  otherwise  the  coating 
would  become  too  dry  and  give  too  dull  a 
luster.  The  floors  thus  treated  with 
gloss  paste  are  very  beautiful.  To  keep 
them  in  this  condition  they  should  be 
once  in  a  while  rubbed  with  a  woolen 
rag,  and  if  necessary  the  color  has  to  be 
renewed  in  places.  If  there  are  parquet 
floors  whose  patterns  are  not  to  be  cov- 
ered up,  the  ocher  (yellow)  paste  or, 
better  still,  the  pure  wax  milk  is  used. 

French  Polish. — The  wood  to  be  pol- 
ished must  be  made  perfectly  smooth  and 
all  irregularities  removed  from  the  surface 
with  glass  paper;  next  oil  the  work  with 
linseed  oil,  taking  care  to  rub  off  all  super- 
fluous oil.  (If  the  wood  is  white  no  oil 
should  be  used,  as  it  imparts  a  slight  color.) 
Then  prepare  a  wad  or  rubber  of  wadding, 
taking  care  there  are  no  hard  lumps  in  it. 
After  the  rubber  is  prepared  pour  on  it  a 
small  quantity  of  polish.  Then  cover  it 
with  a  piece  of  old  cotton  rag  (new  will 


592 


POLISHES 


not  answer).  Put  a  small  drop  of  oil 
with  the  finger  on  the  surface  of  the  rub- 
ber, and  then  proceed  to  polish,  moving 
the  rubber  in  lines,  making  a  kind  of  fig- 
ure of  eight  over  the  work.  Be  very 
careful  that  the  rubber  is  not  allowed  to 
stick  or  the  work  will  be  spoilt.  A  little 
linseed  oil  facilitates  the  process.  When 
the  rubber  requires  more  polish,  turn 
back  the  rag  cover,  pour  on  the  polish, 
replace  the  cover,  oil  and  work  as  before. 
After  this  rubbing  has  proceeded  for  a 
little  time  and  the  whole  surface  has  been 
gone  over,  the  work  must  be  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  few  hours  to  harden,  and 
then  be  rubbed  down  smooth  with  very 
fine  emery  paper.  Then  give  another 
coat  of  polish.  If  not  smooth  enough, 
emery  paper  again.  This  process  must 
continue  until  tne  grain  is  filled  up.  Fin- 
ish off  with  a  clean  rubber  with  only 
spirit  on  it  (no  polish),  when  a  clear 
bright  surface  should  be  the  result. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the 
polish  on  too  freely,  or  you  will  get  a 
rough  surface.  After  a  little  practice 
all  difficulties  will  vanish.  The  best 
French  polish  will  be  found  to  be  one 
made  only  from  good  pale  orange  shel- 
lac and  spirit,  using  3  pounds  of  shellac 
for  each  gallon  of  spirit.  The  latter 
should  be  of  63  to  64°  over-proof.  A 
weak  spirit  is  not  suitable  and  does  not 
make  a  good  polish.  A  few  drops  of 
pure  linseed  oil  make  the  polish  work 
more  freely. 

POLISHES  FOR  FURNITURE. 

First  make  a  paste  to  fill  cracks  as  fol- 
lows: Whiting,  plaster  of  Paris,  pumice 
stone,  litharge,  equal  parts;  japan  dryer, 
boiled  linseed  oil,  turpentine,  coloring 
matter  of  sufficient  quantity.  Rub  the 
solids  intimately  with  a  mixture  of  1  part 
of  the  japan,  2  parts  of  the  linseed  oil, 
and  3  parts  of  turpentine,  coloring  to 
suit  with  Vandyke  brown  or  sienna. 
Lay  the  filling  on  with  a  brush,  let  it  set 
for  about  20  minutes,  and  then  rub  off 
clean  except  where  it  is  to  remain.  In 
2  or  3  days  it  will  be  hard  enough  to 
polish. 

After  the  surface  has  been  thus  pre- 
pared, the  application  of  a  coat  of  first- 
class  copal  varnish  is  in  order.  It  is 
recommended  that  the  varnish  be  ap- 
plied in  a  moderately  warm  room,  as  it 
is  injured  by  becoming  chilled  in  drying. 
To  get  the  best  results  in  varnisning, 
some  skill  and  experience  are  required. 
The  varnish  must  be  kept  in  an  evenly 
warm  temperature,  and  put  on  neither 
too  plentifully  nor  too  gingerly. 

After  a  satisfactorily  smooth  and  reg- 


ular surface  has  been  obtained,  the 
polishing  proper  may  be  done.  This 
may  be  acconplished  by  manual  labor 
and  dexterity,  or  consist  in  the  applica- 
tion of  a  very  thin,  even  coat  of  a  very 
fine,  transparent  varnish. 

If     the     hand-polishing     method     be 

E referred,  it  may  be  pursued  by  rubbing 
riskly  and  thoroughly  with  the  follow- 
ing finishing  polish: 

I. — Alcohol 8  ounces 

Shellac 2  drachms 

Gum  benzoin 2  drachms 

Best  poppy  oil 2  drachms 

Dissolve  the  shellac  and  gum  in  the 
alcohol  in  a  warm  place,  with  frequent 
agitation,  and,  when  cold,  add  the  poppy 
oil.  This  may  be  applied  on  the  end  of  a 
cylindrical  rubber  made  by  tightly  rolling 
a  piece  of  flannel  which  has  been  torn,  not 
cut,  into  strips  4  to  6  inches  wide. 

A  certain  "oily  sweating"  of  articles 
of  polished  wood  occurs  which  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  oil  used  in  polishing,  but 
has  been  found  to  be  due  to  a  waxy  sub- 
stance present  in  shellac,  which  is  often 
used  in  polishing.  During  the  operation 
of  polishing,  this  wax  enters  into  close 
combination  with  the  oil,  forming  a  soft, 
greasy  mass,  which  prevents  the  varnish 
from  ever  becoming  really  hard.  This 
greasy  matter  exudes  in  the  course  of  time. 
The  remedy  is  to  use  only  shellac  from 
which  the  vegetable  wax  has  been  com- 
pletely removed.  This  is  accomplished 
by  making  a  strong  solution  of  the  shellac 
in  alcohol  and  then  shaking  it  up  with 
fresh  seed  lac  or  filtering  it  through  seed 
lac.  In  this  way  the  readily  soluble 
rosins  in  the  seed  lac  are  dissolved,  and 
with  them  traces  of  coloring  matter.  At 
the  same  time  the  vegetable  wax,  which 
is  only  slightly  soluble,  is  deposited.  The 
shellac  solution  which  has  exchanged  its 
vegetable  wax  for  rosin  is  not  yet  suitable 
for  fine  furniture  polishing.  It  is  not 
sufficiently  taken  up  by  the  wood,  and 
an  essential  oil  must  be  added  to  give  it 
the  necessary  properties,  one  of  the  best 
oils  to  employ  for  this  purpose  being 
that  of  rosemary.  The  following  recipe 
is  given: 

II. — Twenty  pounds  of  shellac  and  4 
pounds  of  benzoin  are  dissolved  in  the 
smallest  possible  quantity  of  alcohol,  to- 
gether with  1  pound  of  rosemary  oil.  The 
solution  then  obtained  is  filtered  through 
seed  lac  so  as  to  remove  whatever  vegeta- 
ble wax  may  be  present. 

Red  Furniture  Paste. — 

Soft  water 6     pints 

Turpentine 6    pints 


POLISHES 


593 


Beeswax 3    pounds 

White  wax 1J  ounces 

White  soap 18     ounces 

Red  lead 12    ounces 

Cut  up  soap  and  dissolve  in  water  by 
aid  of  heat;  then  evaporate  to  6  pounds. 
Melt  the  waxes  and  add  turpentine  in 
which  red  lead  has  been  stirred,  pour  into 
this  the  soap  solution,  and  stir  until  it  is 
nearly  cold.  If  a  darker  color  is  wanted 
add  more  red  lead,  4  to  6  ounces. 

Beechwood  Furniture. — The  wood  of 
the  red  beech  is  known  to  acquire,  by  the 
use  of  ordinary  shellac  polish,  a  dirty 
yellow  color,  and  by  the  use  of  white 
polish,  prepared  from  bleached  shellac, 
an  unsightly  gray-white  color.  There- 
fore, where  light  colors  are  desired,  only 
filtered  shellac  polish  should  be  em- 
ployed, and  in  order  to  impart  some  fire 
to  the  naturally  dull  color  of  the  beech- 
wood  the  admixture  of  a  solution  of 
dragon's  blood  in  alcohol  for  a  red  shade, 
or  turmeric  in  alcohol  for  yellow  may  be 
used.  A  compound  of  the  red  and  yel- 
low liquids  gives  a  good  orange  shade. 
A  few  trials  will  soon  show  how  much 
coloring  matter  may  be  added  to  the 
polish. 

Polishes  for  Glass. — I. — Mix  calcined 
magnesia  with  purified  benzine  to  a  semi- 
liquid  paste.  Rub  the  glass  with  this 
mixture  by  means  of  a  cotton  wad,  until 
it  is  bright. 

II. — Crush  to  powder  cologne  chalk, 
60  parts,  by  weight;  tripoli,  30  parts,  by 
weight;  bole,  15  parts,  by  weight.  For 
use  moisten  the  glass  a  little,  dip  a  linen 
rag  into  the  powder  and  rub  the  glass 
until  it  is  clean. 

III. — Tin  ashes  may  be  employed 
with  advantage.  The  glass  is  rubbed 
with  this  substance  and  then  washed  off 
with  a  piece  of  soft  felt.  In  this  manner 
a  very  handsome  polish  is  obtained. 

Polishes  for  Ivory,  Bone,  etc. — I. — 
First  rub  with  a  piece  of  linen  soaked 
with  a  paste  made  of  Armenian  bole 
and  oleic  acid.  Wash  with  Marseilles 
soap,  dry,  rub  with  a  chamois  skin,  and 
finally  render  it  bright  with  an  old  piece 
of  silk.  If  the  ivory  is  scratched,  it  may 
be  smoothed  by  means  of  English  red 
stuff  on  a  cloth,  or  even  with  a  piece  of 

flass  if  the  scratches   are   rather  deep, 
n  the  hollow  parts  of  ivory  objects  the 
paste  can  be  made  to  penetrate  by  means 
of  an  old  toothbrush. 

II. — Tortoise-shell  articles  have  a  way 
of  getting  dull  and  dingy  looking.  To 
repolish  dip  the  finger  in  linseed  oil  and 


rub  over  the  whole  surface.  Very  little 
oil  should  be  used,  and  if  the  article  is  a 
patterned  one  it  may  be  necessary  to  use 
a  soft  brush  to  get  it  into  the  crevices. 
Then  rub  with  the  palm  of  the  hand 
until  all  oil  has  disappeared,  and  the 
shell  feels  hot  and  looks  bright  and  shiny. 

Marble  Polishing. — Polishing  includes 
five  operations.  Smoothing  the  rough- 
ness left  on  the  surface  is  done  by  rub- 
bing the  marble  with  a  piece  of  moist 
sandstone;  for  moldings  either  wooden 
or  iron  mullers  are  used,  crushed,  and 
wet  sandstone,  or  sand,  more  or  less  fine, 
according  to  the  degree  of  polish  re- 
quired, being  thrown  under  them.  The 
second  process  is  continued  rubbing  with 
pieces  of  pottery  without  enamel,  which 
have  only  been  baked  once,  also  wet.  If 
a  brilliant  polish  is  required,  Gothland 
stone  instead  of  pottery  is  used,  and 
potter's  clay  or  fuller's  earth  is  placed 
beneath  the  muller.  This  operation  is 
performed  upon  granites  and  porphyry 
with  emery  and  a  lead  muller,  the  upper 
part  of  which  is  incrusted  with  the  mix- 
ture until  reduced  by  friction  to  clay  or 
impalpable  powder.  As  the  polish  de- 
pends almost  entirely  upon  these  two 
operations,  care  must  be  taken  that  they 
are  performed  with  a  regular  and  steady 
movement.  When  the  marble  has  re- 
ceived the  first  polish,  the  flaws,  cavities, 
and  soft  spots  are  sought  out  and  filled 
with  mastic  of  a  suitable  color. 

This  mastic  is  usually  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  yellow  wax,  rosin,  and  Bur- 
gundy pitch,  mixed  with  a  little  sulphur 
and  plaster  passed  through  a  fine  sieve, 
which  gives  it  the  consistency  of  a  thick 
paste;  to  color  this  paste  to  a  tone  anal- 
ogous to  the  ground  tints  or  natural 
cement  of  the  material  upon  which  it  is 
placed,  lampblack  and  rouge,  with  a 
little  of  the  prevailing  color  of  the  ma- 
terial, are  added.  For  green  and  red 
marbles,  this  mastic  is  sometimes  made 
of  gum  lac,  mixed  with  Spanish  sealing 
wax  of  the  color  of  the  marble.  It  is 
applied  with  pincers,  and  these  parts 
are  polished  with  the  rest.  Sometimes 
crushed  fragments  of  marble  are  intro- 
duced into  the  cement,  but  for  fine  mar- 
bles the  same  colors  are  employed  which 
are  used  in  painting,  and  which  will 
produce  the  same  tone  as  the  ground; 
the  gum  lac  is  added  to  give  it  body  and 
brilliancy. 

The  third  operation  in  polishing  con- 
sists in  rubbing  it  again  with  a  hard 
pumice  stone,  under  which  water  is 
being  constantly  poured,  unmixed  with 
sand.  For  the  fourth  process,  called 


594 


POLISHES 


softening  the  ground,  lead  filings  are 
mixed  with  the  emery  mud  produced  by 
the  polishing  of  mirrors  or  the  working 
of  precious  stones,  and  the  marble  is 
rubbed  by  a  compact  linen  cushion  well 
saturated  with  this  mixture;  rouge  is  also 
used  for  this  polish.  For  seme  outside 
works,  and  for  hearths  and  paving  tiles, 
marble  workers  confine  themselves  to 
this  polish.  When  the  marbles  have 
holes  or  grains,  a  lead  muller  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  linen  cushion.  In  order  to 
give  a  perfect  brilliancy  to  the  polish,  the 
gloss  is  applied.  Wash  well  the  pre- 
pared surfaces  and  leave  them  until  per- 
fectly dry,  then  take  a  linen  cushion, 
moistened  only  with  water,  and  a  little 
powder  of  calcined  tin  of  the  first  qual- 
ity. After  rubbing  with  this  for  some 
time  take  another  cushion  of  dry  rags, 
rub  with  it  lightly,  brush  away  any  for- 
eign substance  which  might  scratch  the 
marble,  and  a  perfect  polish  will  be  ob- 
tained. A  little  alum  mixed  with  the 
water  used  penetrates  the  pores  of  the 
marble,  and  gives  it  a  speedier  polish. 
This  polish  spots  very  easily  and  is  soon 
tarnished  and  destroyed  by  dampness. 
It  is  necessary  when  purchasing  articles 
of  polished  marbles  to  subject  them  to 
the  test  of  water;  if  there  is  too  much 
alum,  the  marble  absorbs  the  water  and 
a  whitish  spot  is  left. 

POLISHING  POWDERS. 

Polishing  powders  are  advantageously 
prepared  according  to  the  following  re- 
cipes: 

I. — Four  pounds  magnesium  carbon- 
ate, 4  pounds  chalk,  and  4  pounds 
rouge  are  intimately  mixed. 

II. — Four  pounds  magnesium  carbon- 
ate are  mixed  with  J  pound  fine  rouge. 

III. — Five  pounds  fine  levigated  whit- 
ing and  2  pounds  Venetian  red  are 
ground  together. 

IV. — Kieselguhr 42    pounds 

Putty  powder 14     pounds 

Pipe  clay 14     pounds 

Tartaric  acid 1 J  pounds 

Powder  the  acid,  mix  well  with  the 
others.  This  is  styled  "free  from  mer- 
cury, poisonous  mineral  acids,  alkalies, 
or  grit."  It  may  be  tinted  with  12 
ounces  of  oxide  of  iron  if  desired. 

Liquid  Polishes. — 

I. — Malt  vinegar 4  gallons 

Lemon  juice 1  gallon 

Para ffine  oil 1  gallon 

Kieselguhr 7  pounds 

Powdered  bath  brick  3  pounds 

Oil  lemon 2  ounces 


II. — Kieselguhr 56     pounds 

Paraffine  oil 3     gallons 

Methylated  spirit. .  .  1£  gallons 

Camphorated  spirit .  f  gallon 

Turpentine  oil . .  |  gallon 

Liquid    ammonia 

fort 3     pints 

III. — Rotten  stone 16  av.  ounces 

Paraffine 8  av.  ounces 

Kerosene  (coal  oil)  16  fluidounces 
Oil    of    mirbane     enough    to    per- 
fume. 

Melt  the  paraffine,  incorporate  the 
rotten  stone,  add  the  kerosene,  and  the 
oil  of  mirbane  when  cold. 

IV. — Oxalic  acid ^  av.  ounce 

Rotten  stone 10     av.  ounces 

Kerosene  (coal  oil)  30     fluidounces 
Paraffine 2     av.  ounces 

Pulverize  the  oxalic  acid  and  mix  it 
with  rotten  stone;  melt  the  paraffine,  add 
to  it  the  kerosene,  and  incorporate  the 
powder;  when  cool,  add  oil  of  mirbane 
or  lavender  to  perfume. 

Pour  the  ammonia  into  the  oil,  methy- 
lated spirits,  and  turpentine,  add  the 
camphorated  spirit  and  mix  with  the 
kieselguhr.  To  prevent  setting,  keep 
well  agitated  during  filling.  The  color 
may  be  turned  red  by  using  a  little  ses- 
quioxide  of  iron  and  less  kieselguhr. 
Apply  with  a  cloth,  and  when  dry  use 
another  clean  cloth  or  a  brush. 

Polishing  Soaps. — 

I. — Powdered  pipe  clay  112     pounds 

Tallow  soap 16     pounds 

Tartaric  acid 1£  pounds 

Grind  until  pasty,  afterwards  press  into 
blocks  by  the  machine. 

II. — Levigated  flint 60  pounds 

Whiting 52  pounds 

Tallow 20  pounds 

Caustic  soda 5  pounds 

Water 2  gallons 

Dissolve  the  soda  in  water  and  add  to 
the  tallow;  when  saponified,  stir  in  the 
others,  pressing  as  before. 

III. — Saponified  cocoanut 

oil 56    pounds 

Kieselguhr 12     pounds 

Alum. 5£  pounds 

Flake  white 5J  pounds 

Tartaric  acid If  pounds 

Make  as  before. 

IV. — Tallow  soap 98  pounds 

Liquid     glycerine 

soap 14  pounds 

Whiting 18  pounds 

Levigated  flint 14  pounds 

Powdered  pipe  clay.  14  pounds 


POLISHES 


595 


METAL  POLISHES: 
Polishing  Pastes. — 
I. — W  h  i  t  e  petroleum 

jelly 90  pounds 

Kieselguhr 30  pounds 

Refined  paraffine 

wax 10  pounds 

Refined   chalk    or 

whiting 10  pounds 

Sodium  hyposulphite     8  pounds 
Melt  wax  and  jelly,  stir  in  others  and 
grind. 

It  is  an  undecided  point  as  to  whether 
a  scented  paste  is  better  than  one  with- 
out perfume.  The  latter  is  added  merely 
to  hide  the  nasty  smell  of  some  of  the 
greases  used,  and  it  is  not  very  nice  to 
have  spoons,  etc.,  smelling,  even  tasting, 
of  mirbane,  so  perhaps  citronelle  is  best 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  likely  to  be  more 
pure.  The  dose  of  scent  is  usually  at 
the  rate  of  4  ounces  to  the  hundred- 
weight. 

II. — Dehydrated  soda..        5  parts 

Curd  soap 20  parts 

Emery  flour 100  parts 

To  be  stirred  together  on  a  water  bath 
with  water,  100  parts,  until  soft. 

III. — Turpentine 1  part 

Emery  flour 1  part 

Paris  red 2  parts 

Vaseline 2  parts 

Mix  well  and  perfume. 

IV. — Stearine 8  to    9      parts 

Mutton  suet 32  to  38     parts 

Stearine  oil 2  to    2.5  parts 

Melt  together  and  mix  with  Vienna 
chalk,  in  fine  powder,  48  to  60  parts; 
Paris  red,  20  parts. 

V. — Rotten  stone 1  part 

Iron  subcarbonate. .      3  parts 
Lard  oil,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

VI. — Iron  oxide 10  parts 

Pumice  stone 32  parts 

Oleic  acid,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

VII. — Soap,  cut  fine 16  parts 

Precipitated  chalk. .      2  parts 
Jewelers'  rouge.  ...      1  part 
Cream  of  tartar.  ...      1  part 
Magnesium  carbon- 
ate        1  part 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  smallest 
quantity  of  water  over  a  water  bath. 
Add  the  other  ingredients  to  the  solu- 
tion while  still  hot,  stirring  all  the  time 
to  make  sure  of  complete  homogeneity. 
Pour  the  mass  into  a  box  with  shallow 
sides,  and  afterwards  cut  into  cubes. 


Non-Explosive  Liquid  Metal  Polish. — 
Although  in  a  liquid  form,  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  a  liquid  polish  is 
less  economical  than  pastes,  because  the 
efficiency  of  both  is  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  stearic  or  oleic  acid  they  con- 
tain, and  a  liquid  such  as  that  given  be- 
low is  as  rich  in  this  respect  as  most  of 
the  pastes,  especially  those  containing 
much  mineral  jelly  and  earthy  matters 
which  are  practically  inert,  and  can  only 
be  considered  as  filling  material.  Thus 
it  is  a  fact  that  an  ounce  of  fluid  polish 
may  possess  more  polishing  potency  than 
an  equal  weight  of  the  paste.  Propor- 
tions are:  Sixteen  pounds  crude  oleic  acid; 
4  pounds  tasteless  mineral  oil;  5  pounds 
kieselguhr;  1£  ounces  lemon  oil.  Make 
the  earthy  matter  into  a  paste  with  the 
mixed  fluids  and  gradually  thin  out, 
avoiding  lumps.  Apply  with  one  rag, 
and  finish  with  another. 

Miscellaneous  Metal  Polishes. — I. — 
Articles  of  polished  copper,  such  as  clocks, 
stove  ornaments,  etc.,  become  tarnished 
very  quickly.  To  restore  their-brilliancy 
dip  a  brush  in  strong  vinegar  and  brush 
the  objects  to  be  cleaned.  Next  pass 
through  water  and  dry  in  sawdust.  A 
soap  water,  in  which  some  carbonate  of 
soda  has  been  dissolved,  will  do  the  same 
service. 

II. — This  is  recommended  for  ma- 
chinery by  the  chemical  laboratory  of 
the  industrial  museum  of  Batavia: 

Oil  of  turpentine 15  parts 

Oil  of  stearine 25  parts 

Jewelers'  red 25  parts 

Animal    charcoal,     of 

superior  quality 45  parts 

Alcohol  is  added  to  that  mixture  in 
such  a  quantity  as  to  render  it  almost 
liquid,  then  by  means  of  a  brush  it  is  put 
on  those  parts  that  are  to  be  polished. 
When  the  alcohol  has  dried,  the  remain- 
ing cover  is  rubbed  with  a  mixture  of 
45  parts  of  animal  charcoal  and  25  parts 
jewelers'  red.  The  rubbed  parts  will 
become  quite  clean  and  bright. 

III. — The  ugly  spots  which  frequently 
show  themselves  on  nickel-plated  ob- 
jects may  be  easily  removed  with  a  mix- 
ture of  1  part  sulphuric  acid  and  50  parts 
alcohol.  Coat  the  spots  with  this  solu- 
tion, wipe  off  after  a  few  seconds,  rinse 
off  thoroughly  with  clean  water,  and  rub 
dry  with  sawdust. 

IV. — Crocus,  dried  and  powdered, 
when  applied  with  chamois  leather  to 
nickel-plated  goods,  will  restore  their 
brilliancy  without  injuring  their  surface. 

V. — Articles  of  tin  should  be  ground 


596 


POLISHES 


and  polished  with  Vienna  lime  or  Span- 
ish white.  The  former  may  be  spread 
on  linen  rags,  the  latter  on  wash  leather. 
Good  results  may  be  obtained  by  a 
mixture  of  about  equal  parts  of  Vienna 
lime,  chalk,  and  tripoli.  It  should  be 
moistened  with  alcohol,  and  applied  with 
a  brush.  Subsequent  rubbing  with  roe 
skin  (chamois)  will  produce  a  first-rate 
polish.  Tin  being  a  soft  metal,  the 
above  polishing  substances  may  be  very 
fine. 

VI. — To  polish  watch  cases,  take  two 
glasses  with  large  openings,  preferably 
two  preserving  jars  with  ground  glass 
covers.  Into  one  of  the  glass  vessels 
pour  1  part  of  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac 
and  3  parts  water,  adding  a  little  ordi- 
nary barrel  soap  and  stirring  everything 
well.  Fill  the  other  glass  one  half  with 
alcohol.  Now  lay  the  case  to  be  cleaned, 
with  springs  and  all,  into  the  first-named 
liquid  and  allow  to  remain  therein  for 
about  10  to  20  seconds.  After  pro- 
tracted use  this  time  may  be  extended 
to  several  minutes.  Now  remove  the 
case,  quickly  brush  it  with  water  and 
soap  and  lay  for  a  moment  into  the  alco- 
hol in  the  second  vessel.  After  drying 
off  with  a  clean  cloth  heat  over  a  solder- 
ing flame  for  quick  drying  and  the  case 
will  now  look  almost  as  clean  and  neat 
as  a  new  one.  The  only  thing  that  may 
occur  is  that  a  polished  metal  dome 
may  become  tarnished,  but  this  will  only 
happen  if  either  the  mixture  is  too  strong 
or  the  case  remains  in  it  too  long,  both 
of  which  can  be  easily  avoided  with  a 
little  practice.  Shake  before  using. 

VII. — This  is  a  cleanser  as  well  as 
polisher: 

Prepared  chalk 2  parts 

Water  of  ammonia 2  parts 

Water  sufficient  to  make.   8  parts 
The   ammonia   saponifies   the   grease 
usually  present. 

It  must  be  pointed  out  that  the  alkali 
present  makes  this  preparation  somewhat 
undesirable  to  handle,  as  it  will  affect  the 
skin  if  allowed  too  free  contact. 

The  density  of  the  liquid  might  be 
increased  by  the  addition  of  soap;  the 
solid  would,  of  course,  then  remain 
longer  in  suspension. 

VIII .  —  Serviettes  Magiques.  —  These 
fabrics  for  polishing  articles  of  metal  con- 
sist of  pure  wool  saturated  with  soap  and 
tripoli,  and  dyed  with  a  little  coralline. 
They  are  produced  by  dissolving  4  parts 
of  Marseilles  soap  in  20  parts  of  water, 
adding  2  parts  of  tripoli  and  saturating  a 
piece  of  cloth  3  inches  long  and  4  inches 
wide  with  it,  allowing  to  dry. 


IX. — In  order  to  easily  produce  a  mat 
polish  on  small  steel  articles  use  fine 
powdered  oil  stone,  ground  with  turpen- 
tine. 

Polishes  for  Pianos. — 

I. — Alcohol,  95  per  cent.  .    300  parts 

Benzol 700  parts 

Gum  benzoin 8  parts 

Sandarac 16  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve.  Use  as  French 
polish. 

II. — Beeswax 2,500  parts 

Potassium      carbon- 
ate          25  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine. .  .  .  4,000  parts 

Water,    rain    or  dis- 
tilled  4,500  parts 

Dissolve  the  potassium  carbonate  in 
1,500  parts  of  the  water  and  in  the  solu- 
tion boil  the  wax,  shaved  up,  until  the 
latter  is  partially  saponified,  replacing 
the  water  as  it  is  driven  off  by  evapora- 
tion. When  this  occurs  remove  from  the 
fire  and  stir  until  cold.  Now  add  the 
turpentine  little  by  little,  and  under  con- 
stant agitation,  stirring  until  a  smooth, 
homogeneous  emulsion  is  formed.  When 
this  occurs  add  the  remainder  of  the 
water  under  constant  stirring.  If  a 
color  is  wanted  use  alkanet  root,  letting 
it  macerate  in  the  oil  of  turpentine  be- 
fore using  the  latter  (about  an  ounce  to 
the  quart  is  sufficient).  This  prepara- 
tion is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  polishes 
known.  The  directions  are  very  simple: 
First  wash  the  surface  to  be  polished, 
rinse,  and  dry.  Apply  the  paste  as  even- 
ly and  thinly  as  possible  over  a  portion  of 
the  surface,  then  rub  off  well  with  a  soft 
woolen  cloth. 

Polishes  for  Silverware. — The  best  pol- 
ish for  silverware — that  is,  the  polish 
that,  while  it  cleans,  does  not  too  rapidly 
abrade  the  surface — is  levigated  chalk, 
either  alone  or  with  some  vegetable  acid, 
like  tartaric,  or  with  alum.  The  usual 
metal  polishes,  such  as  tripoli  (diatomace- 
ous  earth),  finely  ground  pumice  stone, 
etc.,  cut  away  the  surface  so  rapidly  that 
a  few  cleanings  wear  through  ordinary 
plating. 

I.— White  lead 5  parts 

Chalk,  levigated. ...    20  parts 
Magnesium  carbon- 
ate        2  parts 

Aluminum  oxide 5  parts 

Silica 3  parts 

Jewelers'  rouge 2  parts 

Each  of  the  ingredients  must  be  re- 
duced to  an  impalpable  powder,  mixed 
carefully,  and  sifted  through  silk  several 


POLISHES 


597 


times  to  secure  a  perfect  mixture,  and  to 
avoid  any  possibility  of  leaving  in  the 
powder  anything  that  might  scratch  the 
silver  or  gold  surface.  This  may  be  left 
in  the  powder  form,  or  incorporated 
with  soap,  made  into  a  paste  with  glycer- 
ine, or  other  similar  material.  The  ob- 
jection to  mixtures  with  vaseline  or  greasy 
substances  is  that  after  cleaning  the  object 
must  be  scrubbed  with  soap  and  water,  while 
with  glycerine  simple  rinsing  and  running 
water  instantly  cleans  the  object.  The 
following  is  also  a  good  formula: 

II. — Chalk,  levigated 2  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine. ...      4  parts 
Stronger     ammonia 

water 4  parts 

Water 10  parts 

Mix  the  ammonia  and  oil  of  turpen- 
tine by  agitation,  and  rub  up  the  chalk  in 
the  mixture.  Finally  rub  in  the  water 
gradually  or  mix  by  agitation.  Three 
parts  each  of  powdered  tartaric  acid  and 
chalk  with  1  part  of  powdered  alum 
make  a  cheap  and  quick  silver  cleaning 
powder. 

III. — Mix  2  parts  of  beechwood  ashes 
with  Tihy  °f  a  part  of  Venetian  soap  and 
2  parts  of  common  salt  in  8  parts  of  rain 
water.  Brush  the  silver  with  this,  using 
a  pretty  stiff  brush.  A  solution  of  crys- 
tallized permanganate  of  potash  is  often 
recommended,  or  even  the  spirits  of 
hartshorn,  for  removing  the  grayish 
violet  film  which  forms  upon  the  surface 
of  the  silver.  Finally,  when  there  are 
well-determined  blemishes  upon  the 
surface  of  the  silver,  they  may  be  soaked 
4  hours  in  soapmakers'  lye,  then  cover 
them  with  finely  powdered  gypsum 
which  has  been  previously  moistened 
with  vinegar,  drying  well  before  a  fire; 
now  rub  them  with  something  to  remove 
the  powder.  Finally,  they  are  to  be 
rubbed  again  with  very  dry  bran. 

POLISHES  FOR  STEEL  AND  IRON. 

The  polishing  of  steel  must  always 
be  preceded  by  a  thorough  smoothing, 
either  with  oilstone  dust,  fine  emery,  or 
coarse  rouge.  If  any  lines  are  left  to  be 
erased  by  means  of  fine  rouge,  the  oper- 
ation becomes  tedious  and  is  rarely  suc- 
cessful. The  oilstone  dust  is  applied  on 
an  iron  or  copper  polisher.  When  it  is 
desired  to  preserve  the  angles  sharp,  at 
a  shoulder,  for  instance,  the  polisher 
should  be  of  steel.  When  using  dia- 
mantine  an  iron  polisher,  drawn  out  and 
flattened  with  a  hammer,  answers  very 
well.  With  fine  rouge,  a  bronze  or  bell- 
metal  polisher  is  preferable  for  shoul- 
ders; and  for  flat  surfaces,  discs  or  large 


zinc  or  tin  polishers,  although  glass  is 
preferable  to  either  of  these.  After 
each  operation  with  oilstone  dust,  coarse 
rouge,  etc.,  the  polisher,  cork,  etc.,  must 
be  changed,  and  the  object  should  be 
cleaned  well,  preferably  by  soaping, 
perfect  cleanliness  being  essential  to 
success.  Fine  rouge  or  diamantine 
should  be  made  into  a  thick  paste  with 
oil;  a  little  is  then  taken  on  the  polisher 
or  glass  and  worked  until  quite  dry.  As 
the  object  is  thus  not  smeared  over,  a 
black  polish  is  more  readily  obtained, 
and  the  process  gets  on  better  if  the 
surface  be  cleaned  from  time  to  time. 

For  Fine  Steel. — Take  equal  parts 
(by  weight)  of  ferrous  sulphate — green 
vitriol — and  sodium  chloride — cooking 
salt — mix  both  well  together  by  grind- 
ing in  a  mortar  and  subject  the  mix- 
ture to  red  heat  in  a  mortar  or  a  dish. 
Strong  fumes  will  develop,  and  the  mass 
begin  to  flow.  When  no  more  fumes 
arise,  the  vessel  is  removed  from  the 
fire  and  allowed  to  cool.  A  brown 
substance  is  obtained  with  shimmering 
scales,  resembling  mica.  The  mass  is 
now  treated  with  water,  partly  in  order 
to  remove  the  soluble  salt,  partly  in 
order  to  wash  out  the  lighter  portions 
of  the  non-crystallized  oxide,  which  yield 
an  excellent  polishing  powder.  The 
fire  must  be  neither  too  strong  nor  too 
long  continued,  otherwise  the  powder 
turns  black  and  very  hard,  losing  its 
good  qualities.  The  more  distinct  the 
violet-brown  color,  the  better  is  the 
powder. 

For  polishing  and  cleaning  fenders, 
fireirons,  horses'  bits,  and  similar  arti- 
cles: Fifty-six  pounds  Bridgewater  stone; 
28  pounds  flour  emery;  20  pounds  rotten 
stone;  8  pounds  whiting.  Grind  and 
mix  well. 

To  make  iron  take  a  bright  polish  like 
steel,  pulverize  and  dissolve  in  1  quart  of 
hot  water,  1  ounce  of  blue  vitriol;  1 
ounce  of  borax;  1  ounce  of  prussiate  of 
potash;  1  ounce  of  charcoal;  £  pint  of 
salt,  all  of  which  is  to  be  added  to  one 
gallon  of  linseed  oil  and  thoroughly  mixed. 
To  apply,  bring  the  iron  or  steel  to  the 
proper  heat  and  cool  in  the  solution. 

Stove  Polish. — The  following  makes 
an  excellent  graphite  polish: 

I. — Ceresine 12  parts 

Japan  wax 10  parts 

Turpentine  oil 100  parts 

Lampblack,  best.. .      12  parts 
Graphite,  levigated      10  parts 

Melt  the  ceresine  and  wax  together, 
remove  from  the  fire,  and  when  half 


598 


POLISHES 


cooled  off  add  and  stir  in  the  graphite 
and  lampblack,  previously  mixed  with 
the  turpentine. 

II. — Ceresine 23  parts 

Carnauba  wax  ....  5  parts 

Turpentine  oil 220  parts 

Lampblack 300  parts 

Graphite,     finest 

levigated 25  parts 

Mix  as  above. 

III. — Make  a  mixture  of  water  glass 
and  lampblack  of  about  the  consistency 
of  thin  syrup,  and  another  of  finely  levi- 
gated plumbago  and  mucilage  of  Soudan 
gum  (or  other  cheap  substitute  for  gum 
arabic),  of  a  similar  consistency.  After 
getting  rid  of  dust,  etc.,  go  over  the  stove 
with  mixture  No.  I  and  let  it  dry  on, 
which  it  will  do  in  about  24  hours.  Now 
go  over  the  stove  with  the  second  mix- 
ture, a  portion  of  the  surface  at  a  time, 
and  as  this  dries,  with  an  old  blacking 
brush  give  it  a  polish.  If  carefully  done 
the  stove  will  have  a  polish  resembling 
closely  that  of  new  Russian  iron.  A  va- 
riant of  this  formula  is  as  follows:  Mix 
the  graphite  with  the  water  glass  to  a 
smooth  paste;  add,  for  each  pound  of 
paste,  1  ounce  of  glycerine  and  a  few 
grains  of  aniline  black.  Apply  to  the 
stove  with  a  stiff  brush. 

POLISHES  FOR  WOOD: 

See  also  Polishes  for  Furniture,  Floors 
and  Pianos. 

In  the  usual  method  of  French  pol- 
ishing, the  pad  must  be  applied  along 
curved  lines,  and  with  very  slight  pres- 
sure, if  the  result  is  to  be  uniform.  To 
do  this  requires  much  practice  and  the 
work  is  necessarily  slow.  Another  dis- 
advantage is  that  the  oil  is  apt  to  sweat 
out  afterwards,  necessitating  further 
treatment.  According  to  a  German 
patent  all  difficulty  can  be  avoided  by 
placing  between  the  rubber  and  its  cov- 
ering a  powder  composed  of  clay  or 
loam,  or  better,  the  powder  obtained  by 
grinding  fragments  of  terra  cotta  or  of 
yellow  pricks.  The  powder  is  mois- 
tened with  oil  for  use.  The  rubber  will 
then  give  a  fine  polish,  without  any 
special  delicacy  of  manipulation  and 
with  mere  backward  and  forward  rub- 
bing in  straight  lines,  and  the  oil  will  not 
sweat  out  subsequently.  Another  ad- 
vantage is  that  no  priming  is  wanted, 
as  the  powder  fills  up  the  pores.  The 
presence  of  the  powder  also  makes  the 
polish  adhere  more  firmly  to  the  wood. 

Oak  Wood  Polish. — The  wood  is  first 
carefully  smoothed,  then  painted  with 


the  following  rather  thickly  liquid  mass, 
using  a  brush,  viz.:  Mix  H  parts,  by 
weigm,  of  finely  washed  chalk  (whiting), 
^  part  of  dryer,  and  1  part  of  boiled  lin- 
seed oil  with  benzine  and  tint  (umber 
with  a  little  lampblack,  burnt  sienna). 
After  the  applied  mixture  has  become 
dry,  rub  it  down,  polish  with  glass  pow- 
der, and  once  more  coat  with  the  same 
mixture.  After  this  filling  and  after 
rubbing  off  with  stickwood  chips  or 
fine  sea  grass,  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac 
are  put  on  (white  shellac  with  wood 
alcohol  for  oak,  brown  shellac  for  cherry 
and  walnut).  This  coatmg  is  cut  down 
with  sandpaper  and  given  a  coat  of  var- 
nish, either  polishing  varnish,  which  is 
polished  off  with  the  ball  of  the  hand  or 
a  soft  brush,  or  with  interior  varnish, 
which  is  rubbed  down  with  oil  and 
pumice  stone.  This  polish  is  glass  hard, 
transparent,  of  finer  luster,  and  resistive. 

Hard  Wood  Polish. — In  finishing  hard 
wood  with  a  wax  polish  the  wood  is  first 
coated  with  a  "filler,"  which  is  omitted 
in  the  case  of  soft  wood.  The  filler  is 
made  from  some  hard  substance,  very 
finely  ground;  sand  is  used  by  some  man- 
ufactures. 

The  polish  is  the  same  as  for  soft 
wood.  The  simplest  method  of  apply- 
ing wax  is  by  a  heated  iron,  scraping  off 
the  surplus,  and  then  rubbing  with  a 
cloth.  It  is  evident  that  this  method  is 
especially  laborious;  and  for  that  reason 
solution  of  the  wax  is  desirable.  It  may 
be  dissolved  rather  freely  in  turpentine 
spirit,  and  is  said  to  be  soluble  also  in 
kerosene  oil. 

The  following  recipes  give  varnish-like 
polishes: 

I. — Dissolve  15  parts  of  shellac  and  15 
parts  of  sandarac  in  18C  parts  of  spirit 
of  wine.  Of  this  liquid  put  some  on  a 
ball  of  cloth  waste  and  cover  with  white 
linen  moistened  with  raw  linseed  oil. 
The  wood  to  be  polished  is  rubbed  with 
this  by  the  well-known  circular  motion. 
When  the  wood  has  absorbed  sufficient 
polish,  a  little  spirit  of  wine  is  added  to 
the  polish,  and  the  rubbing  is  continued. 
The  polished  articles  are  said  to  sustain 
no  damage  by  water,  nor  show  spots  or 
cracks. 

II. — Orange  shellac,  3  parts;  sandarac, 
1  part;  dissolved  in  30  parts  of  alcohol. 
For  mahogany  add  a  little  dragon's 
blood. 

III. — Fifteen  parts  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, dyed  with  anchusine,  or  undyed, 
and  4  parts  of  scraped  yellow  wax  are 
stirred  into  a  uniform  mass  by  heating 
on  the  water  bath. 


POLISHES 


599 


IV. — Melt  1  part  of  white  wax  on  the 
water  bath,  and  add  8  parts  of  petro- 
leum. The  mixture  is  applied  hot.  The 
petroleum  evaporates  and  leaves  behind 
a  thin  layer  of  wax,  which  is  subse- 
quently rubbed  out  lightly  with  a  dry 
cloth  rag. 

V. — Stearine 100  parts 

Yellow  wax 25  parts 

Caustic  potash  ....      60  parts 
Yellow     laundry 

soap 10  parts 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Heat    together    until    a    homogeneous 
mixture  is  formed. 

VI. — Yellow  wax 25  parts 

Yellow  laundry 

soap 6  parts 

Glue 12  parts 

Soda  ash 25  parts 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Dissolve  the  soda  in  400  parts  of  water, 
add  the  wax,  and  boil  down  to  250  parts, 
then  add  the  soap.  Dissolve  the  glue  in 
100  parts  of  hot  water,  and  mix  the 
whole  with  the  saponified  wax. 

VII. — This  is  waterproof.  Put  into  a 
stoppered  bottle  1  pint  alcohol;  2  ounces 
gum  benzoin;  ^  ounce  gum  sandarac, 
and  J  ounce  gum  anime.  Put  the  bottle 
in  a  sand  bath  or  in  hot  water  till  the 
solids  are  dissolved,  then  strain  the  solu- 
tion, and  add  ^  gill  best  clear  poppy  oil. 
Shake  well  and  the  polish  is  ready  for 
use. 

VIII. — A  white  polish  for  wood  is 
made  as  follows: 

White  lac 1^  pounds 

Powdered  borax.  ...      1     ounce 
Alcohol 3     pints 

The  lac  should  be  thoroughly  dried, 
especially  if  it  has  been  kept  under 
water,  and,  in  any  case,  after  being 
crushed,  it  should  be  left  in  a  warm  place 
for  a  few  hours,  in' order  to  remove  every 
trace  of  moisture.  The  crushed  lac  and 
borax  are  then  added  to  the  spirit,  and 
the  mixture  is  stirred  frequently  until 
solution  is  effected,  after  which  the  polish 
should  be  strained  through  muslin. 

IX. — To  restore  the  gloss  of  polished 
wood  which  has  sweated,  prepare  a 
mixture  of  100  parts  of  linseed  oil,  750 
parts  of  ether,  1,000  parts  of  rectified  oil 
of  turpentine,  and  1,000  parts  of  petro- 
leum benzine,  perfumed,  if  desired,  with 
a  strongly  odorous  essential  oil,  and 
colored,  if  required,  with  cuicuma,  or- 
lean,  or  alkanna.  The  objects  to  be 
treated  are  rubbed  thoroughly  with  this 
mixture,  using  a  woolen  rag. 


MISCELLANEOUS     POLISHING 

AGENTS: 

Polishing  Agent  which  may  also  be 
used  for  Gilding  and  Silvering. — The 
following  mediums  hitherto  known  as 
possessing  the  aforenamed  properties, 
lose  these  qualities  upon  having  been  kept 
for  some  time,  as  the  metal  salt  is  partly 
reduced.  Furthermore,  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  admix  reducing  substances 
such  as  zinc  to  these  former  polishing 
agents,  since  moisture  causes  the  metal 
to  precipitate.  The  present  invention 
obviates  these  evils.  The  silver  or  gold 
salt  is  mixed  with  chalk,  for  instance,  in 
a  dry  form.  To  this  mixture,  fine  dry 
powders  of  one  or  more  salts  (e.  g.,  am- 
monia compounds)  in  whose  solutions 
the  metal  salt  can  enter  are  added;  if  re- 
quired, a  reducing  body,  such  as  zinc, 
may  be  added  at  the  same  time.  The 
composition  is  pressed  firmly  together 
and  forms  briquettes,  in  which  condition 
the  mass  keeps  well.  For  use,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  scrape  off  a  little  of  the 
substance  and  to  prepare  it  with  water. 

Silver  Polishing  Balls. — This  polishing 
agent  is  a  powder  made  into  balls  by 
means  of  a  binding  medium  and  enjoys 
much  popularity  in  Germany.  It  is 
prepared  by  adding  5  parts  of  levigated 
chalk  to  2  parts  of  yellow  tripoli,  mixing 
the  two  powders  well  and  making  into  a 
stiff  paste  with  very  weak  gum  water 
—1  part  gum  arabic  to  12  parts  of  water. 
This  dough  is  finally  shaped  by  hand 
into  balls  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg. 
The  balls  are  put  aside  to  dry  on  boards 
in  a  moderately  warm  room,  and  when 
completely  hard  are  wrapped  in  tin-foil 
paper. 

To  Prepare  Polishing  Cloths. — The 
stuff  must  be  pure  woolen,  colored  with 
aniline  red,  and  then  put  in  the  follow- 
ing: 

Castile  soap,  white. .      4  parts 

Jewelers'  red 2  parts 

Water 20  parts 

Mix.  One  ounce  of  this  mixture  will 
answer  for  a  cloth  12  inches  square, 
where  several  of  them  are  saturated  at 
the  same  time.  For  the  workshop,  a  bit 
of  chamois  skin  of  the  same  size  (a  foot 
square),  is  preferable  to  wool,  on  account 
of  its  durability.  After  impregnation 
with  the  soap  solution,  it  should  be  dried 
in  the  air,  being  manipulated  while  drying 
to  preserve  its  softness  and  suppleness. 

To  Polish  Delicate  Objects. — Rub  the 
objects  with  a  sponge  charged  with  a 
mixture  of  28  parts  of  alcohol,  14  parts 
of  water,  and  4  parts  of  lavender  oil. 


600 


POLISHES 


Polish  for  Gilt  Frames. — Mix  and  beat 
the  whites  of  3  eggs  with  one-third,  by 
weight,  of  javelle  water,  and  apply  to  the 
gilt  work. 

Steel  Dust  as  a  Polishing  Agent. — Steel 
dust  is  well  adapted  for  polishing  pre- 
cious stones  and  can  replace  emery  with 
advantage.  It  is  obtained  by  spraying 
water  on  a  bar  of  steel  brought  to  a  high 
temperature.  The  metal  becomes  fria- 
ble and  can  be  readily  reduced  to  pow- 
der in  a  mortar.  This  powder  is  dis- 
tinguished from  emery  by  its  mordanting 
properties  and  its  lower  price.  Besides, 
it  produces  a  finer,  and  consequently,  a 
more  durable  polish. 

Polishing  Bricks. — Stir  into  a  thick 
pulp  with  water  10  parts  of  finely  pow- 
dered and  washed  chalk,  1  part  of  Eng- 
lish red,  and  2  parts  of  powdered  gyp- 
sum; give  it  a  square  shape  and  dry. 

Polishing  Cream. — 

Denaturized  alcohol  400  parts 
Spirit  of  sal  ammo- 
niac       75  parts 

Water 150  parts 

Petroleum  ether  ....      80  parts 

Infusorial  earth 100  parts 

Red    bole    or    white 

bole 50  parts 

Calcium  carbonate. .    100  parts 
Add  as  much  of  the  powders  as  de- 
sired.    Mirbane  oil  may  be  used  for  scent- 
ing. 

Polishing  Paste. — 
Infusorial     earth 

(Kieselguhr) ....      8  ounces 

Paraffine 2  ounces 

Lubricating  oil ....      6  fluidounces 

Oleic  acid 1  fluidounce 

Oil  mirbane 30  minims 

Melt  the  paraffine  with  the  lubricating 
oil,  and  mix  with  the  infusorial  earth, 
then  add  the  oleic  acid  and  oil  of  mir- 
bane. 

To  Polish  Paintings  on  Wood. — Ac- 
cording to  the  statements  of  able  cabinet 
makers  who  frequently  had  occasion  to 
cover  decorations  on  wood,  especially 
aquarelle  painting,  with  a  polish,  a  good 
coating  of  fine  white  varnish  is  the  first 
necessity,  dammar  varnish  being  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  This  coat  is 
primarily  necessary  as  a  protective  layer 
so  as  to  preserve  the  painted  work  from 
destructive  attacks  during  the  rubbing 
for  the  production  of  a  smooth  surface 
and  the  subsequent  polishing.  At  all 
events,  the  purest  white  polishing  varnish 
must  be  used  for  the  polish  so  as  to  pre- 
vent a  perceptible  subsequent  darkening 


of  the  white  painting  colors.  Naturally 
the  success  here  is  also  dependent  upon 
the  skill  of  the  polisher.  To  polish  paint- 
ing executed  on  wood  it  is  necessary  to 
choose  a  white,  dense,  fine  grained  wood, 
which  must  present  a  well-smoothed 
surface  before  the  painting.  After  the 
painting  the  surface  is  faintly  coated  with 
a  fine,  quickly  drying,  limpid  varnish. 
When  the  coating  has  dried  well,  it  is 
carefully  rubbed  down  with  finely  pulver- 
ized pumice  stone,  with  tallow  or  white 
lard,  and  now  this  surface  is  polished  in 
the  usual  manner  with  a  good  solution 
prepared  from  the  best  white  shellac. 

Polishing  Mediums. — For  iron  and 
steel,  stannic  oxide  or  Vienna  lime  or 
iron  oxide  and  sometimes  steel  powder 
is  employed.  In  using  the  burnisher, 
first  oil  is  taken,  then  soap  water,  and 
next  Vienna  lime. 

For  copper,  brass,  German  silver,  and 
tombac,  stearine  oil  and  Vienna  lime 
are  used.  Articles  of  brass  can  be  pol- 
ished, after  the  pickling,  in  the  lathe 
with  employment  of  a  polish  consisting 
of  shellap,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  1,000 
parts;  powdered  turmeric,  1,000  parts; 
tartar,  2,000  parts;  ox  gall,  50  parts; 
water,  3,000  parts. 

Gold  is  polished  with  ferric  oxide 
(red  stuff),  which,  moistened  with  alco- 
hol, is  applied  to  leather. 

For  polishing  silver,  the  burnisher  or 
bloodstone  is  employed,  using  soap 
water,  thin  beer,  or  a  decoction  of  soap 
wort.  Silver-plated  articles  are  also 
polished  with  Vienna  lime. 

To  produce  a  dull  luster  on  gold  and 
silver  ware,  glass  brushes,  i.  e.,  scratch 
brushes  of  finely  spun  glass  threads,  are 
made  use  of. 

Pewter  articles  are  polished  with 
yienna  lime  or  whiting;  the  former  on  a 
linen  rag,  the  latter  on  leather. 

If  embossed  articles  are  to  be  pol- 
ished, use  the  burnisher,  and  for  polish, 
soap  water,  soap-wort  decoction,  ox  gall 
with  water. 

Antimony-lead  alloys  are  polished 
with  burnt  magnesia  on  soft  leather  or 
with  fine  jewelers'  red. 

Zinc  is  brightened  with  Vienna  lime 
or  powdered  charcoal. 

Vienna  lime  gives  a  light -colored 
polish  on  brass,  while  ferric  oxide  im- 
parts a  dark  luster. 

Rouge  or  Paris  Red. — This  appears  in 
commerce  in  many  shades,  varying  from 
brick  red  to  chocolate  brown.  The 
color,  however,  is  in  no  wise  indicative  of 
its  purity  or  good  quality,  but  it  can  be 
accepted  as  a  criterion  by  which  to  de- 


POLISHES— PORCELAIN 


601 


termine  the  hardness  of  the  powder. 
The  darker  the  powder,  the  greater  is 
its  degree  of  hardness;  the  red  or  red- 
dish is  always  very  soft,  wherefore  the 
former  is  used  for  polishing  steel  and  the 
latter  for  softer  metals. 

For  the  most  part,  Paris  red  consists 
of  ferric  oxide  or  ferrous  oxide.  In  its 
production  advantage  is  taken  of  a  pe- 
culiarity common  to  most  salts  of  iron, 
that  when  heated  to  a  red  heat  they 
separate  the  iron  oxide  from  the  acid 
combination.  In  its  manufacture  it  is 
usual  to  take  commercial  green  vitriol, 
copperas  crystals,  and  subject  them  to  a 
moderate  heat  to  drive  off  the  water  of 
crystallization.  When  this  is  nearly 
accomplished  they  will  settle  down  in  a 
white  powder,  which  is  now  placed  in 
a  crucible  and  raised  to  a  glowing  red 
heat  till  no  more  vapor  arises,  when  the 
residue  will  be  found  a  soft  smooth  red 
powder.  As  the  temperature  is  raised 
in  the  crucible,  the  darker  will  become 
the  color  of  the  powder  and  the  harder 
the  abrasive. 

Should  an  especially  pure  rouge  be 
desired,  it  may  be  made  so  by  boiling 
the  powder  we  have  just  made  in  a  weak 
solution  of  soda  and  afterwards  washing 
it  out  repeatedly  and  thoroughly  with 
clean  water.  If  treated  in  this  way,  all 
the  impurities  that  may  chance  to  stick  to 
the  iron  oxide  will  be  separated  from  it. 

Should  a  rouge  be  needed  to  put  a 
specially  brilliant  polish  upon  any  object 
its  manufacture  ought  to  be  conducted 
according  to  the  following  formula: 
Dissolve  commercial  green  vitriol  in 
water;  dissolve  also  a  like  weight  of  sor- 
rel salt  in  water;  filter  both  solutions; 
mix  them  well,  and  warm  to  140°  F.;  a 
yellow  precipitate,  which  on  account  of 
its  weight,  will  settle  immediately;  decant 
the  fluid,  dry  out  the  residue,  and  after- 
wards heat  it  as  before  in  an  iron  dish  in  a 
moderately  hot  furnace  till  it  glows  red. 

By  this  process  an  exceptionally 
smooth,  deep-red  powder  is  obtained, 
which,  if  proper  care  has  been  exercised 
in  the  various  steps,  will  need  no  elutria- 
tion,  but  can  be  used  for  polishing  at 
once.  With  powders  prepared  in  this 
wise  our  optical  glasses  and  lenses  of  fin- 
est quality  are  polished. 

POLISHES  FOR  THE  LAUNDRY: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

POMADE,  PUTZ: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

POMADES: 

See  Cosmetics. 


POMEGRANATE  ESSENCE: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

PORCELAIN: 

See  also  Ceramics. 

Mending  Porcelain  by  Riveting  (see 
Adhesives  for  methods  of  mending  Porcelain 
by  means  of  cements).— Porcelain  and  glass 
can  be  readily  pierced  with  steel  tools. 
Best  suited  are  hardened  drills  of  ordinary 
shape,  moistened  with  oil  of  turpentine,  if 
the  glazed  or  vitreous  body  is  to  be  pierced. 
In  the  case  of  majolica  and  glass  without 
enamel  the  purpose  is  best  reached  if  the 
drilling  is  done  under  water.  Thus,  the 
vessel  should  previously  be  filled  with 
water,  and  placed  in  a  receptacle  containing 
water,  so  that  the  drill  is  used  under 
water,  and,  after  piercing  the  clay  body, 
reaches  the  water  again.  In  the  case  of 
objects  glazed  on  the  inside,  instead  of 
filling  them  with  water,  the  spot  where 
the  drill  must  come  through  may  be 
underlaid  with  cork.  The  pressure 
with  which  the  drill  is  worked  is  deter- 
mined by  the  hardness  of  the  material, 
but  when  the  tool  is  about  to  reach  the 
other  side  it  should  gradually  decrease 
and  finally  cease  almost  altogether,  so  as 
to  avoid  chipping.  In  order  to  enlarge 
small  bore  holes  already  existing,  three- 
cornered  or  four-square  broaches,  ground 
and  polished,  are  best  adapted.  These 
are  likewise  employed  under  water  or, 
if  the  material  is  too  hard  (glass  or  enam- 
el), moistened  with  oil  of  turpentine. 
The  simultaneous  use  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine and  water  is  most  advisable  in  all 
cases,  even  where  the  nature  of  the  article 
to  be  pierced  does  not  admit  the  use  of 
oil  alone,  as  in  the  case  of  majolica  and 
non-glazed  porcelain,  which  absorb  the 
oil,  without  the  use  of  water. 

Porcelain  Decoration. — A  brilliant  yel- 
low color,  known  as  "gold  luster,"  may 
be  produced  on  porcelain  by  the  use 
of  paint  prepared  as  follows:  Melt  over 
a  sand  bath  30  parts  of  rosin,  add  10 
parts  of  uranic  nitrate,  and,  while  con- 
stantly stirring,  incorporate  with  the 
liquid  35  to  40  parts  of  oil  of  lavender. 
After  the  mixture  has  become  entirely 
homogeneous,  remove  the  source  of  heat, 
and  add  30  to  40  parts  more  of  oil  of 
lavender.  Intimately  mix  the  mass  thus 
obtained  with  a  like  quantity  of  bis- 
muth glass  prepared  by  fusing  together 
equal  parts  of  oxide  of  bismuth  and 
crystallized  boric  acid.  The  paint  is  to 
be  burned  in  in  the  usual  manner. 

PORCELAIN,  HOW  TO  TELL  POT- 
TERY AND  PORCELAIN: 

See  Ceramics. 


602 


PRESERVATIVES—PRESERVING 


PORTLAND  CEMENT: 
See  Cement. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT,  SIZE  OVER: 

See  Adhesives. 

POSTAL  CARDS,  HOW  TO  MAKE 
SENSITIZED : 

See  Photography,  under  Paper-Sensi- 
tizing Processes. 

POTASSIUM  SILICATE  AS  A  CE- 
MENT: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Water-Glass  Ce- 
ments. 

POTATO  STARCH: 

See  Starch. 

POTTERY: 

See  Ceramics. 

POULTRY  APPLICATIONS: 

See  Insecticides. 

POULTRY  FOODS  AND  POULTRY 
DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REME- 
DIES: 

See   Veterinary  Formulas. 

POULTRY  WINE: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

POUNCE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Ink  Eradicators. 

POWDER  FOR  COLORED  FIRES: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

POWDER,  FACE: 

See  Cosmetics. 

POWDER,  ROUP: 

See  Roup  Powder. 

POWDERS  FOR  STAMPING: 
See  Stamping. 

POWDERS  FOR  THE  TOILET: 

See  Cosmetics. 

Preservatives 

(See  also  Foods.) 

Preservative  Fluid  for  Museums. — 
Formaldehyde  solu- 
tion         6  parts 

Glycerine 12  parts 

Alcohol 3  parts 

Water 100  parts 

The  addition  of  glycerine  becomes 
necessary  only  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  the 
pieces  in  a  soft  state.  Filtering  through 
animal  charcoal  renders  the  liquid  per- 
fectly colorless.  For  dense  objects,  such 
as  lungs  and  liver,  it  is  best  to  make  in- 
cisions so  as  to  facilitate  the  penetration 
o<  the  fluid.  In  the  case  of  very  thick 


pieces,  it  is  best  to  take  80  to  100  parts 
of  formaldehyde  solution  for  above 
quantities. 

Preservative  for  Stone,  etc. — A  new 
composition,  or  paint,  for  protecting 
stone,  wood,  cement,  etc.,  from  the 
effects  of  damp  or  other  deleterious  in- 
fluences consists  of  quicklime,  chalk, 
mineral  colors,  turpentine,  boiled  oil, 
galipot,  rosin,  and  benzine.  The  lime, 
chalk,  colors,  and  turpentine  are  first 
fixed  and  then  made  into  a  paste  with  the 
boiled  oil.  The  paste  is  finely  ground 
and  mixed  with  the  rosins  previously 
dissolved  in  the  benzine. 

Preservative  for  Stuffed  Animals. — 
For  the  exterior  preservation  use 

Arsenic 0.7  parts 

Alum 15.0  parts 

Water 100.0  parts 

For  sprinkling  the  inside  skin  as  well 
as  filling  bones,  the  following  is  em- 
ployed: 

Camphor 2  parts 

Insect  powder 2  parts 

Blacjc  pepper 1  part 

Flowers  of  sulphur.  .  .      4  parts 

Alum 3  parts 

Calcined  soda 3  parts 

Tobacco  powder. ....      3  parts 

Preservatives  for  Zoological  and  Ana- 
tomical Specimens. — The  preparations 
are  first  placed  in  a  solution  or  mixture  of 

Sodium  fluoride 5  parts 

Formaldehyde  (40  per 

cent) 2  parts 

Water 100  parts 

After  leaving  this  fixing  liquid  they 
are  put  in  the  following  preservative 
solution: 

Glycerine  (28°  Be.)...      5     parts 

Water 10      parts 

Magnesium  chloride. .      1      part 

Sodium  fluoride 0.2  parts 

In  this  liquid  zoological  preparations, 
especially  reptiles,  retain  their  natural 
coloring.  Most  anatomical  preparations 
likewise  remain  unchanged  therein. 

PRESERVATIVES  FOR  WOOD: 

See  Wood. 

Preserving 

Canning. — There  should  be  no  trou- 
ble in  having  canned  fruit  keep  well  if 
perfect  or  "chemical  cleanliness"  is  ob- 
served in  regard  to  jars,  lids,  etc.,  and  if 
the  fruit  or  vegetables  are  in  good  order, 
not  overripe  or  beginning  to  ferment 
where  bruised  or  crushed.  Fruit  will 


PRESERVING 


603 


never  come  out  of  jars  better  than  it  goes 
in.  It  is  better  to  put  up  a  little  fruit  at  a 
time  when  it  is  just  ripe  than  to  wait  for  a 
large  amount  to  ripen,  when  the  first 
may  be  overripe  and  fermenting  and 
likely  to  spoil  the  whole  lot.  Use  only 
the  finest  flavored  fruit. 

Have  everything  ready  before  begin- 
ning canning.  Put  water  in  each  jar, 
fit  on  rubbers  and  tops,  and  invert  the 
jar  on  the  table.  If  any  water  oozes 
»  out  try  another  top  and  rubber  until 
sure  the  jar  is  air-tight.  Wash  jars  and 
tops,  put  them  in  cold  water  and  bring 
to  a  boil.  When  the  fruit  is  cooked 
ready  take  a  jar  from  the  boiling  water, 
set  it  on  a  damp  cloth  laid  in  a  soup 
plate,  dip  a  rubber  in  boiling  water,  and 
fit  it  on  firmly.  Fill  the  jar  to  over- 
flowing, wipe  the  brim,  screw  on  the  top, 
and  turn  it  upside  down  on  a  table.  If 
any  syrup  oozes  out  empty  the  jar  back 
into  the  kettle  and  fit  on  a  tighter  rub- 
ber. Let  it  stand  upside  down  till  cold, 
wipe  clean,  wrap  in  thick  paper,  and 
keep  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

These  general  directions  are  for  all 
fruits  and  vegetables  that  are  cooked 
before  putting  in  the  jars.  Fruit  keeps 
its  shape  better  if  cooked  in  the  jars, 
which  should  be  prepared  as  above,  the 
fruit  carefully  looked  over  and  filled  into 
the  jars.  If  a  juicy  fruit,  like  black- 
berries or  raspberries,  put  the  sugar  in 
with  it  in  alternate  layers.  For  cherries 
the  amount  of  sugar  depends  on  the 
acidity  of  the  fruit  and  is  best  made  into 
a  syrup  with  a  little  water  and  poured 
down  through  them.  Peaches  and  pears 
after  paring,  are  packed  into  the  jars  and 
a  syrup  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  fruit  poured  over 
them.  Most  fruits  need  to  be  cooked 
from  10  to  15  minutes  after  the  water 
around  them  begins  to  boil. 

Red  raspberries  ought  not  to  be  boiled. 
Put  them  into  jars  as  gently  as  possible; 
they  are  the  tenderest  of  all  fruits  and 
will  bear  the  slightest  handling.  Drop 
them  in  loosely,  fold  a  saucer  into  a 
clean  cloth,  and  lay  over  the  top,  set  on  a 
perforated  board  in  a  boiler,  pour  water 
to  two-thirds,  cover  and  set  over  a  slow 
fire.  As  the  fruit  settles  add  more  until 
full.  When  it  is  cooked  soft  lift  the  jar 
out  and  fill  to  the  top  with  boiling  syrup 
of  equal  parts  of  sugar  and  water,  and 
seal. 

Do  not  can  all  the  fruit,  for  jams  and 
jellies  are  a  welcome  change  and  also 
easier  to  keep.  Raspberries  and  cur- 
rants mixed  make  delicious  jam.  Use 
the  juice  of  a  third  as  many  currants  and 
|  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  fruit. 


The  flavor  of  all  kinds  of  fruit  is  injured 
by  cooking  it  long  with  the  sugar,  so 
heat  the  latter  in  the  oven  and  add  when 
the  fruit  is  nearly  done. 

Jelly  is  best  made  on  a  clear  day,  for 
small  fruits  absorb  moisture,  and  if 
picked  after  a  rain  require  longer  boiling, 
and  every  minute  of  unnecessary  boiling 
gives  jelly  a  less  delicate  color  and  flavor. 
When  jelly  is  syrupy,  it  has  been  boiled 
too  long;  if  it  drops  from  the  spoon  with 
a  spring,  or  wrinkles  as  you  push  it  with 
the  spoon  in  a  saucer  while  cooling,  it  is 
done  enough.  Try  it  after  5  minutes' 
boil.  Cook  the  fruit  only  until  the  skin 
is  broken  and  pulp  softened.  Strain 
without  squeezing  for  jelly,  and  use  the 
last  juice  you  squeeze  out  for  jam. 
Measure  the  juice  and  boil  uncovered, 
skimming  off.  For  sweet  fruits  f  of  a 
pound  of  sugar  is  enough  to  a  pint  of 
juice.  Heat  the  sugar  in  the  oven,  add 
to  the  boiling  juice;  stir  till  dissolved. 
When  it  boils  up,  draw  to  the  back  of  the 
stove.  Scald  the  jelly  glasses,  fill  and 
let  stand  in  a  clean,  cool  place  till  next 
day;  then  cover.  Blackberries  make 
jelly  of  a  delicious  flavor  and  jelly  easily 
when  a  little  underripe.  Currants  should 
be  barely  ripe;  the  ends  of  the  bunches 
may  be  rather  green. 

A  highly  prized  way  of  canning  cher- 
ries: Stone  and  let  them  stand  overnight. 
In  the  morning  pour  off  the  juice,  add 
sugar  to  taste,  and  some  water  if  there  is 
not  much  juice,  and  boil  and  skim  till  it  is 
a  rich  syrup.  If  the  cherries  are  sweet  a 
pint  of  juice  and  f  of  a  pint  of  sugar  will 
be  right.  Heat  the  jars,  put  in  the  un- 
cooked cherries  till  they  are  nearly  full; 
then  pour  over  them  the  boiling  syrup 
and  fasten  on  the  covers.  Set  the  jars  in 
a  washboiler,  fill  it  with  very  hot  water 
and  let  it  stand  all  night.  The  heat  of 
the  syrup  and  of  the  water  will  cook  the 
fruit,  but  the  flavor  and  color  will  be 
that  of  fresh  and  uncooked  cherries. 

Canning  without  Sugar. — I. — In  order 
to  preserve  the  juices  of  fruit  merely  by 
sterilization,  put  the  juice  into  the  bottles 
in  which  it  is  to  be  kept,  filling  them  very 
nearly  full;  place  tne  bottles,  unstop 
pered,  in  a  kettle  filled  with  cold  water, 
so  arranging  them  on  a  wooden  perfor 
ated  "false  bottom,"  or  other  like  con- 
trivance, as  to  prevent  their  immediate 
contact  with  the  metal,  thus  preventing 
unequal  heating  and  possible  fracture. 
Now  heat  the  water,  gradually  raising 
the  temperature  to  the  boiling  point,  and 
maintain  at  that  until  the  juice  attains  a 
boiling  temperature;  then  close  the  bot 
ties  with  perfectly  fitting  corks,  which 


604 


PRESERVING 


have  been  kept  immersed  in  boiling 
water  for  a  short  time  before  use.  The 
corks  should  not  be  fastened  in  any  way, 
for  if  the  sterilization  is  not  complete, 
fermentation  and  consequent  explosion 
of  the  bottle  might  occur,  unless  the  cork 
should  be  forced  out.  The  addition  of 
sugar  is  not  necessary  to  secure  the  suc- 
cess of  the  operation;  in  fact  a  small  pro- 
portion would  have  no  antiseptic  effect. 
If  the  juice  is  to  be  used  for  syrup  as  for 
use  at  the  soda  fountain,  the  best  method 
is  to  make  a  concentrated  syrup  at  once, 
using  about  2  pounds  of  refined  sugar 
to  1  pint  of  juice,  dissolving  by  a  gentle 
heat.  The  syrup  may  be  made  by  sim- 
ple agitation  without  heat  and  a  finer 
flavor  thus  results,  but  its  keeping  qual- 
ity would  be  uncertain. 

II. — Fruit  juices  may  be  preserved  by 
gentle  heating  and  after  protection  from 
the  air  in  sterilized  containers.  The 
heat  required  is  much  below  the  boiling 
point.  Professor  Miiller  finds  that  a 
temperature  of  from  140°  to  158°  F., 
maintained  for  15  minutes,  is  sufficient 
to  render  the  fermenting  agents  present 
inactive.  The  bottles  must  also  be 
heated  to  destroy  any  adherent  germs. 
The  juices  may  be  placed  in  them  as  ex- 
pressed and  the  container  then  placed  in 
a  water  bath.  As  soon  as  the  heating  is 
finished  the  bottles  must  be  securely 
closed.  The  heating  process  will,  in 
consequence  of  coagulating  certain  sub- 
stances, produce  turbidity,  and  if  clear 
liquid  is  required,  filtration  is,  of  course, 
necessary.  In  this  case  it  is  better  to 
heat  the  juice  in  bulk  in  a  kettle,  filter 
through  felt,  fill  the  bottles,  and  then 
heat  again  in  the  containers  as  in  the 
first  instance.  It  is  said  that  grape 
juice  prepared  in  this  manner  has  been 
found  unaltered  after  keeping  for  many 
years.  Various  antiseptics  nave  been 
proposed  as  preservatives  for  fruit  juices 
and  other  articles  of  food,  but  all  such 
agents  are  objectionable  both  on  ac- 
count of  their  direct  action  on  the  system 
and  their  effect  in  rendering  food  less 
digestible.  While  small  quantities  of 
such  drugs  occasionally  taken  may  exert 
no  appreciable  effect,  continuous  use  is 
liable  to  be  more  or  less  harmful. 

CRUSHED  FRUIT  PRESERVING: 

Crushed  Pineapples. — Secure  a  good 
brand  of  canned  grated  pineapple  and 
drain  off  about  one-half  of  the  liquor  by 
placing  on  a  strainer.  Add  to  each 
pound  of  pineapple  1  pound  of  granu- 
lated sugar.  Place  on  the  fire  and  bring 
to  boiling  point,  stirring  constantly. 
Just  before  removing  from  the  fire,  add 


to  each  gallon  of  pulp  1  ounce  saturated 
alcoholic  solution  salicylic  acid.  Put 
into  air-tight  jars  until  wanted  for  use. 

Crushed  Peach. — Take  a  good  brand 
of  canned  yellow  peaches,  drain  off 
liquor,  and  rub  through  a  No.  8  sieve. 
Add  sugar,  bring  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  when  ready  to  remove  from  fire  add 
to  each  gallon  1  ounce  saturated  alcoholic 
solution  of  salicylic  acid.  Put  into  jars 
and  seal  hermetically. 

Crushed  Apricots. — Prepared  in  similar 
manner  to  crushed  peach,  using  canned 
apricots. 

Crushed  Orange. — Secure  oranges  with 
a  thin  peel  and  containing  plenty  of 
juice.  Remove  the  outer  or  yellow  peel 
first,  taking  care  not  to  include  any  of 
bitter  peel.  The  outer  peel  may  be 
used  in  making  orange  phosphate  or 
tincture  sweet  orange  peel.  After  re- 
moving the  outer  peel,  remove  the  inner, 
bitter  peel,  quarter  and  remove  the  seeds. 
Extract  part  of  the  juice  and  grind  the 
pulp  through  an  ordinary  meat  grinder. 
Add  sugar,  place  on  the  fire,  and  bring  to 
the  boiling  point.  When  ready  to  re- 
move, add  to  each  gallon  1  ounce  satu- 
rated alcoholic  solution  of  salicylic  acid 
and  1  ounce  glycerine.  Put  into  jars 
and  seal. 

Crushed  Cherries. — If  obtainable,  the 
large,  dark  California  cherry  should  be 
used.  Stone  the  cherries,  and  grind  to  a 
pulp.  Add  sugar,  and  place  on  the  fire, 
stirring  constantly.  Before  removing, 
add  to  each  gallon  1  ounce  of  the  satu- 
rated solution  of  salicylic  acid.  Put  into 
jars  and  seal. 

Dry  Sugar  Preserving. — The  fruits 
are  embedded  in  a  thick  layer  of  dry, 
powdered  sugar  to  which  they  give  up 
the  greater  part  of  the  water  contained 
in  them.  At  the  same  time,  a  quantity 
of  sugar  passes  through  the  skins  into 
the  interior  of  the  fruits.  Afterwards, 
the  fruits  are  washed  once,  wiped,  and 
completely  dried. 

Fruit  Preserving. — Express  the  juice 
and  filter  at  once,  through  two  thick- 
nesses of  best  white  Swedish  paper,  into 
a  container  that  has  been  sterilized  im- 
mediately before  letting  the  juice  run 
into  it,  by  boiling  water.  The  better 
plan  is  to  take  out  of  water  in  active 
ebullition  at  the  moment  you  desire  to 
use  it.  Have  ready  some  long-necked, 
8-ounce  vials,  which  should  also  be  kept 
in  boiling  water  until  needed.  Pour  the 
juice  into  these,  leaving  room  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  of  the  vial  to  re* 


PRESERVING 


605 


ceive  a  teaspoonful  of  the  best  olive  oil. 
Pour  the  latter  in  so  that  it  will  trickle 
down  the  neck  and  form  a  layer  on  top 
of  the  juice,  and  close  the  neck  with  a 
wad  of  antiseptic  cotton  thrust  into  it  in 
such  manner  that  it  does  not  touch  the 
oil,  and  leaves  room  for  the  cork  to  be 
put  in  without  touching  it.  Cork  and 
cap  or  seal  the  vial,  and  put  in  a  cool, 
dark  place,  and  keep  standing  upright. 
If  carried  out  faithfully  with  due  atten- 
tion to  cleanliness,  this  process  will  keep 
the  juice  in  a  perfectly  natural  condition 
for  a  very  long  time.  The  two  essentials 
are  the  careful  and  rapid  filtration,  and 
the  complete  asepticization  of  the  con- 
tainers. Another  process,  in  use  in  the 
French  Navy,  depends  upon  the  rapid  and 
careful  filtering  of  the  juice,  and  the  addi- 
tion of  from  8  to  10  per  cent  of  alcohol. 

Raspberry  Juice. — A  dark  juice  is 
obtained  by  adding  to  the  crushed  rasp- 
berries, before  the  fermentation,  slight 
quantities  of  sugar  in  layers.  The 
ethyl-alcohol  forming  during  the  fermen- 
tation is  said  to  cause  a  better  extraction 
of  the  raspberry  red.  Furthermore, 
the  boiling  should  not  be  conducted  on 
a  naked  fire,  but  by  means  of  super- 
heated steam,  so  as  to  avoid  formation  of 
caramel.  Finally,  the  sugar  used  should 
be  perfectly  free  from  ultramarine  and 
lime,  since  both  impurities  detract  from 
the  red  color  of  the  raspberries. 

Spice  for  Fruit  Compote. — This  is 
greatly  in  demand  in  neighborhoods 
where  many  plums  and  pears  are  pre- 
served. 

Parts          Parts 

Lemon  peel 15     or      ... 

Cinnamon,   ordi- 
nary     15      or        50 

Star  aniseed  ....    10      or        15 

Coriander 3      or      100 

Carob  pods 5      or 

Ginger    root, 

peeled 2     or     200 

Pimento or      100 

Licorice or      100 

Cloves,     without 

stems or        30 

Spanish  peppers ...      or          2 

Oil  of  lemon or          4 

Oil  of  cinnamon ...      or          2 

Oil  of  cloves or          2 

All  the  solid  constituents  are  pow- 
dered moderately  fine  and  thoroughly 
mixed;  the  oils  dropped  in  last,  and 
rubbed  into  the  powder. 

Strawberries. — Carefully  remove  the 
stems  and  calyxes,  place  the  strawber- 
ries on  a  sieve,  and  move  the  latter 


about  in  a  tub  of  water  for  a  few  mo- 
ments, to  remove  any  dirt  clinging  to 
them.  Drain  and  partially  dry  spon- 
taneously, then  remove  from  the  sieve 
and  put  into  a  porcelain-lined  kettle 
provided  with  a  tight  cover.  To  every 
pound  of  berries  take  a  half  pound  of 
sugar  and  2  ounces  of  water  and  put  the 
same  in  a  kettle  over  the  fire.  Let  re- 
main until  the  sugar  has  dissolved  or 
become  liquid,  and  then  pour  the  same, 
while  still  hot,  over  the  berries,  cover  the 
kettle  tightly  and  let  it  stand  overnight. 
The  next  morning  put  the  kettle  over  the 
fire,  removing  the  cover  when  the  berries 
begin  to  boil,  and  let  boil  gently  for  6 
to  8  minutes  (according  to  the  mass), 
removing  all  scum  as  it  arises.  Remove 
from  the  fire,  and  with  a  perforated 
spoon  or  dipper  take  the  fruit  from  the 
syrup,  and  fill  into  any  suitable  vessel. 
Replace  the  syrup  on  the  fire  and  boil  for 
about  the  same  length  of  time  as  before, 
then  pour,  all  hot,  over  the  berries.  The 
next  day  empty  out  the  contents  of  the 
vessel  on  a  sieve,  and  let  the  berries 
drain  off;  remove  the  syrup  that  drains 
off,  add  water,  put  on  the  fire,  and  boil 
until  you  obtain  a  syrup  which  flows  but 
slowly  from  the  stirring  spoon.  At  this 
point  add  the  berries,  and  let  boil  gently 
for  a  few  moments.  Have  your  pre- 
serve jars  as  hot  as  possible,  by  putting 
them  into  a  £ot  of  cold  water  and  bring- 
ing the  latter* to  a  boil,  and  into  them  fill 
the  berries,  hot  from  the  kettle.  Cool 
down,  cover  with  buttered  paper,  and 
immediately  close  the  jars  hermetically. 
If  corks  are  used,  they  should  be  pro- 
tected below  with  parchment  paper, 
and  afterwards  covered  with  wet  bladder 
stretched  over  the  top,  securely  tied  and 
waxed.  The  process  seems  very  trou- 
blesome and  tedious,  but  all  of  the  care 
expended  is  repaid  by  the  richness  and 
pureness  of  the  flavor  of  the  preserve, 
which  maintains  the  odor  and  taste  of 
the  fresh  berry  in  perfection. 

Hydrogen  Peroxide  as  a  Preservative. 
— Hydrogen  peroxide  is  one  of  the  best, 
least  harmful,  and  most  convenient  agents 
for  preserving  syrups,  wine,  beer,  cider, 
and  vinegar.  For  this  purpose  2|  flui- 
drachms  of  the  commercial  peroxide  of 
hydrogen  may  be  added  to  each  quart  of 
the  article  to  be  preserved.  Hydrogen 
peroxide  also  affords  an  easy  test  for 
bacteria  in  water.  When  hydrogen  per- 
oxide is  added  to  water  that  contains 
bacteria,  these  organisms  decompose  it, 
and  consequently  oxygen  gas  is  given  off. 
If  the  water  be  much  contaminated  the 
disengagement  of  gas  may  be  quite  brisk. 


606 


PRESERVING— PUTTY 


To  Preserve  Milk  (which  should  be  as 
fresh  as  possible)  there  should  be  added 
enough  hydrogen  peroxide  to  cause  it  to 
be  completely  decomposed  by  the  en- 
zymes of  the  milk.  For  this  purpose  1.3 
per  cent,  by  volume,  of  a  3  per  cent 
hydrogen  peroxide  solution  is  required. 
The  milk  is  well  shaken  and  kept  for  5 
hours  at  122°  to  125°  F.  in  well-closed 
vessels.  Upon  cooling,  it  may  keep  fresh 
for  about  a  month  and  also  to  retain  its 
natural  fresh  taste.  With  this  process, 
if  pure  milk  is  used,  the  ordinary  disease 
germs  are  killed  off  soon  after  milking 
and  the  milk  sterilized. 

Powdered  Cork  as  a  Preservative. — 
Tests  have  shown  that  powdered  cork  is 
very  efficacious  for  packing  and  pre- 
serving fruits  and  vegetables.  A  bed  of 
cork  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  case, 
and  the  fruits  or  vegetables  and  the  cork 
are  then  disposed  in  alternate  layers, 
with  a  final  one  of  cork  at  the  top.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  fill  up  the  interstices, 
in  order  to  prevent  friction.  Fruit  may 
thus  be  kept  fresh  a  year,  provided  any 
unsound  parts  have  been  removed  pre- 
liminarily. When  unpacking  for  sale, 
it  suffices  to  plunge  the  fruit  into  water. 
Generally  speaking,  50  pounds  of  cork  go 
with  1,000  or  1,200  pounds  of  fruit.  The 
cork  serves  as  a  protection  against  cold, 
heat,  and  humidity.  Various  fruits, 
such  as  grapes,  mandarines,  tomatoes, 
and  early  vegetables,  are  successfully 
packed  in  this  way. 

PRESSURE  TABLE: 

See  Tables. 

PRINT  COPYING: 

See  Copying. 


PRINTERS' 

See  Oil. 


OIL: 


PRINTING  ON  PHOTOGRAPHS: 

See  Photography. 

PRINTS,  RESTORATION  OF: 

See  Engravings. 

PRINTS,  THEIR  PRESERVATION: 

See  Engravings. 

PRINTING  OILCLOTH  AND  LEATHER 
IN  GOLD: 

See  Gold. 

PRINTING -OUT    PAPER,    HOW    TO 

SENSITIZE: 

See    Photography,    under    Paper-Sen- 
sitizing Processes. 

PRINTING -ROLLER  COMPOSITIONS: 

See  Roller  Compositions  for  Printers. 


PRUSSIC  ACID: 

See  Poisons. 


PUMICE  STONE. 

While  emery  is  used  for  polishing  tools, 

Eolishing  sand  for  stones  and  glass, 
irric  oxide  for  fine  glassware,  and  lime 
and  felt  for  metals,  pumice  stone  is  more 
frequently  employed  for  polishing  softer 
objects.  Natural  pumice  stone  pre- 
sents but  little  firmness,  and  the  search 
has  therefore  been  made  to  replace  the 
natural  product  with  an  artificial  one. 
An  artificial  stone  has  been  produced  by 
means  of  sandstone  and  clay,  designed  to 
be  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  No.  1, 
hard  or  soft,  with  coarse  grain,  is 
designed  for  leather  and  waterproof 
garments,  and  for  the  industries  of  felt 
and  wool;  No.  2^  hard  and  soft,  of  aver- 
age grain,  is  designed  for  work  in  stucco 
and  sculptors'  use,  and  for  rubbing  down 
wood  before  painting;  No.  3,  soft,  with 
fine  grain,  is  used  for  polishing  wood  and 
tin  articles;  No.  4,  of  average  hardness, 
with  fine  grain,  is  used  for  giving  to  wood 
a  surface  previous  to  polishing  with  oil; 
No.  5,  hard,  with  fine  grain,  is  employed 
for  metal  work  and  stones,  especially 
lithographic  stones.  These  artificial 
products  are  utilized  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  volcanic  products.  For  giving  a 
smooth  surface  to  wood,  the  operation  is 
dry;  but  for  finishing,  the  product  is 
diluted  with  oil. 

PUMICE-STONE  SOAP: 

See  Soaps. 

PUNCHES: 

See  Ice  Creams. 

PUNCTURE  CEMENT: 
See  Cement. 

PURPLE  OF  CASSIUS: 

See  Gold. 


Putty 


(See  also  Lutes,  under  Adhesives  and 
Cements.) 

Common  putty,  as  used  by  carpenters, 
painters,  and  glaziers,  is  whiting  mixed 
with  linseed  oil  to  the  consistency  of 
dough.  Plasterers  use  a  fine  lime  mortar 
that  is  called  putty.  Jewelers  use  a  tin 
oxide  for  polisning,  called  putty  powder 
or  putz  powder.  (See  Putz  Powder, 
under  Jewelers'  Polishes,under  Polishes.) 


PUTTY 


607 


Acid-Proof  Putty.— I.— Melt  1  part  of 
gum  elastic  with  2  parts  of  linseed  oil  and 
mix  with  the  necessary  quantity  of  white 
bole  by  continued  kneading  to  the  desired 
consistency.  Hydrochloric  acid  and 
nitric  acid  do  not  attack  this  putty,  it 
softens  somewhat  in  the  warm  and  does 
not  dry  readily  on  the  surface.  The  dry- 
ing and  hardening  is  effected  by  an  admix- 
ture of  |  part  of  litharge  or  red  lead. 

II. — A  putty  which  will  even  resist 
boiling  sulphuric  acid  is  prepared  by 
melting  caoutchouc  at  a  moderate  heat, 
then  adding  8  per  cent  of  tallow,  stirring 
constantly,  whereupon  sufficiently  slaked 
lime  is  added  until  the  whole  has  the 
consistency  of  soft  dough.  Finally 
about  20  per  cent  of  red  lead  is  still 
added,  which  causes  the  mass  to  set  im- 
mediately and  to  harden  and  dry.  A 
solution  of  caoutchouc  in  double  its 
weight  of  linseed  oil,  added  by  means  of 
heat  and  with  the  like  quantity  (weight) 
of  pipe  clay,  gives  a  plastic  mass  which 
likewise  resists  most  acids. 

Black  Putty. — Mix  whiting  and  an- 
timony sulphide,  the  latter  finely  pow- 
dered, with  soluble  glass.  This  putty,  it 
is  claimed,  can  be  polished,  after  narden- 
ing,  by  means  of  a  burnishing  agate. 

Durable  Putty. — According  to  the 
"Gewerbeschau,"  mix  a  handful  of  burnt 
lime  with  4|  ounces  of  linseed  oil;  allow 
this  mixture  to  boil  down  to  the  consist- 
ency of  common  putty,  and  dry  the  ex- 
tensible mass  received,  in  a  place  not 
accessible  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  When 
the  putty,  which  has  become  very  hard 
through  the  drying,  is  to  be  used,  it  is 
warmed.  Over  the  flame  it  will  become 
soft  and  pliable,  but  after  having  been 
applied  and  become  cold,  it  binds  the 
various  materials  very  firmly. 

Glaziers'  Putty.  —  I.  —  For  puttying 
panes  or  looking  glasses  into  picture 
frames  a  mixture  prepared  as  follows  is 
well  adapted:  Make  a  solution  of  gum 
elastic  in  benzine,  strong  enough  so  that 
a  syrup-like  fluid  results.  If  the  solu- 
tion be  too  thin,  wait  until  the  benzine 
evaporates.  Then  grind  white  lead  in 
linseed-oil  varnish  to  a  stiff  paste  and 
add  the  gum  solution.  This  putty  may 
be  used,  besides  the  above  purposes,  for 
the  tight  puttying-in  of  window  panes 
into  their  frames.  The  putty  is  applied 
on  the  glass  lap  of  the  frames  and  the 
panes  are  firmly  pressed  into  it.  The 
glass  plates  thereby  obtain  a  good,  firm 
support  and  stick  to  the  wood,  as  the 
putty  adheres  both  to  the  glass  and  to 
the  wood. 


II. — A  useful  putty  for  mirrors,  etc., 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  gummi  elasti- 
cum  (caoutchouc)  in  benzol  to  a  syrupy 
solution,  and  incorporating  this  'latter 
with  a  mixture  of  white  lead  and  linseed 
oil  to  make  a  stiff  pulp.  The  putty 
adheres  strongly  to  both  glass  and  wood, 
and  may  therefore  be  applied  to  the 
framework  of  the  window,  mirror,  etc., 
to  be  glazed,  the  glass  being  then 
pressed  firmly  on  the  cementing  layer 
thus  formed. 

Hard  Putty. — This  is  used  by  carriage 
painters  and  jewelers.  Boil  4  pounds 
brown  umber  and  7  pounds  linseed  oil 
for  2  hours;  stir  in  2  ounces  beeswax; 
take  from  the  fire  and  mix  in  5^  pounds 
chalk  and  11  pounds  white  lead;  the 
mixing  must  be  done  very  thoroughly. 

Painters'  Putty  and  Rough  Stuff.— 
Gradually  knead  sifted  dry  chalk  (whit- 
ing) or  else  rye  flour,  powdered  white 
lead,  zinc  white,  or  lithopone  white  with 
good  linseed-oil  varnish.  The  best 
putty  is  produced  from  varnish  with 
plenty  of  chalk  and  some  zinc  wrhite. 
This  mixture  can  be  tinted  with  earth 
colors.  These  oil  putties  must  be  well 
kneaded  together  and  rather  compact 
(like  glaziers'  putty). 

If  flour  paste  is  boiled  (this  is  best 
produced  by  scalding  with  hot  water, 
pouring  in,  gradually,  the  rye  flour 
which  has  been  previously  dissolved  in  a 
little  cold  water  and  stirring  constantly 
until  the  proper  consistency  is  attained) 
and  dry  sifted  chalk  and  a  little  varnish 
are  added,  a  good  rough  stuff  for  wood 
or  iron  is  obtained,  which  can  be  rubbed. 
This  may  also  be  produced  from  gla- 
ziers' oil  putty  by  gradually  kneading  into 
it  flour  paste  and  a  little  more  sifted  dry 
chalk. 

To  Soften  Glaziers'  Putty. — I. — Gla- 
ziers' putty  which  has  become  hard  can 
be  softened  with  the  following  mixture: 
Mix  carefully  equal  parts  of  crude  pow- 
dered potash  and  freshly  burnt  lime  and 
make  it  into  a  paste  with  a  little  water. 
This  dough,  to  which  about  J  part  of 
soft  soap  is  still  added,  is  applied  on  the 
putty  to  be  softened,  but  care  has  to  be 
taken  not  to  cover  other  paint,  as  it 
would  be  surely  destroyed  thereby.  Af- 
ter a  few  hours  the  hardest  putty  will  be 
softened  by  this  caustic  mass  and  can  be 
removed  from  glass  and  wood. 

II. — A  good  way  to  make  the  putty 
soft  and  plastic  enough  in  a  few  hours  so 
that  it  can  be  taken  off  like  fresh  putty, 
is  by  the  use  of  kerosene,  which  entirely 
dissolves  the  linseed  oil  of  the  putty, 


608 


PUTTY— PYROTECHNICS 


transformed  into  rosin,  and  quickly  pen- 
etrates it. 

Substitute  for  Putty. — A  cheap  and 
effective  substitute  for  putty  to  stop 
cracks  in  woodwork  is  made  by  soaking 
newspapers  in  a  paste  made  by  boiling 
a  pound  of  flour  in  3  quarts  of  water,  and 
adding  a  teaspoonful  of  alum.  This 
mixture  should  be  of  about  the  same 
consistency  as  putty,  and  should  be 
forced  into  the  cracks  with  a  blunt  knife. 
It  will  harden,  like  papier  mache,  and 
when  dry  may  be  painted  or  stained  to 
match  the  boards,  when  it  will  be  almost 
imperceptible. 

Waterproof  Putties. — I. — Grind  pow- 
dered white  lead  or  minium  (red  lead) 
with  thick  linseed-oil  varnish  to  a  stiff 
paste.  This  putty  is  used  extensively 
for  tightening  wrought-iron  gas  pipes, 
for  tightening  rivet  seams  on  gas  meters, 
hot- water  furnaces,  cast-iron  flange  pipes 
for  hot-water  heating,  etc.  The  putty 
made  with  minium  dries  very  slowly,  but 
becomes  tight  even  before  it  is  quite 
hard,  and  holds  very  firmly  after  solidifi- 
cation. Sometimes  a  little  ground  gyp- 
sum is  added  to  it. 

The  two  following  putties  are  cheaper 
than  the  above  -  mentioned  red  lead 
putty:  II. — One  part  white  lead,  1  part 
manganese,  one  part  white  pipe  clay, 
prepared  with  linseed-oil  varnish. 

III. — Two  parts  red  lead,  5  parts 
white  lead,  4  parts  clay,  ground  in  or 
prepared  with  linseed-oil  varnish. 

IV. — Excellent  putty,  which  has  been 
found  invaluable  where  waterproof 
closing  and  permanent  adhesion  are 
desired,  is  made  from  litharge  and 
glycerine.  The  litharge  must  be  finely 
pulverized  and  the  glycerine  very  concen- 
trated, thickly  liquid,  and  clear  as  water. 
Both  substances  are  mixed  into  a  viscid, 
thickly  liquid  pulp.  The  pegs  of  kero- 
sene lamps,  for  instance,  can  be  fixed  in 
so  firmly  with  this  putty  that  they  can  only 
be  removed  by  chiseling  it  out.  For  put- 
tying in  the  glass  panes  of  aquariums  it 
is  equally  valuable.  As  it  can  withstand 
higher  temperatures  it  may  be  success- 
fully used  for  fixing  tools,  curling  irons, 
forks,  etc.,  in  the  wooden  handles.  The 
thickish  putty  mass  is  rubbed  into  the 
hole,  and  the  part  to  be  fixed  is  inserted. 
As  this  putty  hardens  very  quickly  it 
cannot  be  prepared  in  large  quantities, 
and  only  enough  for  immediate  use  must 
be  compounded  in  each  case. 

V. — Five  parts  of  hydraulic  lime,  0.3 
parts  of  tar,  0.3  parts  of  rosin.  1  part  of  horn 
water  (the  decoction  resulting  from  boil- 


ing horn  in  water  and  decanting  the  lat- 
ter). The  materials  are  to  be  mixed  and 
boiled.  After  cooling,  the  putty  is  ready 
for  use.  This  is  an  excellent  cement  for 
glass,  and  may  be  used  also  for  reservoirs 
and  any  vessels  for  holding  water,  to  ce- 
ment the  cracks;  also  for  many  other 
purposes.  It  will  not  give  way,  and  is 
equally  good  for  glass,  wood,  and  metal. 
VI. — This  is  especially  recommended 
for  boiler  leaks:  Mix  well  together  6 
parts  of  powdered  graphite,  3  parts  of 
slaked  lime,  8  parts  of  heavy  spar 
(barytes),  and  8  parts  of  thick  linseed-oil 
varnish,  and  apply  in  the  ordinary  way 
to  the  spots. 

PUTTY  FOR  ATTACHING  SIGN-LET- 
TERS TO  GLASS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Sign-Letter  Ce- 
ments. 

PUTTY,  TO  REMOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

PUTZ  POMADE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

PYROGALLIC  ACID: 

See  Photography. 

PYROGALLIC  ACID  STAINS,  TO  RE- 
MOVE, FROM  THE  SKIN: 
See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods and  Photography. 

PYROCATECHIN  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

Pyrotechnics 

FIREWORKS. 

The  chief  chemical  process  is,  of 
course,  oxidation.  Oxidation  may  be 
produced  by  the  atmosphere,  but  in  many 
cases  this  is  not  enough,  and  then  the 
pyrotechnist  must  employ  his  knowledge 
of  chemistry  in  selecting  oxidizing  agents. 

The  chief  of  these  oxidizing  agents  are 
chlorates  and  nitrates,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  promote  the  continuance  of  com- 
bustion when  it  is  once  started.  They 
are  specially  useful,  owing  to  their  solid 
non-hygroscopic  nature.  Then  ingredi- 
ents are  needed  to  prevent  the  too  speedy 
action  of  the  oxidizing  agents,  to  regulate 
the  process  of  combustion,  such  as 
calomel,  sand,  and  sulphate  of  potash. 
Thirdly,  there  are  the  active  ingredients 
that  produce  the  desired  effect,  prominent 
among  which  are  substances  that  in 
contact  with  flame  impart  some  special 
color  to  it.  Brilliancy  and  brightness 
are  imparted  by  steel,  zinc,  and  copper 


PYROTECHNICS 


609 


filings.  Other  substances  employed  are 
lampblack  with  gunpowder,  and,  for 
theatre  purposes,  lycopodium. 

Fireworks  may  be  classified  under 
four  heads,  viz.: 

1.  Single  fireworks. 

2.  Terrestrial     fireworks,     which    are 
placed    upon    the    ground   and   the    fire 
issues  direct  from  the  surface. 

3.  Atmospheric  fireworks,  which  begin 
their  display  in  the  air. 

4.  Aquatic  fireworks,  in  which  oxida- 
tion is   so  intense  that  they  produce  a 
flame  under  water. 

Rockets. — First  and  foremost  among 
atmospheric  fireworks  are  rockets,  made 
in  different  sizes,  each  requiring  a  slightly 
different  percentage  composition.  A  good 
formula  is 

Sulphur 1  part 

Carbon,  wood 2  parts 

Niter 4  parts 

Meal  powder 1  part 

Meal  powder  is  a  fine  black  or  brown 
dust,  which  acts  as  a  diluent. 

Roman  Candles. — Roman  candles  are 
somewhat  after  the  same  principle.  An 
average  formula  is: 

Sulphur 4  parts 

Carbon 3  parts 

Niter 8  parts 

Pin  Wheels. — These  are  also  similar 
in  composition  to  the  preceding.  The 
formula  for  the  basis  is 

Sulphur 5  parts 

Niter 9  parts 

Meal  powder 15  parts 

Color  as  desired. 

Bengal  Lights. — Bengal  lights  have 
the  disadvantage  of  being  poisonous. 
A  typical  preparation  can  be  made  ac- 
cording to  this  formula: 

Realgar 1  part 

Black  antimony 5  parts 

Red  lead 1  part 

Sulphur 3  parts 

Niter 14  parts 

COLORED  FIRES. 

The  compounds  should  be  ignited  in  a 
small  pill  box  resting  on  a  plate.  All  the 
ingredients  must  be  dried  and  powdered 
separately,  and  then  lightly  mixed  on  a 
sheet  of  paper.  Always  bear  in  mind 
that  sulphur  and  chlorate  of  potassium 
explode  violently  if  rubbed  together. 

Smokeless  Vari -Colored  Fire. — First 
take  barytes  or  strontium,  and  bring  to 
a  glowing  heat  in  a  suitable  dish,  remove 
from  the  fire,  and  add  the  shellac.  The 
latter  (unpowdered)  will  melt  at  once, 


and  can  then  be  intimately  mixed  with 
the  barytes  or  strontium  by  means  of  a 
spatula.  After  cooling,  pulverize.  One 
may  also  add  about  2|  per  cent  of  pow- 
dered magnesium  to  increase  the  effect. 
Take  for  instance  4  parts  of  barytes  or 
strontium  and  1  part  of  shellac. 

The  following  salts,  if  finely  powdered 
and  burned  in  an  iron  ladle  with  a  little 
spirits,  will  communicate  to  the  flame 
their  peculiar  colors. 

Potassium  nitrate  or  sodium  chlorate, 
yellow. 

Potassium  chlorate,  violet. 

Calcium  chloride,  orange. 

Strontium  nitrate,  red. 

Barium  nitrate,  apple  green. 

Copper  nitrate,  emerald  green. 

Borax,  green. 

Lithium  chloride,  purple. 

The  colored  fires  are  used  largely  in  the 
production  of  various  theatrical  effects. 

Blue  Fire. — 

I. — Ter-sulphuret     of 

antimony 1  part 

Sulphur 2  parts 

Nitrate  of  potassium       6  parts 

II. — Sulphur 15  parts 

Potassium  sulphate  15  parts 
Ammonio  -  c  u  p  r  i  c 

sulphate 15  parts 

Potassium  nitrate..  27  parts 

Potassium  chlorate  28  parts 

III. — Chlorate  of  potash.  8  parts 

Calomel 4  parts 

Copper  sulphate.  .  .  5  parts 

Shellac 3  parts 

IV. — Ore  pigment 2  parts 

Charcoal 3  parts 

Potassium  chloride  5  parts 

Sulphur 13  parts 

Potassium  nitrate..  77  parts 

V. — Potassium  chlorate  10  parts 

Copper  chlorate ...  20  parts 

Alcohol 20  parts 

Water 100  parts 

VI. — Copper  chlorate.  . .  100  parts 
Copper  nitrate ....  50  parts 
Barium  chlorate. ..  25  parts 
Potassium  chlorate  100  parts 

Alcohol 500  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

Green. — 

I. — Barium  chlorate. . .  20  parts 

Alcohol 20  parts 

Water 100  parts 

II. — Barium  nitrate.  ...  10  parts 

Potassium  chlorate  10  parts 

Alcohol 20  parts 

Water 100  parts 


610 


PYROTECHNICS 


III.— Shellac 5     parts 

Barium  nitrate.  ...        1J  parts 
Pound  after  cooling,  and  add 

Barium  chlorate,  2  to  5  per  cent. 

Red.— 

I. — Shellac 5  parts 

Strontium  nitrate  1  to  1.2  parts 

Preparation  as  in  green  fire.  In  damp 
weather  add  2  to  4  per  cent  of  potassium 
chlorate  to  the  red  flame;  the  latter 
causes  a  little  more  smoke. 

II. — Strontium  nitrate. .  20  parts 

Potassium  chlorate  10  parts 

Alcohol 20  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Yellow.— 

I. — Sulphur 16  parts 

Dried  carbonate  of 

soda 23  parts 

Chlorate  of    potas- 
sium       61  parts 

II. — Sodium  chlorate.  . .  20  parts 

Potassium  oxalate.  10  parts 

Alcohol 20  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Violet.— 

I. — Strontium  chlorate.  15  parts 

Copper  chlorate.  .  .  15  parts 

Potassium  chlorate  15  parts 

Alcohol 50  parts 

Water 100  parts 

II. — Potassium  chlorate  20  parts 

Strontium  chlorate.  20  parts 

Copper  chlorate .  ..  10  parts 

Alcohol 50  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Lilac.— 

Potassium  chlorate  20  parts 

Copper  chlorate.  .  .  10  parts 

Strontium  chloride.  10  parts 

Alcohol 50  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Mauve. — 

Chlorate  of  potash  .  28  parts 

Calomel 12  parts 

Shellac 4  parts 

Strontium  nitrate.  .  4  parts 

Cupric  sulphate  ...  2  parts 

Fat 1  part 

Purple. — 

Copper  sulphide. ..  8  parts 

Calomel 7  parts 

Sulphur 2  parts 

Chlorate  of  potash.  16  parts 

White.— 

I. — Gunpowder 15  parts 

Sulphur 22  parts 

Nitrate  of  potassium  64  parts 


II. — Potassium  nitrate.  .  .  30  parts 

Sulphur 10  parts 

Antimony     sulphide 

(black) 5  parts 

Flour 3  parts 

Powdered  camphor.  2  parts 

III.— Charcoal 1  part 

Sulphur 11  parts 

Potassium  sulphide.    38  parts 

IV. — Stearine 1  part 

Barium  carbonate  .  .  1  part 

Milk  sugar 4  parts 

Potassium  nitrate  ....  4  parts 

Potassium  chlorate.  12  parts 

As  a  general  rule,  a  corresponding 
quantity  of  shellac  may  be  taken  instead 
of  the  sulphur  for  inside  fireworks. 

The  directions  for  using  these  solu- 
tions are  simply  to  imbibe  bibulous  pa- 
pers in  them,  then  carefully  dry  and  roll 
tightly  into  rolls  of  suitable  length,  accord- 
ing to  the  length  of  time  they  are  to  burn. 

Fuses. — For  fuses  or  igniting  papers, 
the  following  is  used: 

Potassium  nitrate.  . .      2  parts 

Lead  acetate 40  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Mix  and  dissolve,  and  in  the  solution 
place  unsized  paper;  raise  to  nearly  a  boil 
and  keep  at  this  temperature  for  20 
minutes.  If  the  paper  is  to  be  "slow," 
it  may  now  be  taken  out,  dried,  cut  into 
strips,  and  rolled.  If  to  be  "faster,"  the 
heat  is  to  be  continued  longer,  according 
to  the  quickness  desired.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  boiling,  which  might  dis- 
integrate the  paper. 

In  preparing  these  papers,  every  pre- 
caution against  fire  should  be  taken,  and 
their  preparation  in  the  shop  or  house 
should  not  be  thought  of.  In  making 
the  solutions,  etc.,  where  heat  is  neces- 
sary, the  water  bath  should  invariably 
be  used. 

PYROTECHNIC   MAGIC. 

[Caution. — When  about  to  place  any 
lighted  material  in  the  moutn  be  sure 
that  the  mouth  is  well  coated  with  saliva, 
and  that  you  are  exhaling  the  breath  con- 
tinuously, with  greater  or  less  force, 
according  to  the  amount  of  heat  you  can 
bear. 

If  the  lighted  material  shows  a  ten- 
dency to  burn  the  mouth,  do  not  attempt 
to  drag  it  out  auickly,  but  simply  shut  the 
lips  tight,  and  breathe  through  the  nose, 
and  the  fire  must  go  out  instantly. 

In  the  Human  Gas  Trick,  where  a 
flame  10  to' 15  inches  long  is  blown  from 
the  mouth,  be  careful  after  lighting  the 


PYROTECHNICS 


611 


gas,  to  continue  to  exhale  the  breath. 
When  you  desire  the  gas  to  go  out,  sim- 
ply shut  the  lips  tight  and  hold  the 
breath  for  a  few  seconds.  In  this  trick, 
until  the  gas  is  well  out,  any  inhalation 
is  likely  to  be  attended  with  the  most 
serious  results. 

The  several  cautions  above  given  may 
be  examined  with  a  lighted  match,  first 
removing,  after  lighting  the  match,  any 
brimstone  or  phosphorus  from  its  end.] 

To  Fire  Paper,  etc.,  by  Breathing  on 
it. — This  secret  seems  little  known  to 
conjurers.  Pay  particular  attention  to 
the  caution  concerning  phosphorus  at 
the  head  of  this  article,  and  the  caution 
respecting  the  dangerous  nature  of  the 
prepared  fluid  given. 

Half  fill  a  half-ounce  bottle  with  car- 
bon disulphide,  and  drop  in  1  or  2  frag- 
ments of  phosphorus,  each  the  size  of  a 
pea,  which  will  quickly  dissolve.  Shake 
up  the  liquid,  and  pour  out  a  small  tea- 
spoonful  onto  a  piece  of  blotting  paper. 
The  carbon  disulphide  will  quickly  evap- 
orate, leaving  a  film  of  phosphorus  on 
the  paper,  which  will  quickly  emit  fumes 
and  burst  into  flame.  The  once-popu- 
lar term  Fenian  fire  was  derived  from 
the  supposed  use  of  this  liquid  by  the 
Fenians  for  the  purpose  of  setting  fire  to 
houses  by  throwing  a  bottle  down  a 
chimney  or  through  a  window,  the  bottle 
to  break  and  its  contents  to  speedily  set 
fire  to  the  place. 

For  the  purpose  of  experiment  this 
liquid  should  only  be  prepared  in  small 
quantities  as  above,  and  any  left  over 
should  be  poured  away  onto  the  soil  in 
the  open  air,  so  as  to  obviate  the  risk  of 
fire.  Thin  paper  may  be  fired  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  with  the  acid  bulbs  and 
powder  already  mentioned.  The  pow- 
der should  be  formed  into  a  paste,  laid  on 
the  paper,  and  allowed  to  dry.  Then  the 
acid  bulb  is  pasted  over  the  powder. 

Burning  Brimstone. — Wrap  cotton 
around  two  small  pieces  of  brimstone 
and  wet  it  with  gasoline;  take  between  the 
ngers,  squeezing  the  surplus  liquid  out, 
ght  it  with  a  candle,  throw  back  the 
head  well,  and  put  it  on  the  tongue  blaz- 
ing. Blow  fire  from  mouth,  and  observe 
that  a  freshly  blown-out  candle  may  be 
lighted  from  the  flame,  which  makes  it 
more  effective.  After  lighting  candle 
chew  up  brimstone  and  pretend  to  swallow. 

Blazing  Sponge  Trick. — Take  2  or  3 
small  sponges,  place  them  in  a  ladle; 
pour  just  enough  oil  or  gasoline  over 
them  to  wet  them.  Be  very  careful  not 
to  have  enough  oil  on  them  to  cause  them 


to  drip.  Set  fire  to  the  sponges  and  take 
one  of  them  up  with  the  tongss  and  throw 
the  head  back  and  drop  the  blazing 
sponge  in  the  mouth,  expelling  the 
breatn  all  the  time.  Now  close  your 
mouth  quickly;  this  cuts  off  the  air  from 
the  flame  and  it  immediately  goes  out. 
Be  careful  not  to  drop  the  sponge  on  the 
face  or  chin.  Remove  sponge  under 
cover  of  a  handkerchief  before  placing 
the  second  one  in  the  mouth. 

Burning  Sealing  Wax. — Take  a  stick 
of  common  sealing  wax  in  one  hand  and 
a  candle  in  the  other,  melt  the  wax  over 
the  candle,  and  put  on  your  tongue  while 
blazing.  The  moisture  of  the  mouth 
cools  it  almost  instantly.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  get  any  on  the  lips,  chin, 
or  hands. 

Demon  Bowls  of  Fire. — The  performer 
has  three  6^-inch  brass  bowls  on  a  table, 
and  openly  pours  ordinary  clean  water 
(may  be  drunk)  into  bowls,  until  each  is 
about  half  full.  Then  by  simply  passing 
the  hand  over  bowls  they  each  take  fire 
and  produce  a  flame  12  to  20  inches  high. 

Each  bowl  contains  about  2  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  ether,  upon  which  is  placed 
a  small  piece  of  the  metal  potassium, 
about  the  size  of  a  pea.  If  the  ether  be 
pure  the  potassium  will  not  be  acted 
upon.  When  the  water  is  poured  into 
the  bowl  the  ether  and  potassium  float 
up,  the  latter  acting  vigorously  on  the 
water,  evolving  hydrogen  and  setting  fire 
thereto,  and  to  the  ether  as  well. 

The  water  may  be  poured  into  the 
bowl  and  lighted  at  command.  In  this 
case  the  potassium  and  ether  are  kept 
separated  in  the  bowl,  the  former  in  a 
little  cup  on  one  side,  and  the  latter  in 
the  body  of  the  bowl.  The  water  is 
poured  in,  and  on  rocking  the  bowl  it  is 
caused  to  wash  into  the  little  cup,  the 
potassium  floats  up,  and  the  fire  is  pro- 
duced. 

N.  B. — The  above  tricks  are  not  safe 
in  any  but  specially  made  bowls,  i.  e., 
bowls  with  the  wide  flange  round  edge  to 
prevent  the  accidental  spilling  of  any 
portion  of  the  burning  ether. 

The  Burning  Banana. — Place  some 
alcohol  in  a  ladle  and  set  fire  to  it.  Dip 
a  banana  in  the  blazing  alcohol  and  eat 
it  while  it  is  blazing.  As  soon  as  it  is 
placed  in  the  mouth  the  fire  goes  out. 

Sparks  from  the  Finger  Tips. — Take  a 
small  piece  of  tin  about  £  inch  wide  and 
It  inches  long.  Bend  this  in  the  shape 
of  a  ring.  To  the  center  of  this  piece 
solder  another  small  piece  of  tin  bent  in 
the  shape  of  a  letter  U;  between  the 


612 


PYROTECHNICS 


ends  of  this  U  place  a  small  piece  of  wax 
tape  about  A  inch  long.  Take  a  piece  of 
small  rubber  tubing  about  2  feet  in  length 
and  to  one  end  of  this  attach  a  hollow 
rubber  ball,  which  you  must  partly  fill 
with  iron  filings.  Place  the  rubber  ball 
containing  the  iron  filings  under  the  arm 
and  pass  the  rubber  tube  down  through 
the  sleeve  of  the  coat  to  the  palm  of  the 
hand;  now  place  the  tin  ring  upon  the 
middle  finger,  with  the  wax  taper  inside 
of  the  hand.  Light  this  taper.  By 
pressing  the  arm  down  sharply  on  the 
rubber  ball,  the  force  of  the  air  will  drive 
some  of  the  iron  filings  through  the  rub- 
ber tube  and  out  through  the  flame  of  the 
burning  taper,  when  they  will  ignite  and 
cause  a  beautiful  shower  of  sparks  to  ap- 
pear to  rain  from  the  finger  tips. 

To  Take  Boiling  Lead  in  the  Mouth.— 
The  metal  used,  while  not  unlike  lead  in 
appearance,  is  not  the  ordinary  metal, 
but  is  really  an  alloy  composed  of  the 
following  substances: 

Bismuth 8  parts 

Lead 5-  parts 

Tin 2  parts 

To  prepare  it,  first  melt  the  lead  in  a 
crucible,  then  add  the  bismuth  and  finally 
the  tin,  and  stir  well  together  with  a  piece 
of  tobacco  pipe  stem.  This  "  fusible 
metal"  will  melt  in  boiling  water,  and  a 
teaspoon  cast  from  the  alloy  will  melt  if 
very  hot  water  be  poured  into  it,  or  if 
boiling  water  be  stirred  with  it.  If  the 
water  be  not  quite  boiling,  as  is  pretty 
sure  to  be  the  case  if  tea  from  a  teapot  is 
used,  in  all  probability  the  heat  will  be 
insufficient  to  melt  the  spoon.  But  by 
melting  the  alloy  and  adding  to  it  a  small 
quantity  of  quicksilver  a  compound  will 
be  produced,  which,  though  solid  at  the 
ordinary  temperature,  will  melt  in  water 
very  much  below  the  boiling  point. 
Another  variety  of  easily  fusible  alloy  is 
made  by  melting  together 

Bismuth 7  to  8  parts 

Lead 4  parts 

Tin 2  parts 

Cadmium 1  to  2  parts 

This  mixture  melts  at  158°,  that  given 
above  at  208°  F. 

Either  one  of  the  several  alloys  above 
given  will  contain  considerably  less  heat 
than  lead,  and  in  consequence  be  the 
more  suitable  for  the  purposes  of  a  "Fire 
King." 

When  a  body  is  melted  it  is  raised  to  a 
certain  temperature  and  then  gets  no 
hotter,  not  even  if  the  fire  be  increased  — 
all  the  extra  heat  goes  to  melt  the  re- 
mainder of  the  substance. 


Second  Method. — This  is  done  with  a 
ladle  constructed  similarly  to  the  tin  cup 
in  a  previous  trick.  The  lead,  genuine  in 
this  case,  is,  apparently,  drunk  from  the 
ladle,  which  is  then  tilted,  that  it  may 
be  seen  to  be  empty.  The  lead  is  con- 
cealed in  the  secret  interior  of  the  ladle, 
and  a  solid  piece  of  lead  is  in  conclusion 
dropped  from  the  mouth,  as  congealed 
metal. 

To  Eat  Burning  Coals.— In  the  first 
place  make  a  good  charcoal  fire  in  the 
furnace.  Just  before  commencing  the 
act  throw  in  three  or  four  pieces  of  soft 
pine.  When  burnt  to  a  coal  one  cannot 
tell  the  difference  between  this  and  char- 
coal, except  by  sticking  a  fork  into  it. 
This  will  not  burn  in  the  least,  while  the 
genuine  charcoal  will.  You  can  stick 
your  fork  into  these  coals  without  any 
difficulty,  but  the  charcoal  is  brittle  and 
hard;  it  breaks  before  the  fork  goes  into 
it. 

Chain  of  Fire. — Take  a  piece  of  candle 
wick  8  or  10  inches  long,  saturated  with 
kerosene  oil,  squeeze  out  surplus  oil. 
j  Take  hpld  of  one  end  with  your  fire  tongs, 
light  by  furnace,  throw  back  your  head, 
and  lower  it  into  your  mouth  while  ex- 
haling the  breath  freely.  When  all  in, 
close  your  lips  and  remove  in  handker- 
chief. 

NOTE. — Have  a  good  hold  of  the  end 
with  the  tongs,  for  if  it  should  fall  it  would 
probably  inflict  a  serious  burn;  for  this 
reason  also  no  burning  oil  must  drop 
from  the  cotton. 

Biting  Off  Red-Hot  Iron.— Take  a 
piece  of  hoop  iron  about  2  feet  long, 
place  it  in  a  vise  and  bend  it  backwards 
and  forwards,  about  an  inch  from  the 
end,  until  it  is  nearly  broken  off.  Put 
this  in  a  furnace  until  it  becomes  red  hot, 
then  take  it  in  your  right  hand,  grasp  the 
broken  end  in  your  teeth,  being  careful 
not  to  let  it  touch  your  lips  or  your 
tongue,  make  a  "face"  as  though  it  was 
terribly  hard  to  bite  off,  and  let  the 
broken  end  drop  from  between  your  teeth 
into  a  pail  of  water  (which  you  should 
always  have  at  hand  in  case  of  fire), 
when  the  hissing  will  induce  the  belief 
that  the  portion  bitten  off  is  still  "red 
hot" — it  may  be,  for  that  matter,  if  the 
iron  be  nearly  broken  off  in  the  first  place 
and  if  you  have  good  teeth  and  are  not 
afraid  to  injure  them. 

Water  Stirred  Yellow,  Scarlet,  and 
Colorless. — Obtain  a  glass  tube  with  one 
end  hermetically  sealed  and  drawn  into  a 
fine  point  that  will  break  easily.  Into  an 
ale  glass  put  a  solution  of  mercury  bi- 


QUICK- WATER— RAT   POISONS 


613 


chloride  (corrosive  sublimate,  a  deadly 
poison)  and  into  the  tube  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  potassium  iodide  so  adjusted  in 
strength  that  it  will  redissolve  the  scarlet 
precipitate  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
two  liquids.  While  stirring  the  solution 
in  the  glass  the  bottom  of  the  tube  (ap- 
parently a  glass  rod)  is  broken  and  a 
small  portion  of  its  contents  allowed  to 
escape,  which  produces  a  beautiful  scar- 
let. The  balance  of  the  fluid  in  the  tube 
is  retained  there  by  simply  keeping  the 
thumb  on  the  open  top  end.  Continue 
the  stirring,  allowing  the  balance  of  the 
contents  of  the  tube  to  escape,  and  the 
scarlet  fluid  again  becomes  colorless. 
Before  the  scarlet  appears  the  liquid  is 
yellow. 

To  heighten  the  effect,  another  ale 
glass,  containing  only  clean  water  and  a 
solid  glass  stirring-rod,  may  be  handed 
to  one  of  the  company,  with  instructions 
to  do  the  same  as  the  performer;  the 
result  is  amusing. 

QUICK- WATER: 

See  Alloys. 

QUILTS,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

QUINCE  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

RAGS  FOR  CLEANING  AND  POLISH- 
ING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


RASPBERRYADE  POWDER: 

See  Salts,  Effervescent. 

RASPBERRY  SYRUP: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

Rat  Poisons 

(See  also  Turpentine.) 

Poisons  for  rats  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  quick  and  slow.  Potassium 
cyanide  and  strychnine  belong  to  the 
first,  and  phosphorus  and  arsenic  to  the 
second.  Both  should  be  kept  away 
from  children,  dogs,  and  cats,  and  this  is 
best  done  by  putting  them  in  places  too 
narrow  for  anything  larger  than  a  rat  to 
squeeze  into.  If  the  poison  is  too  quick, 
the  effect  of  it  is  visible  to  the  same  rats 
which  saw  the  cause,  and  those  which 
have  not  eaten  of  the  bait  will  leave  it 
alone.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  too 
slow,  the  poisoned  rat  may  spread  it  to 


edible  things  in  the  pantry,  by  vomiting. 
Slow  poisons  generally  cause  the  rat  to 
seek  water,  and  when  they  are  used 
water  should  not  be  left  about  promis- 
cuously. 

The  substances  most  useful  as  rat 
poisons,  and  which  are  without  danger 
to  the  larger  domestic  animals,  are  plas- 
ter of  Paris  and  fresh  squills.  Less  dan- 
gerous than  strychnine  and  arsenic  are 
the  baryta  preparations,  of  which  the 
most  valuable  is  barium  carbonate. 
Like  plaster  of  Paris,  this  substance, 
when  used  for  the  purpose,  must  be 
mixed  with  sugar  and  meal,  or  flour,  and 
as  a  decoy  some  strong-smelling  cheese 
should  be  added.  In  closed  places  there 
should  be  left  vessels  containing  water 
easily  accessible  to  the  creatures. 

One  advantage  over  these  substances 

Sossessed  by  the  squill  is  that  it  is  greed- 
y  eaten  by  rats  and  mice.  When  it  is 
used,  however,  the  same  precaution  as 
to  water,  noted  above,  is  necessary,  a 
circumstance  too  frequently  forgotten. 
In  preparing  the  squill  for  this  purpose, 
by  the  addition  of  bacon,  or  fat  meat  of 
any  kind,  the  use  of  a  decoy  like  cheese 
is  unnecessary,  as  the  fats  are  suffi- 
ciently appetizing  to  the  rodents.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  only  fresh  squills  should 
be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  in  keeping 
the  bulb  the  poisonous  principle  is  de- 
stroyed, or,  at  least,  is  so  modified  as  to 
seriously  injure  its  value. 

Squill  Poisons. — T06  preparation  of 
the  squill  as  a  rat  poison  can  be  effected 
in  several  different  ways.  Usually,  af- 
ter the  removal  of  the  outer  peel,  the 
bulb  is  cut  up  into  little  slices  and  mixed 
with  milk  and  flour;  these  are  stirred 
into  a  dough  or  paste,  which,  with  bits 
of  bacon  rind,  is  put  into  the  oven  and 
baked.  Another  plan  is  to  grate  the 
squill  on  a  grater  and  mingle  the  gratings 
with  mashed,  boiled,  or  roasted  potato. 
This  method  of  preparing  them  necessi- 
tates the  immediate  use  of  the  poison. 
The  following  is,  however,  a  stable  prep- 
aration that  keeps  well: 

I. — Hog's  lard 500  grams 

Acid  salicylic 5  grams 

Squill 1  bulb 

Beef  suet 50  to  100  grams 

Barium  carbon- 
ate   500  grams 

Solution  of  am- 
monium cop- 
per acetate,  20 

per  cent 50  grams 

Cut  or  grate  the  squill  into  very  small 
pieces,  and  fry  it  in  the  lard  and  suet  un- 
til it  has  acquired  a  dark-brown  color  and 


814 


RAT   POISONS 


the  fats  have  taken  up  the  characteristic 
squill  odor;  then  to  the  mess  add  the 
other  substances,  and  stir  well  together. 

II. — Squill,  bruised 4  ounces 

Bacon,  chopped  fine     6  ounces 
Flour  or  meal,  enough. 
Water,  enough. 

Make  into  a  stiff  mass,  divide  into 
small  cakes,  and  bake. 

Phosphorus  Poisons. — Next  to  the 
squill  in  value  as  a  poison  comes  phos- 
pnorus  in  the  shape  of  an  electuary,  or 
in  pills.  For  readily  preparing  the 
electuary,  when  needed  or  ordered,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  keep  on  hand  a  phos- 
phorated syrup  made  as  follows: 

To  200  parts  of  simple  syrup,  in  a 
strong  flask,  add  50  parts  of  phosphorus 
and  10  parts  of  talc  powder;  place  the 
container  in  a  suitable  vessel  and  sur- 
round it  with  water  heated  to  120°  to 
130°  F.,  and  let  it  stand  until  the  phos- 
phorus is  melted.  Now,  cork  the  flask 
well,  tie  down  the  cork,  and  agitate  until 
the  mixture  is  completely  cold.  As  a 
measure  of  precaution,  the  flask  should 
be  wrapped  with  a  cloth. 

To  make  the  poison  take  50  parts  of 
rye  flour  and  mix  with  it  10  parts  of  pow- 
dered sugar.  To  the  mixture  add  about 
40  parts  of  water  and  from  30  to  40  parts 
of  the  phosphorated  syrup,  and  mix  the 
mass  thoroughly. 

While  it  is  best  to  make  the  phosphor- 
ated syrup  fresh  every  time  that  it  is 
required,  a  stable  syrup  can  be  made  as 
follows: 

Heat  together  very  carefully  in  a  water 
bath  5  parts  of  phosphorus,  3  parts  of 
sublimea  sulphur,  ana  30  parts  oi'  water, 
until  the  phosphorus  is  completely 
melted  and  taken  up;  then  add  30  parts 
of  wheat  flour  and  6  parts  of  ground 
mustard  seed,  and  work  up,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  warm  water  from  time  to  time, 
if  necessary,  into  a  stiff  paste,  finally 
adding  and  working  in  from  1  to  2  parts 
of  oil  of  anise. 

Borax  in  powder,  it  may  be  noticed, 
is  also  useful  as  a  preservative  of  phos- 
phorated paste  or  the  electuary. 

Miihsam  gives  the  following  formula 
for  an  electuary  of  phosphorus  for  this 
purpose: 

I. — Phosphorus,    granu- 
lated        1  part 

Rye  flour 30  parts 

Simple  syrup 10  parts 

Mustard  seed,  pow- 
dered        1  part 

Sublimed  sulphur..  .      1  part 
Water 10  parts 

Proceed  as  indicated  above. 


Hager's  formula  for  "Phosphorus 
globules"  is  as  follows: 

II. — Phosphorus,  amor- 
phous       10  parts 

Glycerine 20  parts 

Linseed,  powdered   100  parts 

Meat  extract 15  parts 

Quark,  recently  coagulated,  quan- 
tity sufficient. 

Mix,  and  make  a  mass,  and  divide 
into  200  globules,  weighing  about  15 
grains  each.  Roll  in  wheat  flour,  in 
which  a  little  powdered  sugar  has  been 
mixed. 

Phosphorus  electuary,  made  as  indi- 
cated above,  may  be  smeared  upon  bits 
of  fried  bacon,  which  should  be  tacked 
firmly  to  a  bit  of  board  or  to  the  floor. 
It  is  essential  that  either  flour  or  sugar, 
or  both,  be  strewn  over  the  surface  of 
the  phosphorus. 

The  most  convenient  in  practice,  on 
the  whole,  are  the  phosphorus  globules, 
either  made  after  Hager's  formula,  or, 
more  readily,  by  adding  rye  flour  and 
sugar  to  the  electuary  and  working  up 
to  a  pill  mass,  or  barium  carbonate  and 
plaster  may  be  added. 

Arsenical  Poisons. — The  following  are 
some  of  the  formulas  given  by  Hager  for 
preparing  globules,  or  pills,  of  arsenic: 

I. — Arsenic,  white,  pow- 
dered  100  parts 

Soot  from  the  kitch- 
en        5  parts 

Oil  of  anise 1  part 

Lard,  sufficient. 
Wheat  flour,  sufficient. 
Make  into  400  globules. 

II. — Beef  suet 500  parts 

Rye  flour 500  parts 

Arsenic,  white,  pow- 
dered     50  parts 

Ultramarine 10  parts 

Oil  of  anise 1  part 

Melt  the  suet,  and  add  to  the  flour, 
mix  in  the  other  ingredients,  and  work  up 
while  hot,  beating  the  mass  with  a  roller. 
Make  1,000  globules. 

Strychnine  Poisons. — The  strychnine 
preparations  are  also  valuable  in  the 
destruction  of  rats  and  mice.  The  first 
of  these  in  point  of  usefulness  is  strych- 
nine-wheat, or  strychnine-oats  (Strych- 
ninweizen  or  Strycnninhafer),  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  part  of  strychnine  to  100  or 
150  parts  of  wheat  or  oat  flour,  prepared 
by  dissolving  1  part  of  strychnine  in  40 
to  50  parts  of  hot  water,  mixing  well  up 
with  the  flour,  and  drying  in  the  water 


RAZOR   PASTES— REFRIGERANTS 


615 


bath.  Strychnine  may  also  be  used  on 
fresh  or  salted  meat,  sausage,  etc.,  by 
insertion  of  the  powder,  or  the  heads  of 
fried  fish  are  opened  and  the  powder 
strewn  on  the  inside.  The  latter  is  an 
especially  deadly  method,  since  the  odor 
of  the  fish  acts  as  a  powerful  lure,  as  also 
do  the  bits  of  bacon  or  other  fats  used  in 
frying  fish.  Strong  cheese  is  also  a  good 
vehicle  for  strychnine,  acting  as  a  power- 
ful lure  for  the  rodents. 

Strychnine  sulph 1     drachm 

Sugar  milk 3     drachms 

Prussian  blue 5     grains 

Sugar. .  . ^  ounce 

Oat  flour |  ounce 

Nux  Vomica  Poison. — 

Oatmeal 1  pound 

Powdered  nux  vomica   1  ounce 

Oil  of  anise 5  drops 

Tincture  of  asafetida.    5  drops 

Barium  Poison. — 

Barium  carbonate 4  ounces 

Sugar 6  ounces 

Oatmeal 6  ounces 

Oil  of  anise 4  drops 

Oil  of  caraway 4  drops 

RAZOR  PAPER: 

See  Paper. 

RAZOR  PASTES: 

See  also  Pastes. 

The  razor  pastes,  razor  creams,  etc., 
on  the  market,  have  for  their  cutting,  or 
sharpening,  agent  jewelers'  rouge,  or 
rouge  and  emery.  When  emery  is  used 
it  should  be  ground  to  an  impalpable 
powder  and  levigated. 

I. — The  simplest  formula  is  a  mixture 
in  equal  parts  of  rouge  and  emery  pow- 
der, rubbed  up  with  spermaceti  ointment. 
Coke  is  also  used  as  a  cutting  agent. 
Suet,  prepared  lard,  in  fact,  any  greasy 
or  soapy  substance,  will  answer  for  the 
vehicle. 

II. — Melt  1,000  parts  of  beef  tallow 
ano!  pour  250  parts  of  oil  to  it.  To  this 
mixture,  which  is  uniformly  combined 
by  thorough  stirring,  add  in  the  same 
manner  150  parts  of  washed  emery,  100 
parts  of  tin  ashes,  and  50  parts  of  iron 
oxide.  The  stirring  of  these  ingredients 
must  be  continued  until  the  mass  is  cool, 
as  otherwise  they  would  be  unevenly 
distributed.  The  leather  of  the  strop 
should  be  rubbed  with  this  grease,  ap- 
plying only  small  quantities  at  a  time. 
This  renders  it  possible  to  produce  a 
very  uniform  coating,  since  little  quanti- 
ties penetrate  the  fibers  of  the  leather 
more  easily. 


III.—  Tin     putty     (tin 

ashes)  ..........      2  parts 

Colcothar  .........      2  parts 

Forged  iron  scales 

or  filings  .......      1  part 

Pure  levantine  hon- 
ing   stone    finely 
powdered  .......      7  parts 

Beef  suet  ..........      3  parts 

All  the  ingredients  with  the  exception 
of  the  suet  should  be  finely  powdered. 
The  suet  is  melted,  the  ingredients  poured 
in,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  mixed  to 
form  a  doughy  mass. 

IV.—  Colcothar  .........      Imparts 

Pumice  stone  ......      1  J  parts 

Graphite  .........      4£  parts 

Bloodstone      (red 

hematite)  .......      2    parts 

Iron  filings  .......      1     part 

These  ingredients  are  finely  powdered, 
washed,  and  mixed  with  the  following: 


Grafting  wax  ........ 

Soap  ............... 

Lard  ............... 

Olive  oil  ............ 


2  parts 
2  parts 
2  parts 
2  parts 
Naturally  the  fatty  ingredients  are  to 

be  heated  before  the  solid  substances  are 

commingled  with  them. 

The  side  of  the  blade  to  be  polished 

should    be    treated    with    the    following 

compositions: 

a.  Tin  ashes  (tin  putty)  rubbed  down 
to  a  fine  powder  on  a  honing  stone  and 
mixed  with  axle  grease. 

b.  Washed     graphite     mingled     with 
olive  oil. 

REDUCERS: 

See  Photography. 

REDUCING    PHOTOGRAPHS,    SCALE 
FOR: 

See  Photography. 

REFLECTOR  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

REFRIGERANTS. 

I.  —  Potassium  nitrate.  ..  2 

Ammonium  chloride  2 

Water  ..........  5 


II. — Potassium  nitrate.  .  .  2 

Ammonium  chloride  2 

Sodium  sulphate. ...  4 

Water 9 


III. — Ammonia  nitrate . 
Water.. 


IV. — Sodium  sulphate. ...      8 
Dilute    hydrochloric 
acid .  .  5 


pounds 
pounds 
pints 

pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pints 

pounds 
pints 

parts 
parts 


616 


REFRIGERATION— RHUBARB 


V. — Snow 1     part 

Water 1     part 

Sulphuric  acid 4     parts 

VI. — Snow . 3     parts 

Calcium  chloride ...      4     parts 

Refrigeration 

If  water  to  be  frozen  is  placed  in  a  tin 
bucket  or  other  receptacle  it  can  be 
readily  congealed  by  putting  it  in  a  pail 
containing  a  weak  dilution  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  water.  Into  this  throw  a 
handful  of  common  Glauber  salts,  and 
the  resulting  cold  is  so  great  that  water 
immersed  in  the  mixture  will  be  frozen 
solid  in  a  few  minutes,  and  ice  cream  or 
ices  may  be  quickly  and  easily  prepared. 
The  cost  is  only  a  few  cents.  The  same 
process  in  an  ice-cream  freezer  will  do  the 
trick  for  ice  cream. 

Home -Made  Refrigerators. — I. — Partly 
fill  with  water  a  shallow  granite-ware  pan. 
Place  it  in  an  open,  shady  window  where 
there  is  a  good  draught  of  air.  In  this 
put  bottles  of  water,  milk,  and  cream 
(sealed),  wrapped  with  wet  cloths  reach- 
ing into  the  water.  Put  butter  in  an 
earthen  dish  deep  enough  to  prevent 
water  getting  in.  Over  this  turn  an 
earthen  flower-pot  wrapped  with  a  wet 
cloth  reaching  into  the  water.  The  pan 
should  be  fixed  every  morning  and 
evening.  With  several  of  these  pans  one 
can  keep  house  very  comfortably  without 
ice. 

II. — Procure  a  wire  meat-safe — that  is, 
a  box  covered  by  wire  netting  on  three 
sides,  with  a  fly-proof  door.  On  top 
place  a  deep  pan  filled  with  water.  Take 
a  piece  of  burlap  the  height  of  the  pan 
and  safe,  and  of  sufficient  length  to  reach 
around  the  entire  safe.  Tack  it  fast 
where  the  door  opens  and  closes.  Tuck 
the  upper  edge  in  the  water.  Place  it 
where  there  is  a  draught  and  where  the 
dripping  will  do  no  damage.  This  con- 
stitutes a  well-ventilated  refrigerator 
chat  costs  nothing  but  water  to  maintain. 

III. — Take  a  store  box,  any  convenient 
size,  and  place  in  this  a  smaller  box, 
having  the  bottom  and  space  around  the 
sides  packed  with  sawdust.  Have  a 
galvanized  iron  pan  made,  the  size  of  the 
inside  box  and  half  as  deep,  to  hold  the 
ice.  Have  the  pan  made  with,  a  spout 
6  inches  long  to  drain  off  the  water  as 
the  ice  melts.  Bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the 
spout  through  the  double  bottom  and 
sawdust  packing  to  admit  the  spout. 
Short  legs  may  be  nailed  on  the  sides  of 
the  box  and  a  vessel  set  underneath  to 


catch  the  drippings.  Put  on  a  tight 
board  cover.  A  shelf  may  be  placed  in 
the  box  above  the  ice.  This  box  will 
keep  ice  for  three  days. 

IV. — Select  a  large  cracker  box  with 
a  hinged  cover.  Knock  out  the  bottom 
and  cut  windows  in  each  side,  leaving  a 
3-inch  frame,  over  which  tack  wire  gauze. 
In  the  coolest  part  of  the  cellar  dig  away 
the  earth  to  a  level  depth  of  3  inches  and 
fit  the  box  into  the  space. 

Mix  plaster  of  Paris  to  a  consistency  of 
thick  cream  and  pour  into  the  box  for  a 
i-inch  thick  bottom.  Twenty-four  hours 
will  harden  it  sufficiently.  Put  a  hook 
and  catch  on  the  lid.  A  box  of  this 
sort  can  be  cleaned  easily,  and  insects 
cannot  penetrate  it. 

To  Drain  a  Refrigerator. — I. — Have 
a  stout  tin  funnel  made,  7  inches  in  diam- 
eter at  the  top.  The  tube  portion  should 
be  at  least  8  inches  long  and  of  uniform 
diameter.  Bore  a  hole  through  the 
floor  directly  under  the  drain-pipe  of  the 
refrigerator;  insert  the  funnel,  then  force 
a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  (a  tight  fit)  over 
the  funnel  from  the  cellar  side.  Pass 
the  tubing  through  a  hole  cut  in  the 
screen  frame  of  a  cellar  window,  and 
drain  into  any  convenient  place.  This 
avoids  the  necessity  of  continually  emp- 
tying the  drain-pan,  and  prevents  the 
overflow  that  frequently  occurs  when 
it  is  forgotten. 

II. — This  simple  device  saves  the  in- 
convenience of  having  a  drip-pan  under 
the  refrigerator:  If  the  refrigerator  is 
placed  near  the  outer  wall  get  a  piece  of 
rubber  hose  long  enough  to  reach  from 
the  waste  pipe  to  the  outside  of  the  wall. 
Bore  a  hole  through  the  wall  under  the 
refrigerator,  where  baseboard  and  floor 
meet.  Attach  the  hose  to  the  waste-pipe 
and  pass  through  the  hole  in  the  wall.  A 
small  trough  outside  should  carry  the 
water  away  from  the  house. 

REFRIGERATORS,  THEIR  CARE: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

REFLATING: 
See  Plating. 

RESILVERING  OF  MIRRORS: 

See  Mirrors. 


REVOLVER  LUBRICANTS: 

See  Lubricants. 

RHUBARB     AS     A     REMEDY     FOR 
CHOLERA: 

See  Cholera  Remedies. 


ROLLER   COMPOSITIONS— ROPES 


617 


RIBBONS    FOR    TYPEWRITERS: 

See  Typewriter  Ribbons. 

RICE  PASTE: 

See  Adhesives. 

RICE  POWDER: 

See  Cosmetics. 

RIFLE  LUBRICANTS: 

See  Lubricants. 

RING,  HOW  TO  SOLDER  A  JEWELED : 

See  Solders. 

RINGS  ON  METAL,  PRODUCING  COL- 
ORED: 

See  Plating. 

ROACH  EXTERMINATORS: 

See  Insecticides. 

ROBURITE: 

See  Explosives. 

RODINAL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

ROLLER  COMPOSITIONS  FOR  PRINT- 
ERS. 

Rollers  for  transferring  ink  to  types 
have  to  possess  special  properties, 
which  have  reference  both  to  the  nature 
of  the  ink  and  that  of  the  types  to  which 
it  is  to  be  transferred.  They  must  be  as 
little  liable  as  possible  to  changes  of  tem- 
perature. They  must  be  sticky,  but 
only  just  sticky  enough,  and  must  have 
elasticity  enough  to  exert  a  uniform 
pressure  over  the  varying  surface  with 
which  they  meet  in  the  form.  Origi- 
nally, the  composition  was  one  of  glue 
and  molasses  in  varying  proportions,  and 
the  only  practical  improvement  that  has 
been  made  is  the  addition  of  glycerine. 
This  being  slightly  hygroscopic,  helps  to 
keep  the  roller  at  the  right  degree  of 
softness,  and  being  practically  unfreez- 
able,  it  is  a  great  assistance  in  keeping 
the  rollers  from  hardening  in  cold 
weather. 

The  recipes  given  in  technical  works 
for  printing  roller  compositions  are 
numerous  and  very  different.  All  con- 
tain glue  and  molasses,  and  it  is  the  prac- 
tice to  put  a  larger  proportion  of  glue  in 
rollers  to  be  used  in  the  summer  than  in 
those  intended  for  winter  use.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  selection  of  recipes: 

I. — Soak  8  pounds  of  glue  in  as  much 
water  as  it  will  absorb.  When  there  is 
no  visible  water,  treat  the  glue  till  melted, 
and  add  7  pounds  of  hot  molasses. 


II. — Glue  (summer) 8  pounds 

Glue  (winter) 4  pounds 

Molasses 1  gallon 

III. — Molasses 12  pounds 

Glue 4  pounds 

IV. — Molasses 24  pounds 

Glue 16  pounds 

Paris  white 2  pounds 

V. — Glue  or  gelatin 64  pounds 

Water 48  pounds 

Linseed  oil 96  pounds 

Molasses  or  sugar. 

64  to  96  pounds 
Chloride  of  calcium     3  pounds 
Powdered  rosin  ...      8  pounds 
Soak  the  glue  in  the  water  and  then 
liquefy  by  heat.      Then  stir  in  the  oil, 
first  heated  to   150°  F.      Then  add  the 
molasses   and   the   chloride   of   calcium, 
and  finally  the  fused  rosin.      The  latter 
ingredient  is  only  to  be  added  when  very 
tough  rollers  are  required.      This  recipe 
is  interesting  from  the  inclusion  in  it  of 
the  hygroscopic  salt,  chloride  of  calcium, 
the  object  of  which  is  obviously  to  keep 
the  rollers  moist. 

ROOFS,  HOW  TO  LAY  GALVANIZED. 

See  Household  Formulas. 

ROOFS,  PREVENTION  OF  LEAKAGE: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

ROOF  PAINTS: 
See  Paint. 

ROOM  DEODORIZER: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

ROPES. 

To  protect  ropes,  cordage,  and  cloths 
made  of  flax  and  hemp  against  rot,  it  has 
been  recommended  to  leave  them  for  4 
days  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  20 
parts  by  weight  to  a  liter,  then  allow 
them  to  dry,  and  then,  to  prevent  the 
copper  sulphate  being  washed  away  by 
the  water,  place  in  tar  or  a  solution  of 
soap — 1  to  10.  In  the  latter  case  an 
insoluble  copper  soap  is  formed.  To 
secure  the  same  result  with  twine,  the 
following  process  has  been  recom- 
mended: Place  the  string  for  an  hour  in  a 
solution  of  glue,  then  allow  to  dry,  and 
place  in  a  solution  of  tannin.  After 
removal  from  the  tannin,  again  dry,  and 
soak  in  oil.  The  process  first  described 
has  been  shown  by  experience  to  be  very 
effective;  but  to  prevent  the  washing 
away  of  the  copper  sulphate,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  use  the  solution  of  soap  in 
preference  to  the  tar,  as  articles  steeped 
in  the  latter  substance  are  apt  to  become 
stiff,  and  consequently  brittle.  The 


618 


ROT— RUBBER 


treatment  with  glue  and  tannin  in  the 
second  process  has  the  drawback  that  it 
tends  to  make  the  string  too  stiff  and 
inflexible,  and  thus  impair  its  usefulness. 

ROPE  LUBRICANTS: 

See  Lubricant. 

ROPES,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

ROSE  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

ROSEWOOD: 

See  Wood. 

ROSE  POWDERS: 

See  Cosmetics. 

ROSIN,  TESTS  FOR,  IN  EXTRACTS: 

See  Foods. 

ROSIN  OIL: 

See  Oil. 

ROSIN  STICKS: 

See  Depilatories. 

ROT: 

Remedies  for  Dry  Rot. — A  good  remedy 
for  dry  rot  is  petroleum.  The  sick  parts 
of  the  wood  are  painted  with  it,  which 
causes  the  fungi  to  die,  turn  black,  and 
finally  drop  off.  The  best  preventive  of 
dry  rot  is  plenty  of  draught.  If  the  por- 
tions are  already  affected  so  badly  that 
they  must  be  removed  and  renewed,  the 
freshly  inserted  wood  is  coated  with  "car- 
bolineum"  to  prevent  a  fresh  appearance 
of  dry  rot.  Another  remedy  is  ordinary 
salt,  which  is  known  to  have  a  highly 
hygroscopic  action.  It  absorbs  the  moist- 
ure of  the  wood,  whereby  it  is  itself  dis- 
solved, thus  gradually  impregnating  the 
planks,  etc.  In  order  to  combat  dry  rot 
with  salt,  proceed  as  follows:  Throw  salt 
into  boiling  water  until  a  perfectly  satu- 
rated solution  is  obtained.  With  this 
repeatedly  wash  the  wood  and  masonry 
afflicted  with  dry  rot.  Wherever  practi- 
cable the  salt  may  be  sprinkled  direct 
upon  the  affected  place. 

ROUGE: 

See  Cosmetics. 

ROUGE  FOR  BUFF  WHEELS. 

The  rouge  employed  by  machinists, 
watchmakers,  and  jewelers,  is  obtained 
by  directly  subjecting  crystals  of  sul- 

Chate  of  iron  or  copperas  to  a  high  heat 
y  which  the  sulphuric  acid  is  expelled 
and  the  oxide  of  iron  remains.  Those 
portions  least  calcined,  when  ground, 
are  used  for  polishing  gold  and  silver. 
These  are  of  bright  crimson  color.  The 
darker  and  more  calcined  portions  are 
known  as  'crocus/'  and  are  used  for 


polishing  brass  and  steel.  Others  pre- 
fer for  the  production  of  rouge  the  per- 
oxide of  iron  precipitated  by  ammonia 
from  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
which  is  washed,  compressed  until  dry, 
then  exposed  to  a  low  red  heat  and 
ground  to  powder.  Of  course,  there  are 
other  substances  besides  rouge  which 
are  employed  in  polishing,  as  powdered 
emery,  kieselguhr,  carborundum,  rotten 
stone,  etc. 

ROUGE  POWDER: 

See  Polishes. 

ROUGH  STUFF: 
See  Wood. 

ROUP   CURES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

Rubber 

ARTIFICIAL  RUBBER. 

Austin  G.  Day  tried  hundreds  of  ex- 
periments and  took  out  many  patents 
for  rubber  substitutes.  He  was  in  a 
measure,  successful,  his  "Kerite"  com- 
pound proving  of  great  value  and  being  a 
result  of  his  seeking  for  something  that 
would  wholly  supplant  rubber.  As  far 
back  as  1866  he  made  public  the  results 
of  some  of  his  work,  giving  as  formulas 
for  rubber  substitutes  the  following 
compounds: 

I. — Linseed  oil 2  pounds 

Cottonseed  oil 1  pound 

Petroleum 2  pounds 

Raw  turpentine  ....  2  pounds 

Sulphur 2  pounds 

Boil  2  hours. 


II. — Linseed  oil 

Cottonseed  oil .... 

Petroleum. ...... 

Raw  turpentine. . . 

Castor  oil 

Sulphur 

Boil  \  hour. 

III. — Linseed  oil 

Cottonseed  oil 

Petroleum 

Raw  turpentine . . 
Liquid  coal  tar.  . . 

Peanut  oil 

Spirits  turpentine. 

Sulphur 

Boil  35  minutes. 

IV. — Linseed  oil 

Cottonseed  oil. . . . 

Petroleum 

Raw  turpentine.  . 
Liquid  coal  tar.  .  . 


2  pounds 
1  pound 

1  pound 

2  pounds 

1  pound 

2  pounds 


2  pounds 
1  pound 
1  pound 

\  pound 

3  pounds 
1  pound 
1  pound 

4  pounds 


2  pounds 

1  pound 

2  pounds 
|  pound 

2  pounds 


RUBBER 


619 


Spirits  turpentine.  ..  1     pound 

Rubber pound 

Sulphur 2     pounds 

Boil  1  hour. 

In  1871  Mr.  Day  had  brought  his 
experimenting  down  to  the  following 
formula: 

V. — Cottonseed  oil 14     pounds 

Linseed  oil 14     pounds 

Asphaltum 8     pounds 

Coal  tar 8     pounds 

Sulphur 10     pounds 

Camphor £  pound 

In  this  the  tar  and  asphaltum  were 
first  mixed  with  the  cottonseed  oil,  after 
which  was  added  the  linseed  oil  and 
camphor,  and,  last  of  all,  the  sulphur, 
when  the  temperature  was  about  270°  F. 
A  substitute  designed  to  be  used  in 
rubber  compounding  in  place,  say,  of  re- 
claimed rubber,  was  made  as  follows: 

VI. — Cottonseed  oil 27  pounds 

Coal  tar 30  pounds 

Earthy  matter 5  pounds 

To  be  mixed  and  heated  to  300°  F., 
and  then  strained  and  cooled  to  200°  F. 
Then  were  added  27  pounds  linseed  oil, 
the  heat  raised  to  220°  F.,  and  15  to  18 
pounds  of  sulphur  added,  the  heat  being 
continually  raised  until  the  mass  was  sul- 
phurized. When  the  heat  reached  240° 
F.,  1  to  1£  ounces  of  nitric  acid  were 
added,  and  at  270°  to  280°  F.,  from  1  to 
3  ounces  camphor  were  added  to  help 
the  sulphurization.  The  resultant  com- 
pound was  used  on  the  following  basis: 

VII. — Para  rubber 20  pounds 

Litharge 5  pounds 

Sulphur 1  pound 

Above        com- 

pound 20  to  40  pounds 

Mr.  Day  did  not  insist  on  the  com- 
pound quoted,  but  advised  that  the  pro- 
portions be  varied  as  widely  as  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  case  might  demand. 
Whiting,  barytes,  infusorial  earth,  white 
lead,  blacks,  in  fact  almost  any  of  the 
oxides,  carbonates,  or  earthy  ^materials 
commonly  used  in  compounding,  were 
used  in  connection  with  his  substitute, 
as  also  were  any  grades  of  crude  rubber. 
Among  other  ingredients  that  he  found 
of  use  in  making  his  substitutes  were 
vegetable  and  animal  waxes,  together 
with  ozokerite  and  paraffine.  These 
were  only  used  in  small  quantities,  and 
always  in  connection  with  the  linseed 
and  'cottonseed  oils,  and  generally  as- 
phaltum or  coal  tar.  One  of  his 
compounds  also  called  for  a  quantity  of 
golden  sulphuret  of  antimony,  presum- 


ably to  assist  in  the  sulphurization,  and 
a  small  amount  of  tannic  acid. 

Another  line  of  experimenting  that  is 
interesting,  and  that  will  yet  produce 
good  results,  although  so  far  it  has  not 
amounted  to  much,  is  in  the  use  of  cellu- 
lose. A  very  simple  formula  is  of 
French  origin  and  calls  for  the  treating 
of  cellulose  with  sulphuric  acid,  washing, 
drying,  granulating,  treating  with  resi- 
nate  of  soda — which  is  afterwards  pre- 
cipitated by  sulphate  of  alumina — then 
drying  and  molding  under  pressure.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  resultant  mass  would 
not  be  mistaken  for  rubber.  An  Eng- 
lish formula  is  more  like  it.  This  con- 
sists of 

VIII.— Cellulose 15  pounds 

Pitch 25  pounds 

Asphalt 20  pounds 

Silica 20  pounds 

Mastic 5  pounds 

Bitumen 5  pounds 

Rosin 10  pounds 

Coal  tar 12  pounds 

This  makes  a  thick  gummy  varnish 
which  is  of  little  use  except  as  for  its 
waterproof  qualities.  Allen's  formula 
for  a  cellulose  substitute  might  have  a 
value  if  it  were  carried  further.  It  is 
made  up  of  100  pounds  of  rosinous  wood 
pulp  treated  with  animal  gelatin,  100 
pounds  asphalt,  and  10  pounds  asphalt 
oil,  all  heated  and  molded. 

The  Greening  process,  which  is  Eng- 
lish, is  more  elaborate  than  Allen's,  but 
seems  a  bit  laborious  and  costly.  This 
process  calls  for  the  treatment  of  the 
cellulose  by  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  nitrate  of  potash,  and,  after  drying, 
a  treatment  to  a  bath  of  liquid  carbonic 
acid.  When  dry  again,  it  is  mixed  in  a 
retort  with  refined  rosin,  gum  benzoin, 
castor  oil,  and  methylated  alcohol.  The 
distillate  from  this  is  dried  by  redistilling 
over  anhydrous  lime. 

Another  curious  line  of  substitutes  is 
that  based  upon  the  use  of  glue  and  glyc- 
erine. Some  of  these  have  uses,  while 
others,  that  look  very  attractive,  are  of  no 
use  at  all,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they 
will  absorb  water  almost  as  readily  as  a 
dry  sponge.  The  first  of  these  is  more 
than  30  years  old  and  is  said  to  be  of 
French  origin.  The  formula  is: 

IX. — Glue 4  pounds 

Glycerine 8  ounces 

Nutgall 3  ounces 

Acetic  acid,  1  pound  in  5  pounds 

of  water. 

Ten  years  later  this  was  approached  by 
an  English  formula  in  which  in  place  of 


RUBBER 


the  nutgall  and  acetic  acid,  chromic  and 
tannic  acids  were  substituted,  and  a 
modicum  of  ground  cork  was  added  as  a 
cheapener  probably.  Some  four  years 
later  an  ingenious  Prussian  gave  out  a 
formula  in  which  to  the  glue  and  glycerine 
and  tannic  acid  were  added  Marseilles 
soap  and  linseed  oil.  None  of  the  above 
have  ever  had  a  commercial  value,  the 
nearest  approach  being  the  glue  and 
glycerine  compound  used  as  a  cover  for 
gas  tubing. 

The  substitutes  that  have  really  come 
into  use  generally  are  made  either  from 
linseed,  cottonseed,  or  maize  oil.  Scores 
of  these  have  been  produced  and  thou- 
sands of  dollars  have  been  spent  by 
promoters  and  owners  in  trying  to  make 
these  gums  do  just  what  crude  rubber 
will.  A  German  formula  which  was 
partially  successful  is 

X. — Linseed  oil,  in  solu- 
tion    80  pounds 

Lime-  hardened 

rosin,  in  solution  50  pounds 

Add  to  above 

Sulphur 8  pounds 

Linseed  oil 42  pounds 

Add  20  pounds  sulphur  and  heat  to 
375°  F. 

Rubber  and  Rubber  Articles. — As  re- 
gards the  action  of  coal  gas  on  rubber 
tubes,  it  has  been  observed  that  it  is 
weakest  on  ordinary  gray  rubber  which 
withstands  it  the  longest,  and  gives  off 
no  odor.  Red  rubber  is  more  readily 
affected,  and  the  black  kind  still  more  so. 

To  prevent  rubber  tubes  from  drying 
up  and  becoming  brittle,  they  should  be 
coated  with  a  3  per  cent  aqueous  solution 
of  carbolic  acid,  which  preserves  them. 
If  they  have  already  turned  stiff  and 
brittle,  they  can  be  rendered  soft  and 
pliant  again  by  being  placed  in  ammonia 
which  has  been  made  liquid  with  double 
the  amount  of  water. 

In  France  rubber  tubes  are  used  as  a 
core  for  casting  pipes  from  cement  and 
sand.  In  order  to  construct  a  connected 
pipe  conduit  in  the  ground,  a  groove  is 
dug  and  a  layer  of  cement  mortar  spread 
out.  Upon  this  the  rubber  tube  is  laid, 
which  is  wrapped  up  in  canvas  and  in- 
flated. The  remaining  portion  of  the 
channel  is  then  filled  up  with  cement 
mortar,  and  as  soon  as  it  has  set,  the  air 
is  let  out  of  the  rubber  hose  and  the  latter 
is  pulled  out  and  used  as  before. 

To  cover  cloth  with  rubber,  there  are 
chiefly  employed  for  dissolving  the  rub- 
ber, naphtna,  alcohol,  and  benzol.  They 
are  mixed  with  purified  solid  paraffine, 
and  ground  together. 


Rubber  boots  and  shoes  are  rendered 
waterproof  by  melting  4  parts  of  sper- 
maceti and  1  part  of  rubber  on  a  moderate 
fire,  adding  tallow  or  fat,  10  parts,  and 
lastly  5  parts  of  copal  varnish  or  amber 
varnish.  This  mixture  is  applied  on  the 
shoes  with  a  brush.  It  should  be  stated 
that  the  rubber  used  for  this  purpose 
must  be  cut  up  very  small  and  allowed  4 
to  5  hours  to  dissolve. 

To  rid  rubber  articles  of  unpleasant 
odor,  cover  both  sides  with  a  layer  of 
animal  charcoal  and  heat  to  about  140°  F. 

To  prevent  gas  from  escaping  through 
rubber  hose,  cover  it  with  a  mixture  pre- 
pared as  follows:  Dissolve  5  parts  of 
gum  arabic  and  3  parts  of  molasses  in  15 
parts  of  white  wine  and  add,  with  con- 
stant stirring,  6  parts  of  alcohol  in  small 
quantities.  Stirring  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  alcohol  from  precipitating  the 
gum  arabic. 

Repairing  Rubber  Goods. — First,  clean 
off  all  adherent  matter,  and  dry  thorough- 
ly. Varnish  or  lacquer,  as  for  instance  on 
rubber  shoes,  may  be  removed  with  sand 
or  emery  paper,  or  even  with  a  file,  in  the 
absence  'of  one  of  these.  The  surface 
thus  produced  is  then  rubbed  with  ben- 
zine. A  solution  of  Para  rubber  in  ben- 
zine is  then  •  painted  over  the  surface 
around  the  break  or  tear,  and  a  strip  of 
natural  rubber  fitted  over  it.  Then  pre- 
pare a  vulcanizing  solution  as  follows: 
Sulphur  chloride..  . .  18  parts 

Benzine. 400  parts 

Carbon  disulphide  .  .    300  parts 

This  is  applied  to  the  edges  of  the  joint 
by  means  of  a  pledget  of  cotton  wrapped 
on  the  end  of  a  little  stick,  and  press  the 
jointed  parts  well  together. 

One  may  repair  rubber  bulbs  by  the 
following  method:  Put  some  pure  gum  in 
three  times  its  bulk  of  benzine,  and  cork 
tightly.  Let  stand  several  days.  Get 
some  rubber  in  sheet  form;  it  will  be  bet- 
ter if  it  is  backed  with  cloth.  To  make 
a  patch,  dampen  some  little  distance 
around  the  hole  to  be  mended  with 
benzine.  After  a  moment,  scrape  with  a 
knife;  repeat  the  process  several  times 
till  the  site  to  be  patched  is  thoroughly 
clean.  Cut  a  patch  from  sheet  of  rubber 
a  little  larger  than  the  hole  to  be  mended, 
and  apply  to  its  surface  several  coats  of 
the  benzine  solution.  Then  apply  a 
good  coat  of  the  solution  to  both  patch 
and  about  the  hole,  and  press  the  patch 
firmly  in  place.  Again  apply  the  solu- 
tion to  make  coating  over  the  patch,  and 
allow  to  dry  till  it  will  not  stick  to  the 
finger.  Do  not  use  for  several  days. 

Cracked   rubber   goods   may   be   sue- 


RUBBER 


621 


cessfully  mended  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Before  patching,  the  cracked  sur- 
faces to  unite  well  must  be  dried,  entirely 
freed  from  all  dirt  and  dust  and  greased 
well,  otherwise  the  surfaces  will  not  com- 
bine. In  case  of  a  cover,  waterproof 
coat,  or  rubber  boots,  etc.,  take  a  mod- 
erately thick  piece  of  india  rubber,  suited 
to  size  of  the  object,  cut  off  the  edges 
obliquely  with  a  sharp  knife  moistened  in 
water,  coat  the  defective  places  as  well 
as  the  cut  pieces  of  rubber  with  oil  of 
turpentine,  lay  the  coated  parts  together 
and  subject  them  for  24  hours  to  a 
moderate  pressure.  The  mended  por- 
tions will  be  just  as  waterproof  as  the 
whole  one.  Rubber  cushions  or  articles 
containing  air  are  repaired  in  a  very 
simple  manner,  after  being  cleaned  as 
aforesaid.  Then  take  colophony,  dis- 
solve it  in  alcohol  (90  per  cent)  so  that 
a  thick  paste  forms,  smear  up  the  holes, 
allow  all  to  harden  well,  and  the  rubber 
article,  pillow,  ball,  knee  caps,  etc.,  may 
be  used  again. 

Softening  Rubber. — The  hardening  of 
gum  articles  is  generally  referable  to 
these  having  been  kept  for  a  long  time  in 
some  warm,  dry  place,  though  keeping  them 
in  the  cold  will  produce  the  same  effect. 
Hardness  and  brittleness,  under  any  rea- 
sonable care  and  conditions,  are  usually 
signs  of  an  inferior  article  of  goods.  Ar- 
ticles of  Para  rubber,  of  good  workmanship, 
usually  maintain  their  elasticity  for  a  very 
long  time.  Before  attempting  to  soften 
hollow  rubber  ware,  such  as  flasks,  water 
bags,  or  bottles,  etc.,  they  should  be  well 
scrubbed  with  a  wire  brush  (bottle 
cleaner)  and  warm  water,  so  as  to  re- 
move all  dirt  and  dust.  This  scrubbing 
should  be  continued  until  the  wash  water 
comes  away  clean  and  bright.  For 
softening,  the  best  agent  is  dilute  water 
of  ammonia,  prepared  by  mixing  phar- 
macopreial  ammonia  water,  1  part,  and 
water,  2  parts.  There  should  be  enough 
of  this  to  cover  the  articles,  inside  and 
out.  Let  them  remain  in  the  mixture 
until  the  ammonia  has  evaporated. 
Warm  water  works  better  than  cold. 
From  1  to  2  hours  will  be  long  enough, 
as  a  usual  thing.  Thick  and  massive 
articles  such  as  large  rubber  tubing,  re- 
quire more  energetic  treatment,  and  the 
journal  recommends  for  the  treatment  of 
these  that  they  be  filled  nearly  full  with 
the  ammonia  mixture,  corked  at  both 
ends,  and  coiled  up  in  a  kettle,  or  other 
vessel,  of  sufficient  size,  warm  water 
poured  in  sufficient  to  cover  the  coil  com- 
pletely, and  lightly  boiled  for  from  1  to  2 
nours.  The  water  lost  by  evaporation 


should  be  replaced  from  time  to  time, 
and  the  vessel  should  never  be  allowed 
to  boil  violently.  When  the  proper  time 
has  arrived  (and  this  must  be  learned,  it 
appears,  by  experience,  as  the  article 
quoted  gives  no  directions  save  those 
translated),  remove  from  the  fire,  and  al- 
low to  cool  gradually. 

Glycerine  has  been  also  recommended, 
and  it  may  be  used  with  advantage  in 
certain  cases.  The  articles  must  first 
be  cleaned  with  the  brush  and  warm 
water,  as  above  detailed.  Heat  them  in 
water  and  rub  them  with  a  wad  of  cot- 
ton soaked  in  glycerine,  drawing  the  wad 
over  them,  backwards  and  forwards. 
This  wad  should  be  wrapped  with  good 
stout  wire,  the  ends  of  which  are  pro- 
longed, to  serve  as  a  handle.  Where 
possible  the  articles  should  be  stricken 
with  the  glycerine  inside  and  out,  the 
article  being,  naturally,  held  out  of  the 
boiling  water,  sufficiently,  at  least,  to 
make  bare  the  part  being  rubbed  at  the 
time.  Let  rest  for  24  hours,  and  repeat 
this  process.  With  goods  kept  in  stock, 
that  show  a  tendency  to  grow  brittle, 
this  treatment  should  be  repeated  every 
6  months  or  oftener.  Never  put  away 
tubing,  etc.,  treated  in  this  manner  until 
every  particle  of  moisture  has  drained  off 
or  evaporated. 

Another  authority,  Zeigler,  has  the 
following  on  this  subject:  Tubing, 
bands,  and  other  articles  of  vulcanized 
caoutchouc  that  have  become  brittle  and 
useless,  may  be  restored  to  usefulness, 
indeed,  to  their  pristine  elasticity,  by 
treating  them  as  follows:  First,  put  them 
in  a  hot  aqueous  solution  of  tannic  acid 
and  tartar  emetic.  Next,  transfer  them 
to  a  cold  aqueous  solution  of  tannic  acid 
and  calcium  sulphate.  Mix  the  two  so- 
lutions and  heat  to  about  the  boiling 
point,  and  transfer  the  articles  to  the  hot 
solution.  This  treatment  should  bemain- 
tained  from  1  day  to  3  or  4,  according  to 
the  nature  and  condition  of  the  articles. 

To  restore  rubber  stoppers  that  have 
become  too  hard  for  usefulness,  digest 
them  in  5  per  cent  soda  lye  for  about  10 
days  at  86°  to  104°  F.,  replacing  the  lye 
repeatedly.  Next,  wash  the  stoppers  in 
water  and  scrape  off  the  softened  outer 
layer  with  a  knife,  until  no  more  can  be 
removed.  The  stoppers  (which  have 
become  quite  soft  and  elastic  again)  are 
next  rinsed  in  warm  water  to  remove  the 
caustic  soda.  If  it  is  desired  to  trim 
them  it  should  be  done  with  a  knife 
moistened  with  soap  spirit. 

Treatment  and  Utilization  of  Rubber 
Scraps. — The  scraps,  assorted  according 


RUBBER— RUM,  BAY 


to  their  composition,  are  first  cleaned  by 
boiling  to  remove  the  adhering  dirt,  ab- 
sorbed and  adhering  acids,  salts,  etc.,  as  well 
as  to  eliminate  the  free  sulphur.  Next, 
the  waste  is  ground  between  rollers  and 
reduced  to  powder  in  emery  grinders 
with  automatic  feeding.  In  many  cases 
the  material  obtained  may  be  added  at 
once  dry  to  the  mixture,  but  generally  it 
first  receives  a  chemical  treatment. 
This  is  carried  out  by  boiling  in  caustic 
soda  solution,  or  sulphuric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid  respectively,  and  steaming 
for  about  20  hours  with  4  atmospheres 
pressure. 

According  to  another  method,  the 
ground  scraps  are  steamed  with  soda  lye 
under  pressure,  washed  twice  thoroughly 
ror  the  elimination  of  the  lye,  and  dried 
in  the  vacuum.  Subsequently  mix  be- 
tween cold  rollers  with  5  to  10  per  cent  of 
benzol  or  mineral  oil  and  steam  for  some 
hours  under  hydraulic  pressure  at  4 
atmospheres.  The  product  thus  ob- 
tained is  rolled  in  plates  and  added  to 
the  mixture.  The  finely  ground  dry 
waste  must  not  be  stored  for  a  long  time 
in  large  quantities,  as  it  hardens  very 
easily  and  takes  fire. 

Old  articles  of  vulcanized  rubber  are 
first  "devulcanized"  by  grinding,  boiling 
with  caustic  soda,  and  washing  thor- 
oughly. After  drying,  the  scraps  are 
heated  to  302°  F.  with  linseed  oil  in  a 
kettle  provided  with  stirring  mechanism 
which  is  kept  in  continual  motion. 
When  the  rubber  has  dissolved,  a  quan- 
tity of  natural  or  coal-tar  asphalt  is  added, 
and  as  soon  as  the  contents  of  the  kettle 
have  become  well  mixed,  the  tempera- 
ture is  raised  so  high  that  dense  fumes 
begin  to  rise  and  air  is  forced  through 
the  mass  until  a  cooled  sample  shows 
the  desired  consistence.  This  compo- 
sition being  very  tough  and  flexible, 
forms  an  excellent  covering  for  electric 
cables.  It  finds  many  other  uses,  the 
proportions  of  rubber,  asphalt,  and  oil 
being  varied  in  accordance  with  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  designed. 

Vulcanization. — Besides  the  Good- 
year, Mason,  and  other  patented  proc- 
esses, the  process  now  usually  followed 
in  vulcanizing  rubber  stamps  and  simi- 
lar small  objects  of  rubber,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Sulphur  chloride  is  dissolved  in  car- 
bon aisulphide  in  various  proportions, 
according  to  the  degree  of  hardness  the 
vulcanized  object  is  to  receive;  the  rub- 
ber cast  is  plunged  in  the  solution  and 
loft  there  from  60  to  70  seconds.  On 
removing,  it  is  placed  in  a  box  or  space 


warmed  to  80°  F.,  and  left  long  enough 
for  the  carbon  disulphide  to  evaporate, 
or  about  90  to  100  seconds.  It  is  then 
washed  in  a  weakly  alkaline  bath  of 
water,  and  dried. 

Another  method  (recommended  by 
Gerard)  depends  upon  letting  the  rubber 
lie  in  a  solution  of  potassium  ter  or  penta 
sulphide,  of  25°  Be.,  heated  to  about 
280°  F.  for  3  hours. 

Testing  Rubber  Gloves. — In  testing 
rubber  gloves  it  is  best  to  inflate  them 
with  air,  and  then  put  them  under  water. 
Thus  one  may  discover  many  small  holes 
in  new  ones  which  otherwise  would  have 
been  impossible  to  find. 

Dissolving  Old  Rubber. — The  material 
is  shredded  finely  and  then  heated,  under 
pressure,  for  several  hours,  with  a  strong 
solution  of  caustic  soda.  All  cloth,  paint, 
glue,  fillers,  etc.,  in  the  rubber  are  disin- 
tegrated, but  the  rubber  is  not  affected. 
The  mass  is  then  washed  repeatedly  with 
water,  to  remove  all  alkali,  and  the  re- 
sultant pure  rubber  may  then  be  formed 
into  sheets. 

Rubber  Stamps.— Set  up  the  desired 
name  and  address  in  common  type,  oil 
the  type  and  place  a  guard  about  £  inch 
high  around  the  form.  Mix  plaster  of 
Paris  to  the  proper  consistence,  pour  in 
and  allow  it  to  set.  Have  the  vulcanized 
rubber  all  ready,  as  made  in  Jong  strips 
3  inches  wide  and  |  of  an  inch  thick,  cut 
off  the  size  of  the  intended  stamp,  remove 
the  plaster  cast  from  the  type,  and  place 
both  the  cast  and  the  rubber  in  a  screw 
press,  applying  sufficient  heat  to  thor- 
oughly soften  the  rubber.  Then  turn 
down  the  screw  hard  and  let  it  remain 
until  the  rubber  receives  the  exact  im- 
pression of  the  cast  and  becomes  cold, 
when  it  is  removed,  neatly  trimmed  with 
a  sharp  knife,  and  cemented  to  the  han- 
dle ready  for  use. 

RUBBER  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives. 

RUBBER  GLOVES,  SUBSTITUTE  FOR : 

See  Antiseptics. 

RUBBER,     ITS     PROPERTIES     AND 
USES  IN  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

RUBBER  YARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

RUBY  SETTINGS: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

RUOLTZ  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

RUM,  BAY: 
See  Bay  Rum. 


RUST  PREVENTIVES 


628 


Rust  Preventives 

(See  also  Enamels,  Glazes,  Paints, 
Varnishes,  Waterproofing.) 

In  spite  of  the  numerous  endeavors  to 
protect  metal  objects  from  oxidation,  a 
thoroughly  satisfactory  process  has  not 
yet  been  found,  and  we  still  have  to  re- 
sort to  coatings  and  embrocations. 

By  covering  the  metals  with  a  pale, 
colorless  linseed-oil  varnish,  a  fat  or 
spirit  lacquer,  an  unfailing  protection 
against  oxidation  is  obtained.  This 
method,  though  frequently  employed, 
however,  is  too  laborious  and  expensive 
to  admit  of  general  use,  and  instead  we 
frequently  see  employed  ordinary  or 
specially  composed  greases,  especially 
for  scythes,  straw-knives,  and  many 
other  bright  iron  goods.  These  greases 
are  not  suited  to  retard  oxidation,  for 
they  are  without  exception  acid-reacting 
bodies,  which  absorb  oxygen  in  the  air 
and  under  the  action  of  light,  thus  rather 
assisting  oxidation  than  retarding  it.  A 
covering  of  wax  dissolved  in  oil  of  tur- 
pentine would  be  more  recommendable, 
because  wax  is  an  impervious  body,  and 
a  firm  and  rather  hard  layer  remains 
after  evaporation  of  the  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, which  excludes  the  air.  If  the 
treatment  with  the  wax  salve  is  carefully 
attended  to  no  other  objection  can  be 
urged  against  this  preserving  agent  than 
that  it  is  likewise  comparatively  ex- 
pensive if  used  in  large  quantities.  As 
regards  the  greases,  and  treatment  with 
petroleum  or  vaseline,  the  easy  attrition  of 
these  substances  is  another  drawback, 
which  makes  a  lasting  protection  impos- 
sible. 

According  to  Shedlok,  cast-iron  ar- 
ticles are  treated  with  acids,  then  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  steam,  hot  or  cold 
water,  and  dried.  The  receptacle  is  ex- 
hausted of  air  and  a  solution  of  pitch, 
rosin,  rubber,  or  caoutchouc,  applied 
under  pressure.  Objects  prepared  in 
this  manner  are  said  to  be  impervious 
even  to  weak  acids. 

The  inoxidizing  process  of  Ward  is 
founded  on  the  simultaneous  employ- 
ment of  silicates  and  heat.  The  cast 
iron  or  wrought  iron  are  coated  with  a 
siliceous  mass  by  means  of  a  brush  or 
by  immersion.  This  covering  dries 
quickly,  becomes  liquid  when  the  articles 
are  exposed  to  a  suitable  heat,  and  soaks 
into  trie  pores  of  the  metal,  forming  a 
dense  and  uniform  coat  of  dull  black 
color  after  cooling,  which  is  not  changed 
by  long-continued  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  which  neither  scales  nor 


peels  from  the  object.  By  the  admixture 
of  glass  coloring  matters  to  the  siliceous 
mass,  decorated  surfaces  may  be  pro- 
duced. 

Another  inoxidation  process  for  cast 
iron  is  the  following:  The  cast-iron  ob- 
jects, such  as  whole  gas  chandeliers, 
water  pipes,  ornaments,  balcony  railings, 
cooking  vessels,  etc.,  are  laid  upon  an 
iron  sliding  carriage  3.5  meters  long  and 
are  exposed  in  a  flame  furnace  of  special 
construction  first  15  minutes  to  the  in- 
fluence of  gas  generators  with  oxidizing 
action,  then  20  minutes  to  such  with  re- 
ducing action^  After  being  drawn  out  and 
cooled  off  the  inoxidized  pieces  take  on  a 
uniform  slate-blue  shade  of  color,  but 
can  be  enameled  and  ornamented  in  any 
manner  desired.  In  applying  the  enamel 
the  corroding  with  acid  is  obviated,  for 
which  reason  the  enamel  stands  ex- 
ceedingly well. 

A  bronze-colored  oxide  coating  which 
withstands  outward  influences  fairly 
well,  is  produced  as  follows:  The  bright- 
ly polished  and  degreased  objects  are  ex- 
posed from  2  to  5  minutes  to  the  vapors 
of  a  heated  mixture  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid  and  nitric  acid  (1:1) 
until  the  bronze  color  becomes  visible 
on  the  articles.  After  these  have  been 
rubbed  well  with  vaseline,  heat  once 
more  until  the  vaseline  commences  to 
decompose.  After  cooling,  the  object  is 
smeared  well  with  vaseline.  If  vapors 
of  a  mixture  of  concentrated  hydrochlo- 
ric acid  and  nitric  acid  are  allowed  to 
act  on  the  iron  object,  light  reddish- 
brown  shades  are  obtained,  but  if  acetic 
acid  is  added  to  the  above  named  two 
acids,  oxide  coatings  of  a  bronze-yellow 
color  can  be  obtained  by  the  means  of 
the  vapors.  By  the  use  of  different  mix- 
tures of  acids  any  number  of  different 
colorings  can  be  produced. 

"Emaille  de  fer  contre-oxide"  is  the 
name  of  an  enamel  which  is  said  to  protect 
iron  pipes  cheaply.  The  enamel  is  com- 
posed as  follows:  One  hundred  and  thirty 
parts  powdered  crystal  glass,  20.5  parts 
soda,  12  parts  boracic  acid.  These  sub- 
stances mixed  in  the  most  careful  manner 
are  melted  together  in  crucibles,  the  mass 
is  chilled  and  transformed  into  a  fine 
powder  by  crushing  and  grinding.  The 
iron  pipes  and  other  objects  of  iron  are 
.  first  cleaned  in  the  usual  manner  by 
corroding,  dried  and  then  coated  with  a 
very  dilute  gum  arabic  solution  or  any 
other  gluing  agent,  and  the  powdered 
mass  is  spread  over  them  by  means  of 
a  sieve.  The  objects  thus  powdered  are 
put  in  a  room  which  is  heated  to  160°  C. 
to  drive  out  all  moisture  and  are  heated 


624 


RUST   PREVENTIVES 


to  dark  redness,  at  which  temperature 
the  oxide  coating  melts. 

Those  processes,  which  produce  a 
black  protoxide  layer  on  the  iron  by 
heating  iron  objects  in  supersaturated 
aqueous  vapor,  have  not  stood  the  test, 
as  the  layer  formed  will  drop  off  or  peel 
off  after  a  short  time,  thus  opening  the 
way  for  rust  after  all. 

The  anti-rust  composition  called  rub- 
ber oil  is  prepared  as  follows,  according 
to  the  specification  of  the  patent:  The 
crude  oil  obtained  by  the  dry  distillation 
of  brown  oil,  peat  and  other  earthy  sub- 
stances are  subjected  to  a  further  dis- 
tillation. Thinly  rolled  India  rubber, 
cut  in  narrow  strips,  is  saturated  with 
four  times  the  bulk  of  the  oil  and  left 
alone  for  a  week  or  so.  The  mass  thus 
composed  is  then  subjected  to  the  action 
of  mineral  sperm  oil  or  a  similar  sub- 
stance, until  an  entirely  uniform  clear 
substance  has  formed.  This  substance, 
which  is  applied  on  the  metallic  surfaces 
in  as  thin  a  layer  as  possible,  forms  a 
sort  of  film  after  slowly  drying,  which  is 
perfectly  proof  against  atmospheric  in- 
fluences. 

The  rust-preventive  composition  of 
Jones  &  Co.,  Sheffield,  is  a  composition 
of  wax,  fat,  turpentine,  and  small  quan- 
tities of  iron  oxide. 

According  to  a  process  patented  by  A. 
Buchner  in  Germany,  the  iron  objects 
are  first  painted  with  a  mixture  of  an 
alkaline  glue  solution  and  rosin  soap. 
The  alkaline  mass  enters  all  the  pores 
and  fissures  and  "prevents  the  rust  from 
extending  under  the  coating.  After  the 
first  coat  is  dry  a  second  one  is  applied 
of  the  following  composition:  Five  parts 
linseed  oil  boiled  with  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese; 2.25  parts  turpentine;  0.25  parts 
benzol;  20  parts  zinc  dust,  carbonate  of 
calcium,  lead  oxide,  or  peroxide  of 
manganese.  The  mixing  of  the  liquid 
with  the  powders  must  be  done  im- 
mediately before  use,  as  the  mass  solidi- 
fies after  10  hours,  and  is  then  no  longer 
of  working  consistency.  The  second 
coating,  which  should  only  be  thin, 
hardens  quickly.  The  paint  is  weather- 
proof, does  not  peel  off  or  blister,  and 
adheres  so  firmly  that  it  can  only  be  re- 
moved with  mechanical  means. 

A  patented  process  to  prevent  rusting 
of  wrought  or  cast  iron  consists  in  ap- 
plying with  a  brush  a  strong  solution  of 
potassium  dichromate  and  drying  in  a 
stove  or  over  an  open  fire.  Drying  at 
ordinary  temperature  is  not  sufficient. 
To  ascertain  if  the  heat  is  strong  enough 
the  iron  is  moistened  with  a  little  water. 
So  long  as  this  takes  up  any  color  the 


heat  must  be  increased.  When  the 
proper  degree  of  heat  is  reached  a  fine 
deep  black  layer  results,  which  is  not 
acted  upon  by  water,  and  protects  the 
surface  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 
A  permanent  lustrous  rust  preventive 
is  secured  as  follows:  The  well-cleaned 
iron  parts  are  suspended  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  blue  vitriol  solution,  so  that 
a  delicate  skin  of  copper  forms  on  the 
surface;  if  the  pieces  rinsed  off  with 
water  are  then  moved  about  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  solution  of  sodium  hypo- 
sulphite faintly  acidulated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  they  assume  a  blue-black 
coating  of  copper  sulphide,  which  is 
equally  permanent  in  air  and  in  water. 
Tne  black  surface  may  be  immediately 
rinsed  with  water,  dried  with  a  rag  or 
blotting  paper,  and  polished  at  once.  It 
possesses  a  steel-blue  luster,  adheres  well 
to  the  iron,  will  stand  treatment  with  the 
scratch  brush,  and  protects  against  rust 
in  a  most  satisfactory  manner. 

Black  Sheet  Rust  Preventive.— Before 
black  plate  is  ready  to  receive  a  rust  pro- 
tective coating,  it  is  necessary  to  render 
the  surface  free  from  grease  and  scales, 
for  which  purpose  the  sheet  iron  is  placed 
for  some  time  into  a  warmed  solution  of 
10  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  in  100  parts 
of  water,  whereby  the  impurities  become 
detached,  a  process  which  may  be  as- 
sisted and  accelerated  by  scouring  with 
sand.  Then  rinse  in  clean  water  and 
rub  dry  in  sawdust.  The  sheets  thus 
prepared  are  placed  for  a  short  while 
into  a  feeble  solution  of  blue  vitriol, 
where  they  assume  a  reddish  coloring. 
Next,  they  are  rinsed  in  water,  and  after 
that  moved  to  and  fro,  for  a  short  time, 
in  a  feeble  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  acidulated  with  a  little  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  result  is  a  dark-blue  coating 
on  the  sheets,  which  prevents  all  oxida- 
tion. 

To  Keep  Machinery  Bright.— I.— In 
order  to  keep  machinery  from  rusting 
take  1  ounce  of  camphor,  dissolve  it  in 
1  pound  of  melted  lard;  take  off  the 
scum,  and  mix  as  much  fine  black  lead 
as  will  give  it  iron  color.  Clean  the 
machinery  and  smear  it  with  this  mix- 
ture. After  24  hours,  rub  clean  with 
soft  linen  cloth.  It  will  keep  clean  for 
months  under  ordinary  circumstances. 
II. — Mastic,  transparent 

grains 10  parts 

Camphor 5  parts 

Sandarac 5  parts 

Gum  elemi 5  parts 

Alcohol,  wood,  quantity  sufficient 
to  dissolve. 


RUST   PREVENTIVES 


625 


Mix  and  cover  the  articles  with  the 
solution.  The  latter  will  take  the  lac- 
quer better  if  warmed  slightly,  but  may 
be  easily  covered  in  the  cold,  if  neces- 
sary. 

Magnetic  Oxide. — A  layer  of  magnetic 
oxide  is  a  good  preservative  from  rust. 
To  obtain  it  the  objects  are  placed  in 
the  furnace  at  a  temperature  sufficient 
for  decomposing  steam.  Steam  super- 
heated to  1,040°  F.  is  then  injected  for 
from  4  to  6  hours.  The  thickness  of 
the  layer  of  oxide  formed  varies  with  the 
duration  of  the  operation.  This  process 
can  replace  zincing,  enameling,  and  tin- 
ning. 

The  deposit  of  magnetic  oxide  may 
also  be  obtained  by  electrolysis.  The 
iron  object  is  placed  at  the  anode  in  a 
bath  of  distilled  water  heated  to  176°  F. 
The  cathode  is  a  copper  plate,  or  the 
vessel  itself,  if  it  is  of  iron  or  copper.  By 
electrolysis  a  layer  of  magnetic  oxide  is 
formed.  Other  peroxides  may  be  de- 
posited in  the  same  manner.  With  an 
alkaline  solution  of  litharge,  a  very  ad- 
herent, brilliant,  black  deposit  of  perox- 
ide of  lead  is  secured.  Too  energetic  a 
current  must  be  avoided,  as  it  would 
cause  a  pulverulent  deposit.  To  obtain 
a  good  coating  it  is  necessary,  after  put- 
ting the  objects  for  a  moment  at  the 
positive  pole,  to  place  them  at  the  other 
pole  until  the  oxide  is  completely  re- 
duced, and  then  bring  them  back  to  their 
first  position. 

Paper  as  Protection  for  Iron  and  Steel. 
— That  paraffine  paper  is  a  very  good 
protector  of  iron  and  steel  has  been 
proven  by  tests  conducted  by  Louis  H. 
Barker  for  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 
The  mode  of  applying  the  paraffine 
paper  is  as  follows:  After  the  rust  is 
carefully  cleaned  off  by  means  of  stiff 
wire  brushes,  a  tacky  paint  is  applied. 
The  paper  is  then  covered  over  and 
tightly  pressed  upon  the  painted  surface, 
the  joints  of  the  paper  slightly  lapping. 
As  soon  as  the  paper  is  in  place  it  is  ready 
for  the  outside  coat  of  paint.  Iron  and 
steel  girders  and  beams  subjected  to  the 
action  of  smoke  and  gases  may  thus  be 
admirably  protected  from  decomposi- 
tion. 

Anti-Rust  Paper  for  Needles.— This  is 
paper  covered  with  logwood,  and  pre- 
pared from  a  material  to  which  fine 
graphite  powder  has  been  added,  and 
which  has  been  sized  with  glue  and  alum. 
It  is  used  for  wrapping  around  steel 
goods,  such  as  sewing  needles,  etc.,  and 
protecting  them  against  rust.  Accord- 


ing to  Lake,  the  paper  is  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  like  vegetable  parchment, 
the  graphite  being  sprinkled  on  before 
the  paper  is  put  into  the  water. 

Rust  Paper. — Rust  paper  is  produced 
by  coating  strong  packing  paper  with 
linseed-oil  varnish,  size,  or  any  other 
binder,  and  sprinkling  on  the  powder 
given  in  previous  formula.  For  use  the 
paper  must  be  moistened  with  petroleum. 

Anti-Rust  Pastes.— I.— This  prepar- 
ation serves  for  removing  rust  already 
present,  as  well  as  for  preventing  same, 
by  greasing  the  article  with  it:  Melt  5 
parts  of  crude  vaseline  on  the  water  bath, 
and  mix  with  5  parts  of  finely  levigated 
pOAvdered  pumice  stone  into  a  uniform 
mass.  To  the  half-way  cooled  mass  add 
\  part  of  crude  acid  oxalate  of  potassium 
(sorrel  salt)  in  a  finely  powdered  state 
and  grind  into  complete  homogeneity. 

II. — Dry  tallow,  25  parts;  white  wax, 
23  parts;  olive  oil,  22  parts;  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, 25  parts;  mineral  oil,  10  parts. 
Apply  with  a  brush  at  the  fusing  tem- 
perature of  the  mixture. 

Rust  Prevention  for  Iron  Pipes. — The 
pieces  of  pipe  are  coated  with  tar  and 
filled  with  light  wood  sawdust,  which  is 
set  afire.  This  method  will  fully  pro- 
tect the  iron  from  rust  for  an  unlimited 
period,  rendering  a  subsequent  coat  alto- 
gether superfluous. 

Rust  Preventive  for  Tools,  etc. — I. — 
To  preserve  tools,  dies,  etc.,  from  rust, 
they  should  be  greased  well  with  yellow 
vaseline.  To  use  oil  is  not  advisable, 
since  all  oils,  except  the  dear  ones,  which 
are  too  expensive  for  this  purpose,  con- 
tain a  certain  percentage  of  acid  that  has 
an  injurious  effect  upon  the  steel  and 
iron  articles.  For  greasing  the  cavities 
use  a  hard  brush. 

II. — Carefully  heat  benzine  and  add 
half  its  weight  of  white  wax,  which  dis- 
solves completely  in  this  ratio.  This 
solution  is  applied  to  the  tools  by  means 
of  a  brush.  It  is  also  said  to  protect 
against  the  action  of  acidiferous  fumes. 

III. — Take  a  pound  of  vaseline  and 
melt  with  it  2  ounces  of  blue  ointment — 
what  druggists  call  one-third — and  add, 
to  give  it  a  pleasant  odor,  a  few  drops  of 
oil  of  wintergreen,  cinnamon,  or  sassa- 
fras. When  thoroughly  mixed  pour  into 
a  tin  can — an  old  baking-powder  can 
will  do.  Keep  a  rag  saturated  with  the 
preventive  to  wipe  tools  that  are  liable  to 
rust. 

To  Separate  Rusty  Pieces. — By  boiling 
the  objects  in  petroleum,  success  is  cef- 


626 


RUST  PREVENTIVES— SALTS 


tain.  It  is  necessary  to  treat  them  with 
alcohol  or  spirit  to  avoid  subsequent 
oxidation,  petroleum  being  in  itself  an 
oxidant. 

To  Protect  Zinc  Roofing  from  Rust. — 
Zinc  sheets  for  roofing  can  easily  be  pro- 
tected against  rust  by  the  following 
simple  process.  Clean  the  plates  by 
immersing  them  in  water  to  which  5  per 
cent  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added, 
then  wash  with  pure  water,  allow  to  dry 
and  coat  with  asphalt  varnish.  Asphalt 
varnish  is  prepared  by  dissolving  1  to  2 
parts  asphalt  in  10  parts  benzine;  the 
solution  should  be  poured  evenly  over 
the  plates,  and  the  latter  placed  in  an 
upright  position  to  dry. 

RUST  SPOT  REMOVER: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SACCHARINE  IN  FOOD: 
See  Food. 

SADDLE  GALLS: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

SADDLE  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

SALAMANDRINE  DESSERT: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

SALICYL   (SWEET): 
See  Dentifrices. 

SALICYLIC  ACID  IN  FOOD: 

See  Foods. 

SALICYLIC  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

Salts,  Effervescent 

Granulated  effervescent  salts  are  pro- 
duced by  heating  mixtures  of  powdered 
citric  acid,  tartaric  acid,  sodium  bi- 
carbonate, and  sugar  to  a  certain  temper- 
ature, until  they  assume  the  consistency 
of  a  paste,  which  is  then  granulated  and 
dried. 

If  effervescent  caffeine  citrate,  anti- 
pyrin,  lithium  citrate,  etc.,  are  to  be  pre- 
pared, the  powder  need  not  be  dried  be- 
fore effecting  the  mixture,  but  if  sodium 
phosphate,  sodium  sulphate,  or  magnes- 
ium sulphate  are  to  be  granulated,  the 
water  of  crystallization  must  first  be  re- 
moved by  drying,  otherwise  a  hard,  in- 
soluble and  absolutely  non-granulable 
mass  will  be  obtained.  Sodium  phos- 
phate must  lose  60  per  cent  of  its  weight 
in  drying,  sodium  sulphate  56  per  cent, 
and  magnesium  sulphate  23  per  cent. 

Naturally,  water  and  carbonic  acid 
escape  on  heating,  and  the  loss  will  in- 


crease with  the  rise  of  temperature.  For 
the  production  of  the  granulation  mass  it 
must  not  exceed  158°  F.,  and  for  drying 
the  grains  a  temperature  of  122°  F.  is 
sufficient. 

The  fineness  of  the  mesh  should  vary 
according  to  the  necessary  admixture  of 
sugar  and  the  size  of  the  grains. 

If  the  ingredients  should  have  a 
tendency  to  cling  to  the  warm  bottom, 
an  effort  should  be  made  immediately 
upon  the  commencement  of  the  reaction 
to  cause  a  new  portion  of  the  surface  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  hot  walls. 

When  the  mass  is  of  the  consistency 
of  paste  it  is  pressed  through  a  wire  sieve, 
paper  or  a  fabric  being  placed  under- 
neath. Afterwards  dry  at  sufficient  heat. 
For  wholesale  manufacture,  surfaces  of 
large  size  are  employed,  which  are  heated 
by  steam. 

In  the  production  of  substances  con- 
taining alkaloids,  antipyrin,  etc.,  care 
must  be  taken  that  they  do  not  become 
colored.  It  is  well,  therefore,  not  to  use 
heat,  but  to  allow  the  mixture  to  stand  in 
a  moist;  condition  for  12  hours,  adding 
the  medicinal  substances  afterwards  and 
kneading  the  whole  in  a  clay  receptacle. 
After  another  12  hours  the  mass  will 
have  become  sufficiently  paste-like,  so 
that  it  can  be  granulated  as  above. 

According  to  another  much  employed 
method,  the  mass  is  crushed  with  alcohol, 
then  rubbed  through  a  sieve,  and  dried 
rapidly.  This  process  is  somewhat 
dearer,  owing  to  the  great  loss  of  alcohol, 
but  presents  the  advantage  of  furnishing 
a  better  product  than  any  other  recipe. 

Effervescent  magnesium  citrate  can- 
not be  very  well  made;  for  this  reason 
the  sulphate  was  used  in  lieu  of  the 
citrate.  A  part  of  the  customary  ad- 
mixture of  sulphate  is  replaced  by  sugar 
and  aromatized  with  lemon  or  similar 
substances. 

An  excellent  granulation  mass  is  ob- 
tained from  the  following  mixture  by 
addition  of  alcohol: 

Parts  by 
weight 

Sodium  bicarbonate 30 

Tartaric  acid. 15 

Citric  acid 13 

Sugar 30 

The  total  loss  of  this  mass  through 
granulation  amounts  to  from  10  to  15  per 
cent. 

To  this  mass,  medicinal  substances, 
such  as  antipyrin,  caffeine  citrate,  lithium 
citrate,  lithium  salicylate,  phenacetin, 
piperacin,  ferric  carbonate,  and  pepsin 
may  be  added,  as  desired, 


SALTS 


627 


In  order  to  produce  a  quinine  prepara- 
tion, use  tincture  of  quinine  instead  of 
alcohol  for  moistening;  the  quinine 
tincture  is  prepared  with  alcohol  of  96 
per  cent. 

Basis  for  Effervescent  Salts. — 
Sodium    bicarbonate, 

dried  and  powdered  53  parts 
Tartaric    acid,    dried 

and  powdered 28  parts 

Citric    acid,    unefflor- 

esced  crystals 18  parts 

Powder  the  citric  acid  and  add  the 
tartaric  acid  and  sodium  bicarbonate. 
This  basis  may  be  mixed  with  many  of 
the  medicaments  commonly  used  in  the 
form  of  granular  effervescent  salts,  in 
the  proportion  which  will  properly  rep- 
resent their  doses  and  such  substances 
as  sodium  phosphate,  magnesium  sul- 
phate, citrated  caffeine,  potassium  bro- 
mide, lithium  citrate,  potassium  citrate, 
and  others,  will  produce  satisfactory 
products.  A  typical  formula  for  effer- 
vescent sodium  phosphate  would  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

Sodium  phosphate, 
uneffloresced  crys- 
tals    500  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate, 
dried  and  pow- 
dered    477  parts 

Tartaric  acid,  dried 

and  powdered. .  . .  252  parts 

Citric  acid,  unefflor- 
esced crystals 162  parts 

Dry  the  sodium  phosphate  on  a  water 
bath  until  it  ceases  to  lose  weight;  after 
powdering  the  dried  salt,  mix  it  intimate- 
ly with  the  citric  acid  and  tartaric  acid, 
then  thoroughly  incorporate  the  sodium 
bicarbonate.  The  mixed  powders  are 
now  ready  for  granulation.  The  change 
in  manipulation  which  is  suggested  to 
replace  that  usually  followed,  requires 
either  a  gas  stove  or  a  blue-flame  coal-oil 
stove,  and  one  of  the  small  tin  or  sheet- 
iron  ovens  which  are  so  largely  used  with 
these  stoves.  The  stove  itself  will  be 
found  in  almost  every  drug  store;  the 
oven  costs  from  $1  to  $2. 

The  oven  is  heated  to  about  200°  F. 
(the  use  of  a  thermometer  is  desirable  at 
first,  but  one  will  quickly  learn  how  to 
regulate  the  flame  to  produce  the  desired 
temperature),  and  the  previously  mixed 
powders  are  placed  on,  preferably,  a 
glass  plate,  which  has  been  heated  with 
the  oven,  about  £  pound  being  taken  at  a 
time,  dependent  upon  the  size  of  the 
oven.  The  door  of  the  oven  is  now 
closed  for  about  one  minute,  and,  when 


opened,  the  whole  mass  will  be  found  to 
be  uniformly  moist  and  ready  to  pass 
through  a  suitable  sieve,  the  best  kind 
and  size  being  a  tinned  iron,  No.  6. 
This  moist,  granular  powder  may  then 
be  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  oven,  where 
the  heat  is  quite  sufficient  to  thoroughly 
dry  the  granules,  and  the  operator  may 
proceed  immediately  with  the  next  lot  of 
mixed  powder,  easily  granulating  10  or 
more  pounds  within  an  hour. 

Sugar  has  often  been  proposed  as  an 
addition  to  these  salts,  but  experience 
has  shown  that  the  slight  improvement 
in  taste,  which  is  sometimes  questioned, 
does  not  offset  the  likelihood  of  darken- 
ing, which  is  apt  to  occur  when  the  salt  is 
being  heated,  or  the  change  in  color  after 
it  has  been  made  several  months.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  in  making 
a  granular  effervescent  salt  by  the  method 
which  depends  upon  the  liberation  of 
water  of  crystallization,  a  loss  in  weight, 
amounting  to  about  10  per  cent,  will  be 
experienced.  This  is  due,  in  part,  to 
the  loss  of  water  which  is  driven  off,  and 
also  to  a  trifling  loss  of  carbon  dioxide 
when  the  powder  is  moistened. 

EFFERVESCENT  POWDERS: 
Magnesian  Lemonade  Powder. — 

Fine  white  sugar 2  pounds 

Magnesium  carbonate     6  ounces 

Citric  acid 4  ounces 

Essence  of  lemon  ....      2  drachms 
Rub  the  essence  into  the  dry  ingre- 
dients, work  well  together,  sift,  and  bot- 
tle. 

Magnesian  Orgeat  Powder. — 

Fine  sugar 1  pound 

Carbonate  of  magne- 
sia       3  ounces 

Citric  acid 1  ounce 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds .      3  drops 
Vanilla  flavoring,  quantity  sufficient. 
Thoroughly  amalgamate  the  dry  in- 
gredients.    Rub  in  the  oil  of  almonds 
and  sufficient  essence  of  vanilla  to  give 
a  slight  flavor.     Work  all  well  together, 
sift,  and  bottle. 

Raspberryade  Powder. — 

Fine  sugar 2  pounds 

Carbonate  of  soda. ...      2  ounces 

Tartaric  acid 2  ounces 

Essence  of  raspberry .      4  drachms 
Carmine    coloring,    quantity    suffi- 
cient. 

Rub  the  essence  well  into  the  sugar, 
and  mix  this  with  the  soda  and  acid. 
Then  work  in  sufficient  liquid  carmine 
to  make  the  powder  pale  red,  sift  through 
a  fine  sieve,  and  pack  in  air-tight  bottles, 


628 


SALTS— SAND 


Ambrosia  Powder. — 

Fine  sugar 2  pounds 

Carbonate  of  soda. ...    12  drachms 

Citric  acid 10  drachms 

Essence  of  ambrosia. .    20  drops 
Amalgamate  the  whole  of  the  above, 
and  afterwards  sift  and  bottle  in  the  usual 


Noyeau  Powder. — 

Fine  sugar 2  pounds 

Carbonate  of  soda. ...    12  drachms 

Tartaric  acid 10  drachms 

Essence  of  Noyeau. .  .      6  drops 
After  the  dry  ingredients   have  been 
mixed,  and  the  essence  rubbed  into  them, 
sift  and  bottle  the  powder. 

Lemon  Sherbet. — 

Fine  sugar 9  pounds 

Tartaric  acid 40  ounces 

Carbonate  of  soda. .  .   36  ounces 

Oil  of  lemon 2  drachms 

Having  thoroughly  mixed  the  dry  in- 
gredients, add  the  lemon,  rubbing  it  well 
in  between  the  hands;  then  sift  the  whole 
thrice  through  a  fine  sieve,  and  cork 
down  tight. 

As  oil  of  lemon  is  used  in  this  recipe, 
the  blending  must  be  quite  perfect,  other- 
wise when  tne  powder  is  put  in  water  the 
oil  of  lemon  will  float. 

Any  other  flavoring  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  lemon,  and  the  sherbet  named 
accordingly. 

Cream  Soda  Powder. — 

Fine  sugar 30  parts 

Tartaric  acid 7  parts 

Carbonate  of  soda. ...  6  parts 
Finely  powdered  gum 

arable 1  part 

Vanilla     flavoring,     quantity    suffi- 
cient. 

Proceed  exactly  as  for  lemon  sherbet. 
Kissingen  Salt. — 

Potassium  chloride. .  17  parts 
Sodium  chloride.  .  .  .  367  parts 
Magnesium  sulphate 

(dry) 59  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate.    107  parts 
For    the     preparation     of     Kissingen 
water,  dissolve  1.5  grams  in  180  grams  of 
water. 

Vichy  Salt.— 

Sodium  bicarbonate.  846  parts 
Potassium  carbonate  38  parts 
Magnesium  sulphate 

(dry) 38  parts 

Sodium  chloride  ....      77  parts 
For    making  Vichy  water   dissolve    1. 
part  in  200  parts  of  water. 


Seidlitz  Salt. — This  is  one  of  the  many 
old  names  for  magnesium  sulphate.  It 
has  at  various  times  been  known  as 
Seidlitz  salt,  Egra  salt,  canal  salt,  bitter 
salt,  cathartic  salt,  English  salt,  and 
Epsom  salt.  Its  earliest  source  was  from 
the  salt  springs  of  Epsom  in  England 
and  from  this  fact  it  took  its  last  two 
names.  For  a  long  time  sea-salt  makers 
supplied  the  markets  of  the  world. 
They  procured  it  as  a  by-product  in 
the  making  of  salt.  The  bitter  water 
that  remained  after  the  table  salt  had 
been  crystallized  out  was  found  to  con- 
tain it.  Now  it  is  chiefly  procured  from 
such  minerals  as  dolomite,  siliceous 
magnesium  hydrate,  and  schistose  rock 
containing  the  sulphide  of  magnesia. 
Many  medical  men  deem  it  our  best 
saline  cathartic. 

SALTS,  SMELLING. 

I. — Moisten    coarsely    powdered   am- 
monium carbonate  with  a  mixture  of 
Strong  tincture  of  or- 
ris root 2^  ounces 

Extract  of  violet 3     drachms 

Spirit  of  ammonia. ...      1     drachm 
II. — Fill  suitable  bottles  with  coarsely 
powdered    ammonium    carbonate,    and 
add  to  the  salt  as  much  of  the  following 
solution  as  it  will  absorb: 

Oil  of  orris 5  minims 

Oil  of  lavender  flow- 
ers     10  minims 

Extract  of  violet 30  minims 

Stronger  water  of  am- 
monia       2  ounces 

SALVES: 

See  Ointments. 

SAND: 

Colored  Sand. — Sift  fine  white  sand 
from  the  coarser  particles  and  color  it  as 
follows: 

I. — Blue. — Boil  106  parts  of  sand 
and  4  of  Berlin  blue  with  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  stirring  constantly,  and  dry  as 
soon  as  the  sand  is  thoroughly  colored. 

II. — Black  Sand. — Heat  very  fine 
quartz  sand,  previously  freed  from  dust 
by  sifting,  and  add  to  every  J  pound  of 
it  6  to  8  spoonfuls  of  fat.  Continue  the 
heating*  as  long  as  smoke  or  a  flame  is 
observed  on  stirring.  The  sand  is 
finally  washed  and  dried.  This  black 
sand  will  not  rub  off. 

III. — Dark-Brown  Sand. — Boil  white 
sand  in  a  decoction  of  brazil  wood  and 
dry  it  over  a  fire. 

IV. — Rose- colored  sand  is  obtained 
by  mixing  100  parts  of  white  sand  with 
4  parts  of  vermilion. 


SAND— SCREWS 


629 


Lawn  Sand. — Lawn  sand  may  be  pre- 
pared by  mixing  crude  ammonium  sul- 
phate, 65  parts,  with  fine  sand,  35  parts. 
This  mixture  will  kill  daisies  and  plan- 
tains, but  does  not  permanently  injure 
the  grass  of  lawns.  A  most  effective 
method  of  killing  plantains  is  to  put, 
during  dry  weather,  a  full  teaspoonful  of 
common  salt  in  the  head  of  each. 

SAND  HOLES  IN  BRASS: 

See  Castings. 

SAND  SOAP: 
See  Soap. 

SANDSTONE  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

SANDSTONE  COATING: 
See  Acid-Proofing. 

SANDSTONES,     TO      REMOVE      OIL 
SPOTS    FROM: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SAND,  TO  PREVENT  ADHESION  OF 
SAND  TO  CASTINGS: 

See  Castings. 

SARSAPARILLA. 

Each  fluidounce  of  Ayer's  sarsaparilla 
represents 

Sarsaparilla  root 10  parts 

Yellow  dock  root 8  parts 

Licorice  root 8  parts 

Buckthorn  bark 4  parts 

Burdock  root 3  parts 

Senna  leaves 2  parts 

Black  cohosh  root..  .  .      2  parts 

Stillingia  root 4  parts 

Poke  root 1  part 

Cinchona  red  bark.  .  .      2  parts 
Potassium  iodide.  ...      4  parts 
Solvent. — Alcohol,  10^  minims  to  each 
fluidrachm;  glycerin,  syrup,  water. 

This  is  the  formula  as  given  by  Dr. 
Charles  H.  Stowell,  of  the  Ayer  Com- 
pany, to  the  daily  papers,  for  advertising 
purposes. 

Sarsaparilla  Flavoring. — 

Oil  wintergreen 6     parts 

Oil  sassafras 2    parts 

Oil  cassia It  parts 

Oil  clove l|  parts 

Oil  anise 1^  parts 

Alcohol 60     parts 

Sarsaparilla  Syrup. — 

Simple  syrup 40  ounces 

Sarsaparilla  flavoring.     1  drachm 
Caramel  to  color. 

SARSAPARILLA  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 


SAUCES,  TABLE: 

See  Condiments. 

SATINWOOD: 

See  Wood. 

SAUSAGE  COLOR: 
See  Foods. 

SAWDUST  IN  BRAN: 
See  Bran. 

SAWDUST     FOR     JEWELERS     AND 
WATCHMAKERS: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

SCALD  HEAD,, SOAP  FOR: 

See  Soap. 

SCALD  REMEDIES: 

See  Cosmetics. 

SCALE     FOR    PHOTOGRAPHIC     RE- 
DUCTION: 

See  Photography. 

SCALE  PAN  CLEANER: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SCALE  IN  BOILERS: 

See  Boiler  Compounds. 

SCALE     INSECTS,    EXTERMINATION 
OF: 

See  Insecticides. 

SCALP  WASHES: 

See  Hair  Preparations. 

SCISSORS  HARDENING: 

See  Steel. 

SCOURING  LIQUIDS: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

SCRATCH  BRUSHING: 

See  Plating,  under  Gilding. 

SCREWS: 

To  Prevent  Screws  from  Rusting  and 
Becoming  Fast. — Screws  will  sometimes 
rust  in  their  seats,  even  when  carefully 
oiled  before  driving  them  to  their  seats, 
but  if  they  are  anointed  with  a  mixture 
of  graphite  and  soft  tallow  they  will  re- 
main unrusted  and  unaltered  for  years. 

A  screw  rusted  in  may  also  be  removed 
by  placing  the  flat  extremity  of  a  red-hot 
rod  of  iron  on  it  for  2  or  3  minutes. 
When  the  screw  is  heated,  it  will  be  found 
to  turn  quite  easily. 

SCREWS,  BLUEING: 

See  Steel. 

SCREWS  IN  WATCHES: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 


630 


SEA   SICKNESS— SHELL   CAMEOS 


SEALING  (BURNING)  TRICK: 
See  Pyrotechnics. 

SEALING  WAX 
See  Waxes. 

SEA  SICKNESS. 

I. — To  prevent  sea  sickness,  take  2  or 
3  grams  of  potassium  bromide  dissolved 
in  plain  or  carbonated  water  every  even- 
ing either  with  supper  or  just  before  re- 
tiring for  several  weeks  before  going  on 
the  voyage.  During  the  voyage,  breath- 
ing should  be  deep  and  a  tight  bandage 
should  be  worn  around  the  abdomen. 

II.— Menthol 0.1  part 

Cocaine      hydro- 
chloride 0.2  parts 

Alcohol .'  . .  60.0  parts 

Syrup 30.0  parts 

A  dessertspoonful  to  be  taken  at 
intervals  of  half  an  hour. 

SEASONINGS: 

See  Condiments. 

SEED,  BIRD: 
See  Bird  Foods. 

SEEDS,  TESTS  FOR  FOREIGN: 

See  Foods. 

SEIDLITZ  POWDERS: 

See  Salts  (Effervescent). 

SELTZER  WATER: 
See  Water. 

SERPENTS,  PHARAOH'S. 

An  old  form  consisted  of  pellets  of  a 
very  poisonous  mercurial  compound  which 
gave  off  dangerous  fumes  when  heated. 
The  "eggs"  may  be  made  of  compara- 
tively safe  material  by  the  following 
formula: 

Potassium  bichromate.  2  parts 

Potassium  nitrate 1  part 

White  sugar 2  parts 

Powder  each  ingredient  separately, 
mix,  and  press  into  small  paper  cones. 
These  must  be  kept  from  light  and 
moisture. 

Of  course,  neither  this  nor  other 
chemical  toys  containing  substances  in 
the  slightest  degree  harmful  if  swallowed 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  children 
not  old  enough  fully  to  understand  the 
danger  of  eating  or  even  tasting  un- 
known things. 

SERVIETTES  MAGIQUES: 
See  Polishes. 

SETTING  OF  TOOLS: 
See  Tool  Setting. 


SEWING-MACHINE  OIL: 

See  Lubricants. 

SHAMPOp  LOTIONS  AND  PASTES: 
See  Hair  Restorers  and  Soaps. 

SHARPENING  PASTES: 
See  Razor  Pastes. 

SHARPENING  STONES: 

See  Whetstones. 

SHAVING  PASTE. 

An  emulsion  of  paraffine  wax,  melting 
at  131°  F.,  should  be  used.  This  is  pre- 
pared with  25  per  cent  of  wax  and  2  per 
cent  of  tragacanth,  the  wax  being  melted 
and  mixed  with  the  tragacanth  previous- 
ly made  into  a  mucilage  with  some  of  the 
water.  The  addition  of  a  little  stearine 
or  lard  renders  the  emulsification  of  the 
wax  easier,  while  about  10  per  cent  of 
alcohol  makes  the  preparation  more 
agreeable  to  use.  The  fatty  odor  of  the 
preparation  may  be  covered  by  the  ad- 
dition of  £  to  1  per  cent  of  lavender  oil, 
and  the  finished  product  then  appears  as 
a  thick  white  cream.  In  use  a  small 
quantity  is  rubbed  over  the  area  to  be 
shaved  and  the  razor  immediately  ap- 
plied. As  the  water  in  the  emulsion 
evaporates,  the  particles  of  wax  previ- 
ously distributed  in  the  emulsion  become 
coherent  and  fill  up  the  depressions  in 
the  surface  of  the  skin  from  which  the 
hairs  arise,  thus  forming  a  mechanical 
support  during  the  passage  of  the  razor. 
The  quantity  required  is  very  small,  1 
ounce  being  sufficient  for  shaving  the 
face  about  6  times. 

SHAVING  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

SHEEP -DIPS: 

See  Disinfectants. 

SHEEP  DISEASES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

SHELL  CAMEOS. 

If  shell  cameos  and  corals  have  be- 
come too  hot  in  cementing  and  cracks 
have  appeared  in  consequence,  olive  oil 
is  applied  and  allowed  to  soak  in  by 
heating.  The  same  process  is  employed 
for  shell  cameos  which  have  developed 
white  fissures,  owing  to  being  filed 
smaller. 

SHELL,  IMITATION  OF: 

See  Casein  Compounds. 

SHELLS,     LUBRICANTS     FOR     RE- 
DRAWING: 

See  Lubricants. 


SHELLAC—SHOE    DRESSINGS 


631 


SHELL  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

SHELLAC: 

See  Varnishes. 

SHELLAC  BLEACHING. 

In  bleaching,  shellac  is  brought  into 
contact  with  an  acidified  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  for  some  time,  then 
washed,  kneaded  in  hot  water,  placed  back 
into  the  chloride  of  lime  solution,  and 
brushed.  Through  this  treatment  with 
the  chloride  of  lime  solution  the  bleached 
shellac  sometimes  loses  its  solubility  in 
alcohol,  which,  however,  can  be  restored 
if  the  shellac  is  melted  in  boiling  water, 
or  if  it  is  moistened  with  a  little  ether 
in  a  well-closed  vessel.  A  quantity  of 
ether  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  20 
parts  shellac  is  sufficient.  Great  cau- 
tion is  recommended  in  the  handling  of 
ether.  The  ether  vapors  easily  ignite 
when  in  proximity  to  a  burning  light  and 
a  mixture  of  ether  vapor  and  atmos- 
pheric air  may  cause  most  vehement  ex- 
plosions. After  an  action  of  the  ether 
upon  the  shellac  for  several  hours,  the 
alcohol  necessary  to  dissolve  it  may  either 
be  added  directly  or  the  shellac  mois- 
tened with  ether  is  placed  in  the  open  air 
for  half  an  hour  in  a  dish,  after  which 
time  the  ether  will  have  evaporated  and 
the  shellac  can  then  be  dissolved  by  the 
use  of  alcohol. 

Bleached  shellac  is  known  to  lose  its 
solubility  in  alcohol,  especially  if  treated 
with  chlorine  in  bleaching.  This  solu- 
bility can  be  readily  restored,  however, 
by  first  moistening  the  rosin  with  -£G  its 
weight  of  ether,  placing  it  in  a  closed 
vessel  and  allowing  it  to  swell  there. 
Shellac  thus  treated  becomes  perfectly 
soluble  again. 


SHIMS  IN  ENGINE  BRASSES. 

In  taking  up  the  wear  of  engine  brasses 
on  wrist  pin  or  crosshead  pin  when  the 
key  is  driven  clear  down,  back  out  the 
key  and  instead  of  putting  in  sheet-iron 
shims,  put  in  a  small  piece  of  pine  wood 
of  just  the  right  thickness  to  allow  the 
key  to  come  even  with  the  under  side  of 
the  strap,  then  pour  in  melted  babbitt. 
A  hole  must  be  drilled  through  the  flange 
of  the  brasses  to  allow  for  pouring  the 
babbitt. 

Every  engineer  knows  the  trouble  it  is 
to  put  several  shims  between  the  brass 
box  and  the  end  of  the  strap,  especially 
if  the  box  is  a  round-end  one,  as  many 
are.  By  using  the  method  described, 


brasses  may  be  worn  up  much  closer, 
even  if  worn  through;  the  babbitt  will 
form  part  of  the  bearing. 

Shoe  Dressings 

(See  also  Leather.) 
Acid -Free  Blacking. — 

Lampblack 27-36  parts 

Bone  black 3  parts 

Syrup 60-70  parts 

Put  in  a  kettle  and  under  gentle  heat 
stir  together  until  a  smooth,  homoge- 
neous mass  has  been  attained.  In  an- 
other kettle  put  3  parts  of  finely  shredded 
gutta  percha  and  warm  over  an  open  fire 
until  it  begins  to  run,  then  add,  with 
constant  stirring,  5  parts  of  olive  oil, 
continuing  the  heat  until  the  gum  is 
completely  dissolved.  When  this  oc- 
curs dissolve  in  1  part  of  stearine,  and 
add  the  whole  while  still  hot  in  a  slow 
stream,  and  under  diligent  and  constant 
stirring,  to  the  mixture  of  syrup  and 
blacks.  Continue  the  agitation  of  the 
mass  until  it  is  completely  homogeneous. 
Now  dissolve  4  parts  of  Senegal  gum  in 
12  parts  of  water,  and  add  the  solution  to 
the  foregoing  mass.  Stir  well  in  and 
finally  add  sufficient  mirbane  (about 
i  part)  to  perfume. 

Blacking  Pastes.— While  shellac  is  not 
soluble  in  water  alone,  it  is  soluble  in  water 
carrying  borax,  the  alkaline  carbonates, 
etc.  In  paste  blacking  the  object  of  the 
sulphuric  acid  is  to  remove  from  the  bone 
black  the  residual  calcium  phosphate. 
The  ordinary  bone  black  of  commerce 
consists  of  only  about  10  per  cent  of 
carbon,  the  residue  being  chiefly  calcium 
phosphate.  This  is  the  reason  that  we 
cannot  obtain  a  pure  black  color  from  it, 
but  a  dirty  brown.  To  make  a  good 
blacking,  one  that  is  of  a  black  in  color, 
either  use  purified  bone  black,  or  a 
mineral  acid  (sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid)  with  crude  bone  black.  The 
residual  acid  is  entirely  neutralized  by 
the  sodium  carbonate  and  has  no  bad 
effect  on  the  leather.  The  following 
formula  contains  no  acid  and  makes  a 
good  paste: 

I. — Marseilles  soap. .  .     122  parts 
Potassium     c  a  r  - 

bonate 6l' parts 

Beeswax 500  parts 

Water 2,000  parts 

Mix  and  boil  together  with  occasional 
stirring  until  a  smooth,  homogeneous 
paste  is  obtained,  then  add,  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  under  constant  stirring,  the 
following: 


632 


SHOE    DRESSINGS 


Rock  candy,  pow- 
dered   153  parts 

Gum  arable,  pow- 
dered   61  parts 

Ivory  black 1,000  parts 

Stir  until  homogeneous,  then  pour, 
while  still  hot,  into  boxes. 

The  following  makes  a  very  brilliant 
and  durable  black  polish  for  shoes: 

II.— Bone  black. .....       40  parts 

Sulphuric  acid.  .  .       10  parts 

Fish  oil 10  parts 

Sodium  carbonate 

crystal 18  parts 

Sugar,  common 
brown,  or  mo- 
lasses    20  parts 

Liquid   glue,   pre- 
pared as  below .       20  parts 
Water,  sufficient. 

Soak  10  parts  of  good  white  glue  in 
40  parts  of  cold  water  for  4  hours,  then 
dissolve  by  the  application  of  gentle 
heat,  and  add  1.8  parts  of  glycerine 
(commercial).  Set  aside.  Dissolve  the 
sodium  carbonate  in  sufficient  water  to 
make  a  cold  saturated  solution  (about 
3  parts  of  water  at  60°  F.),  and  set  aside. 
In  an  earthenware  vessel  moisten  the 
bone  black  with  a  very  little  water,  and 
stirring  it  about  with  a  stick,  add  the 
sulphuric  acid,  slowly.  Agitate  until  a 
thick  dough-like  mass  is  obtained,  then 
add  and  incorporate  the  fish  oil.  Any 
sort  of  animal  oil,  or  even  colza  will 
answer,  but  it  is  best  to  avoid  high-smell- 
ing oils.  Add  a  little  at  a  time,  and 
under  vigorous  stirring,  sufficient  of  the 
saturated  sodium  carbonate  solution  to 
cause  effervescence.  Be  careful  not  to 
add  so  freely  as  to  liquefy  the  mass.  Stir 
until  effervescence  ceases,  then  add  the 
molasses  or  sugar,  the  first,  if  a  soft, 
damp  paste  is  desired,  and  the  latter  if 
a  dryer  one  is  wanted.  Finally,  add,  a 
little  at  a  time,  and  under  constant 
stirring,  sufficient  of  the  solution  of  glue 
to  make  a  paste  of  the  desired  con- 
sistency. The  exact  amount  of  this  last 
ingredient  that  is  necessary  must  be 
learned  by  experience.  It  is  a  very 
important  factor,  as  it  gives  the  finished 
product  a  depth  and  brilliancy  that  it 
could  not  otherwise  have,  as  well  as  a 
certain  durability,  in  which  most  of  the 
blackings  now  on  the  market  are  defi- 
cient. 

III.— Soap 122  parts 

Potassium     c  a  r  - 

bonate 61  parts 

Beeswax 500  parts 

Water 2,000  parts 


Mix  and  boil  together  until  a  smooth, 
homogeneous  paste  is  obtained,  then 
add 

Bone  black 1,000  parts 

Powdered  sugar.  .     153  parts 
Powdered     gum 

arabic 61  parts 

Mix  thoroughly,  remove  from  the  fire, 
and  pour  while  still  hot  into  boxes. 

Boot-Top  Liquid. — 
Solution  of  muriate  of 

tin 3     drachms 

French  chalk  (in  pow- 
der) .1 1     ounce 

Salt  of  sorrel J  ounce 

Flake  white 1     ounce 

Burnt  alum \  ounce 

Cuttle-fish      bones 

(powdered) 1     ounce 

White  arsenic 1     ounce 

Boiling  water 1     quart 

Brown  Dressing  for  Untanned  Shoes. — 

Yellow  wax 30  parts 

Soap 12  parts 

Nankin  yellow 15  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine 100  parts 

Alcohol 12  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Dissolve  in  the  water  bath  the  wax  in 
the  oil  of  turpentine;  dissolve,  also  by 
the  aid  of  heat,  the  soap  in  the  water, 
and  the  Nankin  yellow  (or  in  place  of 
that  any  of  the  yellow  coal-tar  colors)  in 
the  alcohol.  Mix  the  solutions  while 
hot,  and  stir  constantly  until  cold.  The 
preparation  is  smeared  over  the  shoes  in 
the  usual  way,  rubbed  with  a  brush  until 
evenly  distributed,  and  finally  polished 
with  an  old  silk  or  linen  cloth. 

Heel  Polish.— 

I. — Carnauba  wax. ...  5  parts 

Japanese  wax 5  parts 

Paraffine 5  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine  .  .  50  parts 

Lampblack 1  part 

Wine  black 2  parts 

Melt  the  wax  and  the  paraffine,  and 
when  this  has  become  lukewarm,  add 
the  turpentine  oil,  and  finally  the  lamp- 
black and  the  wine  black.  When  the 
black  color  has  become  evenly  dis- 
tributed, pour,  while  still  lukewarm,  into 
tin  cans. 

II. — Melt  together  Japanese  wax, 
100  parts;  carnauba  wax,  100  parts; 
paraffine,  100  parts;  and  mix  with  tur- 
pentine oil,  500  parts,  as  well  as  a  tritur- 
ation  of  lampblack,  10  parts;  wine  black, 
20  parts;  turpentine  oil,  70  parts. 


SHOE    DRESSINGS 


LIQUID  BLACKINGS. 

The  following  formulas  make  a 
product  of  excellent  quality: 

I. — Ivory  black 120  parts 

Brown  sugar 90  parts 

Olive  oil 15  parts 

Stale  beer 500  parts 

Mix  the  black,  sugar  and  olive  oil  into 
a  smooth  paste,  adding  the  beer,  a  little 
at  a  time,  under  constant  stirring.  Let 
stand  for  24  hours,  then  put  into  flasks, 
lightly  stoppered. 

II. — Ivory  black 200  parts 

Molasses 200  parts 

Gallnuts,   bruised.      12  parts 

Iron  sulphate 12  parts 

Sulphuric  acid.  ...      40  parts 

Boiling  water 700  parts 

Mix  the  molasses  and  ivory  black  in 
an  earthen  vessel.  In  an  iron  vessel  let 
the  gallnuts  infuse  in  100  parts  of  boil- 
ing water  for  1  hour,  then  strain  and  set 
aside.  In  another  vessel  dissolve  the  iron 
sulphate;  in  another,  100  parts  of  the 
boiling  water.  One-half  of  this  solution 
is  added  at  once  to  the  molasses  mixture. 
To  the  remaining  half  add  the  sulphuric 
acid,  and  pour  the  mixture,  a  little  at  a 
time,  under  constant  stirring,  into  the 
earthen  vessel  containing  the  molasses 
mixture.  The  mass  will  swell  up  and 
thicken,  but  as  soon  as  it  commences  to 
subside,  add  the  infusion  of  gallnuts, 
also  under  vigorous  stirring.  If  a  paste 
blacking  is  desired  the  preparation  is 
now  complete.  For  a  liquid  black  add 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  boiling 
water  (500  parts),  stir  thoroughly  and 
bottle. 

Patent -Leather  Polish.— 

Yellow  wax  or  ceresine       Bounces 

Spermaceti 1  ounce 

Oil  of  turpentine 11  ounces 

Asphaltum  varnish. .  .         1  ounce 

Borax 80  grains 

Frankfort  black 1  ounce 

Prussian  blue 150  grains 

Melt  the  wax,  add  the  borax,  and  stir 
until  an  emulsion  has  been  formed.  In 
another  pan  melt  the  spermaceti;  add 
the  varnish,  previously  mixed  with  the 
turpentine;  stir  well  and  add  to  the  wax; 
lastly  add  the  colors. 

Preservatives  for  Shoe  Soles. — I. — 
This  preparation,  destined  for  impreg- 
nating leather  shoe  soles,  is  produced  as 
follows:  Grind  50  parts  of  linseed  oil 
with  1  part  of  litharge;  next  heat  for  2 
hours  to  the  boiling  point  with  4  part 
of  zinc  vitriol,  which  is  previously  cal- 


cined (dehydrated).  The  composition 
obtained  in  this  manner,  when  perfectly 
cold,  is  mixed  with  8  parts  of  benzine 
and  filled  in  bottles  or  other  receptacles. 
To  render  this  preservative  effective, 
the  soles  must  be  coated  with  it  until 
the  leather  absorbs  it. 

II. — Dissolve  ordinary  household  soap 
in  water;  on  the  other  hand,  dissolve  an 
aluminum  salt — the  cheapest  is  the  com- 
mercial aluminum  sulphate — in  water 
and  allow  both  solutions  to  cool.  Now 
pour  the  aluminum  salt  solution,  with 
constant  stirring,  into  the  soap  solution, 
thereby  obtaining  a  very  fine  precipitate 
of  aluminum  oleate.  The  washed-out 
residue  is  dried  with  moderate  heat.  By 
adding  10  to  30  per  cent  to  petroleum 
with  slight  heating,  a  solid  petroleum  of 
vaseline-like  consistency  is  received, 
which  may  be  still  further  solidified  by 
additional  admixture.  A  10  per  cent 
solution  of  aluminum  oleate  in  petro- 
leum is  a  very  excellent  agent  for  pre- 
serving the  soles,  a  single  saturation  of 
the  soles  sufficing  forever.  The  sole  will 
last  about  1  year. 

III. — The  following  mixture  is  pre- 
pared by  melting  together  over  the  fire 
in  an  enameled  iron  vessel:  Vaseline, 
400  parts;  ceresine,  100  parts.  The 
melted  mass,  which  is  used  as  a  grease, 
is  filled  in  wooden  boxes  or  tin  cans. 

IV. — The  oleic  acid  of  the  stearine 
factories  is  heated  with  strong  alcohol 
and  sulphuric  acid.  Take  16  parts  of 
oleic  acid,  2  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per 
cent),  and  1  part  of  concentrated  sulphu- 
ric acid.  The  oleic-acid  ether  formed 
separates  as  a  thin  brownish  oil.  It  is 
liberated  from  free  sulphuric  acid  and 
the  alcohol  in  excess  by  agitation  with 
warm  water  and  allowing  to  settle.  This 
oleic-acid  ether  is  mixed  with  the  same 
weight  of  fish  oil,  and  4  to  8  parts  of 
nitro-benzol  are  added  per  1,000  parts  to 
disguise  the  odor. 

TAN  AND  RUSSET  SHOE  POLISHES: 
To  Renovate  and  Brighten  Russet 
and  Yellow  Shoes. — First,  clean  off  all 
dirt  and  dust  with  a  good  stiff  brush, 
then  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  benzine  go 
over  the  leather,  repeating  the  process 
as  soon  as  the  benzine  evaporates.  A 
few  wipings  will  bring  back  the  original 
color.  Then  use  a  light-yellow  dressing 
and  brush  well. 

The  liquid  application  consists  usually 
of  a  solution  of  yellow  wax  and  soap  in 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  it  should  be  a  mat- 
ter of  no  difficulty  whatever  to  compound 
a  mixture  of  this  character  at  least  equal 


SHOE   DRESSINGS 


to  the  preparations  on  the  market.  As  a 
type  of  the  mixture  occasionally  recom- 
mended we  may  quote  the  following: 

I. — Yellow  wax 4  ounces 

Pearl  ash 4  drachms 

Yellow  soap 1  drachm 

Spirit  of  turpentine .      7  ounces 
Phosphine  (aniline).      4  grains 

Alcohol 4  drachms 

Water,  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Scrape  the  wax  fine  and  add  it,  to- 
gether with  the  ash  and  soap,  to  12 
ounces  of  water.  Boil  all  together  until 
a  smooth,  creamy  mass  is  obtained;  re- 
move the  heat  and  add  the  turpentine 
and  the  aniline  (previously  dissolved  in 
the  alcohol).  Mix  thoroughly,  and  add 
sufficient  water  to  bring  the  finished 
product  up  to  1£  pints. 

II.— Water 18        parts 

Rosin  oil 4£     parts 

Spirit  of  sal  ammo- 
niac, concentrated      l£      parts 
White  grain  soap.  . .      1.93  parts 

Russian  glue 1.59  parts 

Brown  rock  candy  .  .      0.57  parts 
Bismarck  brown. . . .      0.07  parts 
Bjpil  all  the  ingredients  together,  ex- 
cepting the  pigment;  after  all  has  been 
dissolved,  add  the  Bismarck  brown  and 
filter.     The  dressing  is  applied  with  a 
sponge. 
III. — Beeswax,  yellow. ...      2  ounces 

Linseed  oil 3  ounces 

Oil  turpentine 10  ounces 

Dissolve  by  heat  of  a  water  bath,  and 
add  1J  ounces  soap  shavings,  hard  yel- 
low. Dissolve  this  in  14  ounces  of  hot 
water. 

IV. — A  simpler  form  of  liquid  mix- 
ture consists  of  equal  parts  of  yellow  wax 
and  palm  oil  dissolved  with  the  aid  of 
heat  in  3  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

V. — Soft  or  green  soap. . .      1  ounce 
Linseed  oil,  raw  ....      2  ounces 
Annatto  solution  (in 

oil) 7  ounces 

Yellow  wax 2  ounces 

Gum  turpentine. ...      7  ounces 

Water 7  ounces 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  and  add 
the  solution  of  annatto;  melt  the  wax  in 
the  oil  of  turpentine,  and  gradually  stir 
in  the  soap  solution,  stirring  until  cold. 

The  paste  to  accompany  the  foregoing 
mixtures  is  composed  of  yellow  wax  ana 
rosin  thinned  with  petrolatum,  say  4 
parts  of  wax,  1  part  of  rosin,  and  12  parts 
of  petrolatum. 

Paste  Dressings  for  Russet  Shoes. — 
The  paste  dressings  used  on  russet 


leather  consist  of  mixtures  of  wax  with 
oil  and  other  vehicles  which  give  a  mix- 
ture of  proper  working  quality. 
A  simple  formula  is: 

I. — Yellow  wax 9  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine. ...    20  parts 

Soap 1  part 

Boiling  water 20  parts 

Dissolve  the  wax  in  the  turpentine  on 
a  water  bath  and  the  soap  in  the  water 
and  stir  the  two  liquids  together  until  the 
mixture  becomes  sufficiently  cold  to  re- 
main homogeneous. 

Another  formula  in  which  stearine  is 
used  is  appended: 

II.— Wax 1  part 

Stearine 2  parts 

Linseed  oil 1  part 

Oil  of  turpentine. ...      6  parts 

Soap 1  part 

Water 10  parts 

Proceed  as  above. 

Carnauba  wax  is  often  used  by  manu- 
facturers of  such  dressings  instead  of 
beeswax,  as  it  is  harder  and  takes  a 
higher  polish.  These  dressings  are 
sometimes  colored  with  finely  ground 
yellow  ocher  or  burnt  umber.  If  the 
leather  be  badly  worn,  however,  it  is  best 
to  apply  a  stain  first,  and  afterwards  the 
waxy  dressing. 

Suitable  stains  are  made  by  boiling 
safflower  in  water,  and  annatto  is  also 
used  in  the  same  way,  the  two  being 
sometimes  mixed  together.  Oxalic  acid 
darkens  the  color  of  the  safflower.  Ani- 
line colors  would  also  doubtless  yield 
good  results  with  less  trouble  and  ex- 
pense. By  adding  finely  ground  lamp- 
black to  the  waxy  mixture  instead  of 
ocher,  it  would  answer  as  a  dressing  for 
black  leather. 

WATERPROOF  SHOE  DRESSINGS. 

I. — Caoutchouc 10  parts 

Petroleum 10  parts 

Carbon  disulphide.      10  parts 

Shellac 40  parts 

Lampblack 20  parts 

Oil  lavender 1  part 

Alcohol 200  parts 

Upon  the  caoutchouc  in  a  bottle  pour 
the  carbon  disulphide,  cork  well,  and  let 
stand  a  few  days,  or  until  the  caoutchouc 
has  become  thoroughly  gelatinized  or 
partly  dissolved.  Then  add  the  petro- 
leum, oil  of  lavender,  and  alcohol,  next 
the  shellac  in  fine  powder,  and  heat  it  to 
about  120°  F.,  taking  care  that  as  little  as 
possible  is  lost  by  evaporation.  When 
the  substances  are  all  dissolved  and  the 
liquid  is  tolerably  clear,  add  the  lamp- 


SHOE   DRESSINGS— SHOW   CASES 


635 


black,  mix    thoroughly,  and  fill  at  once 
into  small  bottles. 

II. — A  waterproof  blacking  which  will 
give  a  fine  polish  without  rubbing,  and 
will  not  injure  the  leather: 

Beeswax 18  parts 

Spermaceti 6  parts 

Turpentine  oil 66  parts 

Asphalt  varnish  ....      5  parts 
Powdered  borax.  ...      1  part 
Frankfort  black  ....      5  parts 

Prussian  blue 2  parts 

Nitro-benzol 1  part 

Melt  the  wax,  add  the  powdered  bor- 
ax and  stir  till  a  kind  of  jelly  has  formed. 
In  another  pan  melt  the  spermaceti,  add 
the  asphalt  varnish,  previously  mixed 
with  the  oil  of  turpentine,  stir  well,  and 
add  to  the  wax.  Lastly  add  the  color 
previously  rubbed  smooth  with  a  little 
of  the  mass.  The  nitro-benzol  gives  fra- 
grance. 

Waterproof  Varnish  for  Beach  Shoes. — 

Yellow.— 

Water 150  parts 

Borax 5  parts 

Glycerine 3  parts 

Spirit  of  ammonia. .  .        1  part 

White  shellac 25  parts 

Yellow  pigment,  water 

soluble 1  part 

Formalin,  a  few  drops. 

Orange. — 

Water 150      parts 

Borax 5      parts 

Glycerine 2      parts 

Spirit  of  ammonia.  . .  1      part 

Ruby  shellac 22      parts 

Orange,   water  solu- 
ble    1      part 

Brown 0.3  parts 

Formalin 0.1  part 

Pale  Brown. — 

Water 150        parts 

Borax 5        parts 

Glycerine 2*      parts 

Spirit  of  ammonia..  .        0.25  parts 

White  shellac 25        parts 

Yellow,    water   solu- 
ble          8        parts 

Orange 0.3     parts 

Formalin 0.1     part 

Stir  the  glycerine  and  the  spirit  of 
ammonia  together  in  a  special  vessel  be- 
fore putting  both  into  the  kettle.  It  is 
also  advisable,  before  the  water  boils,  to 
pour  a  little  of  the  nearly  boiling  water 
into  a  clean  vessel  and  to  dissolve  the 
colors  therein  with  good  stirring,  adding 
this  solution  to  the  kettle  after  the  shellac 
has  been  dissolved. 


White  Shoe  Dressing. — 

I. — Cream  of  tartar 3  ounces 

Oxalic  acid 1  ounce 

Alum 1  ounce 

Milk 3  pints 

Mix  and  rub  on  the  shoes.  When 
they  are  thoroughly  dry,  rub  them  with  a 
mixture  of  prepared  chalk  and  magne- 
sium carbonate. 

II.— Water 136  parts 

Fine  pipe  clay 454  parts 

Shellac,  bleached.  .    136  parts 
Borax,  powdered  .  .      68  parts 

Soft  soap 8  parts 

Ultramarine  blue.  .  5  parts 
Boil  the  shellac  in  the  water,  adding 
the  borax,  and  keeping  up  the  boiling 
until  a  perfect  solution  is  obtained,  then 
stir  in  the  soap  (5  or  6  parts  of  "ivory" 
soap,  shaved  up,  and  melted  with  2  or  3 
parts  of  water,  is  better  than  common 
soft  soap),  pipe  clay,  and  ultramarine. 
Finally  strain  through  a  hair-cloth  sieve. 
This  preparation,  it  is  said,  leaves  abso- 
lutely nothing  to  be  desired.  A  good 
deal  of  stiffness  may  be  imparted  to  the 
leather  by  it.  The  addition  of  a  little 
glycerine  would  remedy  this.  The  old 
application  should  be  wiped  away  before 
a  new  one  is  put  on.  This  preparation  is 
suitable  for  military  shoes,  gloves,  belts, 
and  uniforms  requiring  a  white  dressing. 


SHOES,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

SHIO  LIAO: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Cements. 

SHIP  COMPOSITIONS  AND  PAINTS: 
See  Paints. 

SHOW  BOTTLES  FOR  DRUGGISTS: 

See  Bottles. 

SHOW  CASES. 

Dents  in  show  cases  and  counters,  and, 
indeed,  almost  all  forms  of  "bruises"  on 
shop  and  other  furniture,  may  be  re- 
moved by  the  exercise  of  a  little  patience, 
and  proceeding  as  follows:  Sponge  the 
place  with  water  as  warm  as  can  be 
borne  by  the  hand.  Take  a  piece  of 
filtering  or  other  bibulous  paper  large 
enough  to  fold  6  or  8  times  and  yet  cover 
the  bruise,  wet  in  warm  water  and  place 
over  the  spot.  Take  a  warm  (not  hot) 
smoothing  iron  and  hold  it  on  the  paper 
until  the  moisture  is  evaporated  (re- 
newing its  heat,  if  necessary).  If  the 
bruise  does  not  yield  to  the  first  trial,  re- 
peat the  process,  A  dent  as  large  as  a 


636 


SICCATIVES 


dollar  and  \  inch  deep  in  the  center, 
in  black  walnut  of  tolerably  close  texture, 
was  brought  up  smooth  and  level  with 
the  surrounding  surface  by  two  applica- 
tions of  the  paper  and  iron  as  described. 
If  the  bruise  be  small,  a  sponge  dipped 
in  warm  water  placed  upon  it,  renewing 
the  warmth  from  time  to  time,  will  be 
all-sufficient.  When  the  dent  is  removed 
and  the  wood  dry,  the  polish  can  be  re- 
stored by  any  of  the  usual  processes.  If 
the  wood  was  originally  finished  in  oil, 
rub  with  a  little  boiled  linseed  cut  with 
acetic  acid  (oil,  8  parts;  acid,  1  part).  If 
it  was  "French  polished,"  apply  an  al- 
coholic solution  of  shellac,  and  let  dry; 
repeat  if  necessary,  and  when  completely 
dry  proceed  as  follows:  Rub  the  part 
covered  with  shellac,  first  with  crocus 
cloth  and  a  few  drops  of  olive  oil,  until 
the  ridges,  where  the  new  and  old  polish 
come  together,  disappear;  wipe  with  a 
slightly  greased  but  otherwise  clean  rag 
and  finish  with  putz  pomade. 

SHOW-CASE  SIGNS: 

See  Lettering. 

SHOW-CASES,    TO    PREVENT    DIM- 
MING OF: 

See  Glass. 

Siccatives 

The  oldest  drier  is  probably  litharge, 
a  reddish -yellow  powder,  consisting  of 
lead  and  oxygen.  Formerly  it  was 
ground  finely  in  oil,  either  pure  or  with 
admixture  of  white  vitriol  and  added  to 
the  dark  oil  paints.  Litharge  and  sugar 
of  lead  are  used  to-day  only  rarely  as 
drying  agents,  having  been  displaced  by 
the  liquid  manganese  siccatives,  which 
are  easy  to  handle.  E.  Ebelin,  however, 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  neglect  of  the 
lead  compounds  has  not  been  beneficial 
to  decorative  painting.  Where  these 
mediums  were  used  in  suitable  quantities 
hard-drying  coatings  were  almost  always 
obtained.  Ebelin  believes  that  formerly 
there  used  to  be  less  lamentation  on 
account  of  tacky  floors,  pews,  etc.,  than 
at  the  present  time. 

Doubtless  a  proposition  to  grind 
litharge  into  the  oil  again  will  not  be 
favorably  received,  although  some  old 
master  painters  have  by  no  means  dis- 
carded this  method. 

Sugar  of  lead  (lead  acetate)  is  likewise 
used  as  a  drier  for  oil  paint.  While  we 
may  presume  in  general  that  a  siccative 
acts  by  imparting  its  oxygen  to  the  lin- 
seed oil  or  else  prepares  the  linseed  oil  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  capable  of 
readily  absorbing  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 


it  is  especially  sugar  of  lead  which 
strengthens  us  in  this  belief.  If,  ac- 
cording to  Leuchs,  a  piece  of  charcoal  is 
saturated  with  lead  acetate,  the  charcoal 
can  be  ignited  even  with  a  burning 
sponge,  and  burns  entirely  to  ashes. 
(Whoever  desires  to  make  the  experi- 
ment should  take  2  to  3  parts,  by  weight, 
of  sugar  of  lead  per  100  parts  of  char- 
coal.) This  demonstrates  that  the  sugar 
of  lead  readily  parts  with  its  oxygen, 
which  though  not  burning  itself,  sup- 
ports the  combustion.  Hence,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  it  will  also  as  a  siccative 
freely  give  off  its  oxygen. 

Tormin  reports  on  a  siccative,  of 
which  he  says  that  it  has  been  found 
valuable  for  floor  coatings.  Its  produc- 
tion is  as  follows:  Pour  1  parrt  of  white 
lead  and  1|  parts  each  of  litharge,  sugar 
of  lead  and  red  lead  to  12J  parts  of  lin- 
seed oil,  and  allow  this  mixture  to  boil 
for  8  to  10  hours.  Then  remove  the 
kettle  from  the  fire  and  add  to  the  mix- 
ture 20  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine.  During 
the  boiling,  as  well  as  during  and  after 
the  pouring  in  of  the  oil  turpentine, 
diligent  stirring  is  necessary,  partly  to 
prevent  anything  from  sticking  to  the 
kettle  (which  would  render  the  drier  im- 
pure) and  partly  to  cause  the  liquid 
mass  to  cool  off  sooner.  After  that,  it  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  days,  whereby 
the  whole  will  clarify.  The  upper  layer 
is  then  poured  off  and  added  to  the  light 
tints,  while  the  sediment  may  be  used  for 
the  darker  shades. 

If  white  vitriol  (zinc  sulphate  or  zinc 
vitriol)  has  been  introduced  among  the 
drying  agents,  this  is  done  in  the  en- 
deavor to  create  a  non-coloring  admix- 
ture for  the  white  pigments  and  also  not 
to  be  compelled  to  add  lead  compounds, 
which,  as  experience  has  shown,  cause 
a  yellowing  of  white  coatings  to  zinc 
white.  For  ordinary  purposes,  Dr. 
Roller  recommends  to  add  to  the  linseed 
oil  2  per  cent  (by  weight)  of  litharge  and 
i  per  cent  of  zinc  vitriol,  whereupon  the 
mixture  is  freely  boiled.  If  the  white 
vitriol  is  to  be  added  in  powder  foim,  it 
must  be  deprived  of  its  constitutional 
water.  This  is  done  in  the  simplest 
manner  by  calcining.  The  powder,  which 
feels  moist,  is  subjected  to  the  action  of 
fire  on  a  sheet-iron  plate,  whereby  the 
white  vitriol  is  transformed  into  a  vesicu- 
lar, crumbly  mass.  At  one  time  it  was 
ground  in  oil  for  pure  zinc  white  coat- 
ings only,  while  for  the  other  pigments 
litharge  is  added  besides,  as  stated  above. 

As  regards  the  manganese  prepara- 
tions which  are  employed  for  siccatives, 
it  must  be  stated  that  they  do  not  possess 


SICCATIVES 


certain  disadvantages  of  the  lead  prepar- 
ations as,  for  instance,  that  of  being 
acted  upon  by  hydrogen  sulphide  gas. 
The  ordinary  brown  manganese  driers, 
however,  are  very  liable  to  render  the 
paint  yellowish,  which,  of  course,  is  not 
desirable  for  pure  white  coatings.  In 
case  of  too  large  an  addition  of  the  said 
siccative,  a  strong  subsequent  yellowing 
is  perceptible,  even  if,  for  instance,  zinc 
white  has  been  considerably  "  broken " 
by  blue  or  black.  But  there  are  also 
manganese  siccatives  or  drying  prepara- 
tions offered  for  sale  which  are  colorless' 
or  white,  and  therefore  may  unhesitatingly 
be  used  in  comparatively  large  quanti- 
ties for  white  coatings.  A  pulverulent 
drying  material  of  this  kind  consists, 
for  example,  of  equal  parts  of  calcined 
(i.  e.,  anhydrous)  manganese  vitriol,  man- 
ganous  acetate,  and  calcined  zinc  vitriol. 

Of  this  mixture  3  per  cent  is  added  to 
the  zinc  white.  Of  the  other  manganese 
compounds,  especially  that  containing 
most  oxygen,  viz.,  manganic  peroxide,  is 
extensively  employed.  This  body  is 
treated  as  follows:  It  is  first  coarsely 
powdered,  feebly  calcined,  and  sifted. 
Next,  the  substance  is  put  into  wire  gauze 
and  suspended  in  linseed  oil,  which 
should  be  boiled  slightly.  The  weight 
of  the  linseed  oil  should  be  10  times  that 
of  the  manganese  peroxide. 

According  to  another  recipe  a  pure 
pulverous  preparation  may  be  produced 
by  treating  the  manganic  peroxide  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  next  filtering,  precipi- 
tating with  hot  borax  solution,  allowing 
to  deposit,  washing  out  and  finally  dry- 
ing. Further  recipes  will  probably  be 
unnecessary,  since  the  painter  will  hardly 
prepare  his  own  driers. 

Unless  for  special  cases  driers  should 
be  used  but  sparingly.  As  a  rule  3  to  5 
per  cent  of  siccative  suffices;  in  other 
words,  3  to  5  pounds  of  siccative  should 
be  added  to  100  pounds  of  ground  oil 
paint  ready,  for  use.  As  a  standard  it 
may  be  proposed  to  endeavor  to  have 
the  coating  dry  in  24  hours.  For  lead 
colors  a  slight  addition  of  drier  is  ad- 
visable; for  red  lead,  it  may  be  omitted 
altogether.  Where  non-tacky  coatings 
are  desired,  as  for  floors,  chairs,  etc.,  as 
well  as  a  priming  for  wood  imitations, 
lead  color  should  always  be  employed 
as  foundation,  and  as  a  drier  also  a  lead 
preparation.  On  the  other  hand,  no 
lead  compounds  should  be  used  for  pure 
zinc- white  coats  and  white  lacquering. 

Testing  Siccatives. — Since  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  lead  and  manganese 
compounds  of  rosin  acids  had  a  better 


and  more  rapid  action  on  linseed  oil  than 
the  older  form  of  driers,  such  as  red 
lead,  litharge,  manganese  dioxide,  etc., 
the  number  of  preparations  of  the  former 
class  has  increased  enormously.  Man- 
ufacturers are  continually  at  work  en- 
deavoring to  improve  the  quality  of 
these  compounds,  and  to  obtain  a  prep- 
aration which  will  be  peculiarly  their 
own.  Consequently,  with  such  a  large 
variety  of  substances  to  deal  with,  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to 
distinguish  the  good  from  the  bad.  In 
addition  to  the  general  appearance,  color, 
hardness,  and  a  few  other  such  physical 
properties,  there  is  no  means  of  ascer- 
taining the  quality  of  these  substances 
except  practical  testing  of  their  drying 
properties,  that  is,  one  must  mix  the 
driers  with  oil  and  prove  their  value  for 
oneself.  Even  the  discovery  of  an  ap- 
parently satisfactory  variety  does  not  end 
the  matter,  for  experience  has  shown 
that  such  preparations,  even  when  they 
appear  the  same,  do  not  give  similar 
results.  A  great  deal  depends  upon 
their  preparation;  for  example,  manga- 
nese resinate  obtained  from  successive 
consignments,  and  containing  the  same 
percentage  of  manganese,  does  not  al- 
ways give  identical  results  with  oil.  In 
fact,  variation  is  the  greatest  drawback 
to  these  compounds.  With  one  prepar- 
ation the  oil  darkens,  with  another  it 
remains  pale,  or  sometimes  decomposi- 
tion of  the  oil  takes  place  in  part.  The 
addition  of  a  small  proportion  of  drier 
has  been  known  to  cause  the  separation 
of  50  per  cent  of  the  oil  as  a  dark  viscous 
mass.  One  drier  will  act  well,  ard  the 
oil  will  remain  thin,  while  with  another, 
the  same  oil  will  in  the  course  of  a  few 
months  thicken  to  the  consistency  of 
stand  oil.  These  various  actions  may  all 
be  obtained  from  the  same  compound  of 
rosin  with  a  metal,  the  source  only  of  the 
drier  varying. 

The  liquid  siccatives  derived  from 
these  compounds  by  solution  in  turpen- 
tine or  benzine  also  give  widely  divergent 
results.  Sometimes  a  slight  foot  will 
separate,  or  as  much  as  50  per  cent  may 
go  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  at  times 
the  whole  contents  of  the  pan  will  settle 
to  a  thick,  jelly-like  mass.  By  increas- 
ing the  temperature,  this  mass  will  be- 
come thin  and  clear  once  more,  and  dis- 
tillation will  drive  over  pure  unaltered 
turpentine  or  benzine,  leaving  behind 
the  metallic  compound  of  rosin  in  its 
original  state. 

The  compounds  of  metals  with  fatty 
acids  which,  in  solution  in  turpentine, 
have  been  used  for  many  years  by  var- 


638 


SICCATIVES 


nish-makers,  show  even  greater  variation. 
At  the  same  time,  a  greater  drying  power 
is  obtained  from  them  than  from  rosin 
acids,  quantities  being  equal.  As  these 
compounds  leave  the  factory,  they  are 
often  in  solution  in  linseed  oil  or  turpen- 
tine, and  undoubtedly  many  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  this  nature  on  the  market  are  of 
very  inferior  quality. 

The  examination  of  these  bodies  may 
be  set  about  in  two  ways: 

A. — By  dissolving  in  linseed  oil  with 
or  without  heat. 

B. — By  first  dissolving  the  drier  in 
turpentine  and  mixing  the  cooled  solu- 
tion (liquid  siccatives)  with  linseed  oil. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the 
method  of  carrying  out  the  foregoing 
tests,  it  is  necessary  to  emphasize  the 
important  part  which  the  linseed  oil 
plays  in  the  examination  of  the  driers. 
As  part  of  the  information  to  be  gained 
by  these  tests  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  solid  matter  which  separates  out,  it  is 
essential  that  the  linseed  oil  should  be 
uniform.  To  attain  this  end,  the  oil 
used  must  always  be  freed  from  muci- 
lage before  being  used  for  the  test.  If 
this  cannot  readily  be  obtained,  ordinary 
linseed  oil  should  be  heated  to  a  temper- 
ature of  from  518°  to  572°  F.,  so  that  it 
breaks,  and  should  then  be  cooled  and 
filtered.  With  the  ordinary  market 
linseed  oil,  the  amount  of  solid  matter 
which  separates  varies  within  wide 
limits,  so  that  if  this  were  not  removed, 
no  idea  of  the  separation  of  foot  caused 
by  the  driers  would  be  obtained.  It  is 
not  to  be  understood  from  this  that 
unbroken  linseed  oil  is  never  to  be  used 
for  ordinary  paint  or  varnish,  the  warn- 
ing being  only  given  for  the  sake  of  ar- 
riving at  reliable  values  for  the  quality  of 
the  driers  to  be  tested. 

A. — Solution  of  Drier  in  Linseed  Oil. 
— The  precipitated  metallic  compounds 
of  rosin  (lead  resinate,  manganese  res- 
in ate  and  lead  manganese  resinate)  dis- 
solve readily  in  linseed  oil  of  ordinary 
temperature  (60°  to  70°  F.).  The  oil  is 
mixed  with  1£  per  cent  of  the  drier  and 
subjected  to  stirring  or  shaking  for  24 
hours,  the  agitation  being  applied  at 
intervals  of  an  hour.  Fused  metallic  res- 
inates  are  not  soluble  in  linseed  oil  at  or- 
dinary temperatures,  so  different  treat- 
ment is  required  for  them.  The  oil  is 
heated  in  an  enameled  pan  together  with 
the  finely  powdered  drier,  until  the  latter 
is  completely  in  solution,  care  being 
taken  not  to  allow  the  temperature  to 
rise  above  390°  F.  The  pan  is  then  re- 
moved from  the  fire  and  its  contents 
allowed  to  settle.  The  quantity  of  drier 


used  should  not  exceed  1£  to  3  per  cent. 
In  the  case  of  metallic  linoleates  (lead 
linoleate,  manganese  linoleate  and  lead- 
manganese  linoleate),  the  temperature 
must  be  raised  above  290°  F.  before  they 
will  go  into  solution.  In  their  case  also 
the  addition  should  not  be  greater  than 
3  per  cent.  Note,  after  all  the  tests  have 
settled,  the  amount  of  undissolved 
matter  which  is  left  at  the  bottom,  as  this 
is  one  of  the  data  upon  which  an  idea  of 
the  value  of  the  drier  must  be  formed. 

B. — Solution  of  Drier  in  Turpentine 
or  Benzine. — For  the  preparation  of  these 
liquid  siccatives  1  to  1.4  parts  of  the 
metallic  resinate  or  linoleate  are  added 
to  the  benzine  or  turpentine  and  dis- 
solved at  a  gentle  heat,  or  the  drier  may 
first  be  melted  over  a  fire  and  added  to 
the  solvent  while  in  the  liquid  state. 
The  proportion  of  matter  which  does  not 
go  into  solution  must  be  carefully  noted 
as  a  factor  in  the  valuation  of  the  drier. 
From  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  liquid  sicca- 
tive is  now  added  to  the  linseed  oil,  and 
the  mixture  shaken  well,  at  intervals  dur- 
ing 24  hours. 

Samples  of  all  the  oils  prepared  as 
above  should  be  placed  in  small  clear 
bottles,  which  are  very  narrow  inside,  so 
that  a  thin  layer  of  the  oil  may  be  ob- 
served. The  bottles  are  allowed  to  stand 
for  3  or  4  days  in  a  temperate  room, 
without  being  touched.  When  sufficient 
time  has  been  allowed  for  thorough  set- 
tling, the  color,  transparency,  and  con- 
sistency of  the  samples  are  carefully  ob- 
served, and  also  the  quantity  and  nature 
of  any  precipitate  which  may  have 
settled  out.  A  note  should  also  be  made 
of  the  date  for  future  reference.  Natu- 
rally the  drier  which  has  colored  the  oil 
least  and  left  it  most  clean  and  thin,  and 
which  shows  the  smallest  precipitate,  is 
the  most  suitable  for  general  use.  The 
next  important  test  is  that  of  drying 
power,  and  is  carried  out  as  follows:  A 
few  drops  of  the  sample  are  placed  on  a 
clear,  clean  glass  plate,  4  x*6  inches,  and 
rubbed  evenly  over  with  the  fingers.  The 
plate  is  then  placed,  clean  side  up,  in  a 
sloping  position  with  the  upper  edge 
resting  against  a  wall.  In  this  way  any 
excess  of  oil  is  run  off  and  a  very  thin 
equal  layer  is  obtained.  It  is  best  to 
start  the  test  early  in  the  morning  as  it 
can  then  be  watched  throughout  the  day. 
It  should  be  remarked  that  the  time 
from  the  "tacky"  stage  to  complete  dry- 
ness  is  usually  very  short,  so  that  the  ob- 
server must  be  constantly  on  the  watch. 
If  a  good  drier  has  been  used,  the  time 
may  be  from  4  to  5  hours,  and  should  not 
be  more  than  12  or  at  the  very  highest 


SIGN   CLEANING— SILVER 


639 


15.  The  bleaching  of  the  layer  should 
also  be  noted.  Many  of  the  layers,  even 
after  they  have  become  as  dry  as  they 
seem  capable  of  becoming,  show  a  slight 
stickiness.  These  tests  should  be  set 
aside  in  a  dust-free  place  for  about  8 
days,  and  then  tested  with  the  finger. 


SIGN  LETTERS: 

To  Remove  Black  Letters  from  White 
Enameled  Signs. — It  frequently  hap- 
pens that  a  change  has  to  be  made  on 
such  signs,  one  name  having  to  be  taken 
off  and  another  substituted.  Priming 
with  white  lead  followed  by  dull  and 
glossy  zinc  white  paint  always  looks  like  a 
daub  and  stands  out  like  a  pad.  Lye, 
glass  paper  or  steel  chips  will  not  attack 
the  burned-in  metallic  enamel.  The 
quickest  plan  is  to  grind  down  carefully 
with  a  good  grindstone. 

SIGN -LETTER  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Cements. 

SIGNS,  TO  REPAIR  ENAMELED: 

See  Enamels. 

SILK: 

Artificial  "Rubbered"  Silk.— A  solu- 
tion of  caoutchouc  or  similar  gum  in 
acetone  is  added,  in  any  desired  propor- 
tion, to  a  solution  of  nitro-cellulose  in 
acetone,  and  the  mixture  is  made  into 
threads  by  passing  it  into  water  or  other 
suitable  liquid.  The  resulting  threads 
are  stated  to  be  very  brilliant  in  appear- 
ance, extremely  elastic,  and  very  resistant 
to  the  atmosphere  and  to  water.  The 
product  is  not  more  inflammable  than 
natural  silk. 

Artificial  Ageing  of  Silk  Fabrics.— To 
give  silk  goods  the  appearance  of  age, 
exposure  to  the  sun  is  the  simplest  way, 
but  as  this  requires  time  it  cannot  always 
be  employed.  A  quicker  method  con- 
sists in  preparing  a  dirty-greenish  liquor 
of  weak  soap  water,  with  addition  of  a 
little  blacking  and  gamboge  solution. 
Wash  the  silk  fabric  in  this  liquor  and 
dry  as  usual,  without  rinsing  in  clean 
water,  and  calender. 

Bleaching  Silk. — The  Lyons  process  of 
bleaching  skeins  of  silk  is  to  draw  them 
rapidly  through  a  sort  of  aqua  regia  bath. 
This  bath  is  prepared  by  mixing  5  parts 
of  hydrochloric  acid  with  I  of  nitric, 
leaving  the  mixture  for  4  or  5  days  at  a 
gentle  heat  of  about  77°  F.,  and  then 
diluting  with  about  15  times  its  volume 


of  water.  This  dilution  is  effected  in 
large  tanks  cut  from  stone.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  bath  should  be  from  68° 
.to  85°  F.,  and  the  skeins  should  not  be 
in  it  over  15  minutes,  and  frequently 
not  so  long  as  that;  they  must  be  kept  in 
motion  during  all  that  time.  When 
taken  out,  the  silk  is  immediately  im- 
mersed successively  in  2  troughs  of 
water,  to  remove  every  trace  of  the  acid, 
after  which  they  are  dried. 

Hydrogen  peroxide  is  used  as  a  silk 
bleach,  the  silk  being  first  thoroughly 
washed  with  an  alkaline  soap  and  ammo- 
nium carbonate  to  free  it  of  its  gummy 
matter.  After  repeated  washings  in  the 
peroxide  (preferably  rendered  alkaline 
with  ammonia  and  soda),  the  silk  is 
"blued"  with  a  solution  of  blue  aniline 
in  alcohol. 

Washing  of  Light  Silk  Goods. — The 
best  soap  may  change  delicate  tints. 
The  following  method  is  therefore  pref- 
erable: First  wash  the  silk  tissue  in  warm 
milk.  Prepare  a  light  bran  infusion, 
which  is  to  be  decanted,  and  after  resting 
for  a  time,  passed  over  the  fabric.  It  is 
then  rinsed  in  this  water,  almost  cold. 
It  is  moved  about  in  all  directions,  and 
afterwards  dried  on  a  napkin. 

SILK     SENSITIZERS     FOR     PHOTO- 
GRAPHIC   PURPOSES: 

See    Photography,    under    Paper-Sen- 
sitizing Processes. 

Silver 

Antique  Silver  (see  also  Plating). — Coat 
the  polished  silver  articles  with  a  thin 
paste  of  powdered  graphite,  6  parts;  pow- 
dered bloodstone,  1  part;  and  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. After  the  drying  take  off  the 
superfluous  powder  with  a  soft  brush  and 
rub  the  raised  portions  bright  with  a  linen 
rag  dipped  in  spirit.  By  treatment  with 
various  sulphides  an  old  appearance  is 
likewise  imparted  to  silver.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, a  solution  of  5  parts  of  liver  of  sul- 
phur and  10  parts  of  ammonium  carbonate 
are  heated  in  1  quart  of  distilled  water 
to  180°  F.,  placing  the  silver  articles 
therein,  the  latter  first  turn  pale  gray, 
then  dark  gray,  and  finally  assume  a 
deep  black-blue.  In  the  case  of  plated 
ware,  the  silvering  must  not  be  too  thin; 
in  the  case  of  thick  silver  plating  or  solid 
silver  1  quart  of  water  is  sufficient.  The 
colors  will  then  appear  more  quickly. 
If  the  coloring  is  spotted  or  otherwise 
imperfect  dip  the  objects  into  a  warm 
potassium  cyanide  solution,  whereby  the 
silver  sulphide  formed  is  immediately 


640 


SILVER 


dissolved.  The  bath  must  be  renewed 
after  a  while.  Silver  containing  much 
copper  is  subjected,  previous  to  the  col- 
oring, to  a  blanching  process,  which  is 
accomplished  in  a  boiling  solution  of  15 
parts  of  powdered  tartar  and  30  parts  of 
cooking  salt  in  2  pints  of  water.  Ob- 
jects which  are  to  be  mat  are  coated 
with  a  paste  of  potash  and  water  after 
the  blanching,  then  dry,  anneal,  cool  in 
water,  and  boil  again. 

Imitation  of  Antique  Silver. — Plated 
articles  may  be  colored  to  resemble  old 
objects  of  art  made  of  solid  silver.  For 
this  purpose  the  deep-lying  parts,  those 
not  exposed  to  friction,  are  provided  with 
a  blackish,  earthy  coating,  the  promi- 
nent parts  retaining  a  leaden  but  bright 
color.  The  process  is  simple.  A  thin  paste 
is  made  of  finely  powdered  graphite 
and  oil  of  turpentine  (a  little  blood- 
stone or  red  ocher  may  be  added,  to  imi- 
tate the  copper  tinge  in  articles  of  old 
silver)  and  spread  over  the  whole  of  the 
previously  plated  article.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  dry,  and  the  particles  not  ad- 
hering to  the  surface  removed  with  a  soft 
brush.  The  black  coating  should  then 
be  carefully  wiped  off  the  exposed  parts 
by  means  of  a  linen  rag  dipped  in  alco- 
hol. This  process  is  very  effective  in 
making  imitations  of  objects  of  antique 
art,  such  as  goblets,  candlesticks,  vessels 
of  every  description,  statues,  etc.  If  it 
is  desired  to  restore  the  original  bright- 
ness to  the  object,  this  can  be  done  by 
washing  with  caustic  soda  or  a  solution 
of  cyanide  of  potassium.  Benzine  can 
also  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Blanching  Silver.  —  I.  —  Mix  pow- 
dered charcoal,  3  parts,  and  calcined 
borax,  1  part,  and  stir  with  water  so  as 
to  make  a  homogeneous  paste.  Apply 
this  paste  on  the  pieces  to  be  blanched. 
Put  the  pieces  on  a  charcoal  fire,  taking 
care  to  cover  them  up  well;  when  they 
have  acquired  a  cherry  red,  withdraw 
them  from  the  fire  and  leave  to  cool  off. 
Next  place  them  in  a  hot  bath  composed 
of  9  parts  of  water  and  1  part  of  sul- 

Ehuric  acid,  without  causing  the  bath  to 
oil.      Leave  the  articles  in  for  about  1 
hour.      Remove    them,  .rinse    in    clean 
water,  and  dry. 

II. — If  the  coat  of  tarnish  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  silver  is  but  light  and  super- 
ficial, it  suffices  to  rub  the  piece  well 
with  green  soap  to  wash  it  thoroughly 
in  hot  water;  then  dry  it  in  hot  sawdust 
and  pass  it  through  alcohol,  finally  rub- 
bing with  a  fine  cloth  or  brush.  Should 
the  coat  resist  this  treatment,  brush 
with  Spanish  white,  then  wash,  dry,  and 


pass  through  alcohol.  The  employment 
of  Spanish  white  has  the  drawback  of 
shining  the  silver  if  the  application  is 
strong  and  prolonged.  If  the  oxidation 
has  withstood  these  means  and  if  it  is 
desired  to  impart  to  the  chain  the  hand- 
some mat  appearance  of  new  goods,  it 
should  be  annealed  in  charcoal  dust  and 
passed  through  vitriol,  but  this  operation, 
for  those  unused  to  it,  is  very  dangerous 
to  the  soldering  and  consequently  may 
spoil  the  piece. 

Coloring  Silver. — A  rich  gold  tint  may 
be  imparted  to  silver  articles  by  plung- 
ing them  into  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
saturated  with  iron  rust. 

Frosting  Polished  Silver. — Articles  of 
polished  silver  may  be  frosted  by  putting 
them  into  a  bath  of  nitric  acid  diluted 
with  an  equal  volume  of  distilled  water 
and  letting  them  remain  a  few  minutes. 
A  better  effect  may  be  given  by  dipping 
the  article  frequently  into  the  bath  until 
the  requisite  degree  of  frosting  has  been 
attained.  Then  rinse  and  place  for  a 
few  moments  in  a  strong  bath  of  potas- 
sium cyanide;  remove  and  rinse.  The 
fingers  must  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the 
article  during  either  process.  It  should 
be  held  with  wooden  forceps  or  clamps. 

Fulminating  Silver. — Dissolve  1  part 
of  fine  silver  in  10  parts  of  nitric  acid  of 
1.3G  specific  gravity  at  a  moderate  heat; 
pour  the  solution  into  20  parts  of  spirit 
of  wine  (85  to  90  per  cent)  and  heat  the 
liquid.  As  soon  as  the  mixture  begins 
to  boil,  it  is  removed  from  the  fire  and 
left  alone  until  cooled  off.  The  fulminic 
silver  crystallizes  on  cooling  in  very  fine 
needles  of  dazzling  whiteness,  which  are 
edulcorated  with  water  and  dried  care- 
fully in  the  air. 

Hollow  Silverware. — A  good  process 
for  making  hollow  figures  consists  in 
covering  models  of  the  figures,  made  of 
a  base  or  easily  soluble  metal,  with  a  thin 
and  uniform  coating  of  a  nobler  metal,  by 
means  of  the  electric  current  in  such  a 
way  that  this  coating  takes  approximate- 
ly the  shape  of  the  model,  the  latter  being 
then  removed  by  dissolving  it  with  acid. 
The  model  is  cast  from  zinc  in  one  or 
more  pieces,  a  well-chased  brass  mold 
being  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the 
separate  parts  are  then  soldered  together 
with  an  easily  fusible  solder.  The  figure 
is  then  covered  with  a  galvanized  coating 
of  silver,  copper,  or  other  metal.  Before 
receiving  the  coating  of  silver,  the  figure 
is  first  covered  with  a  thin  deposit  of 
copper,  the  silver  being  added  afterwards 
in  the  required  thickness.  But  in  order 


SILVER 


641 


that  the  deposit  of  silver  may  be  of  the 
same  thickness  throughout  (this  is  es- 
sential if  the  figure  is  to  keep  the  right 
shape),  silver  anodes,  so  constructed  and 
arranged  as  to  correspond  as  closely  as 
possible  to  the  outlines  of  the  figure, 
should  be  suspended  in  the  solution  of 
silver  and  cyanide  of  potassium  on  both 
sides  of  the  figure,  and  at  equal  distances 
from  it.  As  soon  as  the  deposit  is  suffi- 
ciently thick,  the  figure  is  removed  from 
the  bath,  washed,  and  put  into  a  bath  of 
dilute  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  till  the  zinc 
core  is  dissolved.  The  decomposition  of 
the  zinc  can  be  accelerated  by  adding  a 
pin  of  copper.  The  figure  now  requires 
only  boiling  in  soda  and  potassic  tartrate 
to  acquire  a  white  color.  If  the  figure  is 
to  be  made  of  copper,  the  zinc  model 
must  be  covered  first  with  a  thin  layer 
of  silver,  then  with  the  copper  coating, 
and  then  once  more  with  a  thin  layer 
of  silver,  so  that  while  the  zinc  is  being 
dissolved,  the  copper  may  be  protect- 
ed on  either  side  by  the  silver.  Similar 
precautions  must  be  taken  with  other 
metals,  regard  being  paid  to  their  pecu- 
liar properties.  Another  method  is  to 
cast  the  figures,  entire  or  in  separate 
parts,  out  of  some  easily  fusible  alloy  in 
chased  metal  molds.  The  separate  por- 
tions are  soldered  with  the  same  solder, 
and  the  figure  is  then  provided  with  a 
coating  of  copper,  silver,  etc.,  by  means 
of  the  galvanic  current.  It  is  then  placed 
in  boiling  water  or  steam,  and  the  inner 
alloys  melted  by  the  introduction  of  the 
water  or  steam  through  holes  bored  for 
this  purpose. 

Lustrous  Oxide  on  Silver  (see  also  Plat- 
ing and  Silver,  under  Polishes). — Some 
experience  is  necessary  to  reproduce  a 
handsome  black  luster.  Into  a  cup  filled 
with  water  throw  a  little  liver  of  sulphur 
and  mix  well.  Scratch  the  silver  article  as 
bright  as  possible  with  the  scratch  brush 
and  dip  into  the  warm  liquid.  Remove 
the  object  after  2  minutes  and  rinse  off 
in  water.  Then  scratch  it  up  again  and 
return  it  into  the  liquid.  The  process 
should  be  repeated  2  or  3  times,  whereby 
a  wonderful  glossy  black  is  obtained. 

Ornamental  Designs  on  Silver. — Select 
a  smooth  part  of  the  silver,  and  sketch  on 
it  a  monogram  or  any  other  design  with 
a  sharp  lead  pencil.  Place  the  article  in 
a  gold  solution,  with  the  battery  in  good 
working  order,  and  in  a  short  time  all  the 
parts  not  sketched  with  the  lead  pencil 
will  be  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold.  After 
cleaning  the  article  the  black  lead  is  easily 
removed  with  the  finger,  whereupon  the 


silver  ornament  is  disclosed.  A  gold  or- 
nament may  be  produced  by  reversing 
the  process. 

Separating  Silver  from  Platinum  Waste. 
— Cut  the  waste  into  small  pieces,  make 
red  hot  to  destroy  grease  and  organic 
substances,  and  dissolve  in  aqua  regia 
(hydrochloric  acid,  3  parts,  and  nitric 
acid,  1  part).  Platinum  and  all  other 
metals  combined  with  it  are  thus  dis- 
solved, while  silver  settles  on  the  bot- 
tom as  chloride  in  the  shape  of  a  gray, 
spongy  powder.  The  solution  is  then 
drawn  off  and  tested  by  oxalic  acid  for 
gold,  which  is  precipitated  as  a  fine  yel- 
lowish powder.  The  other  metals  re- 
main untouched  thereby.  The  plati- 
num still  present  in  the  solution  is  now 
obtained  by  a  gradual  addition  of  sal 
ammoniac  as  a  yellowish-gray  powder. 
These  different  precipitates  are  washed 
with  warm  water,  dried,  and  transformed 
into  the  metallic  state  by  suitable  fluxes. 
Platinum  filings,  however,  have  to  be 
previously  refined.  They  are  also  first 
annealed.  All  steel  or  iron  filings  are 
removed  with  a  magnet  and  the  rest  is 
dipped  into  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
and  heated  with  this  to  the  boiling  point. 
This  process  is  continued  as  long  as  an 
action  of  the  acid  is  noticeable.  The 
remaining  powder  is  pure  platinum. 
Hot  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  silver  with- 
out touching  the  platinum.  The  liquid 
used  for  the  separation  of  the  platinum  is 
now  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
water  and  the  silver  expelled  from  it  by 
means  of  a  saturated  cooking  salt  solu- 
tion. The  latter  is  added  gradually 
until  no  more  action,  j.  e.,  separation,  is 
perceptible.  The  liquid  is  carefully 
drawn  off,  the  residue  washed  in  warm 
water,  dried  and  melted  with  a  little 
soda  ashes  as  flux,  which  yields  pure  me- 
tallic silver. 

The  old  process  for  separating  silver 
from  waste  was  as  follows:  The  refuse 
was  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
charcoal,  placed  in  a  crucible,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  bright-red  heat,  and  in  a  short 
time  a  silver  button  formed  at  the  bot- 
tom. Carbonate  of  soda  is  another  eood 
flux. 

Silvering  Glass  Globes. — Take  ^  ounce 
of  clean  lead,  and  melt  it  with  an  equal 
weight  of  pure  tin;  then  immediately 
add  \  ounce  of  bismuth,  and  carefully 
skim  off  the  dross;  remove  the  alloy 
from  the  fire  and  before  it  grows  cold  add 
5  ounces  of  mercury,  and  stir  the  whole 
well  together;  then  put  the  fluid  amal- 
gam into  a  clean  glass,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 
When  this  amalgam  is  used  for  silvering 


642 


SILVER 


let  it  be  first  strained  through  a  linen  rag; 
then  gently  pour  some  ounces  thereof 
into  the  globe  intended  to  be  silvered; 
the  alloy  should  be  poured  into  the  globe 
by  means  of  a  paper  or  glass  fu'nnel 
reaching  almost  to  the  bottom  of  the 
globe,  to  prevent  it  splashing  the  sides; 
the  globe  should  be  turned  every  way 
very  slowly,  to  fasten  the  silvering. 

Silvering  Powder  for  Metals. — Cop- 
per, brass,  and  some  other  metals  may  be 
silvered  by  rubbing  well  with  the  follow- 
ing powder:  Potassium  cyanide,  12 
parts;  silver  nitrate,  6  parts;  calcium 
carbonate,  30  parts.  Mix  and  keep  in  a 
well-closed  bottle.  It  must  be  applied 
with  hard  rubbing,  the  bright  surface 
being  afterwards  rinsed  with  water,  dried, 
and  polished.  Great  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised in  the  use  of  the  powder  on 
account  of  its  poisonous  nature.  It 
should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  hands. 

Silver  Testing. — For  this  purpose  a 
cold  saturated  solution  of  potassium 
bichromate  in  pure  nitric  acid  of  1.2 
specific  gravity  is  employed.  After  the 
article  to  be  tested  has  been  treated  with 
spirit  of  wine  for  the  removal  of  any 
varnish  coating  which  might  be  present, 
a  drop  of  the  above  test  liquor  is  applied 
by  means  of  a  glass  rod  and  the  resultant 
spot  rubbed  off  with  a  little  water. 

A  testing  solution  of  potassium  bi- 
chromate, 1  ounce,  pure  nitric  acid,  6 
ounces,  and  water,  2  ounces,  gives  the 
following  results  on  surfaces  of  the 
metals  named: 


Metal. 

Color  in  one 
minute. 

Color  of  mark 
left. 

Pure  silver 
.925  silver 

Bright  blood-red 
Dark  red 

Grayish  white 
Dark  brown 

.800  silver 

Chocolate 

Dark  brown 

.500  silver 

Green 

Dark  brown 

German  silver 
Nickel 
Copper 
Brass 

Dark  blue 
Turquoise  blue 
Very  dark  blue 
Dark  brown 

Light  gray 
Scarcely  any 
Cleaned  copper 
Light  brown 

Lead 

Nut  brown 

Leaden 

Tin 

Reddish  brown 

Dark 

Zinc 

Light  chocolate 

Steel  gray 

Aluminum 

Yellow 

No  stain 

Platinum 

Vandyke  brown 

No  stain 

Iron 

Various 

Black 

9-carat  gold 

Unchanged 

No  stain 

The  second  column  in  the  table  shows 
such  change  of  color  as  the  liquid — not 
the  metal — undergoes  during  its  action 
for  the  period  of  1  minute.  The  test 
liquid  being  then  washed  off  with  cold 
water,  the  third  column  shows  the  nature 
of  the  stain  that  is  left. 


In  the  case  of  faintly  silvered  goods, 
such  as  buttons,  this  test  fails,  since  the 
slight  quantity  of  resulting  silver  chro- 
mate  does  not  become  visible  or  dis- 
solves in  the  nitric  acid  present.  But 
even  such  a  thin  coat  of  silver  can  be 
recognized  with  the  above  test  liquor,  if 
the  bichromate  solution  is  used,  diluted 
with  the  equal  volume  of  water,  or  if  a 
small  drop  of  water  is  first  put  on  the  ar- 
ticle and  afterwards  a  little  drop  of  the 
undiluted  solution  is  applied  by  means 
of  a  capillary  tube.  In  this  manner  a 
distinct  red  spot  was  obtained  in  the  case 
of  very  slight  silvering. 

A  simpler  method  is  as  follows:  Rub 
the  piece  to  be  tested  on  the  touchstone 
and  moisten  the  mark  with  nitric  acid, 
whereupon  it  disappears.  Add  a  little 
hydrochloric  acid  with  a  glass  rod.  If 
a  white  turbidness  (silver  chloride)  ap- 
pears which  does  not  vanish  upon  addi- 
tion of  water,  or,  in  case  of  faint  silvering 
or  an  alloy  poor  in  silver,  a  weak  opal- 
escence,  the  presence  of  silver  is  certain. 
Even  alloys  containing  very  little  silver 
give  this  reaction  quite  distinctly. 

Pink  Color  on  Silver. — To  produce  a 
beautiful  pink  color  upon  silver,  dip  the 
clean  article  for  a  few  seconds  into  a  hot 
and  strong  solution  of  cupric  chloride, 
swill  it  in  water  and  then  ary  it  or  dip  it 
into  spirit  of  wine  and  ignite  the  spirit. 


SILVER,  IMITATION: 

See  Alloys. 

SILVERING: 
See  Plating. 

SILVERING  OF  MIRRORS: 

See  Mirrors. 

SILVERING,  TEST  FOR: 

See  Plating. 

SILVER  FOIL  SUBSTITUTE: 
See  Metal  Foil. 

SILVER    NITRATE    SPOTS,    TO    RE- 
MOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SILVER-PLATING : 

See  Plating. 

SILVER,     RECOVERY     OF     PHOTO- 
GRAPHIC: 

See  Photography. 

SILVER  SOLDERS: 

See  Solders. 


SLATE— SNAKE   BITES 


643 


SILVER,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SILVER,  TO  RECOVER  GOLD  FROM: 

See  Gold. 

SILVERWARE  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

SIMILOR: 

See  Alloys. 

SINEWS,  TREATMENT  OF,  IN  MANU- 
FACTURING GLUE: 

See  Adhesives. 

SYRUP   (RASPBERRY): 

See  Raspberry. 

SYRUPS: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

SIZING: 

See  Adhesives. 

SIZING  WALLS  FOR  KALSOMINE: 
See  Kalsomine. 

SKIN-CLEANING  PREPARATIONS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SKIN  OINTMENTS: 
See  Ointments. 

SKIN  FOODS: 
See  Cosmetics. 

SKIN  TROUBLES: 
See  Soap. 


SLATE: 

Artificial  Slate.— The  artificial  slate 
coating  on  tin  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
finely  ground  slate,  lampblack,  and  a 
water-glass  solution  of  equal  parts  of 
potash  and  soda  water  glass  (1.25  specific 
gravity).  The  process  is  as  follows: 

I. — First  prepare  the  water-glass  solu- 
tion by  finely  crushing  equal  parts  of 
solid  potash  ?,nd  soda  water  glass  and 
pouring  over  this  6  to  8  times  the  quan- 
tity of  soft  river  water,  which  is  kept 
boiling  about  1J  hours,  whereby  the 
water  glass  is  completely  dissolved.  Add 
7  parts  finely  crushed  slate  finely  ground 
with  a  little  water  into  impalpable  dust, 
1  part  lampblack,  which  is  ground  with 
it,  and  grind  enough  of  tliis  mass  with 
the  previously  prepared  water-glass  solu- 
tion as  is  necessary  for  n  thick  or  thin 
coating.  With  this  compound  the  rough- 
ened tin  plates  are  painted  as  uniformly 
as  possible.  For  roofing,  zinc  plate  may 


be  colored  in  the  same  manner.  The 
coating  protects  the  zinc  from  oxidation 
and  consequently  from  destruction.  For 


painting  zinc  plate,  however,  only  pure 

[•  glass  must  be  added  to 
mixture,   as  the   paint  would  loosen  or 


peel  off  from  the  zinc  if  soda  water  glass 
were  used. 

II.— Good  heavy  paper  or  other  sub- 
stance is  saturated  with  linseed-oil  varnish 
and  then  painted,  several  coats,  one 
after  another  with  the  following  mixture: 

Copal  varnish 1  part 

Oil  of  turpentine 2  parts 

Fine,  dry  sand,  pow- 
dered        1  part 

Powdered  glass 1  part 

Ground  slate 2  parts 

Lampblack 1  part 

SLIDES  FOR  LANTERNS: 

See  Photography. 

SLUGS  ON  ROSES: 

See  Insecticides. 

SMARAGDINE: 

See  Alcohol  (Solid). 

SMUT, TREATMENT  FOR: 
See  Grain. 

SNAKE  BITES. 

About  25  years  ago,  Dr.  S.  Weir 
Mitchell  and  Dr.  Reichert  published 
results  of  their  investigations  of  snake 
venom  which  indicated  that  permanga- 
nate of  potassium  may  prove  of  material 
value  as  an  antidote  to  this  lethal  sub- 
stance. Since  that  time  permanganate 
has  been  largely  used  all  over  the  world 
as  a  remedy  when  men  and  animals  were 
bitten  by  poisonous  snakes,  and  Sir 
Lauder  Brunton  devised  an  instrument 
by  means  of  which  the  permanganate 
may  be  readily  carried  in  the  pocket,  and 
immediately  injected  into,  or  into  the 
neighborhood  of,  the  wound.  Captain 
Rodgers,  of  the  Indian  Medical  Service, 
recently  reported  several  cases  treated  by 
this  method,  the  wounds  being  due  to 
the  bites  of  the  cobra.  After  making 
free  crucial  incisions  of  the  bitten  part, 
the  wound  was  thoroughly  flushed  with 
a  hot  solution  of  permanganate  of  po- 
tassium, and  then  bandaged.  Recovery 
occurred  in  each  instance,  although  the 
cauterant  action  of  the  hot  solution  of 
permanganate  of  potassium  delayed  heal- 
ing so  long  that  the  part  was  not  well 
for  about  3  weeks.  About  12  or  13  years 
ago,  Dr.  Amos  Barber,  of  Cheyenne, 
Wyoming,  reported  cases  in  which  ex- 
cellent results  had  followed  this  method 
of  treatment. " 


644 


SOAPS 


Soaps 

(See  also  Cleaning  Compounds  and 
Polishes.) 

ANTISEPTIC  SOAP. 

I. —  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  incorporate  antiseptics  and  cosmetics 
with  soap,  but  for  the  most  part  unsuc- 
cessfully, owing  to  the  unfavorable  ac- 
tion of  the  added  components,  a  good 
instance  of  this  kind  being  sodium  perox- 
ide, which,  though  a  powerful  antiseptic, 
soon  decomposes  in  ihe  soap  and  loses 
its  properties,  while  the  caustic  character 
of  the  oxide  renders  its  use  precarious, 
even  when  the  soap  is  fresh,  unless  great 
care  is  taken.  However,  according  to  a 
German  patent,  zinc  peroxide  is  free 
from  these  defects,  since  it  retains  its 
stability  and  has  no  corrosive  action  on 
the  skin,  while  possessing  powerful  anti- 
septic and  cosmetic  properties,  and  has  a 
direct  curative  influence  when  s-pplied  to 
cuts  or  wounds. 

II. — The  soap  is  prepared  by  melting 
80  parts  of  household  soap  in  a  jack- 
etea  pan,  and  gradually  adding  20  parts 
of  moist  zinc  peroxide  (50  per  cent 
strength),  the  whole  being  kept  well 
stirred  all  the  time.  The  finished  mix- 
ture will  be  about  as  stiff  as  dough,  and 
is  easily  shaped  into  tablets  of  conven- 
ient size. 

III. — Take  50  parts,  by  weight,  of 
caustic  soda  of  70  per  cent,  and  free  from 
carbonic  acid,  if  possible;  200  parts,  by 
weight,  of  sweet  almond  oil;  160  parts,  by 
weight,  of  glycerine  of  30°  Be.;  and  suf- 
ficient distilled  water  to  make  up  1,000 
parts  by  weight.  First,  dissolve  the 
alkali  in  double  its  weight  of  water,  then 
add  the  glycerine  and  oil  and  stir  together. 
Afterwards,  add  the  remainder  of  the 
water  and  keep  the  whole  on  the  water 
bath  at  a  temperature  of  140°  to  158°  F., 
for  24  to  36  hours;  remove  the  oil  not 
saponified,  which  gives  a  gelatinous  mass. 
Mix  900  parts,  by  weight,  of  it  with  70 
parts,  by  weight,  of  90  per  cent  alcohol 
and  10  parts,  by  weight,  of  lemon  oil, 
and  as  much  of  the  oil  of  bergamot  and 
the  oil  of  vervain.  Heat  for  some  hours 
at  140°  F.,  then  allow  to  cool  and  filter 
on  wadding  to  eliminate  the  needles  of 
stearate  of  potash.  The  liquid  after 
filtering  remains  clear. 

Carpet  Soap. — 

Fuller's  earth 4  ounces 

Spirits  of  turpentine.  .      1  ounce 

Pearlash 8  ounces 

Rub  smooth  and  make  into  a  stiff 
paste  with  a  sufficiency  of  soft  soap. 


To  Cut  Castile  Soap. — A  thin  spatula 
must  be  used.  To  cut  straight,  a 
trough  with  open  ends  made  with  |-inch 
boards  should  be  taken,  the  inside 
dimensions  being  2£  inches  wide,  3f 
inches  deep,  and  about  14  inches  long. 
Near  the  end  a  perpendicular  slit  is 
sawed  through  the  side  pieces.  Passing 
the  spatula  down  through  this  slit  the 
bar  is  cut  neatly  and  straight.  For 
trimming  off  the  corners  a  carpenter's 
small  iron  plane  works  well. 

COLORING  SOAP. 

The  first  point  to  be  observed  is  to 
select  the  proper  shade  of  flower  cor- 
responding with  the  perfume  used,  for 
instance,  an  almond  soap  is  left  white; 
rose  soap  is  colored  pink  or  red;  mi- 
gnonette, green,  etc. 

The  colors  from  which  the  soapmaker 
may  select  are  numerous;  not  only  are 
most  of  the  coal-tar  colors  adapted  for 
his  purpose,  but  also  a  very  great  number 
of  mineral  colors.  Until  recently,  the 
latter  were  almost  exclusively  employed, 
but  the  great  advance  in  the  tar-color 
industry  has  brought  about  a  change.  A 
prominent  advantage  of  the  mineral 
colors  is  their  stability;  they  are  not 
changed  or  in  any  way  affected  by  ex- 
posure to  light.  This  advantage,  how- 
ever, is  offset  in  many  cases  by  the  more 
difficult  method  of  application,  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  uniform  shades.  The 
coal-tar  colors  give  brilliant  shades  and 
tints,  are  easy  to  use,  and  produce  uni- 
form' tints.  The  specific  gravity  of 
mineral  colors  being  rather  high,  in  most 
cases  they  will  naturally  tend  to  settle 
toward  the  bottom  of  soap,  and  their  use 
necessitates  crutchiiig  of  the  soap  until  it 
is  too  thick  to  allow  the  color  to  settle. 
For  mottled  soap,  however,  vermilion, 
red  oxide,  and  ultramarine  are  still 
largely  employed. 

For  transparent  soap  mineral  colors 
are  not  applicable,  as  they  would  detract 
from  their  transparency;  for  milled  toilet 
soap,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  very 
well  adapted,  as  also  for  cold-made  soaps 
which  require  crutching  anyway  until  a 
sufficient  consistency  is  obtained  to  keep 
the  coloring  material  suspended. 

A  notable  disadvantage  in  the  use  of 
aniline  colors,  besides  their  sensitiveness 
to  the  action  of  light,  is  the  fact  thatmany 
of  them  are  affected  and  partly  destroyed 
by  the  action  of  alkali.  A  fev/  of  them  are 
proof  against  a  small  excess  of  lye,  and 
these  may  be  used  with  good  effect.  Cer- 
tain firms  have  made  a  specialty  of  manu- 
facturing colors  answering  the  peculiar 
requirements  of  soap,  being  very  easy  of 


SOAPS 


645 


application,  as  they  are  simply  dissolved 
in  boiling  water  and  the  solution  stirred 
into  the  soap.  To  some  colors  a  little 
weak  lye  is  added;  others  are  mixed  with 
a  little  oil  before  they  are  added  to  the 
soap. 

For  a  soluble  red  color  there  were 
formerly  used  alkanet  and  cochineal;  at 
present  these  have  been  displaced  to  a 
great  extent,  on  account  of  their  high 
cost,  by  magenta,  which  is  very  cheap 
and  of  remarkable  beauty.  A  very 
small  amount  suffices  for  an  intense 
color,  nor  is  a  large  proportion  desirable, 
as  the  soap  would  then  stain.  Delicate 
tints  are  also  produced  by  the  eosine 
colors,  of  which  rose  bengal,  phloxine, 
rhodamine,  and  eosine  are  most  com- 
monly used.  These  colors,  when  dis- 
solved, have  a  brilliant  fluorescence  which 
heightens  their  beautiful  effect. 

The  following  minerals,  after  being 
ground  and  washed  several  times  in 
boiling  water,  will  produce  the  colors 
stated: 

Hematite  produces  deep  red. 

Purple  oxide  iron  produces  purple. 

Oxide  of  manganese  produces  brown. 

Yellow  ocher  produces  yellow. 

Yellow  ocher  calcined  produces  orange. 

Umber  produces  fawn. 

Cinnabar  produces  medium  red. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  the  azo 
dyes,  which  are  suitable  for  soaps,  and 
these,  as  well  as  the  eosine  colors,  are 
used  principally  for  transparent  soaps. 
For  opaque  soaps  both  aniline  and 
mineral  reds  are  used,  among  the  latter 
being  vermilion,  chrome  red,  and  iron 
oxide.  Chrome  red  is  a  basic  chromate 
of  lead,  which  is  now  much  used  in  place 
of  vermilion,  but,  as  it  becomes  black  on 
exposure  to  an  atmosphere  containing 
even  traces  only  of  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen, it  is  not  essentially  adapted  for  soap. 
Vermilion  gives  a  bright  color,  but  its 
price  is  high.  Iron  oxide,  known  in  the 
trade  as  colcothar,  rouge,  etc.,  is  used 
for  cheap  soaps  only. 

Among  the  natural  colors  for  yellow 
are  saffron,  gamboge,  turmeric,  and 
caramel  (sugar  color) ;  the  first  named  of 
these  is  now  hardly  used,  owing  to  its 
high  cost.  Of  the  yellow  aniline  colors 
special  mention  must  be  made  of  picric 
acid  (trinitrophenol),  martius  yellow, 
naphthol  yellow,  acid  yellow,  and  aura- 
mine.  If  an  orange  tint  is  wanted,  a 
trace  of  magenta  or  safranine  may  be 
added  to  the  yellow  colors  named.  The 
use  of  some  unbleached  palm  oil  with 
the  stock  answers  a  similar  purpose,  but 
the  color  fades  on  exposure.  A  mineral 
yellow  is  chrome  yellow  (chromate  of 


lead),  which  has  the  same  advantages 
and  disadvantages  as  chrome  red. 

Of  the  blue  aniline  colors,  there  may 
be  used  alkali  blue,  patent  blue,  and 
indigo  extract.  Alkali  or  aniline  blue  is 
soluble  only  in  alkaline  liquids;  while 
patent  blue  is  soluble  in  water  and  in 
alcohol.  Both  blues  can  be  had  in 
different  brands,  producing  from  green 
blues  to  violet  blues.  Indigo  extract, 
which  should  be  classed  among  the 
natural  colors  rather  than  among  the  tar 
colors,  is  added  to  the  soap  in  aqueous 
solution. 

Of  ultramarine  there  are  two  modifica- 
tions, the  sulphate  and  the  soda.  Both 
of  these  are  proof  against  the  action  of 
alkali,  but  are  decomposed  by  acids  or 
salts  having  an  acid  reaction.  The 
former  is  much  paler  than  the  latter;  the 
soda  ultramarine  is  best  adapted  for 
coloring  soda  soaps  blue.  The  ultra- 
marine is  added  to  the  soap  in  the  form 
of  a  fine  powder.  Smalt  is  unsuitable, 
although  it  gives  soap  a  color  of  won- 
derful beauty  because  a  considerable 
quantity  of  it  is  required  to  produce  a 
deep  color,  and,  furthermore,  it  makes 
the  soap  rough,  owing  to  the  gritty 
nature  which  smalt  has  even  when  in  the 
finest  powder.  By  mixing  the  blue  and 
yellow  colors  named,  a  great  variety  of 
greens  are  obtained.  Both  component 
colors  must  be  entirely  free  from  any 
reddish  tint,  for  the  latter  would  cause 
the  mixture  to  form  a  dirty-green  color. 

Of  the  colors  producing  green  directly 
the  two  tar  colors,  Victoria  and  brilliant 
green,  are  to  be  noted;  these  give  a  bright 
color,  but  fade  rapidly;  thereby  the  soap 
acquires  an  unsigntly  appearance.  For 
opaque  soap  of  the  better  grades,  green 
ultramarine  or  chrome  green  are  used. 
Gray  and  black  are  produced  by  lamp- 
black. For  brown,  there  is  Bismarck 
brown  among  the  aniline  colors  and 
umber  among  the  earthy  pigments. 

Garment -Cleaning  Soap. — The  follow- 
ing is  excellent: 

I. — White  soap,   rasped 

or  shaved 12  parts 

Ammonia  water.  ...      3  parts 
Boiling  water 18  parts 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  and 
when  it  cools  down  somewhat,  add  to 
the  solution  the  ammonia  water.  Pour 
the  solution  into  a  flask  of  sufficient 
capacity  (or  holding  about  three  times 
as  much  as  the  mixture)  and  add  enough 
water  to  fill  it  about  three-quarters  full. 
Shake  and  add,  a  little  at  a  time,  under 
active  agitation,  enough  benzine  to  make 
100  parts.  This  constitutes  the  stock 


646 


SOAPS 


bottle.  To  make  up  the  mass  or  paste 
put  a  teaspoonful  in  an  8-ounce  bottle 
and  add,  a  little  at  a  time,  with  constant 
agitation,  benzine  to  about  fill  the  bot- 
tle. This  preparation  is  a  rapid  cleaner 
and  does  not  injure  the  most  delicate 
colors. 

II. — Good    bar    soap, 

shaved  up 165  parts 

Ammonia  water.  .        45  parts 

Benzine 190  parts 

Water      sufficient 

to  make 1,000  parts 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  600  parts  of  water 
by  heating  on  the  water  bath,  remove, 
and  add  the  ammonia  under  constant 
stirring.  Finally  add  the  benzine,  and 
stir  until  homogeneous,  and  quite  cold. 
The  directions  to  go  with  this  paste  are: 
Rub  the  soap  well  into  the  spot  and  lay 
the  garment  aside  for  a  half  hour. 
Then  using  a  stiff  brush,  rub  with  warm 
water  and  rinse.  This  is  especially  use- 
ful in  spots  made  by  rosins,  oils,  grease, 
etc.  Snould  the  spot  be  only  partially 
removed  by  the  first  application,  repeat. 

Glycerine  Soaps. — Dr.  Sarg's  liquid 
glycerine  soap  consists  of4  334  parts  of 
potash  soda  soap,  and  666  parts  of  glyc- 
erine free  from  lime,  the  mixture  being 
scented  with  Turkish  rose  oil  and  orange 
blossom  oil  in  equal  proportions,  the 
actual  amount  usea  being  varied  accord- 
ing to  taste.  The  soap  should  be  per- 
fectly free  from  alkali;  but  as  this  is  a 
condition  difficult  of  attainment  in  the 
case  of  ordinary  potash  soaps,  it  is  pre- 
supposed that  the  soap  used  has  been 
salted  out  with  potassium  chloride,  this 
being  the  only  way  to  obtain  a  soap  free 
from  alkali. 

Another  variety  of  liquid  glycerine 
soap  is  prepared  from  purified  medicinal 
soft  soap,  300  parts;  glycerine  free  from 
lime,  300  parts;  white  sugar  syrup,  300 
parts;  doubly  rectified  spirit  (96  per  cent), 
300  parts.  The  mixture  is  scented  with 
oil  of  cinnamon,  1  part;  oil  of  sassafras, 
2  parts;  oil  of  citronella,  £  part;  oil  of 
wintergreen,  1  part;  African  geranium 
oil,  1  part;  clove  oil,  £  part;  oil  of  berga- 
mot,  3  parts;  pure  tincture  of  musk,  £ 
part.  These  oils  are  dissolved  in  spirit, 
and  shaken  up  with  the  other  ingredi- 
ents; then  left  for  8  days  with  frequent 
shaking,  and  3  days  in  absolute  quiet, 
after  which  the  whole  is  filtered,  and  is 
then  ready  for  packing. 

Iodine  Soaps. — In  British  hospitals, 
preference  is  given  to  oleic  acid  over  al- 
coholic preparations  for  iodine  soaps,  as 
t  he  former  do  not  stain  and  can  be  washed 


off  with  soap  and  water.     The  following 
formula  is  given: 

I. — Iodine 1  av.  ounce 

Oleic  acid 1  fluidounce 

Alcohol 6  fluidrachms 

Stronger  water  of 

ammonia 2  fluidrachms 

This  makes  a  soapy  paste  soluble  in  all 
liquids,  except  fixed  oils. 

II. — Iodine 1  av.  ounce 

Oleic  acid 2  fluidounces 

Stronger  water  of 

ammonia 3  fluidrachms 

Paraffine  oil,  col- 
orless, to  make    20  fluidounces 

III. — Iodine 1  av.  ounce 

Alcohol 5  fluidounces 

Solution     of     am- 
monium oleate.      1  fluidounce 
Glycerine  to  make  20  fluidounces 
The  solution  of  ammonium  oleate  is 
made  from  oleic  acid  and  spirit  of  am- 
monia. 

Liquid  Soaps.  —  Liquid  soaps,  or,  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  soap  essences, 
are  made  from  pure  olive-oil  soap  by 
dissolving  it  in  alcohol  and  adding  some 
potassium  carbonate.  Tallow  or  lard 
soaps  cannot  be  used,  as  they  will  not 
make  a  transparent  preparation.  The 
soap  is  finely  snaved  and  placed  with  the 
alcohol  and  potassium  carbonate  in  a 
vessel  over  a  water  bath,  the  temperature 
slowly  and  gradually  raised,  while  the 
mixture  is  kept  in  constant  agitation  by 
stirring.  The  soap  should  be  of  a  pure 
white  color  and  the  alcohol  gives  the  best 
product  when  it  is  about  80  per  cent 
strength.  After  about  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  to  one  hour,  solution  will  be 
complete  and  a  perfectly  transparent 
article  obtained.  This  can  be  scented 
as  desired  by  adding  the  proper  essen- 
tial oil  as  soon  as  the  mixture  is  removed 
from  the  water  bath. 

If  an  antiseptic  soap  is  wanted  the  ad- 
dition of  a  small  amount  of  benzoic  acid, 
formaldehyde,  or  corrosive  sublimate 
will  give  the  desired  product.  Liquid 
soaps  should  contain  from  20  to  40  per 
cent  of  genuine  white  castile  soap  and 
about  2  to  2J  per  cent  of  potassium  car- 
bonate. 

This  is  a  common  formula: 

By  weight 
I. — Olive  or  cottonseed 

oil 60  parts 

Caustic    potash,    U. 

S.  P 15  parts 

Alcohol    and    water, 

sufficient  of  each. 


SOAPS 


647 


Dissolve  the  potash  in  1  ounce  of 
water,  heat  the  oil  on  a  water  bath, 
add  the  solution  of  potash  previously 
warmed,  and  stir  briskly.  Continue  the 
heat  until  saponification  is  complete.  If 
oil  globules  separate  out  and  refuse  to 
saponify,  the  potash  is  not  of  proper 
strength,  and  more  must  be  added — 1  or 
2  parts  dissolved  in  water.  If  desired 
transparent  add  a  little  alcohol,  and  con- 
tinue the  heat  without  stirring  until  a 
drop  placed  in  cold  water  first  solidifies 
and  then  dissolves. 

Commercial  potash  may  be  used,  but 
the  strength  must  be  ascertained  and  ad- 
justed by  experiment.  The  soap  thus 
made  will  be  like  jelly;  it  is  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  4  to  6  ounces  of  soap  to  2  of 
alcohol,  and  after  standing  a  day  or  two 
is  filtered  and  perfumed  as  desired.  A 
rancid  oil  would  be  easier  to  saponify, 
but  the  soap  would  likely  be  rancid  or 
not  as  good. 

II. — Ammonium  sulphoichthyolate,  10 
parts;  distilled  water,  15  parts;  hebra's 
soap  spirit  (a  solution  of  potash  soap, 
120  parts,  in  90  per  cent  spirit,  60  parts; 
and  spirit  of  lavender,  5  parts),  75  parts. 

MEDICATED  SOAPS. 

First  make  up  a  suitable  soap  body  and 
afterwards  add  the  medicament.  For 
instance,  carbolic  soaps  may  be  made  as 
follows: 

I. — Cocoanut  oil 20  pounds 

Tallow 4  pounds 

Soda  lye   (38°  to  40° 

B.) 12  pounds 

Phenol 1  pound 

Prepare  the  body  soap  by  stirring  the 
liquefied  fat  into  the  lye  at  113°  F.,  and 
when  combination  has  set  in,  incorpo- 
rate the  phenol  and  quickly  pour  into 
molds.  Cover  the  latter  well.  Instead 
of  the  phenol  2  pounds  of  sulphur  may 
be  used,  and  a  sulphur  soap  made. 

Parts  by 
weight 

II. — Cotton  oil 200 

Alcohol,  91  per  cent ...  . .    300 

Water 325 

Caustic  soda 45 

Potassium  carbonate 10 

Ether... 15 

Carbolic  acid 25 

The  oil  is  mixed  in  a  large  bottle  with 
water,  100  parts;  alcohol,  200  parts;  and 
caustic  soda,  45  parts,  and  after  saponi- 
fication the  remaining  alcohol  and  the 
potassium  carbonate  dissolved  in  the 
rest  of  the  water,  and  finally  the  carbolic 
acid  and  the  ether  are  added  and  the 


whole  well  shaken.  The  mixture  is 
filled  in  tightly  closed  bottles  and  stored 
at  medium  temperature.  The  prepara- 
tion may  be  scented  as  desired,  and  the 
carbolic  acid  replaced  with  other  anti- 
septics. 

Liquid  Tar  Soap. — Mix  200  parts  of  tar 
with  400  parts  of  oleic  acid,  warm  lightly 
and  filter.  In  this  way  the  aqueous  con- 
tent produces  no  trouble.  Now  warm 
the  filtrate  on  the  water  bath,  neutralize 
by  stirring  in  an  alcoholic  potash  solution. 
To  the  soap  thus  produced,  add  100  parts 
of  alcohol,  and  further  a  little  olive  oil,  in 
order  to  avoid  a  separation  of  any  over- 
plus of  alkaline  matter.  Finally,  bring  up 
to  1,000  parts  with  glycerine.  This  soap, 
containing  22  per  cent  of  tar,  answers  all 
possible  demands  that  may  be  made  upon 
it.  Mixed  with  2  parts  of  distilled  water 
it  leaves  no  deposit  on  the  walls  of  the 
container. 

Liquid  Styrax  Soap. — The  process  is 
identical  with  the  foregoing.  For  diges- 
tion with  oleic  acid,  the  crude  balsam 
will  answer,  since  filtration  deprives  the 
product  of  all  contaminating  substances. 
While  this  soap  will  separate,  it  is  easily 
again  rendered  homogeneous  with  a  vigor- 
ous shake.  Preparations  made  with  it 
should  be  accompanied  with  a  "shake" 
label. 

Superfatted  Liquid  Lanolin-Glycerine 
Soap. — Dissolve  about  10  per  cent  of 
lanolin  in  oleic  acid,  saponify  as  in  the 
tar  soap,  and  perfume  (for  which  a  solu- 
tion of  coumarin  in  geranium  oil  is  prob- 
ably the  most  suitable  agent).  The  pre- 
pared soap  is  improved  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  tincture  of  benzoin. 

Massage  Soaps. — I. — An  excellent  recipe 
for  a  massage  soap  is:  Special  cocoanut 
oil  ground  soap,  2,500  pounds;  lanolin, 
50  pounds;  pine-needle  oil,  20  pounds; 
spike  oil,  3  pounds.  Other  massage 
soaps  are  made  from  olive  oil  ground 
soap,  to  which  in  special  cases,  as  in  the 
treatment  of  certain  rheumatic  affections, 
ichthyol  is  added.  Massage  soaps  are 
always  wanted  white,  so  that  Cochin 
cocoanut  oil  should  be  preferred  to  other 
kinds. 

II. — Cocoanut  oil,  1,000  pounds;  caus- 
tic soda  lye,  37°  B.,  500  pounds;  pine- 
needle  oil,  4  pounds;  artificial  bitter  al- 
mond oil,  2  pounds.  There  is  also  a 
"massage  cream,"  wrhich  differs  from  the 
ordinary  massage  soaps  in  being  made 
with  a  soft  potash  soap  as  a  ground  soap. 
The  oils,  etc.,  incorporated  with  the 
ground  mass  are  exactly  the  same  in  the 
"cream"  as  in  the  soap. 


648 


SOAPS 


Metallic  Soaps. — Metallic  soaps  are 
obtained  by  means  of  double  decomposi- 
tion. First  a  soap  solution  is  produced 
which  is  brought  to  a  boil.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  equally  strong  solution  of  the 
metallic  salt  of  which  the  combination  is 
to  be  made  (chlorides  and  sulphides  are 
employed  with  preference)  is  prepared, 
the  boiling  solutions  are  mixed  together, 
and  the  metallic  soap  obtained  is  gath- 
ered on  a  linen  cloth.  This  is  then  put 
on  enameled  plates  and  dried,  first  at 
104°  F.,  later  at  140°  F. 

Aluminum  soap  is  the  most  important. 
Dissolved  in  benzine  or  oil  of  turpentine, 
it  furnishes  an  excellent  varnish.     It  has 
been  proposed  to  use  these  solutions  for 
the  varnishing  of  leather;  they  further- 
more serve  for  the  production  of  water- 
5  roof     linen     and     cloths,     paper,     etc. 
arry  recommended  this  compound  for 
impregnating     railroad    ties    to    render 
them  weatherproof. 

Manganese  soap  is  used  as  a  siccative 
in  the  preparation  of  linseed-oil  varnish, 
as  well  as  for  a  drier  to  be  added  to 
paints.  Zinc  soap  is  used  in  the  same 
manner. 

Copper  soap  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  gilding  wax,  and  is  also  employed 
for  bronzing  plaster  of  Paris  articles. 
For  the  same  purpose,  a  mixture  is  made 
use  of  consisting  of  copper  soap  and  iron 
soap  melted  in  white  lead  varnish  and 
wax.  Iron  soap  is  used  with  aluminum 
soap  for  waterproofing  purposes  and  for 
the  production  of  a  waterproof  varnish. 
By  using  wax  instead  of  a  soap,  insoluble 
metallic  soaps  are  obtained,  which, 
melted  in  oils  or  wax,  impart  brilliant 
colorings  to  them;  but  colored  water- 
proof and  weather-resisting  varnishes 
may  also  be  produced  with  them.  Me- 
tallic rosin  soaps  may  be  produced  by 
double  decomposition  of  potash  rosin 
soaps  and  a  soluble  metal  salt.  From 
these,  good  varnishes  are  obtained  to 
render  paper  carriage  covers,  etc.,  water- 
proof; they  may  also  be  employed  for 
floor  wax  or  lacquers. 

Petroleum  Soap. — 

I. — Beeswax,  refined.  . .      4  parts 

Alcohol 5  parts 

Castile  soap,  finely 

grated 10  parts 

Petroleum 5  parts 

Put  the  petroleum  into  a  suitable 
vessel  along  with  the  wax  and  alcohol 
and  cautiously  heat  on  the  water  bath, 
with  an  occasional  agitation,  until  com- 
plete solution  is  effected.  Add  the  soap 
and  continue  the  heat  until  it  is  dis- 
solved. When  this  occurs  remove  from 


the  bath  and  stir  until  the  soap  begins  to 
set,  then  pour  into  molds. 

II. — The  hydrocarbons  (as  petroleum, 
vaseline,  etc.)  are  boiled  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  alkali  to  form  a  soap,  during 
which  process  they  absorb  oxygen  and 
unite  with  the  alkali  to  form  fatty  acid 
salts.  The  resulting  soap  is  dissolved 
in  water  containing  alkali,  and  the  solu- 
tion is  heated  along  with  alkali  and  salt. 
The  mass  of  soap  separates  out  in  three 
layers,  the  central  one  being  the  purest; 
and  from  this  product  the  fatty  acids 
may  be  recovered  by  treatment  with 
sulphuric  acid. 

Perfumes  for  Soap. — From  1  to  2  ounces 
of  the  following  mixtures  are  to  be  used 
to  10  pounds  of  soap: 

I. — Oil  of  rose  geranium  2    ounces 

Oil  of  patchouli ^  ounce 

Oil  of  cloves A  ounce 

Oil    of    lavender 

flowers 1     ounce 

Oil  of  bergamot.  ...    1     ounce 
Oil  of  sandalwood.  .    1     ounce 

II. — Oil  of  bergamot.  .  . .  2  ounces 
Oil  of  orange  flow- 
ers   2  ounces 

Oil  of  sassafras 2  ounces 

Oil  of  white  thyme. .  3  ounces 

Oil  of  cassia 3  ounces 

Oil  of  cloves 3  ounces 

III. — Oil  of  citronella  ....  1  ounce 

Oil  of  cloves 1  ounce 

Oil    of    bitter   al- 
monds   2  ounces 

Pumice -Stone  Soaps. — These  soaps  are 
always  produced  by  the  cold  process, 
either  from  cocoanut  oil  alone  or  in  con- 
junction with  tallow,  cotton  oil,  bleached 
palm  oil,  etc.  The  oil  is  melted  and  the 
lye  stirred  in  at  about  90°  F.;  next,  the 
powdered  pumice  stone  is  sifted  into  the 
soap  and  the  latter  is  scented.  Following 
are  some  recipes: 

I. — Cocoanut  oil 40,000  parts 

Cotton  oil 10,000  parts 

Caustic  soda  lye, 

38°  Be 24,000  parts 

Caustic  potash  lye, 

30°  Be 1,000  parts 

Powdered  pumice 

stone 25,000  parts 

Cassia  oil 150  parts 

Rosemary  oil 100  parts 

Lavender  oil 50  parts 

Saf rol 50  parts 

Clove  oil 10  parts 

II. — Cocoanut  oil 50,000  parts 

Caustic    soda    lye, 

40°  Be %.  .  .    25,000  parts 


SOAPS 


649 


Powdered    pumice 

stone 50,000  parts 

Lavender  oil 250  parts 

Caraway  oil 80  parts 

Shaving  Soaps. 

I. — Palm  oil  soap 5     pounds 

Oil  of  cinnamon. ...  10     drachms 

Oil  of  caraway 2    drachms 

Oil  of  lavender 2     drachms 

Oil  of  thyme.  ......  1     drachm 

Oil  of  peppermint .  .  45     minims 

Oil  of  bergamot ....  2|   drachms 

Melt  the  soap,  color  if  desired,  and  in- 
corporate the  oils. 

II. — Soap 10     pounds 

Alcohol 1     ounce 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds     1 J  ounces 
Oil  of  bergamot.  ...        f  ounce 

Oil  of  mace 3     drachms 

Oil  of  cloves |  ounce 

Melt  the  soap  with  just  enough  water 
to  convert  it  into  a  soft  paste  when  cold; 
dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol,  mix  with 
the  paste,  and  rub  up  in  a  mortar,  or 
pass  several  times  through  a  kneading 
machine. 

III. — White  castile  soap  .  .      5  parts 

Alcohol 15  parts 

Rose  water 15  parts 

SOAP  POWDERS. 

The  raw  materials  of  which  soap  pow- 
der is  made  are  soap  and  soda,  to  which 
ingredients  an  addition  of  talcum  or  water 
glass  can  be  made,  if  desired,  these  ma- 
terials proving  very  useful  as  a  filling. 
An  excellent  soap  powder  has  been 
made  of  20  parts  of  crystallized  soda,  5 
parts  of  dark-yellow  soap  (rosin  curd), 
and  1  part  of  ordinary  soft  soap.  At 
first  the  two  last  mentioned  are  placed  in 
a  pan,  then  half  the  required  quantity 
of  soda  is  added,  and  the  whole  is  treated! 
Here  it  must  be  mentioned  that  the  dark- 
yellow  curd  soap,  which  is  very  rosinous, 
has  to  be  cut  in  small  pieces  before 
placing  the  quantity  into  the  pan.  The 
heating  process  must  continue  very 
slowly,  and  the  material  has  to  be 
crutched  continually  until  the  whole  of 
the  substance  has  been  thoroughly 
melted.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
heating  process  does  not  reach  the  boil- 
ing point.  The  fire  underneath  the  pan 
must  now  be  extinguished,  and  then  the 
remaining  half  of  the  crystallized  soda 
is  added  to  be  crutched  with  the  molten 
ingredients,  until  the  whole  substance 
has  become  liquid.  The  liquefaction  is 
assisted  by  the  residual  heat  of  the  first 
heated  material  and  the  pan.  The  slow 
cooling  facilitates  the  productive  pro- 


cess by  thickening  the  mass,  and  when 
the  soda  has  been  absorbed,  the  whole 
has  become  fairly  thick.  With  occa- 
sional stirring  of  the  thickened  liquid  the 
mass  is  left  for  a  little  while  longer, 
and  when  the  proper  moment  has  arrived 
the  material  contained  in  the  pan  is 
spread  on  sheets  of  thin  iron,  and  these 
are  removed  to  a  cool  room,  where,  after 
the  first  cooling,  they  must  be  turned 
over  by  means  of  a  shovel,  and  the  turn- 
ing process  has  to  be  repeated  at  short 
intervals  until  the  material  has  quite 
cooled  down  and  the  mixture  is  thor- 
oughly broken.  The  soap  is  now  in  a 
very  friable  condition,  and  the  time  has 
now  come  to  make  it  into  powder,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  rubbed  through  the 
wire  netting  or  the  perforated  sieves. 
Generally  the  soap  is  first  rubbed 
through  a  coarse  sieve,  and  then  through 
finer  ones,  until  it  has  reached  the  re- 
quired conditions  of  the  powder.  Some 
of  the  best  soap  powders  are  coarse,  but 
other  manufacturers  making  an  equally 
good  article  prefer  the  finer  powder, 
which  requires  a  little  more  work,  since 
it  has  to  go  through  three  sieves,  whereas 
the  coarse  powder  can  do  with  one  or  at 
most  two  treatments.  But  this  is,  after 
all,  a  matter  of  local  requirements  or  per- 
sonal taste. 

The  powder  obtained  from  the  above- 
mentioned  ingredients  is  fine  and  yellow 
colored,  and  it  has  all  the  qualities  needed 
for  a  good  sale.  Instead  of  the  dark- 
yellow  soap,  white  stock  soap  can  also 
be  used,  and  this  makes  only  a  little  dif- 
ference in  the  coloring.  But  again  white 
stock  soap  can  be  used,  and  the  same 
color  obtained  by  the  use  of  palm  oil,  or 
other  coloring  ingredients,  as  these  ma- 
terials are  used  for  giving  the  toilet 
soaps  their  manifold  different  hues. 
Many  makers  state  that  this  process  is 
too  expensive,  and  not  only  swallows  up 
all  the  profit,  but  some  of  the  color  ma- 
terials influence  the  soap  and  not  to  its 
advantage. 

Soft  soap  is  used  only  to  make  the 
powder  softer  and  easier  soluble,  and  for 
this  reason  the  quantity  to  be  used  varies 
a  little  and  different  manufacturers  be- 
lieve to  have  a  secret  by  adding  differ- 
ent quantities  of  this  material.  As  a  gen- 
eral statement  it  may  be  given  that  the 
quantity  of  soft  soap  for  the  making  of 
soap  powder  should  not  overstep  the  pro- 
portion of  one  to  three,  compared  with 
the  quantity  of  hard  soap;  any  excess  in 
this  direction  would  frustrate  the  desires 
of  the  maker,  and  land  him  with  a  prod- 
uct which  has  become  smeary  and  moist, 
forming  into  balls  and  lumping  together 


650 


SOAPS 


in  bags  or  cases,  to  become  discolored 
and  useless.  It  is  best  to  stick  to  the 
proportion  as  given,  5  parts  of  hard  and 
1  part  of  soft  soap,  when  the  produced 
powder  will  be  reliable  and  stable  and 
not  form  into  balls  even  if  the  material 
is  kept  for  a  long  while. 

This  point  is  of  special  importance, 
since  soap  powder  is  sold  mostly  in 
weighed-out  packages  of  one  and  a  half 
pounds.  Most  manufacturers  will  ad- 
mit that  loose  soap  powder  forms  only 
a  small  part  of  the  quantities  produced, 
as  only  big  laundries  and  institutions 
purchase  same  in  bags  or  cases.  The 
retail  trade  requires  the  soap  powder 
wrapped  up  in  paper,  and  if  tnis  has  to 
be  aone  the  powder  must  not  be  too 
moist,  as  the  paper  otherwise  will  fall 
to  pieces.  This  spoils  the  appearance 
of  the  package,  and  likely  a  part  of  the 
quantity  may  be  lost.  When  the  pow- 
der is  too  moist  or  absorbs  easily  external 
moisture,  the  paper  packages  swell  very 
easily  and  burst  open. 

The  best  filling  material  to  be  em- 
ployed when  it  is  desired  to  produce  a 
cheaper  article  is  talcum,  and  in  most 
cases  this  is  preferred  to  water  glass. 
The  superiority  of  the  former  over  the 
latter  is  that  water  glass  hardens  the 
powder,  and  this  is  sometimes  done  to 
such  an  extent,  when  a  large  quantity  of 
filling  material  is  needed,  that  it  becomes 
very  difficult  to  rub  the  soap  through  the 
sieves.  In  case  this  difficulty  arises, 
only  one  thing  can  be  done  to  lighten  the 
task,  and  that  is  to  powderize  the  soap 
when  the  mixed  materials  are  still  warm, 
and  this  facilitates  the  work  very  much. 
It  is  self-evident  that  friction  under  these 
conditions  leaves  a  quantity  of  the  soap 
powder  material  on  the  sieves,  and  this 
cannot  be  lost.  Generally  it  is  scraped 
together  and  returned  to  the  pan  to  be 
included  in  the  next  batch,  when  it  is 
worked  up,  and  so  becomes  useful,  a  need 
which  does  not  arise  when  talcum  has 
been  used  as  a  filling  material.  Again, 
the  soap  powder  made  with  the  addition 
of  water  glass  is  not  so  soluble,  and  at 
the  same  time  much  denser  than  when 
the  preparation  has  been  made  without 
this  material.  It  is  thus  that  the  purchaser 
receives  by  equal  weight  a  smaller-looking 
quantity,  and  as  the  eye  has  generally  a 
great  influence  when  the  consumer  deter- 
mines a  purchase,  the  small-sized  parcels 
will  impress  him  unfavorably.  This  second 
quality  of  soap  powder  is  made  of  the  same 
ingredients  as  the  other,  except  that  an 
addition  of  about  6  parts  of  talcum  is 
made,  and  this  is  stirred  up  with  the  other 
material  after  all  the  soda  has  been  dis- 


solved. Some  makers  cheapen  the  prod- 
ucts also  by  reducing  the  quantity  of 
hard  soap  from  5  to  3  parts  and  they 
avoid  the  filling;  the  same  quantity  of 
soda  is  used  in  all  cases.  On  the  same 
principle  a  better  quality  is  made  by 
altering  the  proportions  of  soda  and 
soap  the  other  way.  Experiments  will 
soon  show  which  proportions  are  most 
suitable  for  the  purpose. 

So-called  ammonia  -  turpentine  soap 
powder  has  been  made  by  crutching  oil 
of  turpentine  and  ammonia  with  the 
materials  just  about  the  time  before  the 
whole  is  taken  out  of  the  heating  pan. 
Some  of  the  powder  is  also  scented,  and 
the  perfume  is  added  at  the  same  time 
and  not  before.  In  most  of  the  latter 
cases  mirbane  oil  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

These  powders  are  adaptable  to  hard 
water,  as  their  excess  of  alkali  neu- 
tralizes the  lime  that  they  contain: 

I. — Curd     (hard)     soap, 

nwdered 4  parts 

oda 3  parts 

Silicate  of  soda 2  parts 

Make  as  dry  as  possible,  and  mix 
intimately. 

Borax  Soap  Powder. — 

II. — Curd  (hard)  soap,  in 

powder 5  parts 

Soda  ash 3  parts 

Silicate  of  soda 2  parts 

Borax  (crude) 1   part 

Each  ingredient  is  thoroughly  dried, 
and  all  mixed  together  by  sieving. 

London  Soap  Powder. — 

III. — Yellow  soap 6    parts 

Soda  crystals 3     parts 

Pearl  ash 1J  parts 

Sulphate  of  soda.. .  .  if  parts 

Palm  oil 1     part 

TOILET  SOAPS. 

The  question  as  to  the  qualities  of 
toilet  soaps  has  a  high  therapeutical 
significance.  Impurity  of  complexion 
and  morbid  anomalies  of  the  skin  are 
produced  by  the  use  of  poor  and  un- 
suitable soaps.  The  latter,  chemically 
regarded,  are  salts  of  fatty  acids,  and  are 
prepared  from  fats  and  a  lye,  the  two 
substances  being  mixed  in  a  vessel  and 
brought  to  a  boil,  soda  lye  being  used 
in  the  preparation  of  toilet  soaps.  In 
boiling  together  a  fat  and  a  lye,  the 
former  is  resolved  into  its  component 
parts,  a  fatty  acid  and  glycerine.  The 


SOAPS 


651 


acid  unites  with  the  soda  lye,  forming  a 
salt,  which  is  regarded  as  soap.  By  the 
addition  of  sodium  chloride,  this  (the 
soap)  is  separated  and  swims  on  the 
residual  liquid  as  "kern,"  or  granulated 
soap.  Good  soaps  were  formerly  made 
only  from  animal  fats,  but  some  of  the 
vegetable  oils  or  fats  have  been  found  to 
also  make  excellent  soap.  Among  them 
the  best  is  cacao  butter. 

From  a  hygienic  standpoint  it  must  be 
accepted  as  a  law  that  a  good  toilet  soap 
must  contain  no  free  (uncombined) 
alkali,  every  particle  of  it  must  be 
chemically  bound  up  with  fatty  acid  to 
the  condition  of  a  salt,  and  the  resultant 
soap  should  be  neutral  in  reaction. 
Many  of  the  soaps  found  in  commerce 
to-day  contain  free  alkali,  and  exert  a 
harmful  effect  upon  the  skin  of  those 
who  use  them.  Such  soaps  may  readily 
be  detected  by  bringing  them  into  con- 
tact with  the  tongue.  If  free  alkali 
be  present  it  will  make  itself  known 
by  causing  a  burning  sensation — some- 
thing that  a  good  toilet  soap  should 
never  do. 

The  efficiency  of  soap  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  in  the  presence  of  an 
abundance  of  water  the  saponified  fat  is 
decomposed  into  acid  and  basic  salts,  in 
which  the  impurities  of  the  skin  are  dis- 
solved and  are  washed  away  by  the 
further  application  of  water.  Good  soap 
exerts  its  effects  on  the  outer  layer  of  the 
skin,  the  so-called  horny  (epithelial) 
layer,  which  in  soapy  water  swells  up  and 
is,  in  fact,  partially  dissolved  in  the 
medium  and  washed  away.  This  fact, 
however,  is  unimportant,  since  the  super- 
ficial skin  cells  are  reproduced  with 
extraordinary  rapidity  and  ease.  When 
a  soap  contains  or  carries  free  alkali,  the 
caustic  effects  of  the  latter  are  carried 
further  and  deeper,  reaching  below  the 
epithelial  cells  and  attacking  the  true 
skin,  in  which  it  causes  minute  rifts  and 
splits  and  renders  it  sore  and  painful. 
Good  soap,  on  the  contrary,  makes  the 
skin  smooth  and  soft. 

Since  the  employment  of  poor  soaps 
works  so  injuriously  upon  the  skin,  many 
persons  never,  or  rarely  ever,  use  soap, 
but  wash  the  face  in  water  alone,  or  with 
a  little  almond  bran  added.  Their  skins 
cannot  bear  the  regular  application  of 
poor  soap.  This,  however,  applies  only  to 
poor,  free-alkali  containing  soaps.  Any 
skin  can  bear  without  injury  any  amount 
of  a  good  toilet  soap,  free  from  uncom- 
bined alkali  and  other  impurities.  The 
habit  of  washing  the  face  with  water 
only,  without  the  use  of  soap,  must  be 
regarded  as  one  altogether  bad,  since 


the  deposits  on  the  skin,  mostly  dust- 
particles  and  dead  epithelial  cells,  ming- 
ling with  the  oily  or  greasy  matter  exuded 
from  the  fat  glands  of  the  skin — ex- 
cellent nutrient  media  for  colonies  of 
bacteria — cannot  be  got  rid  of  by  water 
alone.  Rubbing  only  forces  the  mass 
into  the  openings  in  the  skin  (the  sweat 
glands,  fat  glands,  etc.),  and  stops  them 
up.  In  this  way  are  produced  the  so- 
called  "black  heads"  and  other  spots  and 
blotches  on  the  skin  usually  referred  to 
by  the  uneducated,  or  partially  educated, 
as  "parasites." .  The  complexion  is  in 
this  manner  injured  quite  as  much  by 
the  failure  to  use  good  soap  as  by  the 
use  of  a  poor  or  bad  article. 

All  of  the  skin  troubles  referred  to  may 
be  totally  avoided  by  the  daily  use  of  a 
neutral,  alkali-free  soap,  and  the  com- 
plexion thus  kept  fresh  and  pure.  Com- 
pletely neutral  soaps,  however,  are  more 
difficult  to  manufacture — requiring  more 
skill  and  care  than  those  in  which  no 
attention  is  paid  to  excess  of  alkali — • 
and  consequently  cost  more  than  the 
general  public  are  accustomed,  or,  in 
fact,  care  to  pay  for  soaps.  While  this 
is  true,  one  must  not  judge  the  quality 
of  a  soap  by  the  price  demanded  for 
it.  Some  of  the  manufacturers  of  mis- 
erable soaps  charge  the  public  some  of 
the  most  outrageous  prices.  Neither 
can  a  soap  be  judged  by  its  odor  or 
its  style  of  package  and  putting  on  the 
market. 

To  give  a  soap  an  agreeable  odor  the 
manufacturers  add  to  it,  just  when  it 
commences  to  cool  off,  an  etheric  oil 
(such  as  attar  of  rose,  oil  of  violets, 
bergamot  oil,  etc.),  or  some  balsamic 
material  (such  as  tincture  of  benzoin, 
for  instance).  It  should  be  known,  how- 
ever, that  while  grateful  to  the  olfactory 
nerves,  these  substances  do  not  add  one 
particle  to  the  value  of  the  soap,  either 
as  a  detergent  or  as  a  preserver  of  the 
skin  or  complexion. 

Especially  harmful  to  the  skin  are 
soaps  containing  foreign  substances,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  starches,  gelatin, 
clay,  chalk,  gums,  or  rosins,  potato  flour, 
etc.,  which  are  generally  added  to  in- 
crease the  weight  of  soap.  Such  soaps 
are  designated,  very  significantly,  "filled 
soaps,"  and,  as  a  class,  are  to  be  avoided, 
if  for  no  other  reason,  on  account  of  their 
lack  of  true  soap  content.  The  use  of 
these  fillers  should  be  regarded  as  a 
criminal  falsification  under  the  laws  re- 
garding articles  of  domestic  use,  since 
they  are  sold  at  a  relatively  high  price, 
yet  contain  foreign  matter,  harmful  to 
health. 


652 


SOAPS 


RECIPES  FOR  COLD-STIRRED  TOI- 
LET SOAPS.  Parts  by 

weight 

I. — Cocoanut  oil 30 

Castor  oil 3 

Caustic  soda  lye  (38°  Be).    17 J 

Pink  Soap. —  Parts  by 

weight 

II.— Pink  No.  114 10 

Lemon  oil 60 

Cedar- wood  oil 60 

Citronella  oil 50 

Wintergreen  oil 15 

Pale-Yellow  Soap.—  Parts  by 

weight 

III.— Orange  No.  410 10 

Citronella  oil 60 

Sassafras  oil 60 

Lavender  oil 45 

Wintergreen  oil 15 

Aniseed  oil 25 

Toilet  Soap  Powder. — 

Marseilles  soap,  pow- 
dered    100  parts 

Bran  of  almonds 50  parts 

Lavender  oil 5  parts 

Thyme  oil 3  parts 

Spike  oil 2  parts 

Citronella  oil 2  parts 

Soft  Toilet  Soaps. — Soft  toilet  soaps  or 
creams  may  be  prepared  from  fresh  lard 
with  a  small  addition  of  cocoanut  oil  and 
caustic  potash  solution,  by  the  cold 
process  or  by  boiling.  For  the  cold 
process,  23  parts  of  fresh  lard  and  2  parts 
of  Cochin  cocoanut  oil  are  warmed  in  a 
jacketed  pan,  and  when  the  temperature 
reaches  113°  F.  are  treated  with  9  parts 
of  caustic  potash  and  2t  parts  of  caustic 
soda  solution,  both  of  38°  Be.  strength, 
the  whole  being  stirred  until  saponifica- 
tion  is  complete.  The  soap  is  transferred 
to  a  large  marble  mortar  and  pounded 
along  with  the  following  scenting  ingredi- 
ents: 0.15  parts  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds  and 
0.02  parts  of  oil  of  geranium  rose,  or  0.1 
part  of  the  latter,  and  0.05  parts  of  lemon 
oil.  The  warm  process  is  preferable,  ex- 
perience having  shown  that  boiling  is 
essential  to  the  proper  saponification  of 
the  fats.  In  this  method,  80  parts  of 
lard  and  20  parts  of  Cochin  cocoanut  oil 
are  melted  together  in  a  large  pan,  100 
parts  of  potash  lye  (20°  Be.)  being  then 
crutched  in  by  degrees,  and  the  mass 
raised  to  boiling  point.  The  combined 
influence  of  the  heat  and  crutching 
vaporizes  part  of  the  water  in  the  lye, 
and  the  soap  thickens.  When  the  soap 
has  combined,  the  fire  is  made  up,  and 
another  80  parts  of  the  same  potash  lye 


are  crutched  in  gradually.  The  soap 
gets  thicker  and  thicker  as  the  water  is 
expelled  and  finally  throws  up  "roses" 
on  the  surface,  indicating  that  it  is  near- 
ly finished.  At  this  stage  it  must  be 
crutched  vigorously,  to  prevent  scorch- 
ing against  the  bottom  of  the  pan  and 
the  resulting  more  or  less  dark  colora- 
tion. The  evaporation  period  may  be 
shortened  by  using  only  50  to  60  parts  of 
lye  at  first,  and  fitting  with  lye  of  25°  to 
30°  strength.  For  working  on  the  large 
scale  iron  pans  heated  by  steam  are 
used,  a  few  makers  employing  silver- 
lined  vessels,  which  have  the  advantage 
that  they  are  not  attacked  by  the  alkali. 
Tinned  copper  pans  are  also  useful.  The 
process  takes  from  7  to  8  hours,  and  when 
the  soap  is  finished  it  is  transferred  into 
stoneware  vessels  for  storage.  Clear 
vegetable  oils  (castor  oil)  may  be  used, 
but  the  soaps  lack  the  requisite  nacreous 
luster  required. 

TRANSPARENT  SOAPS. 

The  mode  of  production  is  the  same 
for  all.  The  fats  are  melted  together, 
sifted  into  a  double  boiler,  and  the  lye  is 
stirred  in  at  111°  F.  Cover  up  for  an 
hour,  steam  being  allowed  to  enter 
slowly.  There  is  now  a  clear,  grain-like 
soap  in  the  kettle,  into  which  the  sugar 
solution  and  the  alcohol  are  crutched, 
whereupon  the  kettle  is  covered  up.  If 
cuttings  are  to  be  used,  they  are  now 
added.  When  same  are  melted,  the 
kettle  will  contain  a  thin,  clear  soap, 
which  is  colored  and  scented  as  per 
directions,  and  subsequently  filled  into 
little  iron  molds  and  cooled. 


Rose -Glycerine  Soap.- 
I. — Cochin     cocoanut 

oil 

Compressed      tal- 
low  

Castor  oil 

Caustic   soda  lye, 

38°  Be 

Sugar 

Dissolved  in 

Water 

Alcohol 

Geranium  oil 

(African) 

Lemon  oil 

Palmarosa  oil.  . 
Bergamot  oil 


70,000  parts 

40,000  parts 
30,000  parts 

79,000  parts 
54,000  parts 

60,000  parts 
40,000  parts 

250  parts 

200  parts 

1,200  parts 

80  parts 


Benzoin -Glycerine  Soap. — 
II. — Cochin     cocoanut 

oil 66,000  parts 

Compressed      tal- 
low     31,000  parts 


SOAPS 


653 


Castor  oil .... 

Caustic  soda 

38°  Be..  .. 

Sugar 

Dissolved  in 


lye, 


Water 

Alcohol 

Brown,  No.  120... 

Powdered  benzoin 
(Siam) 

Styrax  liquid 

Tincture  of  ben- 
zoin  

Peru  balsam 

Lemon  oil 

Clove  oil .  . 


35,000  parts 

66,000  parts 
35,000  parts 

40,000  parts 

35,000  parts 

200  parts 

4,200  parts 
1,750  parts 

1,400  parts 

700  parts 

200  parts 

70  parts 


Sunflower -Glycerine  Soap. — 
III. — Cochin     cocoanut 

oil 70,000  parts 

Compressed      tal- 
low   50,000  parts 

Castor  oil 23,000  parts 

Caustic   soda  lye, 

39°  Be 71,000  parts 

Sugar 40,000  parts 

Dissolved  in 


Water 

Alcohol 

Brown,  No.  55.  . 
Geranium  oil.. .  . 
Bergamot  oil. ... 
Cedar- wood  oil. . 
Palmarosa  oil. . . 

Vanillin 

Tonka  tincture. . 


30,000  parts 

40,000  parts 

250  parts 

720  parts 

300  parts 

120  parts 

400  parts 

10  parts 

400  parts 


MISCELLANEOUS  FORMULAS: 

Szegedin  Soap. — Tallow,  120  parts; 
palm  kernel  oil,  80  parts.  Saponify  well 
with  about  200  parts  of  lye  of  24°  Be. 
and  add,  with  constant  stirring,  the  fol- 
lowing fillings  in  rotation,  viz.,  potash 
solution,  20°  Be.,  150  parts,  and  cooling 
salt  solution  20°  Be.,  380  parts. 

Instrument  Soap. — A  soap  for  clean- 
ing surgical  instruments,  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  polished  steel,  which  have  be- 
come specked  with  rust  by  exposure,  is 
made  by  adding  precipitated  chalk  to  a 
strong  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
in  water,  until  a  cream-like  paste  is 
obtained.  Add  to  this  white  castile  soap 
in  fine  shavings,  and  rub  the  whole  to- 
gether in  a  mortar,  until  thoroughly  in- 
corporated. The  article  to  be  cleaned 
should  be  first  immersed,  if  possible,  in  a 
solution  of  1  part  of  cyanide  of  potash  in 
4  parts  of  water,  and  kept  there  until  the 
surface  dirt  and  rust  disappears.  It 
should  then  be  polished  with  the  soap, 
made  as  above  directed. 


Stain-Removing  Soaps. — These  are 
prepared  in  two  ways,  either  by  making 
a  special  soap,  or  by  mixing  ordinary 
soap  with  special  detergents.  A  good 
recipe  is  as  follows: 

I. — Ceylon     cocoanut 

or  palm  seed  oil     320  pounds 
Caustic   soda   lye, 

38°  Be 160  pounds 

Carbonate  of  pot- 
ash, 20°  Be  ....       56  pounds 
Oil  of  turpentine.          9  pounds 
Finely     powdered 

kieselguhr 280  pounds 

Brilliant  green..  .  .  2  pounds 
The  oil  having  been  fused,  the  dye  is 
mixed  with  some  of  it  and  stirred  into 
the  contents  of  the  pan.  The  kieselguhr 
is  then  crutched  in  from  a  sieve,  then  the 
lye,  and  then  the  carbonate  of  potash. 
These  liquids  are  poured  in  in  a  thin 
stream.  When  the  soap  begins  to 
thicken,  add  the  turpentine,  mold,  and 
cover  up  the  molds. 

II. — Rosin  grain  soap.  1,000  pounds 
Talc    (made   to  a 
paste  with  weak 
carbo n a t e    of 

potash) 100  pounds 

Oil  of  turpentine.          4  pounds 

Benzine 3  pounds 

Mix  the  talc  and  soap  by  heat,  and 
when  cool  enough  add  the  turpentine 
and  benzine,  and  mold. 

III. — Cocoanut  oil 600  pounds 

Tallow 400  pounds 

Caustic  soda  lye.  .     500  pounds 

Fresh  ox  gall 200  pounds 

Oil  of  turpentine.        12  pounds 
Ammonia  (sp.  gr., 

0.91) 6  pounds 

Benzine 5  pounds 

Saponify  by  heat,  cool,  add  the  gall 

and  the  volatile  liquids,  and  mold. 

Soap  Substitutes. — 

I. — Linseed  oil 28  pounds 

Sulphur 8  pounds 

Aluminum  soap.  ...  28  pounds 

Oil  of  turpentine..  .  .  4  pounds 

II. — Aluminum  soap.  ...    15  pounds 

Almadina 25  pounds 

Caoutchouc 50  pounds 

Sulphur. 6  pounds 

Oleum  succini 4  pounds 

Shampoo  Soap. — 

Linseed  oil 20     parts 

Malaga  olive  oil 20     parts 

Caustic  potash 9^  parts 

Alcohol 1     part 

Water 30     parts 


654 


SOAPS 


Warm  the  mixed  oils  on  a  large  water 
bath,  then  the  potash  and  water  in 
another  vessel,  heating  both  to  158°  F., 
and  adding  the  latter  hot  solution  to  the 
hot  oil  while  stirring  briskly.  Now  add 
and  thoroughly  mix  the  alcohol.  Stop 
stirring,  keep  the  heat  at  158°  F.  until 
the  mass  becomes  clear  and  a  small 
quantity  dissolves  in  boiling  water  with- 
out globules  of  oil  separating.  Set  aside 
for  a  few  days  before  using  to  make  the 
liquid  soap. 

The  alcohol  may  be  omitted  if  a 
transparent  product  is  immaterial. 

Sapo  Durus. — 

Olive  oil 100  parts 

Soda  lye,  sp.  gr.,  1.33.      50  parts 
Alcohol  (90  per  cent) .      30  parts 
Heat  on  a  steam  bath  until  saponifica- 
tion is  complete.     The  soap  thus  formed 
is  dissolved  in  300  parts  of  hot  distilled 
water,  and  salted  out  by  adding  a  filtered 
solution  of  25  parts  of  sodium  chloride 
and  5  parts  of  crystallized  sodium  car- 
bonate in  80  parts  of  water. 

Sapo  Mollis. — 

Olive  oil 100  parts 

Solid    potassium    hy- 
droxide       21  parts 

Water 100  parts 

Alcohol  (90  per  cent) .      20  parts 
Boil  by  means  of  a  steam  bath  until 
the  oil  is  saponified,  adding,  if  necessary, 
a  little  more  spirit  to  assist  the  saponifica- 
tion. 

Sand  Soap. — Cocoa  oil,  24  parts;  soda 
lye,  38°  Be.,  12  parts;  sand,  finely  sifted, 
28  parts;  cassia  oil,  .0100  parts;  sassafras 
oil,  .0100  parts. 

Salicylic  Soap. — When  salicylic  acid  is 
used  in  soap  it  decomposes,  as  a  rule,  and 
an  alkali  salicylate  is  formed  which  the 
skin  does  not  absorb.  A  German  chemist 
claims  to  have  overcome  this  defect  by 
thoroughly  eliminating  all  water  from 
potash  or  soda  soap,  then  mixing  it  with 
vaseline,  heating  the  mixture,  and  incor- 
porating free  salicylic  acid  with  the  re- 
sulting mass.  The  absence  of  moisture 
prevents  any  decomposition  of  the  sali- 
cylic acid. 

Olein  Soap  Substitute. — Fish  oil  or 
other  animal  oil  is  stirred  up  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  then  treated  with  water. 
After  another  stirring,  the  whole  is  left 
to  settle,  and  separate  into  layers,  where- 
upon the  acid  and  water  are  drawn  off, 
and  caustic  soda  solution  is  stirred  in 
with  the  oil.  The  finishing  stage  con- 
sists in  stirring  in  refined  mineral  oil, 


magnesium    chloride,    borium    chloride, 
and  pure  seal  or  whale  oil,  in  succession. 

Mottled  Soap. — Tallow,  30  parts; 
palm  kernel  oil,  270  parts;  lye,  20°,  347* 
parts;  potassium  chloride  solution,  20°, 
37*  parts.  After  everything  has  been 
boiled  into  a  soap,  crutch  the  following 
dye  solution  into  it:  Water,  5£  parts; 
blue,  red,  or  black,  .0315  parts;  water 
glass,  38°,  10  parts;  and  lye,  38°,  1J 
parts. 

Laundry  Soap. — A  good,  common 
hard  soap  may  be  made  from  clean  tal- 
low or  lard  and  caustic  soda,  without  any 
very  special  skill  in  manipulation.  The 
caustic  soda  indicated  is  a  crude  article 
which  may  now  be  obtained  from  whole- 
sale druggists  in  quantities  to  suit,  at  a 
very  moderate  price.  A  lye  of  average 
strength  is  made  by  dissolving  it  in  water 
in  the  proportion  of  about  2  pounds  to 
the  gallon.  For  the  saponification  of 
lard,  a  given  quantity  of  the  grease  is 
melted  at  a  low  heat,  and  £  its  weight  of 
lye  is  then  added  in  small  portions  with 
constant  stirring;  when  incorporation 
has  been  thoroughly  effected,  another 
portion  of  lye  equal  to  the  first  is  added, 
as  before,  and  the  mixture  kept  at  a 
gentle  heat  until  saponification  appears 
to  be  complete.  If  the  soap  does  not 
readily  separate  from  the  liquid,  more 
lye  should  be  added,  the  soap  being  in- 
soluble in  strong  lye.  When  separation 
has  occurred,  pour  off  the  lye,  add  water 
to  the  mass,  heat  until  dissolved,  and 
again  separate  by  the  use  of  more  strong 
lye  or  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt. 
The  latter  part  of  the  process  is  designed 
to  purify  the  soap  and  may  be  omitted 
where  only  a  cruder  article  is  required. 
The  soap  is  finally  remelted  on  a  water 
bath,  kept  at  a  gentle  heat  until  as  much 
water  as  possible  is  expelled,  and  then 
poured  into  frames  or  molds  to  set. 

Dog  Soap. — 

Petroleum 5^1    „     . 

Wax 4  I    Parts 

Alcohol 5 1      ?v 

Good  laundry  soap.  15 J* 
Heat  the  petroleum,  wax,  and  alcohol 
on  a  water  bath  until  they  are  well  mixed, 
and  dissolve  in  the  mixture  the  soap  cut 
in  fine  shavings.  This  may  be  used  on 
man  or  beast  for  driving  away  vermin. 

Liquid  Tar  Soap  (Sapo  Picis  liqui- 
dus).— 

Wood  tar 25  parts 

Hebra's  soap  spirit.  .  .    75  parts 

Ox -Gall  Soap  for  Cleansing  Silk 
Stuffs. — To  wash  fine  silk  stuffs,  such  as 


SOAPS— SOLDERS 


655 


piece  goods,  ribbons,  etc.,  employ  a  soap 
containing  a  certain  amount  of  ox  gall, 
a  product  that  is  not  surpassed  for  the 
purpose.  In  making  this  soap  the  fol- 
lowing directions  will  be  found  of  ad- 
vantage: Heat  1  pound  of  cocoanut  oil 
to  100°  F.  in  a  copper  kettle.  While 
stirring  vigorously  add  \  pound  of  caustic 
soda  lye  of  30°  Baume.  In  a  separate 
vessel  heat  \  pound  of  white  Venice  tur- 
pentine, and  stir  this  in  the  soap  in  the 
copper  kettle.  Cover  the  kettle  well, 
and  let  it  stand,  mildly  warmed  for  4 
hours,  when  the  temperature  can  be 
again  raised  until  the  mass  is  quite  hot 
and  flows  clear;  then  add  the  pound  of 
ox  gall  to  it.  Now  pulverize  some  good, 
perfectly  dry  grain  soap,  and  stir  in  as 
much  of  it  as  will  make  the  contents  of 
the  copper  kettle  so  hard  that  it  will  yield 
slightly  to  the  pressure  of  the  fingers. 
From  1  to  2  pounds  is  all  the  grain  soap 
required  for  the  above  quantity  of  gall 
soap.  When  cooled,  cut  out  the  soap 
and  shape  into  bars.  This  is  an  indis- 
pensable adjunct  to  the  dyer  and  cleaner, 
as  it  will  not  injure  the  most  delicate  color. 


SOAP-BUBBLE  LIQUIDS. 

I. — White  hard  soap. .  .       25  parts 

Glycerine 15  parts 

Water 1,000  parts 

II. — Dry  castile  soap.  .  .         2  parts 

Glycerine 30  parts 

Water 40  parts 

SOAP  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

SOAP,  TOOTH: 

See  Dentifrice. 

SODA  PAINT: 

See  Paint. 

SODA  WATER: 

See  Beverages. 

SODIUM  HYPOSULPHITE: 

See  Photography. 

SODIUM   SILICATE    AS   A   CEMENT: 
See    Adhesives,     under     Water-Glass 
Cements. 

SODIUM  SALTS,  EFFERVESCENT: 

See  Salts. 

Solders 

SOLDERING  OF  METALS  AND  THE 
PREPARATION  OF  SOLDERS. 

The  object  of  soldering  is  to  unite  two 
portions  of  the  same  metal  or  of  different 


metals  by  means  of  a  more  fusible  metal 
or  metallic  alloy,  applied  when  melted, 
and  known  by  the  name  of  solder.  As 
the  strength  of  the  soldering  depends  on 
the  nature  of  the  solder  used,  the  degree 
of  strength  required  for  the  joint  must 
be  kept  in  view  in  choosing  a  solder. 
The  parts  to  be  joined  must  be  free  from 
oxide  and  thoroughly  clean;  this  can  be 
secured  by  filing,  scouring,  scraping,  or 
pickling  with  acids.  The  edges  must 
fit  exactly,  and  be  heated  to  the  melting 
point  of  the  solder.  The  latter  must 
have  a  lower  melting  point  than  either 
of  the  portions  of  metal  that  require  to 
be  joined,  and  if  possible  only  those 
metals  should  be  chosen  for  solder  which 
form  alloys  with  them.  The  solder 
should  also  as  far  as  possible  have  the 
same  color  and  approximately  the  same 
strength  as  the  article  whose  edges  are  to 
be  united. 

To  remove  the  layers  of  oxide  which 
form  during  the  process  of  soldering, 
various  so-called  "fluxes"  are  employed. 
These  fluxes  are  melted  and  applied  to 
the  joint,  and  act  partly  by  keeping  off 
the  air,  thus  preventing  oxidation,  and 
partly  by  reducing  and  dissolving  the 
oxides  themselves.  The  choice  of  a  flux 
depends  on  the  quantity  of  heat  required 
for  soldering. 

Solders  are  classed  as  soft  and  hard 
solders.  Soft  solders,  also  called  tin 
solders  or  white  solders,  consist  of  soft, 
readily  fusible  metals  or  alloys,  and  do 
not  possess  much  strength;  they  are  easy 
to  handle  on  account  of  their  great 
fusibility.  Tin,  lead-tin,  and  alloys  of 
tin,  lead,  and  bismuth  are  used  for  soft 
solders,  pure  tin  being  employed  only  for 
articles  made  of  the  same  metal  (pure 
tin). 

The  addition  of  some  lead  makes  the 
solder  less  fusible  but  cheaper,  while  that 
of  bismuth  lowers  the  melting  point. 
Soft  solders  are  used  for  soldering  easily 
fusible  metals  such  as  Britannia  metal, 
etc.,  also  for  soldering  tin  plate.  To 
prepare  solder,  the  metals  are  melted 
together  in  a  graphite  crucible  at  as  low 
a  temperature  as  possible,  well  stirred 
with  an  iron  rod,  and  cast  into  ingots  in 
an  iron  mold.  To  melt  the  solder  when 
required  for  soldering,  the  soldering  iron 
is  used;  the  latter  should  be  kept  as  free 
from  oxidation  as  possible,  and  the  part 
applied  should  be  tinned  over.  • 

To  make  so-called  "Sicker"  solder, 
equal  parts  of  lead  and  tin  are  melted 
together,  well  mixed,  and  allowed  to 
stand  till  the  mixture  begins  to  set,  the 
part  still  in  a  liquid  condition  being  then 
poured  off.  This  mixture  can,  however, 


656 


SOLDERS 


be  more  easily  made  by  melting  together 
37  parts  of  lead  and  63  parts  of  tin 
(exactly  measured). 

Soldering  irons  are  usually  made  of 
copper,  as  copper  is  easily  heated  and 
easily  gives  up  its  heat  to  the  solder. 
The  point  of  the  iron  must  be  "tinned." 
To  do  this  properly,  the  iron  should  be 
heated  hot  enough  easily  to  melt  the 
solder;  the  point  should  then  be  quickly 
dressed  with  a  smooth  flat  file  to  remove 
the  oxide,  and  rubbed  on  a  piece  of  tin 
through  solder  and  sal  ammoniac.  The 
latter  causes  the  solder  to  adhere  in  a 
thin,  even  coat  to  the  point  of  the  iron. 
A  gas  or  gasoline  blow  torch  or  a  char- 
coal furnace  is  best  for  heating  the  iron, 
but  a  good,  clean  coal  fire,  well  coked, 
will  answer  the  purpose. 

When  in  use,  the  iron  should  be  hot 
enough  to  melt  the  solder  readily.  A 
cold  iron  produces  rough  work.  This  is 
where  the  beginner  usually  fails.  If  pos- 
sible, it  is  well  to  warm  the  pieces 
before  applying  the  iron.  The  iron 
must  not  be  heated  too  hot,  however,  or 
the  tin  on  the  point  will  be  oxidized. 
The  surfaces  to  be  soldered  must  be 
clean.  Polish  them  with  sandpaper, 
emery  cloth,  a  file,  or  a  scraper.  Grease 
or  oil  will  prevent  solder  from  sticking. 

Some  good  soldering  fluid  should  be 
used.  A  very  good  fluid  is  made  by  dis- 
solving granulated  zinc  in  muriatic  acid. 
Dissolve  as  much  zinc  as  possible  in  the 
acid.  The  gas  given  off  will  explode  if 
ignited.  To  granulate  the  zinc,  melt  it 
in  a  ladle,  and  pour  it  slowly  into  a  barrel 
of  water.  A  brush  or  swab  should  be 
used  to  spread  the  fluid  on  the  surfaces 
to  be  soldered.  If  the  point  of  the  solder- 
ing iron  becomes  dirty,  it  should  be 
wiped  on  a  cloth  or  piece  of  waste  that 
has  been  dampened  with  the  soldering 
fluid. 

Soldering  of  Metallic  Articles. — -In  a 
recently  invented  process  the  parts  to  be 
united  are  covered,  on  the  surfaces  not 
to  be  soldered,  with  a  protective  mass, 
which  prevents  an  immediate  contact  of 
the  solder  with  the  surfaces  in  question, 
and  must  be  brushed  off  only  after  the 
soldered  pieces  have  cooled  perfectly, 
whereby  the  possibility  of  a  change  of 
position  of  these  pieces  seems  precluded. 

For  the  execution  of  this  process  the 
objects  .to  be  soldered,  after  the  surfaces 
to  be  united  have  been  provided  with  a 
water-glass  solution  as  the  soldering  agent 
and  placed  together  as  closely  as  possible 
or  united  by  wires  or  rivets,  are  coated  in 
the  places  where  no  solder  is  desired  with 
a  protective  mass,  consisting  essentially 


of  carbon  (graphite,  coke,  or  charcoal), 
powdered  talc  or  asbestos,  ferric  hydrate 
(with  or  without  ferrous  hydrate),  and, 
if  desired,  a  little  aluminum  oxide,  to- 
gether with  a  binding  agent  of  the  cus- 
tomary kind  (glue  solution,  beer). 

Following  are  some  examples  of  the 
composition  of  these  preparations: 

I. — Graphite,  50  parts;  powdered  coke, 
5  parts;  powdered  charcoal,  5  parts;  pow- 
dered talc,  10  parts;  glue  solution,  2.5 
parts;  drop  beer,  2.5  parts;  ferric  hydrate, 
10  parts;  aluminum  oxide,  5  parts. 

II. — Graphite,  burnt,  4  parts;  graphite, 
unburnt,  6  parts;  powdered  charcoal,  3 

Earts;  powdered  asbestos,  1  part;  ferric 
ydrate,    3    parts;    ferrous    hydrate,    2 
parts;  glue  solution,  1  part. 

The  article  thus  prepared  is  plunged, 
after  the  drying  of  the  protective  layer 
applied,  in  the  metal  bath  serving  as 
solder  (molten  brass,  copper,  etc.),  and 
left  to  remain  therein  until  the  part  to 
be  soldered  has  become  red  hot,  which 
generally  requires  about  50  to  60 
seconds,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ob- 
ject. In  order  to  avoid,  in  introducing 
the  article  into  the  metal  bath,  the 
scattering  of  the  molten  metal,  it  is  well 
previously  to  warm  the  article  and  to  dip 
it  warm.  After  withdrawal  from  the 
metal  bath  the  soldered  articles  are  al- 
lowed to  cool,  and  are  cleaned  with  wire 
brushes,  so  as  to  cause  the  bright  surfaces 
to  reappear. 

The  process  is  especially  useful  for 
uniting  iron  or  steel  parts,  such  as 
machinery,  arms,  and  bicycle  parts  in  a 
durable  manner. 

Soldering  Acid. — A  very  satisfactory 
soldering  acid  may  be  made  by  the  use  of 
the  ordinary  soldering  acid  for  the  base 
and  introducing  a  certain  proportion  of 
chloride  of  tin  and  sal  ammoniac.  This 
gives  an  acid  which  is  superior  in  every 
way  to  the  old  form.  To  make  1  gallon 
of  this  soldering  fluid  take  3  quarts  of 
common  muriatic  acid  and  allow  it  to 
dissolve  as  much  zinc  as  it  will  take  up. 
This  method,  of  course,  is  the  usual  one 
followed  in  the  manufacture  of  ordinary 
soldering  acid.  The  acid,  as  is  well 
known,  must  be  placed  in  an  earthen- 
ware or  glass  vessel.  The  zinc  may  be 
sheet  clippings  or  common  plate  spelter 
broken  into  small  pieces.  Place  the  acid 
in  the  vessel  and  add  the  zinc  in  small 
portions  so  as  to  prevent  the  whole  from 
boiling  over.  When  all  the  zinc  has 
been  added  and  the  action  has  stopped,  it 
indicates  that  enough  has  been  taken  up. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  there  is 
a  little  zinc  left  in  the  bottom,  as  other- 


SOLDERS 


657 


wise  the  acid  will  be  in  excess.  The 
idea  is  to  have  the  acid  take  up  as  much 
zinc  as  it  can. 

After  this  has  been  done  there  will 
remain  some  residue  in  the  form  of  a 
black  precipitate.  This  is  the  lead  which 
all  zinc  contains,  and  which  is  not  dis- 
solved by  the  muriatic  acid.  This  lead 
may  be  removed  by  filtering  through  a 
funnel  in  the  bottom  of  which  there  is  a 
little  absorbent  cotton,  or  the  solution 
may  be  allowed  to  remain  overnight  until 
the  lead  has  settled  and  the  clear  solu- 
tion can  then  be  poured  off.  This  lead 
precipitate  is  not  particularly  injurious 
to  the  soldering  fluid,  but  it  is  better  to 
get  rid  of  it  so  that  a  good,  clear  solution 
may  be  obtained.  Next,  dissolve  6 
ounces  of  sal  ammoniac  in  a  pint  of 
warm  water.  In  another  pint  dissolve 
4  ounces  of  chloride  of  tin.  The  chloride 
of  tin  solution  will  usually  be  cloudy,  but 
this  will  not  matter.  Now  mix  the  3 
solutions  together.  The  solution  will 
be  slightly  cloudy  when  the  3  have  been 
mixed,  and  the  addition  of  a  few  drops 
of  muriatic  acid  will  render  it  perfectly 
clear.  Do  not  add  any  more  acid  than 
is  necessary  to  do  this,  as  the  solution 
would  then  contain  too  much  of  this 
ingredient  and  the  results  would  be  in- 
jurious. 

This  soldering  acid  will  not  spatter 
when  the  iron  is  applied  to  it.  It  has 
also  been  found  that  a  poorer  grade  of 
solder  may  be  used  with  it  than  with 
the  usual  soldering  acid. 

ALUMINUM  SOLDERS. 

To  solder  aluminum  it  is  necessary 
previously  to  tin  the  parts  to  be  soldered. 
This  tinning  is  done  with  the  iron,  using 
a  composition  of  aluminum  and  tin. 
Replace  the  ordinary  soldering  iron  by 
an  iron  of  pure  aluminum.  Prepara- 
tion of  aluminum  solder:  Commence  by 
fusing  the  copper;  then  add  the  alumi- 
num in  several  installments,  stir  the  mix- 
ture well  with  a  piece  of  iron;  next  add 
the  zinc  and  a  little  tallow  or  benzine  at 
the  same  time.  Once  the  zinc  is  added 
do  not  heat  too  strongly,  to  avoid  the 
volatilization  of  the  zinc. 

I. — Take  5  parts  of  tin  and  1  part  of 
aluminum.  Solder  with  the  iron  or 
with  the  blowpipe,  according  to  the  article 
in  question. 

II. — The  pieces  to  be  soldered  are  to 
be  tinned,  but  instead  of  using  pure  tin, 
alloys  of  tin  with  other  metals  are  em- 
ployed, preferably  those  of  tin  and 
aluminum.  For  articles  to  be  worked 
after  soldering,  45  parts  of  tin  and  10 


parts  of  aluminum  afford  a  good  alloy, 
malleable  enough  to  be  hammered,  cut, 
or  turned.  If  they  are  not  to  be  worked, 
the  alloy  requires  less  aluminum  and 
may  be  applied  in  the  usual  manner  as  in 
soldering  iron. 

Aluminum  Bronze. — I. — Strong  solder: 
Gold,  89  parts;  fine  silver,  5  parts;  cop- 
per, 6  parts. 

II. — Medium  solder:  Gold,  54  parts; 
fine  silver,  27  parts;  copper,  19  parts. 

III. — Weak  solder:  Gold,  14  parts; 
silver,  57  parts;  copper,  15  parts;  brass, 
14  parts. 

BRASS  SOLDERS. 

Brass  solder  consists  of  brass  fusible 
at  a  low  temperature,  and  is  made  by 
melting  together  copper  and  zinc,  the 
latter  being  in  excess.  A  small  quantity 
of  tin  is  often  added  to  render  the  solder 
more  fusible.  Hard  solders  are  usually 
sold  in  the  form  of  granules.  Although 
many  workers  in  metals  make  their  own 
solder,  it  is  advisable  to  use  hard  solder 
made  in  factories,  as  complete  uni- 
formity of  quality  is  more  easily  secured 
where  large  quantities  are  manufactured. 

In  making  hard  solder  the  melted 
metal  is  poured  through  birch  twigs  in 
order  to  granulate  it.  The  granules  are 
afterwards  sorted  by  passing  them 
through  sieves. 

When  brass  articles  are  soft-soldered, 
the  white  color  of  the  solder  contrasts 
unpleasantly  with  the  brass.  If  this  is 
objected  to,  the  soldered  part  can  be 
colored  yellow  in  the  following  manner: 

Dissolve  10  parts  of  copper  sulphate 
in  35  parts  of  water;  apply  the  solution  to 
the  solder,  and  stir  with  a  clean  iron 
wire.  This  gives  the  part  the  appear- 
ance of  copper.  To  produce  the  yellow 
color,  paint  the  part  with  a  mixture 
consisting  of  1  part  of  a  solution  of  equal 
parts  of  zinc  and  water  (1  part  each)  and 
2  parts  of  a  solution  of  10  to  35  parts 
respectively  of  copper  sulphate  and  water 
and  rub  on  with  a  zinc  rod.  The  result- 
ing yellow  color  can,  if  desired,  be  im- 
proved by  careful  polishing. 

The  quality  of  soft  solder  is  always 
judged  in  the  trade  from  the  appearance 
of  the  surface  of  the  castings,  and  it  is 
considered  important  that  this  surface 
should  be  radiant  and  crystalline, 
showing  the  so-called  "flowers."  These 
should  be  more  brilliant  than  the  dull 
background,  the  latter  being  like  mat 
silver  in  appearance.  If  the  casting  has 
a  uniform  whitish-gray  color,  this  is  an 
indication  that  the  alloy  contains  an 
insufficient  quantity  of  tin.  In  this  case 


658 


SOLDERS 


the  alloy  should  be  remelted  and  tin 
added,  solder  too  poor  in  tin  being  ex- 
tremely viscid. 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  brass  used  in 
the  arts  are  composed  of  from  68  to  70 
per  cent  copper  and  from  32  to  30  per 
cent  zinc.  Furthermore,  there  are  some 
kinds  of  brass  which  contain  from  24 
to  40  per  cent  zinc.  The  greater  the 
quantity  of  zinc  the  greater  will  be  the 
resemblance  of  the  alloy  to  copper. 
Consequently,  the  more  crystalline  will 
the  structure  become.  For  hard  solder- 
ing only  alloys  can  be  employed  which, 
as  a  general  rule,  contain  no  more  than  34 
per  cent  of  zinc.  With  an  increase  in 
copper  there  follows  a  rise  in  the  melting 
point  of  the  brass.  An  alloy  containing 
90  per  cent  of  copper  will  meet  at  1,940° 
F.;  80  per  cent  copper,  at  1,868°  F.;  70 
per  cent  copper,  at  1,796°  F.;  60  per  cent 
copper,  at  1,742°  F.  Because  an  increase 
in  zinc  causes  a  change  in  color,  it  is 
sometimes  advisable  to  use  tin  for  zinc, 
at  least  in  part,  so  that  the  alloy  becomes 
more  bronze-like  in  its  properties.  The 
durability  of  the  solder  is  not  seriously 
affected,  but  its  fusibility  is  lowered.  If 
more  than  a  certain  proportion  of  tin  be 
added,  thin  and  very  fluid  solders  are 
obtained  of  grayish-white  color,  and  very 
brittle — indeed,  so  brittle  that  the  solder- 
ing joints  are  apt  to  open  if  the  object  is 
bent.  Because  too  great  an  addition  of 
tin  is  injurious,  the  utmost  caution  must 
be  exercised.  If  very  refractory  metals 
are  to  be  soldered,  brass  alone  can  be 
used.  In  some  cases,  a  solder  can  be 
produced  merely  by  melting  brass  and 
adding  copper.  The  following  hard 
solders  have  been  practically  tested  and 
found  of  value. 

YELLOW  HARD  SOLDERS: 

Applebaum's  Compositions. — 

I. — Copper 58        parts 

Zinc 42        parts 

II.— Sheet  brass.  .  .    85.42  parts 
Zinc 13.58  parts 

Karmarsch's  Composition. — 

III. — Brass 7  parts 

Zinc 1  part 

IV.— Zinc 49  parts 

Copper 44  parts 

Tin 4  parts 

Lead 2  parts 

Prechtl's  Composition. — 

V. — Copper 53.3  parts 

Zinc 43.1  parts 

Tin 1.3  parts 

Lead 0.3  parts 

All    these    hard-solder    compositions 


have  the  fine  yellow  color  of  brass,  are 
very  hard,  and  can  be  fused  only  at  high 
temperatures.  They  are  well  adapted 
for  all  kinds  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  and 
bronze. 

Solders  which  fuse  at  somewhat  lower 
temperatures  and,  therefore,  well  adapted 
for  the  working  of  brass,  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

VI.— Sheet  brass.  ..    81.12  parts 
Zinc 18.88  parts 

VII. — Copper 54.08  parts 

Zinc 45.29  parts 

VIII.— Brass 3  to  4  parts 

Zinc 1  part 

A  solder  which  is  valuable  because  it 
can  be  wrought  with  the  hammer,  rolled 
put,  or  drawn  into  wire,  and  because  it 
is  tough  and  ductile,  is  the  following: 

IX.— Brass 78.26  parts 

Zinc 17.41  parts 

Silver  ^ 4.33  parts 

Fusible  White  Solder. — 

X. — Copper 57.4  parts 

Zinc 28  parts 

Tin 14.6  parts 

Easily  Fusible  Solders. — 

XI. —  Brass 5        parts 

Zinc 2.5     parts 

XII. — Brass 5        parts 

Zinc 5        parts 

Semi-White  Hard  Solders.— 

XIII. — Copper 53.3     parts 

Zinc 46.7     parts 

XIV.— Brass 12        parts 

Zinc 4  to  7  parts 

Tin 1        part 

XV.— Brass 22        parts 

Zinc 10        parts 

Tin 1        part 

XVI. — Copper 44        parts 

Zinc 49        parts 

Tin 3.20  parts 

Lead 1.20  parts 

Formulas  XIII  and  XVI  are  fairly 
fusible. 

White  Hard  Solders.— 

XVII.— Brass 

Zinc 

Tin.. 


XVIII.— Copper. 

Zinc. . . 
Tin.. 


XIX.— Brass 

Zinc 

Tin.. 


20  parts 

1  part 

4  parts 

58  parts 

17  parts 

15  parts 

1 1  parts 

1  part 

2  part; 


SOLDERS 


659 


XX. — Brass 6        parts 

Zinc 4        parts 

Tin 10        parts 

XXI.— Copper 57.44  parts 

Zinc 27.98  parts 

Tin 14.58  parts 

For  Brass  Tubes. — I. — Copper,  100 
parts;  lead,  25  parts. 

II. — A  very  strong  solder  for  soldering 
brass  tubes  to  be  drawn,  etc.,  is  com- 
posed of  18  parts  brass,  4  parts  zinc,  and 
1  part  fine  silver. 

For  Fastening  Brass  to  Tin. — To  20 
parts  of  fine,  reduced  copper,  add  suffi- 
cient sulphuric  acid  to  make  a  stiff  paste. 
To  this  add  70  parts  of  metallic  mercury, 
and  work  in,  at  the  same  time  applying 
heat  until  the  mass  assumes  a  wax-like 
consistency.  Warm  or  heat  the  plates  to 
be  united,  to  about  the  same  tempera- 
ture, apply  the  mixture,  hot,  to  each,  then 
press  together,  and  let  cool. 

COPPER  SOLDERS. 

The  copper  solders  which  are  used  for 
soldering  copper  as  well  as  bronze  are 
mixtures  of  copper  and  lead.  By  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  lead  the  fusi- 
bility is  increased,  but  the  mixture  de- 
parts from  the  color  and  toughness  of 
copper.  The  most  commonly  employed 
copper  solder  is  the  following: 

I. — Copper 5  parts 

Lead 1  part 

II. — Copper 80  parts 

Lead 15  parts 

Tin 5  parts 

For  Red  Copper. — I. — Copper,  3  parts; 
zinc,  1  part. 

II. — Copper,  7  parts;  zinc,  3  parts; 
tin,  2  parts. 

FATS  FOR  SOLDERING. 

I. — Soldering  fat  or  grease  is  com- 
monly a  mixture  of  rosin  and  tallow  with 
the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  sal 
ammoniac.  It  is  particularly  adapted  to 
the  soldering  of  tinned  ware,  because  it  is 
easily  wiped  off  the  surface  after  the 
joint  is  made,  whereas  if  rosin  were 
used  alone,  the  scraping  away  might 
remove  some  of  the  tin  and  spoil  the 
object. 

II. — The  following  is  a  well-tried 
recipe  for  a  soldering  grease:  In  a  pot 
of  sufficient  size  and  over  a  slow  fire 
melt  together  500  parts  of  olive  oil  and 
400  parts  of  tallow;  then  stir  in  slowly 
250  parts  of  rosin  in  powder,  and  let  the 
whole  boil  up  once.  Now  let  it  cool 


down,  and  add  125  parts  of  saturated 
solution  of  sal  ammoniac,  stirring  the 
while.  When  cold,  this  preparation  will 
be  ready  for  use. 

FLUIDS  FOR  SOLDERING. 

I. — To  the  ordinary  zinc  chloride, 
prepared  by  digesting  chips  of  zinc  in 
strong  hydrochloric  acid  to  saturation, 
add  J  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac  and  ^  part 
rain  water,  and  filter  the  mixture.  This 
soldering  liquid  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  soft  soldering  of  iron  and  steel,  be- 
cause it  does  not  make  rust  spots. 

To  solder  zinc,  the  zinc  chloride  may 
be  used  without  any  spirit  sal  ammoniac. 

II. —  Mix  phosphoric  acid  with  strong 
spirits  of  wine  in  the  following  propor- 
tions: 

Phosphoric  acid  solu- 
tion      1     quart 

Spirits  of  wine  (80  per 

cent) 1|  quarts 

More  or  less  of  the  spirits  of  wine  is 
used  depending  upon  the  concentration 
of  the  phosphoric  acid  solution.  When 
this  soldering  liquid  is  applied  to  the 
metal  to  be  soldered,  the  phosphoric  acid 
immediately  dissolves  the  oxide.  The 
hot  soldering  iron  vaporizes  the  spirits  of 
wine  very  quickly  and  causes  the  oxide 
released  by  the  phosphoric  acid  to  form 
a  glazed  mass  with  the  surplus  phosphoric 
acid,  which  mass  can  be  easily  removed. 

III. — Dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid: 
Zinc,  50  parts  (by  weight);  sal  am- 
moniac, 50  parts. 

IV. — Hydrochloric  acid,  600  parts  (by 
weight);  sal  ammoniac,  100  parts.  Put 
zinc  chips  into  the  acid  to  saturation, 
next  add  the  sal  ammoniac.  Filter 
when  dissolved  and  preserve  in  flasks. 

V. — Eight  hundred  parts  of  water  with 
100  parts  of  lactic  acid  and  100  parts  of 
glycerine.  This  dispenses  with  the  use 
of  chloride  of  zinc. 

Acid -Free  Soldering  Fluid. — I. — Five 
parts  of  zinc  chloride  dissolved  in  25 
parts  of  boiling  water.  Or,  20  parts  of 
zinc  chloride,  10  parts  of  ammonia 
chloride,  dissolved  in  100  parts  of  boil- 
ing water  and  put  into  glass  carboys. 

II. — Chloride  zinc 1  drachm 

Alcohol 1  ounce 

Substitute  for  Soldering  Fluid. — As  a 
substitute  for  the  customary  soldering 
fluid  and  soldering  mediums  an  am- 
monia soap  is  recommended,  which  is 
obtained  by  the  mixture  of  a  finely  pow- 
dered rosin  with  strong  ammonia  solu- 
tion. Of  this  soap  only  the  finely  divided 


660 


SOLDERS 


rosin  remains  on  the  soldered  place  after 
the  soldering.  This  soldering  process 
is  well  adapted  for  soldering  together 
copper  wires  for  electrical  conduits,  since 
the  rosin  at  the  same  time  serves  as  an 
insulator. 

FLUXES  FOR  SOLDERING. 

The  fluxes  generally  used  in  the  soft- 
soldering  of  metals  are  powdered  rosin 
or  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  alone  or 
combined  with  sal  ammoniac.  A  neutral 
soldering  liquid  can  be  prepared  by 
mixing  27  parts  neutral  zinc  chloride, 
11  parts  sal  ammoniac,  and  62  parts 
water;  or,  1  part  sugar  of  milk,  1  part 
glycerine,  and  8  parts  water. 

A  soldering  fat  for  tin-plate,  preferable 
to  ordinary  rosin,  as  it  can  be  more  easily 
removed  after  soldering,  is  prepared  as 
follows:  One  hundred  and  fifty  parts  beef 
tallow,  250  parts  rosin,  and  150  parts 
olive  oil  are  melted  together  in  a  crucible 
and  well  stirred,  50  parts  powdered  sal 
ammoniac  dissolved  in  as  little  water  as 
possible  being  added. 

Soldering  fat  for  iron  is  composed  of 
50  parts  olive  oil  and  50  parts  powdered 
sal  ammoniac.  Soldering  fat  for  al- 
uminum is  made  by  melting  together 
equal  parts  of  rosin  and  tallow,  half  the 
quantity  of  zinc  chloride  being  added  to 
trie  mixture. 

Soldering  paste  consists  of  neutral 
soldering  liquid  thickened  with  starch 
paste.  This  paste  must  be  applied  more 
lightly  than  the  soldering  liquid. 

Soldering  salt  is  prepared  by  mixing 
equal  parts  of  neutral  zinc  chloride,  free 
from  iron,  and  powdered  sal  ammoniac. 
When  required  for  use,  1  part  of  the  salt 
should  be  dissolved  in  3  or  4  parts  water. 

Borax  is  the  flux  most  frequently  used 
for  hard-soldering;  it  should  be  applied 
to  the  soldering  seam  either  dry  or  stirred 
to  a  paste  with  water.  It  is  advisable 
to  use  calcined  borax,  i.  e.,  borax  from 
which  the  water  of  crystallization  has 
been  driven  out  by  heat,  as  it  does  not 
become  so  inflated  as  ordinary  borax. 
Borax  dissolves  the  metallic  oxides  form- 
ing on  the  joint. 

Finely  powdered  cryolite,  or  a  mixture 
of  2  parts  powdered  cryolite  and  1  part 
phosphoric  acid,  is  also  used  for  hard- 
soldering  copper  and  copper  alloys. 

Muller's  hard-soldering  liquid  con- 
sists of  equal  parts  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  alcohol  (80  per  cent)- 

A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  cryolite 
and  barium  chloride  is  used  as  a  flux  in 
hard-soldering  aluminum  bronze. 

A  very  good  dry-soldering  preparation 
consists  of  two  vials,  one  of  wnicn  is  filled 


with  zinc  chloride,  and  the  other  with 
ammonium  chloride.  To  use,  dissolve 
a  little  of  each  salt  in  water,  apply  the 
ammonium  chloride  to  the  object  to  be 
soldered  and  heat  the  latter  until  it 
begins  to  give  off  vapor  of  ammonivim, 
then  apply  the  other,  and  immediately 
thereafter  the  solder,  maintaining  the 
heat  in  the  meantime.  This  answers 
for  very  soft  solder.  For  a  harder  solder 
dissolve  the  zinc  in  a  very  small  por- 
tion of  the  ammonium  chloride  solution 
(from  i  to  ^  pint). 

When  steel  is  to  be  soldered  on  steel, 
or  iron  on  steel,  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
every  trace  of  oxide  of  iron  between  the 
surfaces  in  contact.  Melt  in  an  earthen 
vessel:  Borax,  3  parts;  colophony,  2 
parts;  pulverized  glass,  3  parts;  steel 
filings,  2  parts;  carbonate  of  potash,  1 
part;  hard  soap,  powdered,  1  part.  Flow 
the  melted  mass  on  a  cold  plate  of  sheet 
iron,  and  after  cooling  break  up  the 
pieces  and  pulverize  them.  This  powder 
is  thrown  on  the  surfaces  a  few  minutes 
before  the  pieces  to  be  soldered  are 
brought  together.  The  borax  and  glass 
contained  in  the  composition  dissolve, 
and  consequently  liquefy  all  of  the  im- 
purities, which,  if  they  were  shut  up 
between  the  pieces  soldered,  might  form 
scales,  at  times  dangerous,  or  interfering 
with  the  resistance  of  the  piece. 

To  prepare  rosin  for  soldering  bright 
tin,  mix  1£  pounds  of  olive  oil,  li  pounds 
of  tallow,  and  12  ounces  of  pulverized 
rosin,  and  let  them  boil  up.  When  this 
mixture  has  become  cool,  add  If  pints 
of  water  saturated  with  pulverized  sal 
ammoniac,  stirring  constantly 

GAS  SOLDERING. 

The  soldering  of  small  metallic  articles 
where  the  production  is  a  wholesale  one, 
is  almost  exclusively  done  by  the  use  of 
gas,  a  pointed  flame  being  produced  by 
air  pressure.  The  air  pressure  is  ob- 
tained by  the  workman  who  does  the 
soldering  setting  in  motion  a  treadle 
with  his  foot,  wnich,  resting  on  rubber 
bellows,  drives  by  pressure  on  the  same 
the  aspirated  air  into  wind  bellows. 
From  here  it  is  sent  into  the  soldering 
pipe,  where  it  is  connected  with  the  gas 
and  a  pointed  flame  is  produced.  In 
order  to  obtain  a  rather  uniform  heat 
the  workman  has  to  tread  continually, 
which,  however,  renders  it  almost  im- 
possible to  hold  the  article  to  be  soldered 
steady,  although  this  is  necessary  if  the 
work  is  to  proceed  quickly.  Hence, 
absolutely  skillful  and  expensive  hands 
are  required,  on  whom  the  employer  is 
often  entirely  dependent.  To  improve 


SOLDERS 


661 


this  method  of  soldering  and  obviate  its 
drawbacks,  the  soldering  may  be  con- 
ducted with  good  success  in  the  following 
manner:  For  the  production  of  the  air 
current  a  small  ventilator  is  set  up.  The 
wind  is  conducted  through  two  main  con- 
duits to  the  work  tables.  Four  or  six 
tables  may,  for  instance,  be  placed  to- 
gether, the  wind  and  the  gas  pipe  end- 
ing in  the  center.  The  gas  is  admitted 
as  formerly,  the  wind  is  conducted  into 
wind  bellows  by  means  of  joint  and  hose 
to  obtain  a  constant  pressure  and  from 
here  into  the  soldering  pipe.  In  this 
manner  any  desired  flame  may  be  pro- 
duced, the  workman  operates  quietly 
and  without  exertion,  which  admits  of 
employing  youthful  hands  and  consequently 
of  a  saving  in  wages.  The  equipment  is 
considerably  cheaper,  since  the  rubber 
bellows  under  the  treadle  are  done  away 
with. 

GERMAN-SILVER  SOLDERS. 

Because  of  its  peculiar  composition 
German-silver  solder  is  related  to  the 
ordinary  hard  solders.  Just  as  hard 
solders  may  be  regarded  as  varieties  of 
brass  to  which  zinc  has  been  added, 
German-silver  solders  may  be  regarded 
as  German  silver  to  which  zinc  has  been 
added.  The  German-silver  solder  be- 
comes more  easily  fused  with  an  increase 
in  zinc,  and  vice  versa.  If  the  quantity 
of  zinc  be  increased  beyond  a  certain 
proportion,  the  resultant  solder  becomes 
too  brittle.  German-silver  solders  are 
characterized  by  remarkable  strength, 
and  are  therefore  used  not  only  in  sol- 
dering German  silver,  but  in  many  cases 
where  special  strength  is  required.  As 
German  silver  can  be  made  of  the  color 
of  steel,  it  is  frequently  used  for  solder- 
ing fine  steel  articles. 

Solder  for  ordinary  German  silver  can 
be  made  of  1,000  parts  German-silver 
chips,  125  parts  sheet-brass  chips,  142 
parts  zinc,  and  33  parts  tin;  or,  of  8 
parts  German  silver  and  2  to  3  parts 
zinc. 

Soft  German-Silver  Solder. — 

I. — Copper 4.5  parts 

Zinc 7      parts 

Nickel 1      part 

II. — Copper 35      parts 

Zinc 56.5  parts 

Nickel.  .. 8.5  parts 

III. — German  silver 5      parts 

Zinc 5      parts 

Compositions    I    and    II    have    analo- 
gous    properties.      In    composition    III 
German  silver"  is  to  be  considered  as  a 


mixture  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel,  for 
which  reason  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
exact  composition  of  the  German  silver 
to  be  used.  Otherwise  it  is  advisable 
to  experiment  first  with  small  quantities 
in  order  to  ascertain  how  much  zinc  is  to 
be  added.  The  proper  proportion  of 
German  silver  to  zinc  is  reached  when 
the  mixture  reveals  a  brilliancy  and 
condition  which  renders  it  possible  to 
barely  pulverize  it  while  hot.  A  small 
quantity  when  brought  in  contact  with 
the  soldering  iron  should  just  fuse. 

Hard  German-Silver  or  Steel  Solder. — 

I. — Copper 35      parts 

Zinc 56.5  parts 

Nickel 9.5  parts 

II. — Copper 38      parts 

Zinc 50      parts 

Nickel 12      parts 

Composition  I  requires  a  fairly  high 
temperature  in  order  to  be  melted. 
Composition  II  requires  a  blow  pipe. 

GOLD  SOLDERS: 

Hard  Solder  for  Gold.— The  hard 
solder  or  gold  solder  which  the  jeweler 
frequently  requires  for  the  execution  of 
various  works,  not  only  serves  for  solder- 
ing gold  ware,  but  is  also  often  employed 
for  soldering  fine  steel  goods,  such  as 
spectacles,  etc.  Fine  gold  is  only  used 
for  soldering  articles  of  platinum.  The 
stronger  the  alloy  of  the  gold,  the  more 
fusible  must  be  the  solder.  Generally 
the  gold  solder  is  a  composition  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copper.  If  it  is  to  be  very 
easily  fusible,  a  little  zinc  may  be  added, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  even  the  copper 
is  sometimes  left  out  and  a  mixture  con- 
sisting only  of  gold  and  silver  (e.  g.,  equal 
parts  of  both)  is  used.  The  shade  of  the 
solder  also  requires  attention,  which 
must  be  regulated  by  varying  proportions 
of  silver  and  copper,  so  that  it  may  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  that  of  the 
gold  to  be  soldered. 

I. — For  24-carat  gold:  Twenty-two 
parts  gold  (24  carat),  2  parts  silver,  and 
1  part  copper;  refractory. 

II. — For  18-carat  gold:  Nine  parts  gold 
(18  carat),  2  parts  silver,  and  1  part 
copper;  refractory. 

III. — For  16-carat  gold:  Twenty-four 
parts  gold  (16  carat),  10  parts  silver,  and 
8  parts  copper;  refractory. 

IV.— For  14-carat  gold:  Three  parts 
gold  (14  carat),  2  parts  silver,  and  1  part 
copper;  more  fusible. 

V. — Gold  solder  for  alloys  containing 
smaller  quantities  of  gold  is  composed 


662 


SOLDERS 


of  8  parts  gold,  10.5  parts  silver,  and  5.5 
parts  copper,  or, 

VI. — T«n  parts  gold  (13.5  carat),  5 
parts  silver,  and  1  part  zinc. 

VII. — The  following  easily  fusible 
solder  is  used  for  ordinary  gold  articles: 
Two  parts  gold,  9  parts  silver,  1  part 
copper,  and  1  part  zinc.  Articles  soldered 
with  this  solder  cannot  be  subjected  to 
the  usual  process  of  coloring  the  gold,  as 
the  solder  would  become  black. 

VIII. — A  refractory  enamel  solder  for 
articles  made  of  20-carat  and  finer  gold, 
which  can  bear  the  high  temperature 
required  in  enameling,  consists  of  37 
parts  gold  and  9  parts  silver,  or  16  parts 
gold  (18  carat),  3  parts  silver,  and  1  part 
copper. 

Which  of  these  compositions  should 
be  employed  depends  upon  the  degree 
of  the  fusibility  of  the  enamel  to  be  ap- 
plied. If  it  is  very  difficult  of  fusion 
only  the  first  named  can  be  used;  other- 
wise it  may  happen  that  during  the 
melting  on  of  the  enamel  the  soldering 
spots  are  so  strongly  heated  that  the 
solder  itself  melts.  For  ordinary  articles, 
as  a  rule,  only  readily  fusible  enamels 
are  employed,  and  consequently  the 
readily  fusible  enameling  solder  may 
here  be  made  use  of.  Soldering  with  the 
latter  is  readily  accomplished  with  the 
aid  of  the  soldering  pipe.  Although  the 
more  hardly  fusible  gold  solders  may 
also  be  melted  by  the  use  of  the  ordinary 
soldering  pipe,  the  employment  of  a  special 
small  blowing  apparatus  is  recommended 
on  account  of  the  resulting  ease  and 
rapidity  of  the  work. 

SOLDERS  FOR  GLASS. 

I. — Melt  tin,  and  add  to  the  melted 
mass  enough  copper,  with  constant  stir- 
ring, until  the  melted  metal  consists  of 
95  per  cent  of  tin  and  5  per  cent  of 
copper.  In  order  to  render  the  mixture 
more  or  less  hard,  add  £  to  1  per  cent  of 
zinc  or  lead. 

II. — A  compound  of  tin  (95  parts) 
and  zinc  (5  parts)  melts  at  392°  F.,  and 
can  then  be  firmly  united  to  glass.  An 
alloy  of  90  parts  of  tin  and  10  parts  of 
aluminum  melts  at  734°  F.,  adheres,  like 
the  preceding,  to  glass,  and  is  equally 
brilliant.  With  either  of  these  alloys 
glass  may  be  soldered  as  easily  as  metal, 
in  two  ways.  In  one,  heat  the  pieces  of 
glass  in  a  furnace  and  rub  a  stick  of 
soldering  alloy  over  their  surfaces.  The 
alloy  will  melt,  and  can  be  easily  spread 
by  means  of  a  roll  of  paper  or  a  slip  of 
aluminum.  Press  the  pieces  firmly  to- 
gether, and  keep  so  until  cool.  In  the 


other  method  a  common  soldering  iron, 
or  a  rod  of  aluminum,  is  heated  over  a 
coal  fire,  a  gas  jet,  or  a  flame  supplied 
by  petroleum.  The  hot  iron  is  passed 
over  the  alloy  and  then  over  the  pieces  to 
be  soldered,  without  the  use  of  a  dis- 
solvent. Care  should  be  taken  that 
neither  the  soldering  irons  nor  the  glass 
be  brought  to  a  temperature  above  the 
melting  point  of  the  alloy,  lest  the  latter 
should  be  oxidized,  and  prevented  from 
adhering. 

HARD  SOLDERS. 

Hard  solders  are  distinguished  as 
brass,  German  silver,  copper,  gold,  silver, 
etc.,  according  to  the  alloys  used  (see  Brass 
Solders,  Copper  Solders,  etc.,  for  other 
hard  solders). 

The  designation  "hard  solder"  is 
used  to  distinguish  it  from  the  easily 
running  and  softer  solder  used  by  tin- 
smiths, and  it  applies  solely  to  a  com- 
position that  will  not  flow  under  a  red 
heat.  For  the  purposes  of  the  jeweler 
solder  may  be  classified  according  to  its 
composition  and  purpose,  into  gold  or 
silver  solder,  which  means  a  solder  con- 
sisting of  an  alloy  of  gold  with  silver, 
copper,  tin,  or  zinc-like  metal  or  an 
alloy  of  silver  with  copper,  tin,  or  zinc- 
like  metal.  According  to  the  uses,  the 
solder  is  made  hard  or  soft;  thus  in  gold 
solders  there  is  added  a  greater  amount 
of  silver,  whereas  for  silver  solders  there 
is  added  more  tin  or  zinc-like  metal. 

In  the  production  of  solder  for  the 
enameler's  use,  that  is  for  combining 
gold  with  gold,  gold  with  silver,  or  gold 
with  copper,  which  must  be  enameled 
afterwards,  it  is  necessary  always  to  keep 
in  mind  that  no  solder  can  be  used 
effectually  that  contains  any  tin,  zinc, 
zinc  alloys,  or  tin  or  zinc-like  metals  in 
any  great  quantities,  since  it  is  these  very 
metals  that  contribute  to  the  cracking  of 
the  enamel.  Yet  it  is  not  possible  to  do 
without  such  an  addition  entirely,  other- 
wise the  solder  would  not  flow  under  the 
melting  point  of  the  precious  metals 
themselves  and  we  should  be  unable  to 
effect  a  union  of  the  parts.  It  is  there- 
fore absolutely  necessary  to  confine  these 
additions  to  the  lowest  possible  per- 
centage, so  that  only  a  trace  is  apparent. 
Moreover,  care  must  be  taken  to  use  for 
enameling  purposes  no  base  alloy,  be- 
cause the  tenacity  or  durability  of  the 
compound  will  be  affected  thereby;  in 
other  words,  it  must  come  up  to  the 
standard. 

In  hard  soldering  with  borax,  direct, 
several  obstacles  are  encountered  that 
make  the  process  somewhat  difficult.  In 


SOLDERS 


663 


the  first  place  the  salt  forms  great  bubbles 
in  contact  with  the  soldering  iron,  and 
easily  scales  away  from  the  surface  of  the 
parts  to  be  soldered.  Besides  this,  the 
parts  must  be  carefully  cleaned  each  time 
prior  to  applying  the  salt.  All  these  dif- 
ficulties vanish  if  instead  of  borax  we  use 
its  component  parts,  boric  acid  and  sodium 
carbonate.  The  heat  of  the  soldering  iron 
acting  on  these  causes  them  to  combine 
in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  an  excellent 
flux,  free  from  the  difficulties  mentioned. 

Composition  of  Various  Hard  Solders. 
— Yellow  solders  for  brass,  bronze,  cop- 
per, and  iron: 

I. — Sheet-brass  chips,  5  parts,  and 
zinc,  3  to  5  parts,  easily  fusible. 

II. — Sheet  brass  chips,  3  parts,  and 
zinc,  1  part;  refractory. 

III. — Sheet-brass  chips,  7  parts,  and 
zinc,  1  part;  very  refractory  and  firm. 

Semi-white  solders,  containing  tin  and 
consequently  harder: 

I. — Sheet  brass,  12  parts;  zinc,  4  to 
7  parts,  and  tin,  1  part. 

II.— Copper,  16  parts;  zinc,  16  parts, 
and  tin,  1  part. 

III. — Yellow  solder,  20  to  30  parts, 
and  tin,  1  part. 

White  solders: 

I.— Sheet  brass,  20  parts;  zinc,  1  part, 
and  tin,  4  parts. 

II. — Copper,  3  parts;  zinc,  1  part,  and 
tin,  1  part. 

To  Hard-Solder  Parts  Formerly  Sol- 
dered with  Tin  Solder. — To  repair  gold 
or  silver  articles  which  have  been  spoiled 
with  tin  solder  proceed  as  follows:  Heat- 
ing the  object  carefully  by  means  a  of 
small  spirit  lamp,  brush  the  tin  off  as 
much  as  possible  with  a  chalk  brush; 
place  the  article  in  a  diluted  solution  of 
hydrochloric  acid  for  about  8  to  10 
hours,  as  required.  If  much  tin  re- 
mains, perhaps  12  hours  may  be  neces- 
sary. Next  withdraw  it,  rinse  off  and 
dry;  whereupon  it  is  carefully  annealed 
and  finally  put  in  a  pickle  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  to  remove  the  annealing 
film.  When  the  article  has  been  dipped, 
it  may  be  hard  soldered  again. 

SILVER  SOLDERS. 

Silver  solder  is  cast  in  the  form  of 
ingots,  which  are  hammered  or  rolled  into 
thin  sheets.  From  these  small  chips  or 
"links,"  as  they  are  called,  are  cut  off. 
The  melted  solder  can  also  be  poured, 
when  slightly  cooled,  into  a  dry  iron  mor- 
tar and  pulverized  while  still  warm.  The 


solder  can  also  be  filed  and  the  filings  used 
for  soldering. 

Silver  solders  are  used  not  only  for 
soldering  silver  objects,  but  also  for 
soldering  metals  of  which  great  resist- 
ance is  expected.  A  distinction  must  be 
drawn  between  silver  solder  consisting 
either  of  copper  and  silver  alone,  and 
silver  solder  to  which  tin  has  been  added. 

Very  Hard  Silver  Solder  for  Fine 
Silverware. — 

I. — Copper 1  part 

Silver. 4  parts 

Hard  silver  solder. 

II. — Copper 1  part 

Silver 20  parts 

Brass 9  parts 

III. — Copper 2  parts 

Silver 28  parts 

Brass 10  parts 

Soft  silver  solder. 

IV.— Silver 2  parts 

Brass 1  part 

V. — Silver 3  parts 

Copper 2  parts 

Zinc 1  part 

VI. — Silver 10  parts 

Brass 10  parts 

Tin 1  part 

These  solders  are  preferably  to  be 
employed  for  the  completion  of  work 
begun  with  hard  silver  solders,  defective 
parts  alone  being  treated.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  use 
copper-silver  alloys  mixed  with  zinc,  as 
for  example: 

VII. — Silver 12  parts 

Copper 4  parts 

Zinc 1  part 

VIII. — Silver 5  parts 

Brass 6  parts 

Zinc 2  parts 

This  last  formula  (VIII)  is  most  com- 
monly used  for  ordinary  silverware. 

Silver  Solders  for  Soldering  Iron, 
Steel,  Cast  Iron,  and  Copper. — 

I. — Silver 10      parts 

Brass 10      parts 

II. — Silver 20      parts 

Copper 30      parts 

Zinc 10      parts 

III.— Silver 30      parts 

Copper 10      parts 

Tin 0.5  parts 

IV. — Silver 60      parts 

Brass 60      parts 

Zinc 5      parts 


664 


SOLDERS 


In  those  solders  in  which  brass  is  used 
care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  the 
metals  employed  contains  iron.  Even 
an  inappreciable  amount  of  iron  dele- 
teriously  affects  the  solder. 

V. — Copper,  30  parts;  zinc,  12.85 
parts;  silver,  57.15  parts. 

VI.— Copper,  23.33  parts;  zinc,  10 
parts ;  Xjver,  66.67  parts. 

VII. — ^Copper,  26.66  parts;  zinc,  10 
parts;  silver,  63.34  parts. 

VIII. — Silver,  66  parts;  copper,  24 
parts,  and  zinc,  10  parts.  This  very  strong 
spider  is  frequently  used  for  soldering 
silver  articles,  but  can  also  be  used  for 
soldering  other  metals,  such  as  brass, 
copper,  iron,  steel  band-saw  blades,  etc. 

IX. — Silver,  4  parts,  and  brass,  3 
parts. 

X. — A  very  refractory  silver  solder, 
which,  unlike  the  silver  solder  containing 
zinc,  is  of  great  ductility  and  does  not 
break  when  hammered,  is  composed  of 
3  parts  silver  and  1  part  copper. 

Soft  Silver  Solders. — I. — A  soft  silver 
solder  for  resoldering  parts  already 
soldered  is  made  of  silver,  3  parts;  cop- 
per, 2  parts,  and  zinc,  1  part. 

II. — Silver,  1  part,  and  brass,  1  part; 
or,  silver,  7  parts;  copper,  3  parts,  and 
zinc,  2  parts. 

III. — A  readily  fusible  silver  solder  for 
ordinary  work:  Silver,  5  parts;  copper,  6 
parts,  and  zinc,  2  parts. 

IV. —  (Soft.)  Copper,  14.75  parts; 
zinc,  8.20  parts;  silver,  77.05  parts. 

V. — Copper,  22.34  parts;  zinc,  10.48 
parts;  silver,  67.18  parts. 

VI. — Tin,  63  parts;  lead,  37  parts. 

French  Solders  for  Silver. — I. — For 
fine  silver  work:  Fine  silver,  87  parts; 
brass,  13  parts. 

II. — For  work  792  fine:  Fine  silver, 
83  parts;  brass,  17  parts. 

III. — For  work  712  fine:  Fine  silver, 
75  parts;  brass,  25  parts. 

IV. — For  work  633  fine:  Fine  silver, 
66  parts;  brass,  34  parts. 

V. — For  work  572  fine:  Fine  silver, 
55  parts;  brass,  45  parts. 

Solder  for  Silversmiths,  etc. — Gold, 
10  parts;  silver,  55  parts;  copper,  29 
parts;  zinc,  6  parts. 

Hard  Solder. — Silver,  60  parts;  bronze, 
39  parts;  arsenic,  1  part. 

Soft  Solder.  —  Powdered  copper,  30 
parts;  sulphate  of  zinc,  10  parts;  mer- 
cury, 60  parts;  sulphuric  acid.  Put 


the  copper  and  the  zinc  sulphate  in  a 
porcelain  mortar,  and  then  the  sulphuric 
acid.  Enough  acid  is  required  to  cover 
the  composition;  next  add  the  mercury 
while  stirring  constantly.  When  the 
amalgamation  is  effected,  wash  several 
times  with  hot  water  to  remove  the  acid, 
then  allow  to  cool.  For  use,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  heat  the  amalgam  until  it  takes 
the  consistency  of  wax.  Apply  on  the 
parts  to  be  soldered  and  let  cool. 

Solder  for  Silver -Plated  Work. — I.— 
Fine  silver,  2  parts;  bronze,  1  part. 

II. — Silver,  68  parts;  copper,  24  parts; 
zinc,  17  parts. 

Solder  for  Silver  Chains. — I. — Fine 
silver,  74  parts;  copper,  24  parts;  orpi- 
ment,  2  parts. 

II. — Fine  silver,  40  parts;  orpiment, 
20  parts;  copper,  40  parts. 

SOFT  SOLDERS: 

See  also  Brass  Solders,  Copper  Solders, 
Gold  Solders. 

I. — Fifty  parts  bismuth,  25  parts  tin, 
and  25  parts  lead.  This  mixture  melts 
at  392°  F. 

II. — Fifty  parts  bismuth,  30  parts  lead, 
and  20  parts  tin.  This  will  melt  at 
374°  F. 

III. — The  solder  that  is  used  in  solder- 
ing Britannia  metal  and  block  tin  pipes 
is  composed  of  2  parts  tin  and  1  part 
lead.  This  melts  in  the  blow-pipe  flame 
at  many  degrees  lower  temperature 
than  either  tin  or  Britannia  metal,  and  it 
is  nearly  of  the  same  color.  Care  must 
be  taken  in  mixing  these  solders  to  keep 
them  well  stirred  when  pouring  into 
molds.  Care  should  also  be  taken  tnat  the 
metal  which  melts  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture be  melted  first  and  then  allowed  to 
cool  to  the  melting  temperature  of  the 
next  metal  to  be  added,  and  so  on. 
Articles  to  be  soldered  with  these  solders 
should  be  joined  with  a  blow  pipe  to  get 
the  best  results,  but  if  a  copper  is  used  it 
must  be  drawn  out  to  a  long,  thin  point. 
For  a  flux  use  powdered  rosin  or  sweet 
oil. 

Tin  solders  for  soldering  lead,  zinc, 
tin,  tin-plate,  also  copper  and  brass  when 
special  strength  is  not  required,  are  pre- 
pared as  follows: 

I. — Tin,  10  parts;  lead,  4  parts;  melt- 
ing point,  356°  F. 

II. — Tin,  10  parts;  lead,  5  parts;  melt- 
ing point,  365°  F. 

III.— Tin,  10  parts;  lead,  6  parts; 
melting  point,  374°  F. 


SOLDERS 


665 


IV.— Tin,  10  parts;  lead,  10  parts; 
melting  point,  392°  F. 

V. — Tin,  10  parts;  lead,  15  parts; 
melting  point,  432°  F. 

VI. — Tin,  10  parts;  lead,  20  parts; 
melting  point,  464°  F. 

The  last  of  the  above  mixtures  is  the 
cheapest,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity 
of  lead. 

Bismuth  solder  or  pewterer's  solder 
fusible  at  a  low  temperature  is  prepared 
by  melting  together: 

I. — Tin,  2  parts;  lead,  1  part;  bismuth, 
1  part;  melting  point,  266°  F. 

II. — Tin,  3  parts;  lead,  4  parts;  bis- 
muth, 2  parts;  melting  point,  297°  F. 

III. — Tin,  2  parts;  lead,  2  parts;  bis- 
muth, 1  part;  melting  point,  320°  F. 

STEEL  SOLDERING. 

Dissolve  scraps  of  cast  steel  in  as  small 
a  quantity  as  possible  of  nitric  acid,  add 
finely  pulverized  borax  and  stir  vigor- 
ously until  a  fluid  paste  is  formed,  then 
dilute  by  means  of  sal  ammoniac  and 
put  in  a  bottle.  When  soldering  is  to 
be  done,  apply  a  thin  layer  of  the  solu- 
tion to  the  two  parts  to  be  soldered,  and 
when  these  have  been  carried  to  or- 
dinary redness,  and  the  mass  is  con- 
sequently plastic,  beat  lightly  on  the  anvil 
with  a  flat  hammer.  This  recipe  is  useful 
for  cases  when  the  steel  is  not  to  be 
soldered  at  an  elevation  of  temperature 
to  the  bright  red. 

To  Solder  a  Piece  of  Hardened  Steel. — 
To  hard-solder  a  piece  of  hardened  steel 
such  as  index  (regulator),  stop  spring  (in 
the  part  which  is  not  elastic),  click,  etc., 
take  a  very  flat  charcoal  if  the  piece  is 
difficult  to  attach;  hard-solder  and  as 
soon  as  the  soldering  has  been  done, 
plunge  the  piece  into  oil.  All  that  re- 
mains to  be  done  is  to  blue  it  again  ,?nd 
to  polish. 

Soldering  Powder  for  Steel. — Melt  in 
an  earthen  pot  3  parts  of  borax,  2  of  col- 
ophony, 1  of  potassium  carbonate,  as 
much  powdered  hard  soap,  to  which 
must  be  added  3  parts  of  finely  powdered 
glass  and  2  parts  of  steel  filings.  The 
melted  mass  is  run  out  upon  a  cold  plate 
of  sheet  iron,  and  when  it  is  completely 
chilled  it  is  broken  into  small  bits  or 
finely  powdered.  -  To  solder,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  sprinkle  the  powder  on  the  sur- 
faces to  be  joined  several  minutes  be- 
fore bringing  them  together. 

Soldering  Solution  for  Steel. — A  sol- 
dering solution  for  steel  that  will  not  rust 


or  blacken  the  work  is  made  of  6  ounces 
alcohol,  2  ounces  glycerine,  and  1  ounce 
oxide  of  zinc. 

PLATINUM  SOLDERS. 

There  are  many  platinum  solders  in 
existence,  but  the  main  principle  to  be 
borne  in  mind  in  jewelry  work  is  that 
the  soldering  seam  should  be  as  little 
perceptible  as  possible;  the  solder,  there- 
fore, should  have  the  same  color  as  the 
alloy. 

I. — A  platinum  solder  which  meets 
these  requirements  very  satisfactorily  is 
composed  of  9  parts  gold  and  1  part 
palladium;  or,  8  parts  gold  and  2  parts 
palladium. 

II. — The  following  is  a  readily  fusible 
platinum  solder:  Fine  silver,  1.555  parts, 
and  pure  platinum,  0.583  parts.  This 
melts  easily  in  the  ordinary  draught  fur- 
nace, as  well  as  before  the  soldering  pipe 
on  a  piece  of  charcoal.  Of  similar 
action  is  a  solder  of  the  following  com- 
position, which  is  very  useful  for  places 
not  exposed  to  the  view: 

III. — Fine  gold,  1.555  parts;  fine  sil- 
ver, 0.65  parts;  and  pure  copper,  0.324 
parts. 

SOLDER  FOR  IRON: 

See  also  under  Silver  Solders. 
Copper,  67  parts;  zinc,  33  parts;  or, 
copper,  60  parts;  zinc,  40  parts. 

TIN  SOLDERS: 

See  also  Soft  Solders. 

Gold  jewelry  which  has  been  rendered 
unsightly  by  tin  solder  may  be  freed 
from  tin  entirely  by  dipping  the  article 
for  a  few  minutes  into  the  following 
solution  and  then  brushing  off  the  tin: 
Pulverize  2  parts  of  green  vitriol  and  1 
part  of  saltpeter  and  boil  in  a  cast-iron 

Eot  with  10  parts  of  water  until  the 
irger  part  of  the  latter  has  evaporated. 
The  crystals  forming  upon  cooling  are 
dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid  (8  parts  of 
hydrochloric  acid  to  1  part  of  crystals). 
If  the  articles  in  question  have  to  be  left 
in  the  liquid  for  some  time,  it  is  well  to 
dilute  it  with  3  or  4  parts  of  water. 
The  tin  solder  is  dissolved  by  this  solu- 
tion without  attacking  or  damaging  the 
article  in  the  least. 

VARIOUS  RECIPES  FOR  SOLDERING: 

To  Conceal  Soldering. —  Visible  solder- 
ing may  be  obviated  by  the  following 
methods:  For  copper  goods  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  blue  vitriol  is  prepared 
and  applied  to  the  places  by  means  of  an 
iron  rod  or  iron  wire.  The  thickness  of 


666 


SOLDERS 


the  layer  may  be  increased  by  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  process.  In  order  to  give  the 
places  thus  coppered  the  appearance  of 
the  others,  use  a  saturated  solution  of  zinc 
vitriol,  1  part,  and  blue  vitriol,  2  parts, 
and  finish  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  zinc. 
By  sprinkling  on  gold  powder  and  sub- 
sequently polishing,  the  color  is  rendered 
deeper.  In  the  case  of  gold  articles  the 
places  are*  first  coppered  over,  then  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  layer  of  fish  glue,  after 
which  bronze  filings  are  thrown  on.  When 
the  glue  is  dry  rub  off  quickly  to  produce 
a  fine  polish.  The  places  can,  of  course, 
also  be  electro-gilt,  whereby  a  greater 
uniformity  of  the  shade  is  obtained.  In 
silver  objects,  the  soldering  seams,  etc., 
are  likewise  coppered  in  the  above-de- 
scribed manner;  next  they  are  rubbed 
with  a  brush  dipped  into  silver  powder 
and  freshly  polished. 

Solder  for  Articles  which  will  not  Bear 
a  High  Temperature. — Take  powdered 
copper,  the  precipitate  of  a  solution  of 
the  sulphate  by  means  of  zinc,  and  mix 
it  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 
According  to  the  degree  of  hardness  re- 
quired, take  from  20  to  30  or  36  parts  of 
copper.  Add,  while  constantly  snaking, 
70  parts  of  quicksilver,  and  when  the 
amalgam  is  complete,  wash  with  warm 
water  to  remove  the  acid;  then  allow  it 
to  cool.  In  10  or  12  hours  the  composi- 
tion will  be  hard  enough  to  scratch  tin. 
For  use,  warm  it  until  it  reaches  the 
consistency  of  wax,  and  spread  it  where 
needed.  When  cold  it  will  adhere  with 
great  tenacity. 

Soldering  a  Ring  Containing  a  Jewel. 
— I. — Fill  a  small  crucible  with  wet  sand 
and  bury  the  part  with  the  jewel  in  the 
sand.  Now  solder  with  soft  gold  solder, 
holding  the  crucible  in  the  hand.  The 
stone  will  remain  uninjured. 

II. — Take  tissue  paper,  tear  it  into 
strips  about  3  inches  in  width,  and  make 
them  into  ropes;  wet  them  thoroughly 
and  wrap  the  stone  in  them,  passing 
around  tne  stone  and  through  the  ring 
until  the  center  of  the  latter  is  slightly 
more  than  half  filled  with  paper,  closely 
wound  around.  Now  fix  on  charcoal, 
permitting  the  stone  to  protrude  over  the 
edge  of  the  charcoal,  and  solder  rapidly. 
The  paper  will  not  only  protect  the  stone, 
but  also  prevent  oxidation  of  the  portion 
of  the  ring  which  is  covered. 

Soldering  without  Heat. — For  solder- 
ing objects  without  heating,  take  a  large 
copper  wire  filed  to  a  point;  dip  into 
soldering  water  and  rub  the  parts  to  be 
soldered.  Then  heat  the  copper  wire 


and  apply  the  solder,  which  melts  on 
contact.  It  may  then  be  applied  to  the 
desired  spot  without  heating  the  object. 

COLD  SOLDERING: 

See  also  Adhesives  and  Cements. 

For  soldering  articles  which  cannot 
stand  a  high  temperature,  the  following 
process  may  be  employed: 

I. — Take  powdered  copper  precipi- 
tated from  a  solution  of  sulphate  by 
means  of  zinc  and  mix  it  in  a  cast-iron 
or  porcelain  mortar  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid.  The  number  of  parts  of 
copper  varies  according  to  the  degree  of 
hardness  which  it  is  wished  to  obtain. 
Next  add,  stirring  constantly,  70  parts  of 
mercury,  and  when  the  amalgam  is 
finished,  allow  to  cool.  At  the  end  of  10 
to  12  hours  the  composition  is  sufficiently 
hard.  For  use,  heat  until  it  acquires  the 
consistency  of  wax.  Apply  to  the  sur- 
face. When  cool  it  will  adhere  with  great 
tenacity. 

II. — Crush  and  mix  6  parts  of  sulphur, 
6  parts  of  white  lead,  and  1  part  of 
borax.  Make  a  rather  thick  cement  of 
this  powder  by  triturating  it  with  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  paste  is  spread  on  the 
surfaces  to  be  welded,  and  the  articles 
pressed  firmly  together.  In  6  or  7  days 
the  soldering  is  so  strong  that  the  two 
pieces  cannot  be  separated,  even  by 
striking  them  with  a  hammer. 

Cast-iron  Soldering. — A  new  process 
consists  in  decarbonizing  the  surfaces  of 
the  cast  iron  to  be  soldered,  the  molten 
hard  solder  being  at  the  same  time 
brought  into  contact  with  the  red-hot 
metallic  surfaces.  The  admission  of  air, 
however,  should  be  carefully  guarded 
against.  First  pickle  the  surfaces  of  the 
pieces  to  be  soldered,  as  usual,  with  acid 
and  fasten  the  two  pieces  together.  The 
place  to  be  soldered  is  now  covered  with 
a  metallic  oxygen  compound  and  any 
one  of  the  customary  fluxes  and  heated 
until  red  hot.  The  preparation  best  suited 
for  this  purpose  is  a  paste  made  by  inti- 
mately mingling  together  cuprous  oxide 
and  borax.  The  latter  melts  in  solder- 
ing and  protects  the  pickled  surfaces  as 
well  as  the  cuprous  oxide  from  oxidation 
through  the  action  of  the  air.  During 
the  heating  the  cuprous  oxide  imparts  its 
oxygen  to  the  carbon  contained  in  the 
cast  iron  and  burns  it.  Metallic  copper 
separates  in  fine  subdivision.  Now  apply 
hard  solder  to  the  place  to  be  united,  which 
in  melting  forms  an  alloy  with  the  elimi- 
nated copper,  the  alloy  combining  with 
the  decarburized  surfaces  of  the  cast  iron. 


SOLDERS— SPIRIT 


667 


Soldering  Block. — This  name  is  given 
to  a  very  useful  support  for  hard  solder- 
ing and  can  be  readily  made.  The  in- 
gredients are:  Charcoal,  asbestos,  and 
plaster  of  Paris.  These  are  powdered  in 
equal  parts,  made  into  a  thick  paste  with 
water,  and  poured  into  a  suitable  mold. 
Thus  a  sort  of  thick  plate  is  obtained. 
When  this  mass  has  dried  it  is  removed 
from  the  mold  and  a  very  thin  cork 
plate  is  affixed  on  one  surface  by  means 
of  thin  glue.  The  mission  of  this  plate 
is  to  receive  the  points  of  the  wire  clamps 
with  which  the  articles  to  be  soldered  are 
attached  to  the  soldering  block,  the  as- 
bestos not  affording  sufficient  hold  for 
them. 

SOLDERS  FOR  JEWELERS: 

See  Jewelers'  Formulas. 

SOLDER  FROM  GOLD,  TO  REMOVE: 

See  Gold. 

SOLDERING  PASTE. 

The  semi-liquid  mass  termed  solder- 
ing paste  is  produced  by  mixing  zinc 
chloride  solution  or  that  of  ammonia- 
zinc  chloride  with  starch  paste.  For 
preparing  this  composition,  ordinary 
potato  starch  is  made  with  water  into  a 
milky  liquid,  the  latter  is  heated  to  a  boil 
with  constant  stirring,  and  enough  of  this 
mass,  which  becomes  gelatinous  after 
cooling,  is  added  to  the  above-men- 
tioned solutions  as  to  cause  a  liquid 
resembling  thin  syrup  to  result.  The 
use  of  all  zinc  preparations  for  soldering 
presents  the  drawback  that  vapors  of  a 
strongly  acid  odor  are  generated  by  the 
heat  of  the  soldering  iron,  but  this  evil  is 
offset  by  the  extraordinary  convenience 
afforded  when  working  with  these  prepar- 
ations. It  is  not  necessary  to  subject 
the  places  to  be  soldered  to  any  special 
cleaning  or  preparation.  All  that  is  re- 
quired is  to  coat  them  with  the  soldering 
medium,  to  apply  the  solder  to  the  seam, 
etc.,  and  to  wipe  the  places  with  a  sponge 
or  moistened  rag  after  the  solder  has 
cooled.  Since  the  solder  adheres  readily 
with  the  use  of  these  substances,  a  skillful 
workman  can  soon  reach  such  perfection 
that  he  has  no,  or  very  little,  subsequent 
polishing  to  do  on  the  soldering  seams. 

Soft  Soldering  Paste. — Small  articles 
of  any  metals  that  would  be  very  delicate 
to  solder  with  a  stick  of  solder,  especially 
where  parts  fit  into  another  and  only 
require  a  little  solder  to  hold  them  to- 
gether, can  best  be  joined  with  a  solder- 
ing paste.  This  paste  contains  the 
solder  and  flux  combined,  and  is  easily 
applied  to  seams,  or  a  little  applied  be- 


fore the  parts  are  put  together.  The 
soldering  flame  will  cause  the  tin  in  the 
paste  to  amalgamate  quickly.  The 
paste  is  made  out  of  starch  paste  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  tin  to  the 
consistency  of  syrup. 

SOLUTIONS,  PERCENTAGE : 

See  Tables. 

SOOTHING  SYRUP: 
See  Pain  Killers. 

SOUP  HERB  EXTRACT: 

See  Condiments. 

SOZODONT: 

See  Dentifrices. 

SPARKS  FROM  THE  FINGER  TIPS: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

SPATTER  WORK: 

See  Lettering. 

SPAVIN  CURES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

SPECULUM  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

SPICES,  ADULTERATED: 

See  Foods. 

SPICES  FOR  FLAVORING: 

See  Condiments. 

Spirit 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  POTABLE  ALCO- 
HOL: SOURCES  AND  MANUFAC- 
TURE. 

Abstract  of  a  Farmers'  Bulletin  prepared 
for  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture by  Dr.  Harvey  W .  Wiley. 

The  term  "industrial  alcohol,"  or 
spirit,  is  used  for  brevity,  and  also  be- 
cause it  differentiates  sharply  between 
alcohol  used  for  beverages  or  for  medicine 
and  alcohol  used  for  technical  purposes 
in  the  arts. 

Alcohol  Defined. — The  term  "alcohol" 
as  here  used  and  as  generally  used 
means  that  particular  product  which  is 
obtained  by  the  fermentation  of  a  sugar, 
or  a  starch  converted  into  sugar,  and 
which,  from  a  chemical  point  of  view, 
is  a  compound  of  the  hypothetical  sub- 
stance "ethyl"  with  water,  or  with  that 
part  of  water  remaining  after  the  separa- 
tion of  one  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen. 
This  is  a  rather  technical  expression,  but 
it  is  very  difficult,  without  using  technical 
language,  to  give  a  definition  of  alcohol 
from  the  chemical  point  of  view.  There 
are  three  elementary  substances  repre- 
sented in  alcohol:  Carbon,  the  chemical 
symbol  of  which  is  C;  hydrogen,  symbol 


668 


SPIRIT 


H;  and  oxygen,  symbol  O.  These  atoms 
are  put  together  to  form  common  alcohol, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  ethyl  alcohol,  in  which 
preparation  2  atoms  of  carbon  and  5 
atoms  of  hydrogen  form  the  hypothet- 
ical substance  "ethyl,"  and  1  atom  of 
oxygen  and  1  atom  of  hydrogen  form 
the  hydroxyl  derived  from  water.  The 
chemical  symbol  of  alcohol  therefore  is 
C2H6OH.  Absolutely  pure  ethyl  alcohol 
is  made  only  with  great  difficulty,  and  the 
purest  commercial  forms  still  have  as- 
sociated with  them  traces  of  other  volatile 
products  formed  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
tillation, chief  among  which  is  that 
group  of  alcohols  to  which  the  name 
"fused  oil"  is  applied.  So  far  as  in- 
dustrial purposes  are  concerned,  how- 
ever, ethyl  alcohol  is  the  only  com- 
ponent of  any  consequence,  just  as  in 
regard  to  the  character  of  beverages  the 
ethyl  alcohol  is  the  component  of  least 
consequence. 

Sources  of  Potable  Alcohol. —  The 
raw  materials  from  which  alcohol  is 
made  consist  of  those  crops  which  con- 
tain sugar,  starch,  gum,  and  cellulose 
(woody  fiber)  capable  of  being  easily 
converted  into  a  fermentable  sugar. 
Alcohol  as  such  is  not  used  as  a  beverage. 
The  alcohol  occurring  in  distilled  bever- 
ages is  principally  derived  from  Indian 
corn,  rye,  barley,  and  molasses.  Alcohol 
is  also  produced  for  drinking  purposes 
from  fermented  fruit  juices  such  as  the 
juice  of  grapes,  apples,  peaches,  etc.  In 
the  production  of  alcoholic  beverages  a 
careful  selection  of  the  materials  is  re- 
quired in  order  that  the  desired  character 
of  drink  may  be  secured.  For  instance, 
in  the  production  of  rum,  the  molasses 
derived  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  sugar  cane  is  the  principal  raw 
material.  In  the  fermentation  of  mo- 
lasses a  particular  product  is  formed 
which  by  distillation  gives  the  alcohol 
compound  possessing  the  aroma  and 
flavor  of  rum.  In  the  making  of  brandy, 
only  sound  wine  can  be  used  as  the  raw 
material,  and  this  sound  wine,  when  sub- 
jected to  distillation,  gives  a  product  con- 
taining the  same  kind  of  alcohol  as  that 
found  in  rum,  but  associated  with  the 
products  of  fermentation  which  give  to 
the  distillate  a  character  entirely  dis- 
tinct and  separate  from  that  of  rum. 
Again,  when  barley  malt  or  a  mixture  of 
barley  malt  and  rye  is  properly  mashed, 
fermented,  and  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion, a  product  is  obtained  which,  when 
properly  concentrated  and  aged,  becomes 
potable  malt  or  rye  whisky.  In  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  if  Indian  corn  and  bar- 


ley malt  are  properly  mashed,  with  a 
small  portion  of  rye,  the  mash  fermented 
and  subjected  to  distillation,  and  the 
distillate  properly  prepared  and  aged, 
the  product  is  known  as  Bourbon  whisky. 
Thus,  every  kind  of  alcoholic  beverage 
gets  its  real  character,  taste,  and  aroma, 
not  from  the  alcohol  which  it  contains 
but  from  the  products  of  fermentation 
which  are  obtained  at  the  same  time  the 
alcohol  is  made  and  which  are  carried 
over  with  the  alcohol  at  the  time  of  dis- 
tillation. 

Agricultural  Sources  of  Industrial 
Alcohol. — The  chief  alcohol-yielding  ma- 
terial produced  in  farm  crops  is  starch, 
the  second  important  material  is  sugar, 
and  the  third  and  least  important  raw 
material  is  cellulose,  or  woody  fiber. 
The  quantity  of  alcohol  produced  from 
cellulose  is  so  small  as  to  be  of  no  im- 
portance at  the  present  time,  and  there- 
fore this  source  of  alcohol  will  only  be 
discussed  under  the  headings  "Utiliza- 
tion of  Waste  Material  or  By-Products" 
and  "Wood  Pulp  and  Sawdust." 

Starch-Producing  Plants. — Starch  is  a 
compound  which,  from  the  chemical 
point  of  view,  belongs  to  the  class  known 
as  carbohydrates,  that  is,  compounds  in 
which  the  element  carbon  is  associated 
by  a  chemical  union  with  water.  Starch 
is  therefore  a  compound  made  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  existing  in  the 
proportion  of  2  atoms  of  hydrogen  to  1 
atom  of  oxygen.  Each  molecule  of  starch 
contains  at  least  6  atoms  of  carbon,  10 
atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  5  atoms  of 
oxygen.  The  simplest  expression  for 
starch  is  therefore  C6H,oO5.  Inasmuch 
as  this  is  the  simplest  expression  for 
what  the  chemist  knows  as  a  molecule  of 
starch,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  very 
many,  perhaps  a  hundred  or  more,  of 
these  molecules  exist  together,  the  proper 
expression  for  starch  from  a  chemical 
point  of  view  would  be  (CeHioOs)^. 

The  principal  starch-producing  plants 
are  the  cereals,  the  potato,  and  cassava. 
With  the  potato  may  be  classed,  though 
not  botanically  related  thereto,  the  sweet 
potato  and  the  yam.  Among  cereals 
rice  has  the  largest  percentage  of  starch 
and  oats  the  smallest.  The  potato,  as 
grown  for  the  table,  has  an  average 
content  of  about  15  per  cent  of  starch. 
When  a  potato  is  grown  specifically  for 
the  production  of  alcohol  it  contains  a 
larger  quantity,  or  nearly  20  per  cent. 
Cassava  contains  a  larger  percentage  of 
starch  than  the  potato,  varying  from  20 
to  30  per  cent. 

Sugar -Producing  Plants. — Sugar  cans, 


SPIRIT 


669 


etc.  While  sugar  is  present  in  some 
degree  in  all  vegetable  growths,  there  are 
some  plants  which  produce  it  in  larger 
quantities  than  are  required  for  im- 
mediate needs,  and  this  sugar  is  stored 
in  some  part  of  the  plant.  Two  plants 
are  preeminently  known  for  their  rich- 
ness in  sugar,  namely,  the  su^ar  cane 
and  the  sugar  beet.  In  Louisiana  the 
sugar  canes  contain  from  9  to  14  per 
cent  of  sugar,  and  tropical  canes  contain 
a  still  larger  amount. 

The  juices  of  the  sugar  beet  contain 
from  12  to  18  per  cent  of  sugar.  There 
are  other  plants  which  produce  large 
quantities  of  sugar,  but  which  are  less 
available  for  sugar-making  purposes  than 
those  just  mentioned.  Among  these,  the 
sorghum  must  be  first  mentioned,  con- 
taining in  the  stalk  at  the  time  the  seed  is 
just  mature  and  the  starch  hardened 
from  9  to  15  per  cent  of  sugar.  Sorghum 
seed  will  also  yield  as  much  alcohol  as 
equal  weights  of  Indian  corn.  The 
juices  of  the  stalks  of  Indian  corn  con- 
tain at  the  time  the  grain  is  hardening 
and  for  some  time  thereafter  large  quan- 
tities of  sugar,  varying  from  8  to  15  per 
cent. 

In  the  case  of  the  sorghum  and  the 
Indian-corn  stalk  a  large  part  of  the 
sugar  present  is  not  cane  sugar  or  sucrose 
as  it  is  commonly  known,  but  the  invert 
sugar  derived  therefrom.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  making  alcohol  the  invert  sugar 
is  even  more  suitable  than  cane  sugar. 
Many  other  plants  contain  notable 
quantities  of  sugar,  but,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  fruits,  discussed  under  the  follow- 
ing caption,  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
be  able  to  compete  with  those  just  men- 
tioned for  making  either  sugar  or  alcohol. 

Cane  sugar  is  not  directly  susceptible 
to  fermentation.  Chemically  considered, 
it  has  the  formula  expressed  by  the 
symbols:  Ci2H22Ou.  When  cane  sugar 
having  the  above  composition  becomes 
inverted,  it  is  due  to  a  process  known  as 
hydrolysis,  which  consists  in  the  molecule 
of  cane  sugar  taking  up  1  molecule  of 
water  and  splitting  off  into  2  molecules 
of  sugar  having  the  same  formula  but 
different  physical  and  chemical  properties. 
Thus  the  process  may  be  represented  as 
follows:  Ci2H22Oii  (cane  sugar)  +  H2O 
(water)  =  C6H12OB  (dextrose)  +  C6H12O6 
(levulose).  These  two  sugars  (dextrose 
and  levulose)  taken  together  are  known 
as  invert  sugar  and  are  directly  sus- 
ceptible to  fermentation.  All  cane  sugar 
assumes  the  form  of  invert  sugar  before 
it  becomes  fermented. 

Fruits. — Nearly  all  fruit  juices  are 
rich  in  sugar,  varying  in  content  from  5 


to  30  per  cent.  The  sugar  in  fruits  is 
composed  of  both  cane  sugar  and  its 
invert  products  (dextrose  and  levulose), 
in  some  fruits  principally  the  latter.  Of 
the  common  fruits  the  grape  yields  the 
largest  percentage  of  sugar.  The  normal 
grape  used  for  wine  making  contains 
from  16  to  30  per  cent  of  sugar,  the  usual 
amount  being  about  20  per  cent.  Fruit 
juices  are  not  usually  employed  in  any 
country  for  making  industrial  alcohol, 
because  of  their  very  much  greater  value 
for  the  production  of  beverages. 

Composition  and  Yield  of  Alcohol- 
Producing  Crops. — The  weight  of  alcohol 
that  may  be  produced  from  a  given  crop 
is  estimated  at  a  little  less  than  one-half 
of  the  amount  of  fermentable  substance 
present,  it  being  understood  that  the 
fermentable  substance  is  expressed  in 
terms  of  sugar.  Pasteur  was  the  first  to 
point  out  the  fact  that  when  sugar  was 
fermented  it  yielded  theoretically  a  little 
over  one-half  of  its  weight  of  alcohol.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  in 
the  production  of  alcohol  a  process  of 
hydrolysis  is  taking  place  which  adds 
a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  to  the 
products  which  are  formed.  For  this 
reason  100  parts  of  sugar  yield  more  than 
100  parts  of  fermentable  products.  The 
distribution  of  the  weights  produced,  as 
theoretically  calculated  by  Pasteur,  is  as 
follows: 

One  hundred  parts  of  sugar  yield  the 
following  quantities  of  the  products  of 
fermentation: 

Alcohol 51.10  parts 

Carbonic  acid 49.20  parts 

Glycerine 3.40  parts 

Organic  acids,  chiefly 

succinic 65  parts 

Ethers,  aldehydes,  fur- 
fural, fat,  etc 1.30  parts 


Total  weight  fer- 
mentation prod- 
ucts produced.  .  .105.65  parts 
Artichokes. — The  artichoke  has  been 
highly  recommended  for  the  manu- 
facture of  alcohol.  The  fermentable 
material  in  the  artichoke  is  neither  starch 
nor  sugar,  but  consists  of  a  mixture  of  a 
number  of  carbohydrates  of  which  inulin 
and  levulin  are  the  principal  constituents. 
When  these  carbohydrate  materials  are 
hydrolized  into  sugars  they  produce 
levulose  instead  of  dextrose.  The  levu- 
lose is  equally  as  valuable  as  dextrose  for 
the  production  of  alcohol.  Artichokes 
may  be  harvested  either  in  the  autumn 
or  in  the  spring.  As  they  keep  well 
during  the  winter,  and  in  a  few  places 


670 


SPIRIT 


may  be  kept  in  hot  weather,  they  form  a 
raw  material  which  can  be  stored  for  a 
long  period  and  still  be  valuable  for 
fermentation  purposes. 

Under  the  term  "inulin"  are  included 
all  the  fermentable  carbohydrates.  The 
above  data  show,  in  round  numbers,  17 
per  cent  of  fermentable  matter.  Theo- 
retically, therefore,  100  pounds  of  arti- 
chokes would  yield  approximately  8? 
pounds  of  industrial  alcohol,  or  about 
1J  gallons. 

Bananas. — The  banana  is  a  crop 
which  grows  in  luxurious  abundance  in 
tropical  countries,  especially  Guatemala 
and  Nicaragua.  The  fruit  contains  large 
quantities  of  starch  and  sugar  suitable 
for  alcohol  making.  From  20  to  25  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  banana  consists 
of  fermentable  material.  It  is  evident 
that  in  the  countries  where  the  banana 
grows  in  such  luxuriance  it  would  be  a 
cheap  source  of  industrial  alcohol. 

Barley  and  the  Manufacture  of  Malt. — 
A  very  important  cereal  in  connection 
with  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  is  barley 
which  is  quite  universally  employed  for 
making  malt,  the  malt  in  its  turn  being 
used  for  the  conversion  of  the  starch  of 
other  cereals  into  sugar  in  their  prepara- 
tion for  fermentation. 

Malt  is  made  by  the  sprouting  of 
barley  at  a  low  temperature  (from  50°  to 
60°  F.)  until  the  small  roots  are  formed 
and  the  germ  has  grown  to  the  length  of 
£  an  inch  or  more.  The  best  malts 
are  made  at  a  low  temperature  requiring 
from  10  to  14  days  for  the  growth  of  the 
barley.  The  barley  is  moistened  and 
spread  upon  a  floor,  usually  of  cement, 
to  the  depth  of  1  foot  or  18  inches.  As 
the  barley  becomes  warm  by  the  process 
of  germination,  it  is  turned  from  time 
to  time  and  the  room  is  kept  well  ven- 
tilated and  cool.  It  is  better  at  this 
point  in  the  manufacture  of  malt  to  keep 
the  temperature  below  60°  F.  After  the 
sprouting  has  been  continued  as  above 
noted  for  the  proper  length  of  time,  the 
barley  is  transferred  to  a  drier,  where  it 
is  subjected  to  a  low  temperature  at  first 
and  finally  to  a  temperature  not  to  ex- 
ceed 140°  or  158°  F.,  until  all  the  water 
is  driven  off,  except  2  or  3  per  cent. 
Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  drying 
the  barley  not  to  raise  the  temperature 
too  high,  lest  the  diastase  which  is  formed 
be  deprived  of  its  active  qualities.  The 
malt  has  a  sweetish  taste,  the  principal 
portion  of  the  starch  having  been  con- 
verted into  sugar,  which  is  known 
chemically  as  "maltose."  This  sugar  is, 
of  course,  utilized  in  the  fermentation 
for  the  production  of  alcohol.  Malt  is 


chiefly  valuable,  however,  not  because  of 
the  amount  of  alcohol  that  may  be  pro- 
duced therefrom,  but  from  the  fact  that 
in  quantities  of  about  10  per  cent  it  is 
capable  of  converting  the  starch  of  the 
whole  of  the  un  malted  grains,  whatever 
their  origin  may  be,  into  maltose,  thus 

Breparing  the  starch  for  fermentation, 
arley  is  not  itself  used  in  this  country 
as  a  source  of  industrial  alcohol,  but  it  is 
employed  for  producing  the  highest 
grades  of  whisky,  made  of  pure  barley 
malt,  which,  after  fermentation,  is  dis- 
tilled in  a  pot  still,  concentrated  in 
another  pot  still  to  the  proper  strength, 
placed  in  wood,  and  stored  for  a  number 
of  years.  Barley  malt  is  too  expensive  a 
source  of  alcohol  to  justify  its  use  for 
industrial  purposes.  It  is,  however,  one 
of  the  cheapest  and  best  methods  of 
converting  the  starch  of  other  cereals 
into  sugar  preparatory  to  fermentation. 
Barley  has,  in  round  numbers,  about 
68  per  cent  of  fermentable  matter.  The 
weight  of  a  bushel  of  barley  (48  pounds) 
multiplied  by  0.68  gives  32  pounds  of 
fermentable  matter  in  a  bushel  of  barley. 
Cassava. — Cassava  is  grown  over  a 
large  area  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States  of  this  country.  Of  all  the  sub- 
stances which  have  been  mentioned,  ex- 
cept the  cereals,  cassava  contains  the 
largest  amount  of  alcoholic  or  ferment- 
able substances.  The  root,  deprived  of 
its  outer  envelope,  contains  a  little  over 
30  per  cent  of  starch,  while  the  un- 
determined matter  in  the  analyses  is 
principally  sugar.  If  this  be  added  to 
the  starch,  it  is  seen  that  approximately 
35  per  cent  of  the  fresh  root  is  ferment- 
able. This  of  course  represents  a  very 
high  grade  of  cassava,  the  ordinary  roots 
containing  very  much  less  fermentable 
matter.  If,  however,  it  is  assumed  that 
the  fermentable  matter  of  cassava  root 
will  average  25  per  cent,  this  amount 
is  much  greater  than  the  average  of 
the  potato,  or  even  of  the  sweet  potato 
and  the  yam.  Twenty-five  per  cent  is 
undoubtedly  a  low  average  content  of 
fermentable  matter.  In  the  dry  root 
there  is  found  nearly  72  per  cent  of 
starch  and  17  per  cent  of  extract,  prin- 
cipally sugar.  Assuming  that  15  per  cent 
of  this  is  fermentable,  and  adding  this 
to  the  72  per  cent,  it  is  seen  that  87  per 
cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  cassava  is 
fermentable.  This  appears  to  be  a  very 
high  figure,  but  it  doubtless  represents 
almost  exactly  the  conditions  which 
exist.  It  would  be  perfectly  safe  to  say, 
discounting  any  exceptional  qualities  of 
the  samples  examined,  that  80  per  cent 
of  the  dry  matter  of  the  cassava  root  is 


SPIRIT 


671 


capable  of  being  converted  into  alcohol. 
It  thus  becomes  in  a  dry  state  a  source 
of  alcohol  almost  as  valuable,  pound  for 
pound,  as  rice. 

Careful  examinations,  however,  of  ac- 
tual conditions  show  that  if  5  tons  per 
acre  of  roots  are  obtained  it  is  an  average 
yield.  In  very  many  cases,  where  no 
fertilizer  is  used  and  where  the  roots  are 
grown  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the  yield 
is  far  less  than  this,  while  with  improved 
methods  of  agriculture  it  is  greater.  The 
bark  of  the  root,  has  very  little  ferment- 
able matter  in  it.  If  the  whole  root  be 
considered,  the  percentage  of  starch  is 
less  than  it  would  be  for  the  peeled  root. 
If  cassava  yields  4  tons,  or  8,000  pounds, 
per  acre  and  contains  25  per  cent  of  fer- 
mentable matter,  the  total  weight  of 
fermentable  matter  is  2,000  pounds,  yield- 
ing approximately  1,000  pounds  of  95 
per  cent  alcohol,  or  143  gallons  of  95  per 
cent  alcohol  per  acre. 

Corn  (Indian  Corn  or  Maize}. — The 
crop  which  at  the  present  time  is  the 
source  of  almost  all  of  the  alcohol  made 
in  the  United  States  is  Indian  corn. 

The  fermentable  matter  in  Indian 
corn — that  is,  the  part  which  is  capable 
of  being  converted  into  alcohol — amounts 
to  nearly  70  per  cent  of  the  total  weight, 
since  the  unfermentable  cellulose  and 
pentosans  included  in  carbohydrates  do 
not  exceed  2  per  cent.  Inasmuch  as  a 
bushel  of  Indian  corn  weighs  56  pounds, 
the  total  weight  of  fermentable  matter 
therein,  in  round  numbers,  is  39  pounds. 
The  weight  of  the  alcohol  which  is  pro- 
duced under  the  best  conditions  is  little 
less  than  one-half  of  the  fermentable 
matter.  Therefore  the  total  weight  of 
alcohol  which  would  be  yielded  by  a 
bushel  of  average  Indian  corn  would  be, 
in  round  numbers,  about  19  pounds. 
The  weight  of  a  gallon  of  95  per  cent  al- 
cohol is  nearly  7  pounds.  Hence  1  bush- 
el of  corn  would  produce  2.7  gallons. 

If  the  average  price  of  Indian  corn  be 

E laced,  in  round  numbers,  at  40  cents  a 
ushel,  the  cost  of  the  raw  material — 
that  is,  of  the  Indian  corn — for  manu- 
facturing 95  per  cent  industrial  alcohol 
is  about  15  cents  a  gallon.  To  this  must 
be  added  the  cost  of  manufacture,  stor- 
age, etc.,  which  is  perhaps  as  much  more, 
making  the  estimated  actual  cost  of  in- 
dustrial alcohol  of  95  per  cent  strength 
made  from  Indian  corn  about  30  cents 
per  gallon.  If  to  this  be  added  the 
profits  of  the  manufacturer  and  dealer, 
it  appears  that  under  the  conditions  cited, 
industrial  alcohol,  untaxed,  should  be 
sold  for  about  40  cents  per  gallon. 

Potatoes. — The  weight  of  a  bushel  of 


potatoes  is  60  pounds.  As  the  average 
amount  of  fermentable  matter  in  potatoes 
grown  in  the  United  States  is  20  per 
cent,  the  total  weight  of  fermentable 
matter  in  a  bushel  of  potatoes  is  12 
pounds,  which  would  yield  approximate- 
ly 6  pounds  or  3.6  quarts  of  alcohol. 

The  quantity  of  starch  in  American- 
grown  potatoes  varies  from  15  to  20  per 
cent.  Probably  18  per  cent  might  be 
stated  as  the  general  average  of  the  best 
grades  of  potatoes. 

Under  the  microscope  the  granules  of 
potato  starch  have  a  distinctive  appear- 
ance. They  appear  as  egg-shaped  bodies 
on  which,  especially  the  larger  ones, 
various  ring-like  lines  are  seen.  With  a 
modified  light  under  certain  conditions 
of  observation  a  black  cross  is  developed 
upon  the  granule.  It  is  not  difficult  for 
an  expert  microscopist  to  distinguish 
potato  from  other  forms  of  starch  by 
this  appearance. 

The  potato  contains  very  little  ma- 
terial which  is  capable  of  fermentation 
aside  from  starch  and  sugars. 

Although  the  potato  is  not  sweet  to 
the  taste  in  a  fresh  state,  it  contains  not- 
able quantities  of  sugar.  This  sugar  is 
lost  whenever  the  potato  is  used  for 
starch-making  purposes,  but  is  utilized 
when  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
industrial  a!cohol.  The  percentage  of 
sugar  of  all  kinds  in  the  potato  rarely 
goes  above  1  per  cent.  The  average 
quantity  is  probably  not  far  from  0.35 
per  cent,  including  sugar,  reducing 
sugar,  and  dextrin,  all  of  which  are 
soluble  in  water.  In  the  treatment  of 
potatoes  for  starch  making,  therefore,  it 
may  be  estimated  that  0.35  per  cent  of  fer- 
mentable matter  is  lost  in  the  wash  water. 

Average  Composition. — The  average 
composition  of  potatoes  is: 

Water 75.00  per  cent 

Starch 19.87  per  cent 

Sugars  and  dex- 
trin  77  per  cent 

Fat 08  per  cent 

Cellulose 33  per  cent 

Ash 1.00  per  cent 

According  to  Maercker,  the  sugar  con- 
tent, including  all  forms  of  sugar,  varies 
greatly.  Perfectly  ripe  potatoes  contain 
generally  no  sugar  or  only  a  fractional 
per  cent.  When  potatoes  are  stored 
under  unfavorable  conditions,  large 
quantities  of  sugar  may  be  developed, 
amounting  to  as  high  as  5  per  cent 
altogether.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated 
that  the  content  of  sugar  of  all  kinds 
will  vary  from  0.4  per  cent  to  3.4  per 
cent,  according  to  conditions. 


672 


SPIRIT 


The  liberal  application  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  increases  the  yield  per  acre  of 
tubers  and  of  starch  to  a  very  marked 
extent,  although  the  average  percentage 
of  starch  present  is  increased  very  little. 

Of  all  the  common  root  crops,  the 
potatoes,  including  the  yam  and  the 
sweet  potato,  are  tne  most  valuable  for 
the  production  of  alcohol,  meaning  by 
this  term  that  they  contain  more  fer- 
mentable matter  per  100  pounds  than 
other  root  crops. 

While  sugar  beets,  carrots,  and  pars- 
nips contain  relatively  large  amounts 
of  fermentable  matter,  these  roots  could 
not  compete  with  potatoes  even  if  they 
could  all  be  produced  at  the  same  price 
per  100  pounds. 

A  general  review  of  all  the  data  in- 
dicates that  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances  and  with  potatoes  which 
have  been  grown  especially  for  the  purpose 
an  average  content  of  fermentable  mat- 
ter of  about  20  per  cent  may  be  reason- 
ably expected.  It  is  thus  seen  that 
approximately  10  pounds  of  industrial 
alcohol  can  be  made  from  100  pounds  of 
potatoes.  If  60  pounds  be  taken  as  the 
average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  potatoes, 
there  are  found  therein  12  pounds  of 
fermentable  matter,  from  which  6  pounds 
of  industrial  alcohol  can  be  produced,  or 
f  of  a  gallon.  It  has  also  been  shown 
that  the  amount  of  Indian  corn  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  a  gallon  of  in- 
dustrial alcohol  costs  not  less  than  15 
cents.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the 
potatoes  for  alcohol  making  will  have  to 
oe  produced  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  15 
cents  per  bushel,  before  they  can  com- 
pete with  Indian  corn  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  industrial  alcohol. 

Rice.—-  Rice  is  not  used  to  any  great 
extent  in  this  country  for  making  alco- 
hol, but  it  is  extensively  used  for  this 
purpose  in  Japan  and  some  other  coun- 
tries, and  has  the  largest  percentage  of 
fermentable  matter  of  all  the  cereais. 
The  percentage  of  fermentable  matter  in 
rice  is  nearly  78  per  cent.  A  bushel  of 
rice  weighs,  unhulled,  45  pounds,  hulled, 
56  pounds,  and  it  therefore  has  about  34 
and  43  pounds,  respectively,  of  ferment- 
able matter  for  the  unhulled  and  the 
hulled  rice.  It  is  not  probable  that  rice 
will  ever  be  used  to  any  extent  in  this 
country  as  a  source  of  industrial  alcohol, 
although  it  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  the 
manufacture  of  beverages,  as  for  in- 
stance in  beers,  which  are  often  made 
partly  of  rice. 

Rye.— Large  quantities  of  alcohol, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  alcoholic  beverages, 
are  manufactured  from  rye.  It  is,  in 


connection  with  Indian  ccrn,  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  the  whiskies  made  in  the 
United  States.  Rye,  however,  is  not  used 
to  any  extent  in  this  or  other  countries 
for  making  industrial  alcohol. 

Rye  contains  almost  as  much  ferment- 
able matter  as  Indian  corn.  A  bushel  of 
rye  weighs  56  pounds.  Wheat  and  other 
cereals,  not  mentioned  above,  are  not 
used  in  this  country  to  any  appreciable 
extent  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol. 

Spelt. — This  grain,  which  is  botanic- 
ally  a  variety  of  wheat,  more  closely 
resembles  barley.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions as  much  as  73  bushels  per  acre 
have  been  reported,  and  analyses  show 
70  per  cent  of  fermentable  carbohy- 
drates. The  weight  per  bushel  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  oats.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  this  crop  might  be  worthy  of 
consideration  as  a  profitable  source  of 
industrial  alcohol. 

Sugar  Beets. — The  sugar  beet  is  often 
used  directly  as  a  source  of  alcohol. 
Working  on  a  practical  scale  in  France, 
it  has  been  found  that  from  10,430  tons 
of  beets^  there  were  produced  183,624 
gallons  of  crude  alcohol  of  100  per  cent 
strength.  The  beets  contain  11.33  per 
cent  of  sugar.  From  220  pounds  of  sugar 
15.64  gallons  of  alcohol  were  produced. 
The  weight  of  pure  alcohol  obtained  is  a 
little  less  than  one-half  the  weight  of  the 
dry  fermentable  matter  calculated  as 
sugar  subjected  to  fermentation.  About 
18  gallons  of  alcohol  are  produced  for 
each  ton  of  sugar  beets  employed. 

Sweet  Potatoes. — Experiments  show 
that  as  much  as  11,000  pounds  of  sweet 
potatoes  can  be  grown  per  acre.  The 
average  yield  of  sweet  potatoes,  of  course, 
is  very  much  less.  On  plots  to  which 
no  fertilizer  is  added  the  yield  is  about 
8,000  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes  per  acre, 
yielding  in  round  numbers  1,900  pounds 
of  starch.  The  quantity  of  sugar  in  the 
8,000  pounds  is  about  350  pounds,  which 
added  to  the  starch,  makes  2,250  pounds 
of  fermentable  matter  per  acre.  This 
will  yield  1,125  pounds  of  industrial 
alcohol  of  95  per  cent  strength,  or  ap- 
proximately 160  gallons  per  acre.  The 
percentage  of  starch  is  markedly  greater 
than  in  the  white  or  Irish  potato.  In  all 
cases  over  20  per  cent  of  starch  was  ob- 
tained in  the  South  Carolina  sweet 
potatoes,  and  in  one  instance  over  24  per 
cent.  As  much  as  2,600  pounds  of  starch 
were  produced  per  acre. 

In  addition  to  starch,  the  sweet  potato 
contains  notable  quantities  of  sugar, 
sometimes  as  high  as  6  per  cent  being 
present,  so  that  the  total  fermentable 
matter  in  the  sweet  potato  may  be  reck- 


SPIRIT 


673 


oned  at  the  minimum  at  25  per  cent.  A 
bushel  of  sweet  potatoes  weighs  55 
pounds,  and  one-quarter  of  this  is  fer- 
mentable matter,  or  nearly  14  pounds. 
This  would  yield,  approximately,  7 
pounds,  or  a  little  over  1  gallor  of  95  per 
cent  alcohol.  It  may  be  fairly  stated, 
therefore,  in  a  general  way,  that  a  bushel 
of  sweet  potatoes  will  yield  1  gallon  of 
industrial  alcohol. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the 
quantity  of  starch  diminishes  and  the 
quantity  of  sugar  increases  on  storing. 
Further,  it  may  be  stated  that  in  the 
varieties  of  sweet  potatoes  which  are 
most  esteemed  for  table  use  there  is  less 
starch  and  perhaps  more  sugar  than 
stated  above.  The  total  quantity  of 
fermentable  matter,  however,  does  not 
greatly  change,  although  there  is  prob- 
ably a  slight  loss. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Material  or  By- 
products. —  Molasses.  —  The  utilization 
of  the  waste  materials  from  the  sugar 
factories  and  sugar  refineries  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  alcohol  is  a  well-es- 
tablished industry.  The  use  of  these 
sources  of  supply  depends,  of  course, 
upon  the  cost  of  the  molasses.  When 
the  sugar  has  been  exhausted  as  fully  as 
possible  from  the  molasses  the  latter 
consists  of  a  saccharine  product,  contain- 
ing a  considerable  quantity  of  unferment- 
able  carbohydrate  matter,  large  quan- 
tities of  mineral  salts,  and  water.  In 
molasses  of  this  kind  there  is  probably 
not  more  than  50  pounds  of  fermentable 
matter  to  100  pounds  of  the  product. 
Assuming  that  a  gallon  of  such  molasses 
weighs  11  pounds,  it  is  seen  that  it  con- 
tains 5 1  pounds  of  fermentable  matter, 
yielding  2|-  pounds  of  industrial  alcohol 
of  95  per  cent  strength.  It  requires 
about  3  gallons  of  such  molasses  to  make 
1  gallon  of  industrial  alcohol. 

When  the  price  of  molasses  delivered  to 
the  refineries  falls  as  low  as  5  or  6  cents  a 
gallon  it  may  be  considered  a  profitable 
source  of  alcohol. 

Wood  Pulp  and  Sawdust. — Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  produce 
alcohol  for  industrial  purposes  from 
sawdust,  wood  pulp,  or  waste  wood 
material.  The  principle  of  the  process 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  the  woody  sub- 
stance is  composed  of  cellulose  and 
kindred  matters  which,  under  the  action 
of  dilute  acid  (preferably  sulphuric  or 
sulphurous)  and  heat,  with  or  without 
pressure,  undergo  hydrolysis  and  are 
changed  into  sugars.  A  large  part  of 
the  sugar  which  is  formed  is  non- 
fermentable,  consisting  of  a  substance 


known  as  xylose.  Another  part  of  the 
sugar  produced  is  dextrose,  made  from 
the  true  cellulose  which  the  wood 
contains. 

The  yield  of  alcohol  in  many  of  the 
experiments  which  have  been  made  has 
not  been  very  satisfactory.  It  is  claimed, 
however,  by  some  authors  that  paying 
quantities  of  alcohol  are  secured.  In 
Simmonsen's  process  for  the  manu- 
facture of  alcohol  ^  per  cent  sulphuric 
acid  is  employed  and  from  4  to  5  parts 
of  the  liquid  heated  with  1  part  of  the 
finely  comminuted  wood  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  under  a  pressure  of  9  atmos- 
pheres. It  is  claimed  by  Simmonsen 
that  he  obtained  a  yield  of  6  quarts  of 
alcohol  from  110  pounds  of  air-dried 
shavings.  Another  process  which  has 
been  tried  in  this  and  other  countries  for 
converting  comminuted  wood  into  alcohol 
is  known  as  Classen's.  The  comminuted 
wood  is  heated  for  15  minutes  in  a  closed 
apparatus  at  a  temperature  of  from  248° 
to  293°  F.  in  the  presence  of  sulphurous 
acid  (fumes  of  burning  sulphur)  instead 
of  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  claimed  by  the 
inventor  that  he  has  made  as  much  as  12 
quarts  of  alcohol  from  110  pounds  of  the 
air-dried  shavings.  There  is  reason  to 
doubt  the  possibility  of  securing  such 
high  yields  in  actual  practice  as  are 
claimed  in  the  above  processes.  That 
alcohol  can  be  made  from  sawdust  and 
wood  shavings  is  undoubtedly  true,  but 
whether  or  not  it  can  be  made  profitably 
must  be  determined  by  actual  manu- 
facturing operations. 

Waste  Products  of  Canneries,  etc. — The 
principal  waste  materials  which  may  be 
considered  in  this  connection  are  the 
refuse  of  wine  making,  fruit  evaporating, 
and  canning  industries,  especially  the 
waste  of  factories  devoted  to  the  can- 
ning of  tomatoes  and  Indian  corn.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  waste  fruit  products 
themselves,  which  are  not  utilized  at  all, 
as,  for  instance,  the  imperfect  and  rotten 
apples,  tomatoes,  grapes,  etc.,  may  be 
favorably  considered.  The  quantity  of 
waste  products  varies  greatly  in  different 
materials. 

The  quantities  of  waste  material  in 
grapes  and  apples,  as  shown  by  Lazenby, 
are  as  follows:  About  25  per  cent  of  the 
total  weight  in  grapes,  with  the  exception 
of  the  wild  grape,  where  it  is  about  60 
per  cent;  with  apples  the  average  per- 
centage of  waste  was  found  to  be  23.8 
per  cent  from  25  varieties.  This  in- 
cluded the  waste  in  the  core,  skin,  and 
the  defective  apples  caused  by  insects, 
fungi/bruises,  etc.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  in  the  preparation  of  fruits  for 


674 


SPIRIT 


preserving  purposes  about  25  per  cent 
of  their  weight  is  waste,  and  this,  it  is 
evident,  could  be  utilized  for  the  manu- 
facture of  alcohol.  If  apples  be  taken 
as  a  type  of  fruits,  we  inay  assume  that 
the  waste  portions  contain  10  per  cent  of 
fermentable  matters,  which,  however,  is 
perhaps  rather  a  high  estimate.  Five 
per  cent  of  this  might  be  recovered  as 
industrial  alcohol.  Thus,  each  100 
pounds  of  fruit  waste  in  the  most  favor- 
able circumstances  might  be  expected  to 
produce  5  pounds  of  industrial  alcohol. 
The  quantity  of  waste  which  couid  be 
utilized  for  this  purpose  would  hardly 


established    it    might    be    profitable    to 
devote  them  to  this  purpose. 

Manufacture  of  Alcohol. — The  three 
principal  steps  in  the  manufacture  of 
alcohol  are  (1)  the  preparation  of  the 
mash  or  wort,  (2)  the  fermentation  of  the 
mash  or  wort  drawn  off  from  the  mash 
tun,  and  (3)  the  distillation  of  the  dilute 
alcohol  formed  in  the  beer  or  wash  from 
the  fermentatioji  tanks.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  mash  includes  (1)  the  treat- 
ment of  the  material  used  with  hot  water 
to  form  a  paste  of  the  starch  or  the  sugar, 
and  (2)  the  action  of  the  malt  or  ferment 


FIG.   1.— MASH  TUN  IN  AN  IRISH   DISTILLERY. 


render  it  profitable  to  engage  in  the 
manufacture.  A  smaller  percentage  could 
be  expected  from  the  waste  of  the  to- 
mato, where  the  quantity  of  sugar  is 
not  so  great.  In  the  waste  of  the  sweet- 
corn  factory  the  amount  of  ferment- 
able matter  would  depend  largely  on  the 
care  with  which  the  grain  was  removed. 
There  is  usually  a  considerable  quantity 
of  starchy  material  left  on  the  cobs,  and 
this,  with  the  natural  sugars  which  the 
grown  cobs  contain,  might  yield  quite 
large  Quantities  of  fermentable  matter. 
It  would  not  be  profitable  to  erect  dis- 
tilleries simply  for  the  utilization  of 
waste  of  this  kind,  but  if  these  wastes 
could  be  utilized  in  distilleries  already 


on  the  paste  to  convert  the  starch  into 
fermentable  sugar. 

Mashing. — Figs.  1  and  2  show  two 
views  of  the  mashing  tun  or  tank,  the 
first  figure  giving  the  general  appearance, 
and  the  second  a  view  of  the  interior  of 
the  tun,  showing  the  machinery  by 
which  the  stirring  is  effected  and  the 
series  of  pipes  for  cooling  the  finished 
product  down  to  the  proper  tempera- 
ture for  the  application  of  the  malt. 

The  object  of  the  mash  tun  is  to  re- 
duce the  starch  in  the  ground  grain  to  a 
pasty,  gummy  mass,  in  order  that  the 
ferment  of  the  malt  rnay  act  upon  it 
vigorously  and  convert  it  into  sugar.  If 
the  mashing  be  done  before  the  addition 


SPIRIT 


675 


FlQ.  2.— MASHING  AND  COOLING  APPARATUS,  CROSS  SECTION. 


FIG.  3.— FERMENTATION  TANKS  IN  AN  IRISH  DISTILLERY. 


676 


SPIRIT 


of  the  malt  the  temperature  may  be 
raised  to  that  of  boiling  water.  If,  how- 
ever, the  malt  be  added  before  the  mash- 
ing begins,  the  temperature  should  not 
rise  much,  if  any,  above  140°  F.,  since 
the  fermenting  power  is  retarded  and 
disturbed  at  higher  temperatures.  The 
mashing  is  simply  a  mechanical  process 
by  means  of  which  the  starch  is  reduced 
to  a  form  of  paste  and  the  temperature 
maintained  at  that  point  which  is  best 
suited  to  the  conversion  of  the  starch  into 
sugar. 

Fermentation. — The  mash,  after  the 
starch  has  all  been  converted  into  sugar, 
goes  into  fermenting  tanks,  which  in 
Scotland  are  called  "wash  backs,"  when 
the  yeast  is  added..  A  view  of  the  typical 
wash  back  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  They 
often  have  a  stirring  apparatus,  as  in- 
dicated in  the  figure;  wnereby  the  con- 
tents can  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
yeast  and  kept  in  motion.  This  is  not 
necessary  after  the  fermentation  is  once 
well  established,  but  it  is  advisable, 
especially  in  the  early  stages,  to  keep  the 
yeast  well  distributed  throughout  the 
mass.  In  these  tanks  the  fermentations 
are  conducted,  the  temperature  being 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
product  to  be  made.  For  industrial 
alcohol  the  sole  purpose  should  be  to 
secure  the  largest  possible  percentage  of 
alcohol  without  reference  to  its  palatable 
properties. 

An  organism  belonging  to  the  vege- 
table family  and  to  which  the  name 
"yeast"  has  been  given  is  the  active 
agent  in  fermentation.  The  organism 
itself  does  not  take  a  direct  part  in  the 
process,  but  it  secretes  another  ferment 
of  an  unorganized  character  known  as 
an  "enzym"  or  a  "diastase."  This  en- 
zym  has  the  property,  under  proper 
conditions  of  food,  temperature,  and 
dilution,  of  acting  upon  sugar  and  con- 
verting it  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid. 
Anyone  who  has  ever  seen  a  fermenting 
vat  in  full  operation  and  noticed  the 
violent  boiling  or  ebullition  of  the  liquor, 
can  understand  how  rapidly  the  gas 
"carbon  dioxide"  or  "carbonic  acid,"  as 
it  is  usually  called,  may  be  formed,  as  it 
is  the  escape  of  this  gas  which  gives  the 
appearance  to  the  tank  of  being  in  a 
violent  state  of  ebullition.  The  yeast 
which  produces  the  fermentation  belongs 
to  the  same  ganeral  family  as  the  ordi- 
nary yeast  which  is  used  in  the  leavening 
of  bread.  The  leavening  of  bread  under 
the  action  of  yeast  is  due  to  the  conver- 
sion of  the  sugar  in  the  dough  into 
alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide  or  carbonic 
acid.  The  gas  thus  formed  becomes 


entangled  in  the  particles  of  the  gluten, 
and  these  expanding  cause  the  whole 
mass  to  swell  or  "rise,"  as  it  is  commonly 
expressed.  Starch  cannot  be  directly 
fermented,  but  must  be  first  converted 
into  sugar,  either  by  the  action  of  a 
chemical  like  an  acid,  or  a  ferment  or 
enzym,  known  as  diastase,  which  is  one 
of  the  abundant  constituents  of  malt, 
especially  of  barley  malt.  In  the  prep- 
aration of  a  cereal,  for  instance,  for 
fermentation,  it  is  properly  softened  and 
ground,  and  then  usually  heated  with 
water  to  the  boiling  point  or  above  in 
order  that  the  starch  may  be  diffused 
throughout  the  water.  After  cooling,  it  is 
treated  with  barley  malt,  the  diastase  of 
which  acts  vigorously  upon  the  starch, 
converting  it  into  a  form  of  sugar, 
namely,  maltose,  which  lends  itself 
readily  to  the  activities  of  the  yeast  fer- 
mentation. (Fig.  4.) 


FIG.  4.— YEAST   FROM  BEER  SEDIMENT  SHOWING 
BUDDING  (  X  1270). 

When  ordinary  sugar  (cane  sugar, 
beet  sugar,  and  sucrose)  is  subjected  to 
fermentation  it  is  necessary  that  the 
yeast,  which  also  exerts  an  activity 
similar  to  that  of  malt,  should  first  con- 
vert the  cane  sugar  into  invert  sugar 
(equal  mixtures  of  dextrose  and  levulose) 
before  the  alcoholic  fermentation  is  set 
up.  The  cane  sugar  is  also  easily  in- 
verted by  heating  with  an  acid. 

When  different  kinds  of  sugars  and 
starches  are  fermented  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  beverage  it  is  important  that 
the  temperature  of  fermentation  be  care- 
fully controlled,  since  the  character  of 
the  product  depends  largely  upon  the 
temperature  at  which  the  fermentation 
takes  place.  On  the  contrary,  when  in- 
dustrial alcohol  is  made,  the  sole  object 
is  to  get  as  large  a  yield  as  possible,  and 
for  this  reason  that  temperature  should 
be  employed  which  produces  the  most 
alcohol  and  the  least  by-products,  ir- 
respective of  the  flavor  or  character  of  the 
product  made.  Also,  in  the  making  of 
alcoholic  beverages,  it  is  important  that 
the  malt  be  of  the  very  best  quality  in 


SPIRIT 


677 


order  that  the  resulting  product  may 
have  the  proper  flavor.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  alcohol  for  industrial  purposes 
this  is  of  no  consequence,  and  the  sole 
purpose  here  should  be  to  produce  the 
largest  possible  yield.  For  this  reason 
there  is  no  objection  to  the  use  of  acids 
for  converting  the  starch,  cane  sugar, 
and  cellulose  into  fermentable  sugars. 
Therefore,  the  heating  of  the  raw  ma- 
terials under  pressure  with  dilute  acids 
in  order  to  procure  the  largest  quantity 
of  sugar  is  a  perfectly  legitimate  method 
of  procedure  in  the  manufacture  of  in- 
dustrial alcohols. 

Sugars  and  starches  are  usually  asso- 
ciated in  nature  with  another  variety  of 
carbohydrates  known  as  cellulose,  and 
this  cellulose  itself,  when  acted  upon  by 
an  acid,  is  converted  very  largely  into 
sugars,  which,  on  fermentation,  yield 
alcohol.  For  industrial  purposes,  the 
alcohol  produced  in  this  manner  is  just 
as  valuable  as  that  made  from  sugar  and 
starch.  Whether  the  diastatic  method 
of  converting  the  starch  and  sugar  into 
fermentable  sugars  be  used,  or  the  acid 
method,  is  simply  a  question  of  economy 
and  yield.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
alcoholic  beverages  are  to  be  made,  those 
processes  must  be  employed,  irrespective 
of  the  magnitude  of  the  yield,  which  give 
the  finest  and  best  flavors  to  the  products. 

Distillation. — The  object  of  distilla- 
tion is  to  separate  the  alcohol  which  has 
been  formed  from  the  non-volatile  sub- 
stances with  which  it  is  mixed.  A  typical 
form  of  distilling  apparatus  for  the  con- 
centration of  the  dilute  alcohol  which  is 
formed  in  the  beer  or  wash  from  the  fer- 
mentation tanks,  is  represented  in  Fig.  5. 

This  apparatus  is  of  the  continuous 
type  common  to  Europe  and  America. 
It  consists  of  a  "beer  still"  provided  with 
a  number  of  chambers  fitted  with  per- 
forated plates  and  suitable  overflow  pipes. 
It  is  operated  as  follows: 

The  syrup  and  alcohol  are  pumped 
into  the  top  of  the  beer  still  through  a 
pipe  G;  the  tank  G  may  also  be  placed 
above  the  center  of  the  still  and  the  con- 
tents allowed  to  flow  into  the  still  by 
gravity;  steam  is  admitted  through  an 
open  pipe  into  the  kettle  A  at  the  bottom 
of  the  column  or  is  produced  by  heating 
the  spent  liquor  by  means  of  a  coil.  The 
steam  ascends  through  the  perforations 
in  the  plates,  becoming  richer  and  richer 
in  alcohol  as  it  passes  through  each  lay- 
er of  liquor,  while  the  latter  gradually 
descends  by  means  of  the  overflow  pipes 
to  the  bottom  of  the  column  B  and  finally 
reaches  the  kettle  completely  exhausted 
of  alcohol,  whence  it  is  removed  by 


means  of  a  pump  connected  with  the 
pipe  line  H.  On  reaching  the  top  of  the 
beer  still  B  the  vapors  of  the  alcohol  and 
the  steam  continue  to  rise  and  pass  into 
the  alcohol  column  C.  This  column  is 
also  divided  into  chambers,  but  by  solid 
instead  of  perforated  plates,  as  shown  at 


FIG.  5.— CONTINUOUS  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

K.  Each  chamber  is  provided  with  a 
return  or  overflow  pipe  and  an  opening 
through  which  the  vapors  ascend.  In 
the  alcohol  column  the  vapors  are  so 
directed  as  to  pass  through  a  layer  of 


678 


SPIRIT— SPONGES 


liquid  more  or  less  rich  in  alcohol  which 
is  retained  by  the  plate  separating  the 
compartments.  An  excess  of  liquids  in 
these  compartments  overflows  through 
the  down  pipes,  gradually  works  its  way 
into  the  beer  still,  and  thence  to  the 
kettle.  On  reaching  the  top  of  the  col- 
umn the  vapors,  which  have  now  be- 
come quite  rich  in  alcohol,  are  passed 
into  a  coil  provided  with  an  outlet  at  the 
lowest  part  of  each  bend.  These  outlets 
lead  into  the  return  pipe  P,  which  con- 
nects with  the  top  chamber  of  the  alcohol 
column.  This  coil  is  technically  termed 
the  "goose"  and  is  immersed  in  a  tank 
called  the  "goose  tub."  A  suitable  ar- 
rangement is  provided  for  controlling 
the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  tub 
by  means  of  outlet  and  inlet  water  pipes. 
When  the  still  is  in  operation  the  temper- 
ature of  the  "goose"  is  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  required  density  of  the  alco- 
hol. The  object  of  the  "goose"  is  the 
return  to  the  column  of 'all  low  products 
which  condense  at  a  temperature  be- 
low the  boiling  point  of  ethyl  alcohol 
of  the  desired  strength.  On  leaving  the 
"goose"  the  vapors  enter  a  condenser  E, 
wnence  the  liquid  alcohol  is  conducted 
into  a  separator  F.  This  separator  con- 
sists simply  of  a  glass  box  provided  with 
a  cylinder  through  which  a  current  of 
alcohol  is  constantly  flowing.  An  alcohol 
spindle  is  inserted  in  this  cylinder  and 
snows  the  density  of  the  spirit  at  all 
times.  A  pipe,  with  a  funnel-shaped 
opening  at  its  upper  extremity,  connects 
with  the  pipe  leading  from  the  condens- 
er and  gives  vent  to  any  objectionable 
fumes.  The  separator  is  connected  by 
means  of  a  pipe  with  the  alcohol  storage 
tank.  The  pipe  O  is  for  emptying  the 
upper  chambers  when  necessary.  The 
valves  N,  communicating  by  means  of  a 
small  pipe  with  a  condenser  M,  are  for 
testing  the  vapors  in  the  lower  chambers 
for  alcohol. 

Substances  Used  for  Denaturing  Alco- 
hol.— The  process  of  rendering  alcohol 
unsuitable  for  drinking  is  called  "denatur- 
ing," and  consists,  essentially,  in  adding 
to  the  alcohol  a  substance  soluble  there- 
in of  a  bad  taste  or  odor,  or  both,  of  an 
intensity  which  would  render  it  impos- 
sible or  impracticable  to  use  the  mixture 
as  a  drink.  Among  the  denaturing  sub- 
stances which  have  been  proposed  are 
the  following: 

Gum  shellac  (with  or  without  the  ad- 
dition of  camphor,  turpentine,  wood 
spirit,  etc.),  colophonium,  copal  rosin, 
Manila  gum,  camphor,  turpentine,  acetic 
acid,  acetic  ether,  ethylic  ether,  methyl 
alcohol  (wood  alcohol),  pyridine,  acetone, 


methyl  acetate,  methyl  violet,  methylene 
blue,  aniline  blue,  eosin,  fluorescein, 
naphthalene,  castor  oil,  benzine,  carbolic 
acid,  caustic  soda,  musk,  animal  oils, 
etc. 

Methyl  (wood)  alcohol  and  benzine 
are  the  denaturing  agents  authorized  in 
the  United  States,  in  the  following  pro- 
portions: To  100  parts,  by  volume,  of 
ethyl  alcohol  (not  less  than  90  per  cent 
strength)  add  10  parts  of  approved 
methyl  (wood)  alcohol  and  ^  of  1  part  of 
approved  benzine.  Such  alcohol  is  classed 
as  completely  denatured.  Formulas  for 
special  denaturation  may  be  submitted 
for  approval  by  manufacturers  to  the 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  who 
will  determine  whether  they  may  be  used 
or  not,  and  only  one  special  denaturant 
will  be  authorized  for  the  same  class  of 
industries  unless  it  shall  be  shown  that 
there  is  good  reason  for  additional  special 
denaturants.  Not  less  than  300  wine 
gallons  can  be  withdrawn  from  a  bonded 
warehouse  at  one  time  for  denaturing 
purposes. 

Spirit. — Proof  spirit  is  a  term  used  by 
the  revenue  department  in  assessing  the 
tax  on  alcoholic  liquors.  It  means  a 
liquid  in  which  there  is  50  per  cent  (by 
volume)  of  absolute  alcohol.  As  it  is 
the  actual  alcohol  in  the  whisky,  brandy, 
dilute  alcohol,  etc.,  which  is  taxed,  and  as 
this  varies  so  widely,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  actual  wine  gallons  be  converted  into 
proof  gallons  before  the  tax  rate  can  be 
fixed.  A  sample  that  is  half  alcohol 
and  half  water  (let  us  say  for  conven- 
ience) is  "100  proof."  A  sample  that  is 
|  alcohol  and  ^  water  is  150  proof,  and 
the  tax  on  every  gallon  of  it  is  1^  times 
the  regular  government  rate  per  proof 
gallon.  Absolute  alcohol  is  200  proof 
and  has  to  pay  a  double  tax. 

The  legal  definition  of  proof  spirit  is, 
"that  alcoholic  liquor  which  contains 
one-half  its  volume  of  alcohol  of  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  0.7939  at  60°  F." 

SPONGES: 

Bleaching  Sponges.  —  I.  —  Soak  in 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to  remove  the 
lime,  then  wash  in  water,  and  place  for 
10  minutes  in  a  2  per  cent  solution  of 
potassium  permanganate.  The  brown 
color  on  removal  from  this  solution  is 
due  to  the  deposition  of  manganous  oxide, 
and  this  may  be  removed  by  steeping  for 
a  few  minutes  in  very  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  As  soon  as  the  sponges  appear 
white,  they  are  washed  out  in  water  to 
remove  the  acid. 

II. — A  sponge  that  has  been  used  in 


SPONGES— STAMPING 


679 


surgical  operations  or  for  other  purposes, 
should  first  be  washed  in  warm  water,  to 
every  quart  of  which  20  drops  of  liquor 
of  soda  have  been  added;  afterwards 
washed  in  pure  water,  wrung  or  pressed 
out  and  put  into  a  jar  of  bromine  water, 
where  it  is  left  until  bleached.  Bleaching 
is  accelerated  by  exposing  the  vessel 
containing  the  bromine  water  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  When  the  sponge 
is  bleached  it  is  removed  from  the  bro- 
mine water,  and  put  for  a  few  minutes  in 
the  water  containing  soda  lye.  Finally 
it  is  rinsed  in  running  water  until  the 
odor  of  bromine  disappears.  It  should 
be  dried  as  rapidly  as  possible  by  hang- 
ing it  in  the  direct  sunlight. 

Sterilization  of  Sponges. — I. — Allow 
the  sponges  to  lie  for  24  hours  in  an  8 
per  cent  hydrochloric  acid  solution,  to 
eliminate  lime  and  coarse  impurities; 
wash  in  clean  water,  and  place  the 
sponges  in  a  solution  of  caustic  potash, 
10  parts;  tannin,  10  parts;  and  water, 
1,000  parts.  After  they  have  been  sat- 
urated for  5  to  20  minutes  with  this 
liquid,  they  are  washed  out  in  steril- 
ized water  or  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
or  corrosive  sublimate,  until  they  have 
entirely  lost  the  brown  coloring  acquired 
by  the  treatment  with  tannin.  The 
sponges  thus  sterilized  are  kept  in  a  2  per 
cent  or  15  per  cent  carbolic  solution. 

Sponge  Window  Display. — Soak  a  large 
piece  of  coarse  sponge  in  water,  squeeze 
half  dry,  then  sprinkle  in  the  openings 
red  clover  seed,  millet,  barley,  lawn  grass, 
oats,  rice,  etc.  Hang  this  in  the  window, 
where  the  sun  shines  a  portion  of  the  day, 
and  sprinkle  lightly  with  water  daily.  It 
will  soon  form  a  mass  of  living  green 
vegetation  very  refreshing  to  the  eyes. 
While  the  windows  are  kept  warm  this 
may  be  done  at  any  season.  The  seeds 
used  may  be  varied,  according  to  fancy. 

SPONGES  AS  FILTERS: 

See  Filters. 

SPONGE  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, under  Miscellaneous  Methods. 

SPONGE-TRICK,  BURNING: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

SPOT  ERADICATORS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods and  Soaps. 

SPOT  GILDING: 

See  Plating. 

SPRAY  SOLUTION: 

See  Balsams. 


SPEARMINT  CORDIAL: 

See  Wines  and  Liquors. 

SPRAIN  WASHES: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

SPRING  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SPRING  HARDENING: 

See  Steel. 

SPRINGS  OF  WATCHES: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

SPRUCE  BEER: 

See  Beverages. 

STAIN  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

STAINS: 

See     Paints,     Varnishes      and     Wood 
Stains. 

STAINS  FOR  LACQUERS: 

See  Lacquers. 


Stamping 

(See  also  Dyes.) 

Stamping  Colors  for  Use  with  Rubber 
Stamps. — Blue:  0.3  parts  of  water-blue 
IB,  1.5  parts  of  dextrin,  1.5  parts  of  dis- 
tilled water.  Dissolve  the  aniline  dye 
and  the  dextrin  in  the  distilled  water, 
over  a  water  bath,  and  add  7  parts  of 
refined  glycerine,  28°  Be. 

Other  colors  may  be  made  according 
to  the  same  formula,  substituting  the 
following  quantities  of  dyes  for  the 
water-blue:  Methyl  violet  3  B,  0.02  parts; 
diamond  fuchsine  I,  0.02  parts;  aniline 
green  D,  0.04  parts;  vesuvine  B,  0.05 
parts;  phenol  black,  0.03  parts.  Oleagi- 
nous colors  are  mostly  used  for  metallic 
stamps,  but  glycerine  colors  can  be  used 
in  case  of  necessity. 

Oleaginous  Stamping  Colors. — Mix  0.8 
parts  of  indigo,  ground  fine  with  2.5  parts 
of  linseed-oil  varnish,  and  0.5  parts  of 
olein.  Add  2  parts  of  castor  oil  and  5 
parts  of  linseed  oil.  For  other  colors  accord- 
ing to  the  same  formula,  use  the  following 
quantities:  Cinnabar,  2$  parts;  verdigris, 
2£  parts;  lampblack,  1.2  parts;  oil-soluble 
aniline  blue  A,  0.35  parts;  oil-soluble 
aniline  scarlet  B,  0.3  parts;  aniline  yellow 
(oil-soluble),  0.45  parts;  oil-soluble  aniline 
black  L,  0.6  parts. 

Stamping  Liquids  and  Powders. — Dis- 
solve 1  drachm  each  of  rosin  and  copal 


680 


STAMPING— STARCH 


in  4  fluidounces  of  benzine  and  with  a 
little  of  this  liquid  triturate  \  drachm  of 
Prussian  blue  and  finally  mix  thoroughly 
with  the  remainder. 

Ultramarine,  to  which  has  been  added 
a  small  proportion  of  powdered  rosin,  is 
generally  used  for  stamping  embroidery 
patterns  on  white  goods.  The  powder 
is  dusted  through  the  perforated  pattern, 
which  is  then  covered  with  a  paper  and  a 
hot  iron  passed  over  it  to  melt  the  rosin 
and  cause  the  powder  to  adhere  to  the 
cloth.  The  following  are  said  to  be  ex- 
cellent powders: 

I. — White. — One  part  each  of  rosin, 
copal,  damar,  mastic,  sandarac,  borax, 
and  bronze  powder,  and  2  parts  white 
lead. 

II. — Black. — Equal  parts  of  rosin,  dam- 
ar, copal,  sandarac,  Prussian  blue,  ivory 
black,  and  bronze  powder. 

III.  —  Blue.  —  Equal  parts  of  rosin, 
damar,  copal,  sandarac,  Prussian  blue, 
ultramarine,  and  bronze  powder. 

In  all  these  powders  the  gums  are  first 
to  be  thoroughly  triturated  and  mixed  by 
passing  through  a  sieve,  and  the  other 
ingredients  carefully  added.  Other  colors 
may  be  made  by  using  chrome  yellow, 
burnt  or  raw  sienna,  raw  or  burnt  umber, 
Vandyke  brown,  etc.  For  stamping  fab- 
rics liable  to  be  injured  by  heat,  the 
stamping  is  done  by  moistening  a  suitable 
powder  with  alcohol  and  using  it  like  a 
stencil  ink. 

Stamping  Powder  for  Embroideries. — 
"Stamping  powders"  used  for  outlining 
embroidery  patterns  are  made  by  mixing 
a  little  finely  powdered  rosin  with  a  suit- 
able pigment.  After  dusting  the  powder 
through  the  perforated  pattern  it  is  fixed 
on  the  fabric  by  laying  over  it  a  piece  of 
paper  and  then  passing  a  hot  iron  care- 
fully over  the  paper.  By  this  means  the 
rosin  is  melted  and  the  mixture  adheres. 
When  white  goods  are  to  be  "stamped," 
ultramarine  is  commonly  used  as  the 
pigment;  for  dark  goods,  zinc  white  may 
be  substituted.  Especial  care  should  be 
taken  tc  avoid  lead  compounds  and  other 
poisonous  pigments,  as  they  may  do 
mischief  by  dusting  off.  On  velvets  or 
other  materials  likely  to  be  injured  by 
heat,  stamping  is  said  to  be  done  by 
moistening  a  suitable  powder  with  alco- 
hol and  using  it  as  stencil  paint.  A 
small  addition  of  rosinous  matter  would 
seem  required  here  also. 

Starch 

Black  Starch. — Add  to  the  starch  a 
certain  amount  of  logwood  extract  be- 


fore the  starch  mixture  is  boiled.  The 
quantity  varies  according  to  the  depth 
of  the  black  and  the  amount  of  starch. 
A  small  quantity  of  potassium  bichro- 
mate dissolved  in  hot  water  is  used  to 
bring  out  the  proper  shade  of  black.  In 
place  of  bichromate,  black  iron  liquor 
may  be  used.  This  comes  ready  pre- 
pared. 

Starch  Gloss. — I.  —  Melt  2£  pounds 
of  the  best  paraffine  wax  over  a  slow  fire. 
When  liquefied  remove  from  the  fire  to 
stir  in  100  drops  of  oil  of  citronella. 
Place  several  new  pie  tins  on  a  level 
table,  coat  them  slightly  with  sweet  oil, 
and  pour  about  6  tablespoonfuls  of  the 
melted  paraffine  wax  into  each  tin.  The 
pan  may  be  floated  in  water  sufficiently 
to  permit  the  mixture  to  be  cut  or 
stamped  out  with  a  tin  cutter  into  small 
cakes  about  the  size  of  a  peppermint 
lozenge.  Two  of  these  cakes  added  to 
each  pint  of  starch  will  cause  the  smooth- 
ing iron  to  impart  the  finest  possible 
finish  to,  muslin  or  linen,  besides  perfum- 
ing the  clothes. 

II. — Gum    arabic,    pow- 
dered       3  parts 

Spermaceti  wax  ....  6  parts 
Borax,  powdered.  . .  4  parts 
White  cornstarch  ...  8  parts 
All  these  are  to  be  intimately  mixed  in 
the  powder  form  by  sifting  through  a 
sieve  several  times.  As  the  wax  is  in  a 
solid  form  and  does  not  readily  become 
reduced  to  powder  by  pounding  in  a  mor- 
tar, the  best  method  of  reducing  it  to 
such  a  condition  is  to  put  the  wax  into  a 
bottle  with  some  sulphuric  or  rectified 
ether  and  then  allow  the  fluid  to  evap- 
orate. After  it  has  dissolved  the  wax, 
as  the  evaporation  proceeds,  the  wax  will 
be  deposited  again  in  the  solid  form,  but 
in  fine  thin  flakes,  which  will  easily 
break  down  to  a  powder  form  when 
rubbed  up  with  the  other  ingredients  in 
a  cold  mortar.  Pack  in  paper  or  in 
cardboard  boxes.  To  use,  4  teaspoon- 
fuls  per  pound  of  dry  starch  are  to  be 
added  to  all  dry  starch,  and  then  the 
starch  made  in  the  usual  way  as  boiled 
starch. 

Refining  of  Potato  Starch. — A  suit- 
able quantity  of  chloride  of  lime,  fluc- 
tuating according  to  its  quality  between 
\  to  1  part  per  100  parts  of  starch,  is 
made  with  little  water  into  a  thick  paste. 
To  this  paste  add  gradually  with  con- 
stant stirring  10  to  15  times  the  quantity 
of  water,  and  filter. 

The  filtrate  is  now  added  to  the  starch 
stirred  up  with  water;  \  part  of  ordinary 


STARCH— STEEL 


681 


hydrochloric  acid  of  20°  Be.  previously 
diluted  with  four  times  the  quantity  of 
water  is  mixed  in,  for  every  part  of 
chloride  of  lime,  the  whole  is  stirred 
thoroughly,  and  the  starch  allowed  to 
stand. 

When  the  starch  has  settled,  the 
supernatant  water  is  let  off  and  the  starch 
is  washed  with  fresh  water  until  all  odor 
of  chlorine  has  entirely  disappeared. 
The  starch  now  obtained  is  the  resulting 
final  product. 

If  the  starch  thus  treated  is  to  be 
worked  up  into  dextrin,  it  is  treated  in 
the  usual  manner  with  hydrochloric  acid 
or  nitric  acid  and  will  then  furnish  a  dex- 
trin perfectly  free  from  taste  and  smell. 

In  case  the  starch  is  to  be  turned  into 
"soluble"  starch  proceed  as  usual,  in  a 
similar  manner  as  in  the  production  of 
dextrin,  with  the  single  difference  that 
the  starch  treated  with  hydrochloric  or 
nitric  acid  remains  exposed  to  a  temper- 
ature of  212°  F.,  only  until  a  test  with 
tincture  of  iodine  gives  a  bluish-violet 
reaction.  The  soluble  starch  thus  pro- 
duced, which  is  clearly  soluble  in  boiling 
water,  is  odorless  and  tasteless. 

Starch  Powder.  —  Finely  powdered 
starch  is  a  very  desirable  absorbent,  ac- 
cording to  Snively,  who  says  that  for 
toilet  preparations  it  is  usually  scented 
by  a  little  otto  or  sachet  powder.  Frangi- 
panin  powder,  used  in  the  proportion  of 
1  part  to  30  of  the  starch,  he  adds,  gives 
a  satisfactory  odor. 

STARCHES: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

STARCH  IN  JELLY,  TESTS  FOR: 
See  Foods. 

STARCH  PASTE: 

See  Adhesives. 

STATUE  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

STATUETTES,  CLEANING  OF: 

See  Plaster. 

STATUETTES  OF  LIPOWITZ  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

Steel 

(See  also  Iron  and  Metals.) 
ANNEALING  STEEL: 

See  also  Hardening  Steel  and  Temper- 
ing Steel. 

This  work  requires  the  use  of  sub- 
stances which  yield  their  carbon  readily 
and  quickly  to  the  tools  on  contact  at 
a  high  temperature.  Experience  has 


shown  that  the  best  results  are  obtained 
by  the  use  of  yellow  blood-lye  salt  (yel- 
low prussiate  of  potash),  which,  when 
brought  in  contact  with  the  tool  at  a 
cherry-red  heat,  becomes  fluid,  and  in 
this  condition  has  a  strong  cementing 
effect.  The  annealing  process  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  tool  is  heated  to  a  cherry  red 
and  the  blood-lye  salt  sprinkled  over  the 
surface  which  is  to  be  annealed.  A  fine 
sieve  should  be  used,  to  secure  an  even 
distribution  of  the  substance.  The  tool 
is  then  put  back  into  the  fire,  heated  to 
the  proper  temperature  for  tempering, 
and  tempered.  If  it  is  desired  to  give  a 
higher  or  more  thorough  tempering  to 
iron  or  soft  steel,  the  annealing  process  is 
repeated  2  or  3  times.  The  surface  of 
the  tool  must,  of  course,  be  entirely  free 
from  scale.  Small  tools  to  which  it  is 
desired  to  impart  a  considerable  degree 
of  hardness  by  annealing  with  blood-lye 
salt  are  tempered  as  follows:  Blood-lye 
salt  is  melted  in  an  iron  vessel  over  a 
moderate  fire,  and  the  tool,  heated  to  a 
brown-red  heat,  placed  in  the  melted 
salt,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  for 
about  15  minutes.  It  is  then  heated  to 
the  hardening  temperature  and  hardened. 
A  similar  but  milder  effect  is  produced  in 
small,  thin  tools  by  making  them  re- 
peatedly red  hot,  immersing  them  slowly 
in  oil  or  grease,  reheating  them,  and 
finally  tempering  them  in  water.  To  in- 
crease the  effect,  soot  or  powdered  char- 
coal is  added  to  the  oil  or  grease  (train 
oil)  till  a  thick  paste  is  formed,  into 
which  the  red-hot  tool  is  plunged.  By 
this  means  the  tool  is  covered  with  a  thick, 
not  very  combustible,  coating,  which 
produces  a  powerful  cementation  at  the 
next  heating.  By  mixing  flour,  yellow 
blood-lye  salt,  saltpeter,  horn  shavings, 
or  ground  hoofs,  grease,  and  wax,  a 
paste  is  formed  which  serves  the  same 
purpose.  A  choice  may  be  made  of  any 
of  the  preparations  sold  as  a  "hardening 
paste";  they  are  all  more  or  less  of  the 
same  composition.  This  is  a  sample: 
Melt  500  grains  of  wax,  500  grains  tal- 
low, 100  grains  rosin,  add  a  mixture  of 
leather-coal,  horn  shavings,  and  ground 
hoofs  in  equal  parts  till  a  paste  is  formed, 
then  add  10  grains  saltpeter  and  50  to 
100  grains  powdered  yellow  blood-lye 
salt,  and  stir  well.  The  tools  are  put 
into  this  paste  while  red  hot,  allowed  to 
cool  in  it,  then  reheated  and  tempered. 

More  steel  is  injured,  and  sometimes 
spoiled,  by  over-annealing  than  in  any 
other  way.  Steel  heated  too  hot  in  an- 
nealing will  shrink  badly  when  being 
hardened;  besides,  it  takes  the  life  out  of 
it.  It  should  never  be  heated  above  a 


STEEL 


low  cherry  red,  and  it  should  be  a  lower 
heat  than  it  is  when  being  hardened.  It 
should  be  heated  slowly  and  given  a 
uniform  heat  all  over  and  through  the 
piece. 

This  is  difficult  to  do  in  long  bars  and 
in  an  ordinary  furnace.  The  best  way 
to  heat  a  piece  of  steel,  either  for  anneal- 
ing or  hardening,  is  in  red-hot,  pure  lead. 
By  this  method  it  is  done  uniformly,  and 
one  can  see  the  color  all  the  time.  Some 
heating  for  annealing  is  done  in  this  way: 
Simply  cover  up  the  piece  in  sawdust, 
and  let  it  cool  there,  and  good  results  will 
be  obtained. 

Good  screw  threads  cannot  be  cut  in 
steel  that  is  too  soft.  Soft  annealing 
produces  a  much  greater  shrinkage  and 
spoils  the  lead  of  the  thread. 

This  mixture  protects  the  appearance 
of  polished  or  matted  steel  objects  on 
heating  to  redness:  Mix  1  part  of  white 
soap,  6  parts  of  chemically  pure  boracic 
acid,  and  4  parts  of  phosphate  of  soda, 
after  pulverizing,  and  make  with  water 
into  a  paste.  For  use,  apply  this  to  the 
article  before  the  annealing. 

COLORING  STEEL: 

Black. — I. — Oil  or  wax  may  be  em- 
ployed on  hard  steel  tools;  with  both 
methods  the  tool  loses  more  or  less  of  its 
hardness  and  the  blacking  process  there- 
fore is  suited  only  for  tools  which  are 
used  for  working  wood  or  at  least  need 
not  be  very  hard,  at  any  rate  not  for 
tools  which  are  employed  for  working 
steel  or  cast  iron.  The  handsomest 
glossy  black  color  is  obtained  by  first 
polishing  the  tool  neatly  again  after  it 
has  been  hardened  in  water,  next  causing 
it  to  assume  on  a  grate  or  a  hot  plate  the 
necessary  tempering  color,  yellow,  vio- 
let blue,  etc.,  then  dipping  it  in  molten, 
not  too  hot,  yellow  wax  and  burning  off 
the  adhering  wax,  after  withdrawal,  at 
a  fire,  without,  however,  further  heating 
the  tool.  Finally  dip  the  tool  again  into 
the  wax  and  repeat  the  burning  off  at  the 
flame  until  the  shade  is  a  nice  lustrous 
black,  whereupon  the  tool  may  be 
cooled  off  in  water.  The  wax  is  sup- 
posed to  impart  greater  toughness  to  the 
tool.  It  is  advisable  for  all  tools  to  have 
a  trough  of  fat  ready,  which  has  been 
heated  to  the  necessary  tempering  de- 
gree, and  the  tools  after  hardening  in 
water  are  suspended  in  the  fat  until  they 
have  acquired  the  temperature  of  the  fat 
bath.  When  the  parts  are  taken  out  and 
slowly  allowed  to  cool,  they  will  be  a 
nice,  but  not  lustrous,  black. 

II. — The  following  has  been  suggested 
for  either  steel  or  iron: 


Bismuth  chloride.  .  .      1  part 
Mercury  bichloride.      2  parts 
Copper  chloride.  ...      1  part 
Hydrochloric  acid  .  .      6  parts 

Alcohol 5  parts 

Water  sufficient  to  make  64  parts. 
Mix.  As  in  all  such  processes  a  great 
deal  depends  upon  having  the  article  to 
be  treated  absolutely  clean  and  free  from 
grease.  Unless  this  is  the  case  uniform 
results  are  impossible.  The  liquid  may 
be  applied  with  a  swab,  or  a  brush,  but 
if  the  object  is  small  enough  to  dip  into 
the  liquid  better  results  may  thus  be 
obtained  than  in  any  other  way.  The 
covering  thus  put  on  is  said  to  be  very 
lasting,  and  a  sure  protection  against 
oxidation. 

Blue. — I. — Heat  an  iron  bar  to  redness 
and  lay  it  on  a  receptacle  filled  with 
water.  On  this  bar  place  the  objects  to 
be  blued,  with  the  polished  side  up.  As 
soon  as  the  article  has  acquired  the 
desired  color  cause  it  to  fall  quickly  into 
the  water.  The  pieces  to  be  blued  must 
always  previously  be  polished  with  pum- 
ice stone  or  fine  emery. 

II. — For  screws:  Take  an  old  watch 
barrel  and  drill  as  many  holes  into  the 
head  of  it  as  the  number  of  screws  to  be 
blued.  Fill  it  about  one-fourth  full  of 
brass  or  iron  filings,  put  in  the  head, 
and  then  fit  a  wire  long  enough  to  bend 
over  for  a  handle,  into  the  arbor  holes — 
head  of  the  barrel  upward.  •  Brighten 
the  heads  of  the  screws,  set  them,  point 
downward,  into  the  holes  already  drilled, 
and  expose  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  to 
the  lamp,  until  the  screws  assume  the 
color  you  wish. 

III. — To  blue  gun-barrels,  etc.,  dis- 
solve 2  parts  of  crystallized  chloride  of 
iron;  2  parts  solid  chloride  of  antimony; 
1  part  gallic  acid  in  4  or  5  parts  of  water; 
apply  with  a  small  sponge,  and  let  dry  in 
the  air.  Repeat  this  two  or  three  times, 
then  wash  with  water,  and  dry.  Rub 
with  boiled  linseed  oil  to  deepen  the 
shade.  Repeat  this  until  satisfied  with 
the  result. 

IV. — The  bluing  of  gun  barrels  is 
effected  by  heating  evenly  in  a  muffle 
until  the  desired  blue  color  is  raised,  the 
barrel  being  first  made  clean  and  bright 
with  emery  cloth,  leaving  no  marks  of 
grease  or  dirt  upon  the  metal  when  the 
bluing  takes  place,  and  then  allow  to 
cool  in  the  air.  It  requires  considerable 
experience  to  obtain  an  even  clear  blue. 

Brown. — I. — The  following  recipe  for 
browning  is  from  the  United  States  Ord- 
nance Manual:  Spirits  of  wine,  1$ 


STEEL 


683 


ounces;  tincture  of  iron,  1^  ounces;  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  1A  ounces;  sweet 
spirits  of  niter,  1^  ounces;  blue  vitriol,  1 
ounce;  nitric  acid,  f  ounce.  Mix  and 
dissolve  in  1  quart  of  warm  water  and 
keep  in  a  glass  jar.  Clean  the  barrel  well 
with  caustic  soda  water  to  remove  grease 
or  oil.  Then  clean  the  surface  of  all 
stains  and  marks  with  emery  paper  or 
cloth,  so  as  to  produce  an  even,  bright 
surface  for  the  acid  to  act  upon,  and  one 
without  finger  marks.  Stop  the  bore 
and  vent  with  wooden  plugs.  Then  ap- 
ply the  mixture  to  every  part  with  a 
sponge  or  rag,  and  expose  to  the  air  for 
24  hours,  when  the  loose  rust  should  be 
rubbed  off  with  a  steel  scratch  brush. 
Use  the  mixture  and  the  scratch  brush 
twice,  and  more  if  necessary,  and  finally 
wash  in  boiling  water,  dry  quickly,  and 
wipe  with  linseed  oil  or  varnish  with 
shellac. 

II. — Apply  four  coats  of  the  following 
solution,  allowing  each  several  hours  to 
dry.  Brush  after  each  coat  if  necessary. 
After  the  last  coat  is  dry,  rub  down  hard. 

Sulphate  of  copper.  ..  1  ounce 
Sweet  spirits  of  niter. .  1  ounce 
Distilled  water 1  pint 

Niello. — This  is  a  brightly  polished 
metal,  which  is  provided  with  a  black  or 
blue-black  foundation  by  heating,  is  cov- 
ered with  a  design  by  the  use  of  a  suitable 
matrix  and  then  treated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  such  a  manner  that  only 
the  black  ground  is  attacked,  the  metal 
underneath  remaining  untouched.  Next, 
the  acid  is  rinsed  off  and  the  reserve  is 
removed  with  suitable  solvents.  The 
parts  of  the  metal  bared  by  the  acid  may 
also  be  provided  with  a  galvanic  coating 
of  silver  or  other  metal. 

Another  method  is  to  plunge  the  articles 
for  a  few  minutes  into  a  solution  of  ox- 
alic acid  and  to  clean  them  by  passing 
them  through  alcohol.  In  this  way  the 
polish  can  even  be  brought  back  with- 
out the  use  of  rouge  or  diamantine. 

Whitening  or  Blanching. — If  dissatis- 
fied with  the  color  acquired  in  tempering, 
dip  the  article  into  an  acid  bath,  which 
whitens  it,  after  which  the  bluing  opera- 
tion is  repeated.  This  method  is  of  great 
service,  but  it  is  important  to  remember 
always  thoroughly  to  wash  after  the  use 
of  acid  and  then  allow  the  object  to  re- 
main for  a  few  minutes  in  alcohol.  Sul- 
phuric acid  does  not  whiten  well,  often 
leaving  dark  shades  on  the  surface.  Hy- 
drochloric acid  gives  better  results.  Small 
pieces  of  steel  are  also  whitened  with  a 
piece  of  pith  moistened  with  dilute  sul- 


phuric acid,  else  the  fine  steel  work,  such 
as  a  watch  hand,  is  fixed  with  lacquer  on 
a  plate  and  whitened  by  means  of  pith 
and  polishing  rouge,  or  a  small  stiff  brush 
is  charged  with  the  same  material.  It  is 
then  detached  by  heating  and  cleaned  in 
hot  alcohol. 

TEMPERING  STEEL. 

The  best  temperature  at  which  to 
quench  in  the  tempering  of  tool  steel  is 
the  one  just  above  the  transformation 
point  o'f  the  steel,  and  this  temperature 
may  be  accurately  determined  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner,  without  the  use  of  a 
pyrometer.  The  pieces  of  steel  are  in- 
troduced successively  at  equal  intervals 
of  time  into  a  muffle  heated  to  a  temper- 
ature a  little  above  the  transformation 
point  of  the  steel.  If,  after  a  certain 
time,  the  pieces  be  taken  out  in  the  re- 
verse order  they  will  at  first  show  pro- 
gressively increasing  degrees  of  brightness/ 
these  pieces  being  at  the  transformation 
point.  When  this  point  is  passed  the 
pieces  again  rapidly  acquire  a  brightness 
superior  to  that  of  their  neighbors,  and 
should  then  be  immediately  quenched. 

I. — Heat  red  hot  and  dip  in  an  un- 
guent made  of  mercury  and  the  fat  of 
bacon.  This  produces  a  remarkable 
degree  of  hardness  and  the  steel  pre- 
serves its  tenacity  and  an  elasticity 
which  cannot  be  obtained  by  other  means. 

II. — Heat  to  the  red  white  and  thrust 
quickly  into  a  stick  of  sealing  wax. 
Leave  it  a  second,  and  then  change  it  to 
another  place,  and  so  continue  until  the 
metal  is  too  cool  to  penetrate  the  wax. 
To  pierce  with  drills  hardened  in  this  way, 
moisten  them  with  essence  of  turpentine. 

To  Temper  Small  Coil  Springs  and 
Tools. — To  temper  small  coil  springs  in 
a  furnace  burning  wood  the  springs  are 
exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  flame  and  are 
quenched  in  a  composition  of  the  follow- 
ing preparation:  To  a  barrel  of  fish  oil, 
10  quarts  of  rosin  and  12  quarts  of  tallow 
are  added.  If  the  springs  tempered  in 
this  mixture  break,  more  tallow  is  added, 
but  if  the  break  indicates  brittleness  of 
the  steel  rather  than  excessive  hardness, 
a  ball  of  yellow  beeswax  about  6  inches 
in  diameter  is  added.  The  springs  are 
drawn  to  a  reddish  purple  by  being 
placed  on  a  frame  having  horizontally 
radiating  arms  like  a  star  which  is 
mounted  on  the  end  of  a  vertical  rod. 
The  springs  are  laid  on  the  star  and  are 
lowered  into  a  pot  of  melted  lead,  being 
held  there  for  such  time  as  is  required  to 
draw  to  the  desired  color. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  addition  of 


STEEL 


certain  soluble  substances  powerfully 
affects  the  action  of  tempering  water. 
This  action  is  strengthened  if  the  heat- 
conducting  power  of  the  water  is  raised 
by  means  of  these  substances;  it  is  re- 
tarded if  this  power  is  reduced,  or  the 
boiling  point  substantially  lowered.  The 
substance  most  frequently  used  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  the  heat-conduct- 
ing power  of  tempering  water  is  common 
salt.  This  is  dissolved  in  varying  pro- 
portions of  weight,  a  saturated  solution 
being  generally  used  as  a  quenching 
mixture.  The  use  of  this  solution  is 
always  advisable  when  tools  of  com- 
plicated shape,  for  which  a  considerable 
degree  of  hardness  is  necessary,  are  to  be 
tempered  in  large  quantities  or  in  fre- 
quent succession.  In  using  these  cooling 
fluids,  care  must  be  taken  that  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  is  added  to  the  water  to 
prevent  any  great  rise  of  temperature 
when  the  tempering  process  is  pro- 
tracted. For  this  reason  the  largest 
possible  vessels  should  be  used,  wide  and 
shallow,  rather  than  narrow  and  deep, 
vessels  being  selected.  Carbonate  of  soda 
and  sal  ammoniac  do  not  increase  the 
tempering  action  to  the  same  extent  as 
common  salt,  and  are  therefore  not  so 
frequently  employed,  though  they  form 
excellent  additions  to  tempering  water  in 
certain  cases.  Tools  of  very  complicated 
construction,  such  as  fraises,  where  the 
danger  of  fracture  of  superficial  parts 
has  always  to  be  kept  in  view,  can  with 
advantage  be  tempered  in  a  solution  of 
soda  or  sal  ammoniac.  Acids  increase 
the  action  of  tempering  water  consider- 
ably, and  to  a  far  greater  extent  than 
common  salt.  They  are  added  in  quan- 
tities up  to  2  per  cent,  and  frequent- 
ly in  combination  with  salts.  Organ- 
ic acids  (e.  g.,  acetic  or  citric)  have  a 
milder  action  than  mineral  acids  (e.  g., 
hydrochloric,  nitric,  or  sulphuric).  Acid- 
ulous water  is  employed  in  tempering 
tools  for  which  the  utmost  degree  of 
hardness  is  necessary,  such  as  instru- 
ments for  cutting  exceptionally  hard  ob- 
jects, or  when  a  sufficiently  hard  surface 
nas  to  be  given  to  a  kind  of  steel  not 
capable  of  much  hardening.  Alcohol 
lowers  the  boiling  point  of  water,  and 
causes  so  vigorous  an  evaporation  when 
the  water  comes  in  contact  with  the  red- 
hot  metal,  that  the  tempering  is  greatly 
retarded  (in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
alcohol  in  the  mixture).  Water  con- 
taining a  large  quantity  of  alcohol  will 
not  temper.  Soap  and  soap  suds  will 
not  temper  steel;  this  property  is  made 
use  of  in  the  rapid  cooling  of  steel  for 
which  a  great  degree  of  hardness  is  not 


desirable.  When  certain  parts  of  com- 
pletely tempered  steel  have  to  be  rendered 
soft,  these  parts  are  heated  to  a  red  heat 
and  then  cooled  in  soap  suds.  This  is 
done  with  the  tangs  of  files,  knives, 
swords,  saws,  etc.  Soluble  organic  sub- 
stances retard  the  tempering  process  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  used,  and 
thus  lessen  the  effect  of  pure  water. 
Such  substances  (e.  g.,  milk,  sour  beer, 
etc.)  are  employed  only  to  a  limited 
extent. 

To  Caseharden  Locally. — In  case- 
hardening  certain  articles  it  is  sometimes 
necessary,  or  desirable,  to  leave  spots  or 
sections  in  the  original  soft  uncarbonized 
condition  while  the  remainder  is  carbon- 
ized and  hardened.  This  may  be  ef- 
fected by  first  covering  the  parts  to  be 
hardened  with  a  protecting  coat  of  japan, 
and  allowing  it  to  dry.  Then  put  the 
piece  in  an  electroplating  bath  and  de- 
posit a  heavy  coat  of  nickel  over  the 
parts  not  protected  by  the  japan.  The 
piece  thus  prepared  may  be  treated  in 
the  usual  manner  in  casehardening. 
The  coat  of  nickel  prevents  the  metal 
beneath  being  carbonized,  so  it  does  not 
harden  when  dipped  in  the  bath. 

A  plating  of  copper  answers  the  same 
purpose  as  nickel  and  is  often  used.  A 
simpler  plan,  where  the  shape  of  the 
piece  permits,  is  to  protect  it  from  the 
action  of  the  carbonizing  material  with 
an  iron  pipe  or  plate  closely  fitted  or 
luted  with  clay.  Another  scheme  is  to 
machine  the  parts  wanted  soft  after 
carbonizing  but  before  hardening.  By 
this  procedure  the  'carbonized  material  is 
removed  where  the  metal  is  desired  soft, 
and  when  heated  and  dipped  these  parts 
do  not  harden. 

To  Harden  a  Hammer. — To  avoid  the 
danger  of  "checking"  a  hammer  at  the 
eye,  heat  the  hammer  to  a  good  uniform 
hardening  heat  and  then  dip  the  small 
end  almost  up  to  the  eye  and  cool  as 
quickly  as  possible  by  moving  about  in 
the  hardening  bath;  then  dip  the  large 
end.  To  harden  a  hammer  successfully 
by  this  method  one  must  work  quickly 
and  cool  the  end  dipped  first  enough  to 
harden  before  the  heat  is  lost  on  the 
other  end.  Draw  the  temper  from  the 
heat  left  about  the  eye.  The  result  is  a 
hammer  hard  only  where  it  should  be 
and  free  from  "checks." 

Hardening  Steel  Wire. — Pass  the  steel 
wire  through  a  lead  bath  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  1,200°  to  1,500°  F.  after  it 
has  previously  been  coated  with  a  paste 
of  chalk,  so  as  to  prevent  the  formation 


STEEL 


685 


of  oxides.  The  wire  is  thus  heated  in 
a  uniform  manner  and,  according  to 
whether  it  is  desired  hard  or  elastic,  it  is 
cooled  in  water  or  in  oil. 

Hardening  of  Springs. — A  variety  of 
steel  must  be  chosen  which  is  suitable 
for  the  production  of  springs,  a  very 
tough  quality  with  about  0.8  per  cent  of 
carbon  being  probably  the  best.  Any 
steel  works  of  good  reputation  would  no 
doubt  recommend  a  certain  kind  of  steel. 
In  shaping  a  spring,  forging  and  ham- 
mering should  be  avoided  if  possible.  In 
forging,  an  uneven  treatment  can  scarcely 
be  avoided;  one  portion  is  worked  more 
than  the  other,  causing  tensions  which, 
especially  in  springs,  must  be  guarded 
against.  It  is  most  advantageous  if  a 
material  of  the  thickness  and  shape  of 
the  spring  can  be  obtained,  which,  by 
bending  and  pressing  through,  is  shaped 
into  the  desired  spring.  Since  this  also 
entails  slight  tension,  a  careful  annealing 
is  advisable,  so  as  to  prevent  cracking  or 
distorting  in  hardening.  The  annealing 
is  best  conducted  with  exclusion  of  the 
air,  by  placing  the  springs  in  a  sheet-iron 
box  provided  with  a  cover,  smearing  all 
the  joints  well  up  with  loam.  The  heat- 
ing may  be  done  in  a  muffled  furnace; 
the  box,  with  contents,  is,  not  too  slowly, 
heated  to  cherry  red  and  then  allowed  to 
cool  gradually,  together  with  the  stove. 
The  springs  must  only  be  taken  out 
when  they  have  cooled  off  enough  that 
they  will  give  off  no  hissing  sound  when 
touched  by  water.  In  order  to  uniform- 
ly heat  the  springs  for  hardening,  a 
muffle  furnace  is  likewise  employed, 
wherein  they  are  heated  to  cherry-red 
heat.  For  cooling  liquid,  a  mixture  of  oil, 
tallow,  and  petroleum  is  employed.  A 
mass  consisting  of  fish  oil,  tallow,  and 
wax  also  renders  good  service,  but  one 
should  see  to  it  that  there  is  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  these  cooling  liquids,  so  that 
the  springs  may  be  moved  about,  same 
as  when  cooled  in  water,  without  causing 
an  appreciable  increase  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  liquid.  In  most  cases  too 
small  a  quantity  of  the  liquid  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  many  failures  in  hardening. 
When  the  springs  have  cooled  in  the 
hardening  liquid,  they  are  taken  out, 
dried  off  superficially,  and  the  oil  still 
adhering  is  burned  off  over  a  charcoal 
fire.  This  enables  one  to  moderate  the 
temper  according  to  the  duration  of  the 
burning  off  and  to  produce  the  desired 
elasticity.  An  even  heating  being  of 
great  importance  in:  hardening  springs, 
the  electric  current  has  of  late  been  suc- 
cessfully employed  for  this  purpose. 


To  Temper  a  Tap. — After  the  tap  has 
been  cut  and  finished  heat  it  in  a  pair  of 
tongs  to  a  blood-red  heat  over  a  charcoal 
fire  or  the  blue  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner 
or  blow  pipe,  turning  it  around  so  that 
one  point  does  not  get  heated  before 
another.  Have  ready  a  pail  of  clean, 
cold  water,  into  which  a  handful  of  com- 
mon salt  has  been  put.  Stir  the  water  in 
the  pail  so  that  a  whirlpool  is  set  up. 
Then  plunge  the  tap,  point  first  and 
vertically,  into  the  vortex  to  cool.  The 
turning  of  the  tap  during  heating,  as  well 
as  the  swirl  of  the  quenching  water,  pre- 
vents distortion.  In  tempering,  the  tem- 
per of  the  tap  requires  to  be  drawn  to  a 
light  straw  color,  and  this  may  be  done 
as  follows:  Get  a  piece  of  cast-iron  tube 
about  3  inches  in  diameter  and  heat  it  to 
a  dull-red  heat  for  about  4  inches  of  its 
length.  Then  hold  the  tap,  with  the 
tongs,  up  the  center  of  the  tube,  mean- 
while turning  the  tap  around  until  the 
straw  color  appears  all  over  it.  Then 
dip  the  tap  in  the  water,  when  it  will  be 
found  perfectly  hard.  The  depth  of  the 
color,  whether  light  or  dark  straw,  must 
be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  cast 
steel  being  used,  which  can  be  gained 
only  from  experience  of  the  steel. 

Scissors  Hardening. — The  united  legs 
of  the  scissors  are  uniformly  heated  to  a 
dark  cherry  red,  extending  from  the 
point  to  the  screw  or  rivet  hole.  This 
may  be  done  in  the  naked  fire,  a  feeble 
current  of  air  being  admitted  until  the 
steel  commences  to  glow.  Then  the  fire 
is  left  to  itself  and  the  scissor  parts  are 
drawn  to  and  fro  in  the  fire,  until  all  the 
parts  to  be  hardened  show  a  uniform 
dark  cherry  red.  The  two  legs  are 
hardened  together  in  water  and  then 
tempered  purple  red  to  violet. 

The  simultaneous  heating,  hardening, 
and  tempering  of  the  parts  belonging 
together  is  necessary,  so  that  the  degree 
of  heat  is  the  same  and  the  harder  part 
does  not  cut  the  softer  one. 

,  In  accordance  with  well-known  rules, 
the  immersion  in  the  hardening  bath 
should  be  done  with  the  point  first, 
slowly  and  vertically  up  to  above  the 
riveting  hole. 

Hardening  without  Scaling. — Articles 
made  of  tool  steel  and  polished  may  be 
hardened  without  raising  a  scale,  thereby 
destroying  the  polish,  by  the  following 
method:  Prepare  equal  parts  in  bulk  of 
common  salt  and  (fine)  corn  meal,  well 
mixed.  Dip  the  article  to  be  hardened 
first  into  water,  then  into  the  mixture  and 
place  it  carefully  into  the  fire.  When  hot 
enough  to  melt  the  mixture,  take  from 


686 


STEEL 


the  fire  and  dip  or  roll  in  the  salt  and 
meal,  replace  in  the  fire  and  bring  to  the 
required  heat  for  hardening.  Watch 
the  piece  closely  and  if  any  part  of  it 
shows  signs  of  getting  dry,  sprinkle  some 
of  the  mixture  on  it.  The  mixture,  when 
exposed  to  heat,  forms  a  flux  over  the 
surface  of  the  steel  which  excludes  the 
air  and  prevents  oxidation,  and  when 
cooled  in  water  or  oil  comes  off  easily, 
leaving  the  surface  as  smooth  as  before 
heating.  Borax  would  possibly  give  the 
same  result,  but  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
remove  when  cold. 

Hardening  with  Glycerine. — I. — The 
glycerine  employed  must  be  of  the  density 
of  1.08  to  1.26  taken  at  the  temperature 
of  302°  F.  Its  weight  must  be  equal 
to  about  6  times  the  weight  of  the  pieces 
to  be  tempered.  For  hard  temper  add 
to  the  glycerine  £  to  4  per  cent  of  sulphate 
of  potash  or  of  manganese,  and  for  soft 
temper  1  to  10  per  cent  of  chloride  of 
manganese,  or  1  to  4  per  cent  of  chloride 
of  potassium.  The  temperature  of  the 
tempering  bath  is  varied  according  to 
the  results  desired. 

II. — Glycerine,  8,000-parts,  by  weight; 
cooking  salt,  500  parts,  by  weight;  sal 
ammoniac,  100  parts,  by  weight;  con- 
centrated hydrochloric  acid,  50  parts; 
and  water,  10,000  parts,  by  weight. 
Into  this  liquid  the  steel,  heated,  for 
example,  to  a  cherry  red,  is  dipped.  A 
reheating  of  the  steel  is  not  necessary. 

To  Remove  Burnt  Oil  from  Hardened 
Steel. — To  remove  excess  oil  from  parts 
that  have  been  hardened  in  oil,  place  the 
articles  in  a  small  tank  of  gasoline,  which, 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  will  dry  off 
immediately,  allowing  the  part  to  be 
polished  and  tempered  without  the  con- 
fusing and  unsightly  marks  of  burnt  oil. 

VARIOUS  RECIPES: 

To  Put  an  Edge  on  Steel  Tools. — 
Aluminum  will  put  an  edge  on  fine  cut- 
ting instruments  such  as  surgical  knives, 
razors,  etc.  It  acts  exactly  like  a  razor- 
hone  of  the  finest  quality.  When  steel 
is  rubbed  on  the  aluminum,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  honing  a  knife  blade,  the  met- 
al disintegrates,  forming  an  infinitely 
minute  powder  of  a  greasy  unctuous 
quality  that  clings  to  steel  with  great 
tenacity  and  thus  assists  in  cutting  away 
the  surface  of  the  harder  metal.  So  fine 
is  the  edge  produced  that  it  can  in  no 
wise  be  made  finer  by  the  strop,  which 
used  in  the  ordinary  way  merely  tends  to 
round  the  edge. 

To  Restore  Burnt  Steel.— To  restore 
burnt  cast  steel  heat  the  piece  to  a  red 


heat  and  sprinkle  over  it  a  mixture  of 
8  parts  red  chromate  of  potassium;  4 
parts  saltpeter;  £  part  aloes;  £  part  gum 
arabic;  and  J  part  rosin. 

To  Remove  Strains  in  Metal  by  Heat- 
ing.— In  making  springs  of  piano  wire, 
or,  in  fact,  any  wire,  if  the  metal  is 
heated  to  a  moderate  degree  the  spring 
will  be  improved.  Piano  or  any  steel 
wire  should  be  heated  to  a  blue,  brass 
wire  to  a  degree  sufficient  to  cause  tal- 
low to  smoke.  Heating  makes  the  met- 
al homogeneous;  before  heating,  it  is  full 
of  strains. 

If  a  piece  of  metal  of  any  kind  is 
straightened  cold  and  then  put  into  a 
lathe  and  a  chip  turned  off,  it  will  be  far  from 
true.  Before  turning,  it  was  held  true  by 
the  strain  of  the  particles  on  the  outside, 
they  having  changed  position,  while  the 
particles  near  the  axis  are  only  sprung. 
The  outside  particles  being  removed  by 
the  lathe  tool,  the  sprung  particles  at  the 
center  return  to  their  old  positions.  If, 
after  straightening,  the  metal  is  heated 
to  a  temperature  of  400°  F.,  the  particles 
settle  together  and  the  strains  are  re- 
moved. 

This  is  the  case  in  the  manufacture  of 
saws.  The  saw  is  first  hardened  and 
tempered  and  then  straightened  on  an 
anvil  by  means  of  a  hammer.  After  it  is 
hammered  true,  it  is  ground  and  polished 
a  little,  then  blued  to  stiffen  it  and  then 
is  subjected  to  the  grinding  process. 
Before  bluing,  the  metal  is  full  of  strains; 
these  are  entirely  removed  by  the  heat 
required  to  produce  the  blue  color. 
Often  a  piano-wire  spring  will  not  stand 
long  wear  if  used  without  heating,  while 
if  heated  it  will  last  for  years. 

To  Render  Fine  Cracks  in  Tools  Visi- 
ble.— It  is  often  of  importance  to  recog- 
nize small  cracks  which  appear  in  the 
metal  of  the  tools.  For  this  purpose  it 
is  recommended  to  moisten  the  fissured 
surface  with  petroleum;  next  rub  and 
dry  with  a  rag  and  rub  again,  but  this 
time  with  chalk.  The  petroleum  which 
has  entered  the  cracks  soon  comes  out 
again  and  the  trace  is  plainly  shown  by 
the  chalk. 

To  Utilize  Drill  Chips.— There  is  one 
modern  machining  process  that  produces 
a  shaving  that  has  more  value  than  that 
of  mere  scrap,  and  that  is  drilling  rifle 
barrels  with  the  oil-tube  drill.  The 
cutting  edge  of  this  drill  is  broken  up  in- 
to steps  and  the  chips  produced  are  liter- 
ally shavings,  being  long  hair-like  threads 
of  steel.  These  shavings  are  consider- 
ably used  in  woodworking  factories  for 
smoothing  purposes. 


STEEL 


687 


To  Remove  Fragments  of  Steel  from 
Other  Metals. — The  removal  of  broken 
spiral  drills  and  taps  is  an  operation 
which  even  the  most  skillful  machinist 
has  to  perform  at  times.  A  practical 
process  for  removing  such  broken  steel 
pieces  consists  in  preparing  in  a  suitable 
kettle  (not  iron)  a  solution  of  1  part,  by 
weight,  of  commercial  alum  in  4  to  5 
parts,  by  weight,  of  water  and  boiling 
the  object  in  this  solution  until  the 
piece  which  is  stuck  works  itself  out. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  place  the  piece 
in  such  a  position  that  the  evolving  gas 
bubbles  may  rise  and  not  adhere  to  the 
steel  to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the 
alum  solution. 

Testing  Steel. — A  bar  of  the  steel  to 
be  tested  is  provided  with  about  nine 
notches  running  around  it  in  distances  of 
about  |  of  an  inch.  Next,  the  foremost 
notched  piece  is  heated  in  a  forge  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  bar  is  heated  less  by  the  fire 
proper  than  by  the  transmitted  heat. 
When  the  foremost  piece  is  heated  to 
burning,  i.  e.,  to  combustion,  and  the 
color  of  the  succeeding  pieces  gradually 
passes  to  dark-brownish  redness,  the 
whole  rod  is  hardened.  A  test  with  the 
file  will  now  show  that  the  foremost 
burned  piece  possesses  the  greatest  hard- 
ness, that  several  softer  pieces  will  follow, 
and  that  again  a  piece  ordinarily  situ- 
ated in  the  second  third,  whose  tempera- 
ture was  the  right  one  for  hardening,  is 
almost  as  hard  as  the  first  one.  If  the 
different  pieces  are  knocked  off,  the 
fracture  of  the  piece  hardened  at  the 
correct  temperature  exhibits  the  finest 
grain.  This  will  give  one  an  idea  of  the 
temperature  to  be  employed  for  harden- 
ing the  steel  in  question  and  its  behavior 
in  general.  Very  hard  steel  will  readily 
crack  in  this  process. 

Welding  Compound. — Boracic  acid, 
41  ^  parts;  common  salt  35  parts;  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  20  parts;  rosin, 
7^  parts;  carbonate  of  sodium,  4  parts. 
Heat  the  pieces  to  be  welded  to  a  light- 
red  heat  and  apply  the  compound;  then 
heat  to  a  strong  yellow  heat  and  the 
welding  may  be  accomplished  in  the 
usual  manner. 

The  precaution  should  be  observed, 
the  same  as  with  any  of  the  cyanides, 
to  avoid  breathing  the  poisonous  fumes. 

Softening  Steel. — Heat  the  steel  to  a 
brown  red  and  plunge  into  soft  water, 
river  water  being  the  best.  Care  should 
be  taken,  however,  not  to  heat  over  brown 
red,  otherwise  it  will  be  hard  when  im- 


mersed. The  steel  will  be  soft  enough 
to  be  cut  with  ease  if  it  is  plunged  in  the 
water  as  soon  as  it  turns  red. 

Draw -Tempering  Cast  Steel. — First 
heat  the  steel  lightly  by  means  of  char- 
coal until  of  a  cherry-red  shade,  where- 
upon it  is  withdrawn  to  be  put  quickly 
into  ashes  or  dry  charcoal  dust  until 
completely  cooled.  The  steel  may  also 
be  heated  in  the  forge  to  a  red  cherry 
color,  then  hammered  until  it  turns  blue 
and  then  plunged  into  water. 

Drilling  Hard  Steel. — -To  accomplish 
the  object  quickly,  a  drill  of  cast  steel 
should  be  made,  the  point  gradually 
heated  to  the  red,  the  scales  taken  off, 
and  the  extremity  of  the  point  immersed 
at  once  in  quicksilver;  then  the  whole 
quenched  in  cold  water.  Thus  prepared, 
the  drill  is  equal  to  any  emergency;  it  will 
bore  through  the  hardest  pieces.  The 
quantity  of  quicksilver  needed  is  trifling. 

Engraving  or  Etching  on  Steel. — Dis- 
solve in  150  parts  of  vinegar,  sulphate  of 
copper,  30  parts;  alum,  8  parts;  kitchen 
salt,  11  parts.  Add  a  few  drops  of 
nitric  acid.  According  to  whether  this 
liquid  is  allowed  to  act  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  the  steel  may  be  engraved 
upon  deeply  or  the  surface  may  be  given 
a  very  ornamental,  frosted  appearance. 

To  Distinguish  Steel  from  Iron. — Take 
a  very  clean  file  and  file  over  the  flame 
of  an  alcohol  lamp.  If  the  filed  piece  is 
made  of  steel,  little  burning  and  crack- 
ling sparks  will  be  seen.  If  it  consists  of 
iron,  the  sparks  will  not  crackle. 

STEEL,  BROWNING  OF: 

See  Plating. 

STEEL,  DISTINGUISHING  IRON 
FROM: 

See  Iron. 

STEEL  ETCHING: 

See  Etching. 

STEEL-HARDENING  POWDER: 

See  Iron. 

STEEL,  OXIDIZED: 

See  Plating. 

STEEL  PLATING: 
See  Plating. 

STEEL  POLISHES: 
See  Polishes. 

STEEL,  TO  CLEAN: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


STEREOCHROMY— STONE 


STENCILS  FOR  PLOTTING  LETTERS 
OF  SIGN  PLATES: 

See  Enameling. 

STENCIL  INKS: 

See  Inks. 

STEREOCHROMY. 

Stereochromatic  colors  can  be  bought 
ground  in  a  thickly  liquid  water-glass 
solution.  They  are  only  diluted  with 
water-glass  solution  before  application 
on  the  walls.  The  two  solutions  are 
generally  slightly  dissimilar  in  their 
composition,  the  former  containing  less 
silicic  acid,  but  more  alkali,  than  the 
latter,  which  is  necessary  for  the  better 
preservation  of  the  paint.  Suitable  pig- 
ments are  zinc  white,  ocher  with  its 
different  shades  of  light  yellow,  red,  and 
dark  brown,  black  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  manganese  and  lampblack,  etc., 
etc.  White  lead  cannot  be  used,  as  it 
coagulates  with  the  water  glass,  nor 
vermilion,  because  it  fades  greatly  under 
the  action  of  the  light.  The  plastering 
to  be  coated  must  be  porous,  not  fresh, 
but  somewhat  hardened.  Otherwise 
the  caustic  lime  of  the  plaster  will 
quickly  decompose  the  water  glass.  This 
circumstance  may  account  for  the  un- 
satisfactory results  which  have  fre- 
quently been  obtained  with  water-glass 
coatings.  Before  applying  the  paint  the 
wall  should  first  be  impregnated  with  a 
water-glass  solution.  The  colors  may 
be  kept  on  hand  ground,  but  must  be 
protected  from  contact  with  the  air.  If 
air  is  admitted  a  partial  separation  of 
silica  in  the  form  of  a  jelly  takes  place. 
Only  pure  potash  water  glass,  or,  at 
least,  such  as  only  contains  little  soda, 
should  be  used,  as  soda  will  cause  efflor- 
escence. 

STEREOPTICON  SLIDES: 

See  Photography. 

STEREOTYPE  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 


STONE,  ARTIFICIAL. 

The  following  is  a  process  of  manu- 
facture in  which  the  alkaline  silicates 
prepared  industrially  are  employed. 

The  function  of  the  alkaline  silicates, 
or  soluble  glass,  as  constituents  of  arti- 
ficial stone,  is  to  act  as  a  cement,  forming 
with  the  alkaline  earths,  alumina,  and 
oxide  of  lead,  insoluble  silicates,  which 
weld  together  the  materials  (quartz  sand, 


pebbles,  granite,  fluorspar,  and  the 
waste  of  clay  bricks).  The  mass  may 
be  colored  black  by  the  addition  of  a 
quantity  of  charcoal  or  graphite  to  the 
extent  of  10  per  cent  at  the  maximum, 
binoxide  of  manganese,  or  ocher;  red,  by 
6  per  cent  of  colcothar;  brick  red,  by  4 
to  7  per  cent  of  cinnabar;  orange,  by  6 
to  8  per  cent  of  red  lead;  yellow,  by  6  per 
cent  of  yellow  ocher,  or  5  per  cent  of 
chrome  yellow;  green,  by  8  per  cent  of 
chrome  green;  blue,  by  6  to  10  per  cent 
of  Neuwied  blue,  Bremen  blue,  Cassel 
blue,  or  Napoleon  blue;  and  white,  by  20 
per  cent,  at  the  maximum,  of  zinc  white. 

Chrome  green  and  zinc  oxide  pro- 
duce an  imitation  of  malachite.  An 
imitation  of  lapis  lazuli  is  obtained  by 
the  simultaneous  employment  of  Cassel 
blue  and  pyrites  in  grains.  The  metallic 
oxides  yield  the  corresponding  silicates, 
and  zinc  oxide,  mixed  with  cleansed 
chalk,  yields  a  brilliant  marble.  The 
ingredients  are  mixed  in  a  kind  of 
mechanical  kneading  trough,  furnished 
with  stirrers,  in  variable  proportions, 
according  to  the  percentage  of  the  solu- 
tion of  alkaline  silicate.  The  whole  is 
afterwards  molded  or  compressed  by  the 
ordinary  processes. 

The  imitation  of  granite  is  obtained  by 
mixing  lime,  100  parts;  sodium  silicate 
(42°  Be.),  35  parts;  fine  quartz  sand,  120 
to  180  parts;  and  coarse  sand,  180  to  250 
parts.. 

Artificial  basalt  may  be  prepared  by 
adding  potassium  sulphite  and  lead 
acetate,  or  equal  parts  of  antimony  ore 
and  iron  filings. 

To  obtain  artificial  marble,  100 
pounds  of  marble  dust  or  levigated  chalk 
are  mixed  with  20  parts  of  ground  glass 
and  8  parts  of  fine  lime  and  sodium 
silicate.  The  coloring  matter  is  mixed 
in  proportion  depending  on  the  effect  to 
be  produced. 

A  fine  product  for  molding  is  obtained 
by  mixing  alkaline  silicate,  100  parts; 
washed  chalk,  100  parts;  slaked  lime,  40 
parts;  quick  lime,  40  parts,  fine  quartz 
sand,  200  parts;  pounded  glass,  80  parts; 
infusorial  earths,  80  parts;  fluorspar,  150 
parts.  On  hardening,  there  is  much 
contraction. 

Other  kinds  of  artificial  stone  are 
prepared  by  mixing  hydraulic  lime  or 
cement,  50  parts;  sand,  200  parts;  sodium 
silicate,  in  dry  powder,  50  parts;  the 
whole  is  moistened  with  10  per  cent  of 
water  and  molded. 

A  hydraulic  cement  may  be  employed, 
to  which  an  alkaline  silicate  is  added. 
The  stone  or  object  molded  ought  to  be 
covered  with  a  layer  of  fluosilicate. 


STONE 


689 


A  weather-proof  water-resisting  stone 
is  manufactured  from  sea  mud,  to  which 
5  per  cent  of  calcic  hydrate  is  added. 
The  mass  is  then  dried,  lixiviated,  and 
dried  once  more  at  212°  F.,  whereupon 
the  stones  are  burned.  By  an  admixture 
of  crystallized  iron  sulphate  the  firmness 
of  these  stones  is  still  increased. 

Sand -Lime  Brick. — In  a  French  patent 
for  making  bricks  from  pitch  and  coal 
tar,  powdered  coke  and  sea  sand  are 
gently  heated  in  a  suitable  vessel,  and 
20  per  cent  of  pitch  and  10  per  cent  of 
coal  tar  added,  with  stirring.  The  pasty 
mass  obtained  is  then  molded  under 
pressure.  The  product  obtained  may 
be  employed  alone,  or  together  with  a 
framework  of  iron,  or  with  hydraulic 
lime  or  cement. 

According  to  a  French  patent  for 
veining  marble,  etc.,  in  one  or  more 
colors,  coloring  matters  of  all  kinds  are 
mixed  with  a  sticky  liquid,  which  is  then 
spread  in  a  very  thin  layer  on  the  surface 
of  another  immiscible  and  heavier  liq- 
uid. By  agitating  the  surface,  colored 
veins,  etc.,  are  obtained,  which  are  then 
transferred  to  the  object  to  be  decorated 
(which  may  be  of  most  varied  kind)  by 
applying  it  to  the  surface  of  the  heavy 
liquid.  A  suitable  composition  with 
which  tfye  colors  may  be  mixed  consists 
of:  Oil  of  turpentine,  100  parts;  colo- 
phony, 10  parts;  linseed  oil,  10  parts; 
siccatif  soleil,  5  parts.  The  heavy  liq- 
uid may  be  water,  mercury,  etc.;  and 
any  colors,  organic  or  mineral,  may  be 
used. 

CONCRETE. 

Concrete  is  the  name  applied  to  an 
artificial  combination  of  various  mineral 
substances  which  under  chemical  action 
become  incorporated  into  a  solid  mass. 
There  are  one  or  two  compositions  of 
comparatively  trifling  importance  which 
receive  the  same  name,  though  differing 
fundamentally  from  true  concrete,  their 
solidification  being  independent  of  chem- 
ical influence.  These  compositions  only 
call  for  passing  mention;  they  are:  Tar 
concrete,  made  of  broken  stones  (mac- 
adam) and  tar;  iron  concrete,  composed 
of  iron  turnings,  asphalt,  bitumen,  and 
pitch;  and  lead  concrete,  consisting  of 
broken  bricks  set  in  molten  lead.  The 
last  two  varieties,  with  rare  exceptions, 
are  only  used  in  connection  with  military 
engineering,  such  as  for  fortifications. 

Concrete  proper  consists  essentially  of 
two  groups  or  classes  of  ingredients.  The 
first,  termed  the  aggregate,  is  a  hetero- 
geneous mass,  in  itself  inactive,  of 


mineral  material,  such  as  shingle,  broken 
stone,  broken  brick,  gravel,  and  sand. 
These  are  the  substances  most  com- 
monly in  evidence,  but  other  ingredients 
are  also  occasionally  employed,  such  as 
slag  from  iron  furnaces.  Burnt  clay,  in 
any  form,  and  earthenware,  make  ad- 
mirable material  for  incorporation.  The 
second  class  constitutes  the  active  agency 
which  produces  adhesion  and  solidifica- 
tion. It  is  termed  the  matrix,  and  con- 
sists of  hydraulic  lime  or  cement,  com- 
bined with  water. 

One  of  the  essential  features  in  good 
concrete  is  cleanliness  and  an  entire 
absence  of  dirt,  dust,  greasy  matter,  and 
impurities  of  any  description.  The  ma- 
terial will  preferably  be  sharp  and  angu- 
lar, with  a  rough,  porous  surface,  to 
which  the  matrix  will  more  readily 
adhere  than  to  smooth,  vitreous  sub- 
stances. The  specific  gravity  of  the  ag- 
gregate will  depend  upon  the  purpose  for 
which  the  concrete  is  to  be  used.  For 
beams  and  lintels,  a  light  aggregate,  such 
as  coke  breeze  from  gasworks,  is  per- 
missible, especially  when  the  work  is 
designed  to  receive  nails.  On  the  other 
hand,  for  retaining  walls,  the  heaviest 
possible  aggregate  is  desirable  on  the 
ground  of  stability. 

The  aggregate  by  no  means  should  be 
uniform  in  size.  Fragments  of  different 
dimensions  are  most  essential,  so  that 
the  smaller  material  may  fill  up  the 
interstices  of  the  larger.  It  is  not  in- 
frequently stipulated  by  engineers  that 
no  individual  fragment  shall  be  more 
than  4  inches  across,  and  the  material  is 
often  specified  to  pass  through  a  ring  1  J 
to  2  inches  in  diameter.  The  absolute 
limits  to  size  for  the  aggregate,  however, 
are  determinable  by  a  number  of  con- 
siderations, not  the  least  important  of 
which  is  the  magnitude  and  bulk  of  the 
work  in  which  it  is  to  be  employed.  The 
particles  of  sand  should  also  be  of  vary- 
ing degrees  of  coarseness.  A  fine,  dust- 
like  sand  is  objectionable;  its  minute 
subdivision  prevents  complete  contact 
with  the  cement  on  all  its  faces.  Another 
desideratum  is  that  the  particles  should 
not  be  too  spherical,  a  condition  brought 
about  by  continued  attrition.  Hence,  pit 
sand  is  better  in  many  cases  than  river 
sand  or  shore  sand. 

The  matrix  is  almost  universally 
Portland  cement.  It  should  not  be  used 
in  too  hot  a  condition,  to  which  end  it  is 
usually  spread  over  a  wooden  floor  to  a 
depth  of  a  few  inches,  for  a  few  days 
prior  to  use.  By  this  means,  the  alumin- 
ate  of  lime  becomes  partially  hydrated, 
and  its  activity  is  thereby  modified, 


690 


STONE 


Roman  cement  and  hydraulic  lime  may 
also  be  used  as  matrices. 

Portland  cement  will  take  a  larger 
proportion  of  sand  than  either  Roman 
cement  or  hydraulic  lime;  but  with  the 
larger  ratios  of  sand,  its  tenacity  is,  of 
course,  correspondingly  reduced.  One 
part  of  cement  to  4  parts  of  sand  should 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  the  upper 
limit,  while  for  the  strongest  mortar  the 
proportion  need  hardly  exceed  1  part  of 
cement  to  1J  or  2  parts  of  sand.  In  the 
ensuing  calculations  there  is  assumed  a 
ratio  of  1  to  3.  For  impermeability,  the 
proportion  of  1  to  2  should  be  observed, 
and  for  Roman  cement  this  proportion 
should  never  be  exceeded.  The  ratio 
will  even  advantageously  be  limited  to 
2  to  3.  For  hydraulic  lime  equal  parts  of 
sand  and  cement  are  suitable,  though  2 
parts  of  sand  to  1  part  of  cement  may  be 
used. 

The  quantity  of  mortar  required  in 
reference  to  the  aggregate  is  based  on  the 
vacuities  in  the  latter.  For  any  particu- 
lar aggregate  the  amount  of  empty  space 
may  be  determined  by  filling  a  tank  of 
known  volume  with  the  minerals  and 
then  adding  sufficient  water  to  bring  to 
a  level  surface.  The  volume  of  water 
added  (provided,  of  course,  the  aggregate 
be  impervious  or  previously  saturated) 
gives  the  net  volume  of  mortar  required. 
To  this  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  ad- 
dition (say  10  per  cent  of  the  whole),  in 
order  to  insure  the  thorough  flushing  of 
every  part  of  the  work. 

Assuming  that  the  proportion  of 
interstices  is  30  per  cent  and  adding  10 
for  the  reason  just  stated,  we  derive  40 
parts  as  the  quantity  of  mortar  to  100  — 
10  =  90  parts  of  the  aggregate.  An 
allowance  of  J  volume  for  shrinkage 
brings  the  volume  of  the  dry  materials 
(sand  and  cement)  of  the  mortar  to 
40  +  40/3  =  53  £  parts,  which,  divided  in 
the  ratio  of  1  to  3,  yields: 
53J 


Cement 


13J  parts 


Sand,  f  X  53$  = 40     parts 

Aggregate 90    parts 

Total 143J  parts 

As  the  resultant  concrete  is  100  parts, 
the  total  shrinkage  is  30  per  cent. 
Expressed  in  terms  of  the  cement,  the 
concrete  would  have  a  composition  of  1 
part  cement,  3  parts  sand,  7  parts  gravel 
and  broken  stone,  and  it  would  form, 
approximately,  what  is  commonly  known 
as  7  to  1  concrete. 

There  are  other  ratios  depending  on 
the  proportion  of  sand.  Thus  we  have: 


Cement 

1 
1 
1 
1 


Sand 


Aggregate 


5 
6 

7 

7i 

8J 


The  cost  of  concrete  may  be  materially 
reduced  without  affecting  the  strength  or 
efficacy  of  the  work,  by  a  plentiful  use  of 
stone  "plums"  or  "burrs."  These  are 
bedded  in  the  fluid  concrete  during  its 
deposition  in  situ,  but  care  must  be  taken 
to  see  that  they  are  thoroughly  sur- 
rounded by  mortar  and  not  in  contact 
with  each  other.  Furthermore,  if  they 
are  of  a  porous  nature,  they  should  be 
well  wetted  before  use. 

The  mixing  of  concrete  is  important. 
If  done  by  hand,  the  materials  forming 
the  aggregate  will  be  laid  out  on  a  plat- 
form and  covered  by  the  cement  in  a  thin 
layer.  The  whole  should  be  turned  over 
thrice  in  the  dry  state,  and  as  many 
times  wet,  before  depositing,  in  order  to 
bring  about  thorough  and  complete 
amalgamation.  Once  mixed,  the  con- 
crete is  to  be  deposited  immediately  and 
allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  until  the 
action  of  setting  is  finished.  Deposition 
should  be  effected,  wherever  possible, 
without  tipping  from  a  height  of  more 
than  about  6  feet,  as  in  greater  falls  there 
is  a  likelihood  of  the  heavier  portions  of 
the  aggregate  separating  from  the  lighter. 
In  extensive  undertakings,  concrete  is 
more  economically  mixed  by  mechanical 
appliances. 

The  water  used  for  mixing  may  be 
either  salt  or  fresh,  so  far  as  the  strength 
of  the  concrete  is  concerned.  For  surface 
work  above  the  ground  level,  salinity  in 
any  of  the  ingredients  is  objectionable, 
since  it  tends  to  produce  efflorescence  — 
an  unsightly,  floury  deposit,  difficult  to 
get  rid  of.  The  quantity  of  water  re- 
quired cannot  be  stated  with  exactitude; 
it  will  depend  upon  the  proportion  of  the 
aggregate  and  its  porosity.  It  is  best 
determined  by  experiment  in  each  par- 
ticular case.  Without  being  profuse 
enough  to  "drown"  the  concrete,  it 
should  be  plentiful  enough  to  act  as  an 
efficient  intermediary  between  every 
particle  of  the  aggregate  and  every 
particle  of  the  matrix.  Insufficient 
moisture  is,  in  fact,  as  deleterious  as  an 
excess. 

Voids.  —  The  strength  of  concrete  de- 
pends greatly  upon  its  density,  and  this  is 
secured  by  using  coarse  material  which 
contains  the  smallest  amount  of  voids  or 
empty  spaces.  Different  kinds  of  sand, 


STONE 


691 


gravel,  and  stone  vary  greatly  in  the 
amount  of  voids  they  contain,  and  by 
judiciously  mixing  coarse  and  fine 
material  the  voids  may  be  much  reduced 
and  the  density  increased.  The  density 
and  percentage  of  voids  in  concrete  ma- 
terial may  be  determined  by  filling  a  box 
of  1  cubic  foot  capacity  and  weighing  it. 
One  cubic  foot  of  solid  quartz  or  lime- 
stone, entirely  free  from  voids,  would 
weigh  165  pounds,  and  the  amount  by 
which  a  cubic  foot  of  any  loose  material 
falls  short  of  this  weight  represents  the 
proportion  of  voids  contained  in  it. 
For  example,  if  a  cubic  foot  of  sand 
weighs  115 1  pounds,  the  voids  would  be 
49J-165ths  of  the  total  volume,  or  30 
per  cent. 

The  following  table  gives  the  per  cent 
of  voids  and  weight  per  cubic  foot  of 
some  common  concrete  materials: 

Per 

Cent        Wt.  per 
Voids         Cu.  Ft. 

Sandusky  Bay  sand. 32. 3      111.7  pounds 

Same     through     20- 

mesh  screen 38.5      101.5  pounds 

Gravel,  £  to  J  inch. ...42.4        95.0  pounds 

Broken       limestone, 

egg-size 47.0       87.4  pounds 

Limestone  screen- 
ings, dust  to  J 
inch 26.0  122.2  pounds 

It  will  be  noted  that  screening  the 
sand  through  a  20-mesh  sieve,  and  thus 
taking  out  the  coarse  grains,  consider- 
ably increased  the  voids  and  reduced  the 
weight;  thus  decidedly  injuring  the  sand 
for  making  concrete. 

The  following  figures  show  how  weight 
can  be  increased  and  voids  reduced  by 
mixing  fine  and  coarse  material: 

Per 

Cent         Wt.  per 
Voids         Cu.  Ft. 
Pebbles,    about     1 

inch 38.7     101.2  pounds 

Sand,  30  to  40  mesh .  35.9  105.8  pounds 
Pebbles  plus  38.7  per 

cent  sand,  by  vol. .  19.2     133.5  pounds 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the 
strength  of  concrete  increases  greatly 
with  its  density;  in  fact,  a  slight  increase 
in  weight  per  cubic  foot  adds  very  de- 
cidedly to  the  strength. 

The  gain  in  strength  obtained  by 
adding  coarse  material  to  mixtures  of 
cement  and  sand  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  of  results  of  experiments 
made  in  Germany  by  R.  Dykerhoff.  The 
blocks  tested  were  2£-inch  cubes,  1  day 
in  air  and  27  days  in  water, 


Per 

Com- 

Proportions by  Measure. 

Cent. 
Cement. 

pression 
Strength. 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Gravel. 

By 

Volume. 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

1 

o 

33  0 

2,125 

2 

5 

12.5 

2,387 

3 

25.0 

1,383 

3 

6J 

9.5 

1,515 

4 

20.0 

1,053 

4 

8h 

7.4 

1,204 

These  figures  show  how  greatly  the 
strength  is  improved  by  adding  coarse 
material,  even  though  the  proportion  of 
cement  is  thereby  reduced.  A  mixture  of 
1  to  12|  of  properly  proportioned  sand 
and  gravel  is,  in  fact,  stronger  than  1  to 
4,  and  nearly  as  strong  as  1  to  3,  of 
cement  and  sand  only. 

In  selecting  materials  for  concrete, 
those  should  be  chosen  which  give  the 
greatest  density.  If  it  is  practicable  to 
mix  two  materials,  as  sand  and  gravel, 
the  proportion  which  gives  the  greatest 
density  should  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment, and  rigidly  adhered  to  in 
making  concrete,  whatever  proportion  of 
cement  it  is  decided  to  use.  Well-pro- 
portioned dry  sand  and  gravel  or  sand 
and  broken  stone,  well  shaken  down, 
should  weigh  at  least  125  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  Limestone  screenings,  owing 
to  minute  pores  in  the  stone  itself,  are 
somewhat  lighter,  though  giving  equally 
strong  concrete.  They  should  weigh  at 
least  120  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  If  the 
weight  is  less,  there  is  probably  too  much 
fine  dust  in  the  mixture. 

The  density  and  strength  of  concrete 
are  also  greatly  improved  by  use  of  a 
liberal  amount  of  water.  Enough  water 
must  be  used  to  make  the  concrete 
thoroughly  soft  and  plastic,  so  as  to 
quake  strongly  when  rammed.  If  mixed 
too  dry  it  will  never  harden  properly, 
and  will  be  light,  porous,  and  crum- 
bling. 

Thorough  mixing  of  concrete  materials 
is  essential,  to  increase  the  density  and 
give  the  cement  used  a  chance  to  produce 
its  full  strength.  The  cement,  sand,  and 
gravel  should  be  intimately  mixed  dry, 
then  the  water  added  and  the  mixing 
continued.  If  stone  or  coarse  gravel  is 
added,  this  should  be  well  wetted  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  mortar. 

Materials  for  Concrete  Building  Blocks. 
— In  the  making  of  building  blocks  the 
spaces  to  be  filled  with  concrete  are  gen- 
erally too  narrow  to  permit  the  use  of 
very  coarse  material,  and  the  block- 


692 


STONE 


maker  is  limited  to  gravel  or  stone  not 
exceeding  \  or  f  inch  in  size.  A  con- 
siderable proportion  of  coarse  material  is, 
however,  just  as  necessary  as  in  other 
kinds  of  concrete  work,  and  gravel  cr 
screenings  should  be  chosen  wnich  will 
give  the  greatest  possible  density.  For 
good  results,  at  least  one-third  of  the 
material,  by  weight,  should  be  coarser 
than  |  inch.  Blocks  made  from  such 
gravel  or  screenings,  1  to  5,  will  be  found 
as  good  as  1  to  3  with  sand  only.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  coarse 
fragments  will  snow  on  the  surface;  if 
the  mixing  is  thorough  this  will  not  be 
the  case.  A  moderate  degree  of  rough- 
ness or  variety  in  the  surface  of  blocks  is, 
in  fact,  desirable,  and  would  go  far  to 
overcome  the  prejudice  which  many 
architects  hold  against  the  smooth,  life- 
less surface  of  cement  work.  Sand  and 
gravel  are,  in  most  cases,  the  cheapest 
material  to  use  for  block  work.  The 
presence  of  a  few  per  cent  of  clay  or 
loam  is  not  harmful  provided  the  mixing 
is  thorough.  ^  Stone  screenings,  if  of 
good  quality,  give  fully  as  strong  concrete 
as  sand  and  gravel,  and  usually  yield 
blocks  of  somewhat  lighter  color.  Screen- 
ings from  soft  stone  should  be  avoided, 
also  such  as  contain  too  much  dust. 
This  can  be  determined  from  the  weight 
per  cubic  foot,  and  by  a  sifting  test.  If 
more  than  two-thirds  pass  \  inch,  and 
the  weight  (well  jarred  down)  is  less  than 
120  pounds,  the  material  is  not  the  best. 
Cinders  are  sometimes  used  for  block 
work;  they  vary  greatly  in  quality,  but  if 
clean  and  of  medium  coarseness  will  give 
fair  results.  Cinder  concrete  never  de- 
velops great  strength,  owing  to  the  por- 
ous character  and  crushability  of  the 
cinders  themselves.  Cinder  blocks  may, 
however,  be  strong  enough  for  many 
purposes,  and  suitable  for  work  in  which 
great  strength  is  not  required. 

Lime. — It  is  well  known  that  slaked 
lime  is  a  valuable  addition  to  cement 
mortar,  especially  for  use  in  air.  In 
sand  mixtures,  1  to  4  or  1  to  5,  at  least 
one-third  of  the  cement  may  be  replaced 
by  slaked  lime  without  loss  of  strength. 
The  most  convenient  form  of  lime  for 
use  in  block-making  is  the  dry-slaked  or 
hydrate  lime,  now  a  common  article  of 
commerce.  This  is,  however,  about  as 
expensive  as  Portland  cement,  and  there 
is  no  great  saving  in  its  use.  Added  to 
block  concrete,  in  the  proportion  of  \  to 
\  the  cement  used,  it  will  be  found  to 
make  the  blocks  lighter  in  color,  denser, 
and  decidedly  less  permeable  by  water. 

Cement. — Portland  cement  is  the  only 


hydraulic  material  to  be  seriously  con- 
sidered by  the  blockmaker.  Natural 
and  slag  cements  and  hydraulic  lime  are 
useful  for  work  which  remains  constantly 
wet,  but  greatly  inferior  in  strength  and 
durability  when  exposed  to  dry  air.  A 
further  advantage  of  Portland  cement  is 
the  promptness  with  which  it  hardens 
and  develops  its  full  strength;  this 
quality  alone  is  sufficient  to  put  all  other 
cements  out  of  consideration  for  block 
work. 

Proportions. — There  are  three  im- 
portant considerations  to  be  kept  in  view 
in  adjusting  the  proportions  of  materials 
for  block  concrete — strength,  permea- 
bility, and  cost.  So  far  as  strength  goes, 
it  may  easily  be  shown  that  concretes 
very  poor  in  cement,  as  1  to  8  or  1  to  10, 
will  have  a  crushing  resistance  far  be- 
yond any  load  that  they  may  be  called 
upon  to  sustain.  Such  concretes  are, 
however,  extremely  porous,  and  absorb 
water  like  a  sponge.  The  blocks  must 
bear  a  certain  amount  of  rough  hand- 
ling at  the  factory  and  while  being  carted 
to  work  and  set  up  in  the  wall.  Safety 
in  this  respect  calls  for  a  much  greater 
degree  of  hardness  than  would  be  needed 
to  bear  the  weight  of  the  building.  Again, 
strength  and  hardness,  with  a  given  pro- 
portion of  cement,  depend  greatly  on  the 
character  of  the  other  materials  used; 
blocks  made  of  cement  and  sand,  1  to  3, 
will  not  be  so  strong  or  so  impermeable 
to  water  as  those  made  from  a  good  mixed 
sand  and  gravel,  1  to  5.  On  the  whole,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  blocks  of  satisfactory 
quality  can  be  made,  by  hand  mixing 
and  tamping,  under  ordinary  factory 
conditions,  from  a  poorer  mixture  than 
1  to  5.  Even  this  proportion  requires  for 
good  results  the  use  of  properly  graded 
sand  and  gravel  or  screenings,  a  liberal 
amount  of  water,  and  thorough  mixing 
and  tamping.  When  suitable  gravel  is 
not  obtainable,  and  coarse  mixed  sand 
only  is  used,  the  proportion  should  not  be 
less  than  1  to  4.  Fine  sand  alone  is  a 
very  bad  material,  and  good  blocks  can- 
not be  made  from  it  except  by  the  use  of 
an  amount  of  cement  which  would  make 
the  cost  very  high. 

The  mixtures  above  recommended,  1  to 
4  and  1  to  5,  will  necessarily  be  some- 
what porous,  and  may  be  decidedly  so  if  the 
gravel  or  screenings  used  is  not  properly 
graded.  The  water-resisting  qua.ities 
may  be  greatly  improved,  without  loss  of 
strength,  by  replacing  a  part  of  the 
cement  by  hydrate  lime.  This  is  a  light, 
extremely  fine  material,  and  a  given 
weight  of  it  goes  much  further  than  the 


STONE 


693 


same  amount  of  cement  in  filling  the 
pores  of  the  concrete.  It  has  also  the 
effect  of  making  the  wet  mixture  more 
plastic  and  more  easily  compacted  by 
ramming,  and  gives  the  finished  blocks 
a  lighter  color. 

The  following  mixtures,  then,  are  to 
be  recommended  for  concrete  blocks. 
By  "gravel"  is  meant  a  suitable  mix- 
ture of  sand  and  gravel,  or  stone  screen- 
ings, containing  grains  of  all  sizes,  from 
fine  to  \  inch. 

1  to  4  Mixtures,  by  Weight. 

Cement,  150  parts;  gravel,  600  parts. 

Cement,  125  parts;  hydrated  lime,  25 
parts;  gravel,  600  parts. 

Cement,  100  parts;  hydrated  lime,  50 
parts;  gravel,  600  parts. 

1  to  5  Mixtures,  by  Weight. 
Cement,  120  parts;  gravel,  600  parts. 
Cement,  100  parts;  hydrated  lime,  20 
parts;  gravel,  600  parts. 

Proportion  of  Water. — This  is  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  consequence,  and 
has  more  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  work 
than  is  generally  supposed.  Blocks 
made  from  too  dry  concrete  will  always 
remain  soft  and  weak,  no  matter  how 
thoroughly  sprinkled  afterwards.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  blocks  are  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  machine  as  soon  as 
made,  too  much  water  will  cause  them 
to  stick  to  the  plates  and  sag  out  of 
shape.  It  is  perfectly  possible,  how- 
ever, to  give  the  concrete  enough  water 
for  maximum  density  and  first-class 
hardening  properties,  and  still  to  remove 
the  blocks  at  once  from  the  mold.  A 
good  proportion  of  coarse  material 
allows  the  mixture  to  be  made  wetter 
without  sticking  or  sagging.  Use  of 
plenty  of  water  vastly  improves  the 
strength,  hardness,  and  waterproof  qual- 
ities of  blocks,  and  makes  them  decid- 
edly lighter  in  color.  The  rule  should 
be: 

Use  as  much  water  as  possible  with- 
out causing  the  blocks  to  stick  to  the 
plates  or  to  sag  out  of  shape  on  removing 
from  the  machine. 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  pro- 
duce this  result  varies  with  the  materials 
used,  but  is  generally  from  8  to  9  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  dry  mixture.  A  prac- 
ticed blockmaker  can  judge  closely  when 
the  right  amount  of  water  has  been  added, 
by  squeezing  some  of  the  mixture  in  the 
hand.  Very  slight  variations  in  propor- 
tion of  water  make  such  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  the  quality  and  color  of  the  blocks 
that  the  water,  when  the  proper  quantity 
for  the  materials  used  has  been  deter- 


mined, should  always  be  accurately  meas- 
ured out  for  each  batch.  In  this  way 
much  time  is  saved  and  uncertainty 
avoided. 

Facing.  —  Some  blockmakers  put  on 
a  facing  of  richer  and  finer  mixture, 
making  the  body  of  the  block  of  poorer 
and  coarser  material.  As  will  be  ex- 
plained later,  the  advantage  of  the  prac- 
tice is,  in  most  cases,  questionable,  but 
facings  may  serve  a  good  purpose  in  case 
a  colored  or  specially  waterproof  surface 
is  required.  Facings  are  generally  made 
of  cement  and  sand,  or  fine  screenings, 
passing  a  J-inch  sieve.  To  get  the  same 
hardness  and  strength  as  a  1  to  5  gravel 
mixture,  at  least  as  rich  a  facing  as  1  to 
3  will  be  found  necessary.  Probably 
1  to  2  will  be  found  better,  and  if  one- 
third  the  cement  be  replaced  by  hydrate 
lime  the  waterproof  qualities  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  blocks  will  be  improved. 
A  richer  facing  than  1  to  2  is  liable  to 
show  greater  shrinkage  than  the  body  of 
the  block,  and  to  adhere  imperfectly  or 
develop  hair-cracks  in  consequence. 

Poured  Work. — The  above  sugges- 
tions on  the  question  of  proportions  of 
cement,  sand,  and  gravel  for  tamped 
blocks  apply  equally  to  concrete  made 
very  wet,  poured  into  the  mold,  and 
allowed  to  harden  a  day  or  longer  before 
removing.  Castings  in  a  sand  mold  are 
made  by  the  use  of  very  liquid  concrete; 
sand  and  gravel  settle  out  too  rapidly 
from  such  thin  mixtures,  and  rather  fine 
limestone  screenings  are  generally  used. 

Mixing.— To  get  the  full  benefit  of  the 
cement  used  it  is  necessary  that  all  the 
materials  shall  be  very  thoroughly  mixed 
together.  The  strength  of  the  block  as 
a  whole  will  be  only  as  great  as  that  of 
its  weakest  part,  and  it  is  the  height 
of  folly,  after  putting  a  liberal  measure 
of  cement,  to  so  slight  the  mixing  as  to 
get  no  better  result  than  half  as  much  ce- 
ment, properly  mixed,  would  have  given. 
The  poor,  shoddy,  and  crumbly  blocks 
turned  put  by  many  small-scale  makers 
owe  their  faults  chiefly  to  careless  mixing 
and  use  of  too  little  water,  rather  than  to 
too  small  proportion  of  cement. 

The  materials  should  be  mixed  dry, 
until  the  cement  is  uniformly  distributed 
and  perfectly  mingled  with  the  sand  and 
gravel  or  screenings;  then  the  water  is 
to  be  added  and  the  mixing  continued 
until  all  parts  of  the  mass  are  equally 
moist  and  every  particle  is  coated  with 
the  cement  paste. 

Concrete  Mixers. — Hand  mixing  is 
always  imperfect,  laborious,  and  slow. 


694 


STONE 


and  it  is  impossible  by  this  method  to 
secure  the  thorough  stirring  and  knead- 
ing action  which  a  good  mixing  machine 
gives.  If  a  machine  taking  5  or  10 
horse-power  requires  5  minutes  to  mix 
one-third  of  a  yard  of  concrete,  it  is  of 
course  absurd  to  expect  that  two  men  will 
do  the  same  work  by  hand  in  the  same 
time.  And  the  machine  never  gets  tired 
or  shirks  if  not  constantly  urged,  as  it  is 
the  nature  of  men  to  do.  It  is  hard  to 
see  how  the  manufacture  of  concrete 
blocks  can  be  successfully  carried  on 
without  a  concrete  mixer.  Even  for  a 
small  business  it  will  pay  well  in  economy 
of  labor  and  excellence  of  work  to  install 
such  a  machine,  which  may  be  driven  by 
a  small  electric  motor  or  gasoline  engine. 
In  work  necessarily  so  exact  as  this, 
requiring  perfectly  uniform  mixtures 
and  use  of  a  constant  percentage  of 
water,  batch  mixers,  which  take  a  meas- 
ured quantity  of  material,  mix  it,  and 
discharge  it,  at  each  operation,  are  the 
only  satisfactory  type,  and  continuous 
mixers  are  unsuitable.  Those  of  the 
pug-mill  type,  consisting  of  an  open 
trough  with  revolving  paddles  and  bot- 
tom discharge,  are  positive  and  thorough 
in  their  action,  and  permit  the  whole 
operation  to  be  watched  and  controlled. 
They  should  be  provided  with  exten- 
sible arms  of  chilled  iron,  which  can  be 
lengthened  as  the  ends  become  worn. 

Concrete  Block  Systems. — For  smaller 
and  less  costly  buildings,  separate  blocks, 
made  at  the  factory  and  built  up  into  the 
walls  in  the  same  manner  as  brick  or 
blocks  of  stone,  are  simpler,  less  ex- 
pensive, and  much  more  rapid  in  con- 
struction than  monolithic  work.  They 
also  avoid  some  of  the  faults  to  which 
solid  concrete  work,  unless  skillfully 
done,  is  subject,  such  as  the  formation  of 
shrinkage  cracks. 

There  are  two  systems  of  block  mak- 
ing, differing  in  the  consistency  of  the 
concrete  used: 

1.  Blocks    tamped    or    pressed    from 
semi-wet  concrete,  and  removed  at  once 
from  the  mold. 

2.  Blocks  poured  or  tamped  from  wet 
concrete,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
mold  until  hardened. 

Tamped  Blocks  from  Semi-Wet  Mix- 
ture.— These  are  practically  always 
made  on  a  block  machine,  so  arranged 
that  as  soon  as  a  block  is  formed  the 
cores  and  side  plates  are  removed  and 
the  block  lifted  from  the  machine.  By 
far  the  larger  part  of  the  blocks  on  the 
market  are  made  in  this  way.  Usually 
these  are  of  the  one-piece  type,  in  which  a 


single  block,  provided  with  hollow  cores, 
makes  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall. 
Another  plan  is  the  two-piece  system,  in 
which  the  face  and  back  of  the  wall  are 
made  up  of  different  blocks,  so  lapping 
over  each  other  as  to  give  a  bond  and 
hold  the  wall  together.  Blocks  of  the 
two-piece  type  are  generally  formed  in  a 
hand  or  hydraulic  press. 

Various  shapes  and  sizes  of  blocks  are 
commonly  made;  the  builders  of  the 
most  popular  machines  have,  however, 
adopted  the  standard  length  of  32  inches 
and  height  of  9  inches  for  the  full-sized 
block,  with  thickness  of  8,  10,  and  12 
inches.  Lengths  of  24,  16,  and  8  inches 
are  also  obtained  on  the  same  machines 
by  the  use  of  parting  plates  and  suitably 
divided  face  plates;  any  intermediate 
lengths  and  any  desired  heights  may 
be  produced  by  simple  adjustments  or 
blocking  off. 

Blocks  are  commonly  made  plain, 
rock-faced,  tool-faced,  paneled,  and  of 
various  ornamental  patterns.  New  de- 
signs of  face  plates  are  constantly  being 
added  by  the  most  progressive  machine 
makers. 

Block  Machines. — There  are  many 
good  machines  on  the  market,  most  of 
which  are  of  the  same  general  type,  and 
differ  only  in  mechanical  details.  They 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  those 
with  vertical  and  those  with  horizontal 
face.  In  the  former  the  face  plate 
stands  vertically,  and  the  block  is  simply 
lifted  from  the  machine  on  its  base  plate 
as  soon  as  tamped.  In  the  other  type 
the  face  plate  forms  the  bottom  of  the 
mold;  the  cores  are  withdrawn  horizon- 
tally, and  by  the  motion  of  a  lever  the 
block  with  its  face  plate  is  tipped  up  into 
a  vertical  position  for  removal.  In  case 
it  is  desired  to  put  a  facing  on  the  blocks, 
machines  of  the  horizontal-face  type  are 
considered  the  more  convenient,  though 
a  facing  may  easily  be  put  on  with  the 
vertical-face  machine  by  the  use  of  a 
parting  plate. 

Blocks  Poured  from  Wet  Concrete. 
— As  already  stated,  concrete  made  too 
dry  is  practically  worthless,  and  an  ex- 
cess of  water  is  better  than  a  deficiency. 
The  above-described  machine  process, 
in  which  blocks  are  tamped  from  damp 
concrete  and  at  once  removed,  gives 
blocks  of  admirable  hardness  and  quality 
if  the  maximum  of  water  is  used.  A 
method  of  making  blocks  from  very  wet 
concrete,  by  the  use  of  a  large  number 
of  separable  molds  of  sheet  steel,  into 
which  the  wet  concrete  is  poured  and  in 
which  the  blocks  are  left  to  harden  for  24 


STONE 


695 


hours  or  longer,  has  come  into  consider- 
able use.  By  this  method  blocks  of 
excellent  hardening  and  resistance  to 
water  are  certainly  obtained.  Whether 
the  process  is  the  equal  of  the  ordinary 
machine  method  in  respect  of  economy 
and  beauty  of  product  must  be  left  to 
the  decision  of  those  who  have  had  actual 
experience  with  it. 

The  well-known  cast-stone  process 
consists  in  pouring  liquid  concrete  mix- 
ture into  a  sand  mold  made  from  a 
pattern  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  in 
which  molds  for  iron  castings  are  pro- 
duced. The  sand  absorbs  the  surplus 
water  from  the  liquid  mixture,  and  the 
casting  is  left  in  the  mold  for  24  hours 
or  longer  until  thoroughly  set.  This 
process  necessitates  the  making  of  a  new 
sand  mold  for  every  casting,  and  is  neces- 
sarily much  less  rapid  than  the  machine 
method.  It  is  less  extensively  used  for 
building  blocks  than  for  special  orna- 
mental architectural  work,  sills,  lintels, 
columns,  capitals,  etc.,  and  for  purposes 
of  this  kind  it  turns  out  products  of  the 
highest  quality  and  beauty. 

Tamping  of  Concrete  Blocks.  —  This 
is  generally  done  by  means  of  hand 
rammers.  Pneumatic  tampers,  operat- 
ed by  an  air  compressor,  are  in  use  at  a 
few  plants,  apparently  with  considerable 
saving  in  time  and  labor  and  improve- 
ments in  quality  of  work.  Hand  tamping 
must  be  conscientious  and  thorough,  or 
poor  work  will  result.  It  is  important 
that  the  mold  should  be  filled  a  little  at 
a  time,  tamping  after  each  addition;  at 
least  four  fillings  and  tampings  should  be 
given  to  each  block.  If  the  mixture  is 
wet  enough  no  noticeable  layers  will  be 
formed  by  this  process. 

Hardening  and  Storage.  —  Triple- 
decked  cars  to  receive  the  blocks  from 
the  machines  will  be  found  a  great  sav- 
ing of  labor,  and  are  essential  in  factories 
of  considerable  size.  Blocks  will  gener- 
ally require  to  be  left  on  the  plates  for  at 
least  24  hours,  and  must  then  be  kept 
under  roof,  in  a  well-warmed  room,  with 
frequent  sprinkling,  for  not  less  than  5 
days  more.  They  may  then  be  piled  up 
out  of  doors,  and  in  dry  weather  should 
be  wetted  daily  with  a  hose.  Alternate 
wetting  and  drying  is  especially  favor- 
able for  the  hardening  of  cement,  and 
concrete  so  treated  gains  much  greater 
strength  than  if  kept  continuously  in 
water  or  dry  air. 

Blocks  should  not  be  used  in  building 
until  at  least  4  weeks  from  the  time  they 
are  made.  During  this  period  of  sea- 
soning, blocks  will  be  found  to  shrink  at 


least  -,\  inch  in  length,  and  if  built  up  in 
a  wall  when  freshly  made,  shrinkage 
cracks  in  the  joints  or  across  the  blocks 
will  surely  appear. 

Efflorescence,  or  the  appearance  of  a 
white  coating  on  the  surfaces,  sometimes 
takes  place  when  blocks  are  repeatedly 
saturated  with  water  and  then  dried  out; 
blocks  laid  on  the  ground  are  more  liable 
to  show  this  defect.  It  results  from 
diffusion  of  soluble  sulphates  of  lime  and 
alkalies  to  the  surface.  It  tends  to  dis- 
appear in  time,  and  rarely  is  sufficient  in 
amount  to  cause  any  complaint. 

Properties  of  Concrete  Blocks  — 
Strength. — In  the  use  of  concrete  blocks 
for  the  walls  of  buildings,  the  stress  to 
which  they  are  subjected  is  almost  en- 
tirely one  of  compression.  In  compres- 
sive  strength  well-made  concrete  does 
not  differ  greatly  from  ordinary  building 
stone.  It  is  difficult  to  find  reliable 
records  of  tests  of  sand  and  gravel  con- 
crete, 1  to  4  and  1  to  5,  such  as  is  used  in 
making  blocks;  the  following  figures 
show  strength  of  concrete  of  approxi- 
mately this  richness,  also  the  average 
of  several  samples  each  of  well-known 
building  stones,  as  stated  by  the  author- 
ities named: 

Limestone,  Bedford,  Ind. 

(Indiana  Geographical 

Survey) 7,792  pounds 

Limestone,  Marblehead, 

Ohio  (Q.  A.  Gillmore) 

7,393  pounds 
Sandstone,  N.  Amherst, 

Ohio     (Q.     A.     Gill- 
more)  5,831  pounds 

Gravel   concrete,    1:1.6- 

:2.8,  at  1  year  (Cand- 

lot) 5,500  pounds 

Gravel   concrete,    1:1.6- 

:3.7,  at  1  year  (Cand- 

lot) 5,050  pounds 

Stone  concrete,  1:2:4  at 

1    year    (Boston    El. 

R.  R.) 3,904  pounds 

Actual  tests  of  compression  strength 
of  hollow  concrete  blocks  are  difficult  to 
make,  because  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
apply  the  load  uniformly  over  the  whole 
surface,  and  also  because  a  block  16 
inches  long  and  8  inches  wide  will  bear 
a  load  of  150,000  to  200,000  pounds,  or 
more  than  the  capacity  of  any  but  the 
largest  testing  machines.  Three  one- 
quarter  blocks,  8  inches  long,  8  inches 
wide,  and  9  inches  high,  with  hollow 
space  equal  to  one-third  of  the  surface, 
tested  at  the  Case  School  of  Science, 
showed  strengths  of  1,805,  2,000,  and. 


696 


STONE 


1,530  pounds  per  square  inch,  respec- 
tively, when  10  weeks  old. 

Two  blocks  6X8X9  inches,  22  months 
old,  showed  crushing  strength  of  2,530 
and  .2.610  pounds  per  square  inch. 
These  blocks  were  made  of  cement  1J 
parts,  lime  £  part,  sand  and  gravel  6  parts, 
and  were  tamped  from  damp  mixture. 
It  is  probably  safe  to  assume  that  the 
minimum  crushing  strength  of  well-made 
blocks,  1  to  5,  is  1,000  pounds  per  square 
inch  at  1  month  and  2,000  pounds  at  1 
year. 

A  block  12  inches  wide  and  24  inches 
long  has  a  total  surface  of  288  square 
inches,  or,  deducting  ^  for  openings,  a 
net  area  of  192  inches.  Such  a  block, 
9  inches  high,  weighs  130  pounds.  As- 
suming a  strength  of  1,000  pounds  and  a 
factor  of  safety  of  5,  the  safe  load  would 
be  200  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  200  X 
192  =  38,400  pounds  for  the  whole 
surface  of  the  block.  Dividing  this  by 
the  weight  of  the  block,  130  pounds,  we 
find  that  295  such  blocks  could  be  placed 
one  upon  another,  making  a  total  height 
of  wall  of  222  feet,  and  still  the  pressure 
on  the  lowest  block  would  be  less  than 
one-fifth  of  what  it  would  actually  bear. 
This  shows  how  greatly  the  strength  of 
concrete  blocks  exceeds  any  demands 
that  are  ever  made  upon  it  in  ordinary 
building  construction. 

The  safe  load  above  assumed,  200 
pounds,  seems  low  enough  to  guard 
against  any  possible  failure.  In  Taylor 
and  Thompson's  work  on  concrete,  a 
safe  load  of  450  pounds  for  concrete  1  to 
2  to  4  is  recommended;  this  allows  a 
factor  of  safety  of  5$.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Building  Code  of  the  city  of 
Cleveland  permits  concrete  to  be  loaded 
only  to  15G  pounds  per  square  inch,  and 
limits  the  height  of  walls  of  12-inch 
blocks  to  44  feet.  The  pressure  of  such 
a  wall  would  be  only  40  pounds  per 
square  inch;  adding  the  weight  of  two 
floors  at  25  pounds  per  square  foot  each, 
and  roof  with  snow  and  wind  pressure, 
40  pounds  per  square  foot,  we  find  that 
witn  a  span  of  25  feet  the  total  weight 
on  the  lowest  blocks  would  be  only  52 
pounds  per  square  inch,  or  about  one- 
twentieth  of  their  minimum  compression 
strength. 

Blocks  with  openings  equal  to  only 
one-third  the  surface,  as  required  in 
many  city  regulations,  are  heavy  to 
handle,  especially  for  walls  12  inches 
and  more  in  thickness,  and,  as  the  above 
figures  show,  are  enormously  stronger 
than  there  is  any  need  of.  Blocks  with 
openings  of  50  per  cent  would  be  far 
more  acceptable  to  the  building  trade, 


and  if  used  in  walls  not  over  44  feet  high, 
with  floors  and  roof  calculated  as  above 
for  25  feet  span,  would  be  loaded  only  to 
56  pounds  per  square  inch  of  actual 
surface.  This  would  give  a  factor  of 
safety  of  18,  assuming  a  minimum  com- 
pression strength  of  1,000  pounds. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  blocks  with 
one-third  opening  are  inconveniently 
and  unnecessarily  neavy.  Such  a  block, 
32  inches  long,  12  inches  wide,  and  9 
inches  high,  has  walls  about  3$  inches 
thick,  and  weighs  180  pounds.  A 
block  with  50  per  cent  open  space  would 
have  walls  and  partitions  2  inches  in 
thickness,  and  would  weigh  about  130 
pounds.  With  proper  care  in  manu- 
facture, especially  by  using  as  much  water 
as  possible,  blocks  with  this  thickness  of 
walls  may  be  made  thoroughly  strong, 
sound,  and  durable.  It  is  certainly 
better  for  strength  and  water-resisting 
qualities  to  make  thin-walled  blocks  of 
rich  mixture,  rather  than  heavy  blocks  of 
poor  and  porous  material. 

Filling  the  voids  with  cement  is  a 
rather  expensive  method  of  securing 
waterproof  qualities,  and  gives  stronger 
concretes  than  are  needed.  The  same 
may  be  accomplished  more  cheaply  by 
replacing  part  of  the  cement  by  slaked 
lime,  which  is  an  extremely  fine-grained 
material,  and  therefore  very  effective 
in  closing  pores.  Hydrate  lime  is  the 
most  convenient  material  to  use,  but 
nearly  as  costly  as  Portland  cement  at 
present  prices.  A  1  to  4  mixture  in 
which  one-third  the  cement  is  replaced 
by  hydrate  lime  will  be  found  equal  to  a 
1  to  3  mixture  without  the  lime.  A 
1  to  4  concrete  made  from  cement,  1; 
hydrate  lime,  i;  sand  and  gravel,  6  (by 
weight),  will  be  found  fairly  water-tight, 
and  much  superior  in  this  respect  to  one 
of  the  same  richness  consisting  of  cement, 
1J;  sand  and  gravel,  6. 

The  cost  of  lime  may  be  greatly  re- 
duced by  using  ordinary  lump  lime 
slaked  to  a  paste.  The  lime  must,  how- 
ever, be  very  thoroughly  hydrated,  so 
that  no  unslaked  fragments  may  remain 
to  make  trouble  by  subsequent  expan- 
sion. Lime  paste  is  also  very  difficult  to 
mix,  and  can  be  used  successfully  only  in 
a  concrete  mixer  of  the  pug-mill  type. 
Ordinary  stiff  lime  paste  contains  about 
50  per  cent  water;  twice  as  much  of  it,  by 
weight,  should  therefore  be  used  as  of 
dry  hydrate  lime. 

Waterproof  Qualities. — The  chief  fault 
of  concrete  building  blocks,  as  ordinarily 
made,  is  their  tendency  to  absorb  water. 
In  this  respect  they  are  generally  no 


STONE 


697 


worse  than  sandstone  or  common  brick; 
it  is  well  known  that  stone  or  brick  walls 
are  too  permeable  to  allow  plastering  di- 
rectly on  the  inside  surface,  and  must  be 
furred  and  lathed  before  plastering,  to 
avoid  dampness.  This  practice  is  gen- 
erally followed  with  concrete  blocks,  but 
their  use  and  popularity  would  be  greatly 
increased  if  they  were  made  sufficiently 
waterproof  to  allow  plastering  directly 
on  the  inside  surface. 

For  this  purpose  it  is  not  necessary 
that  blocks  should  be  perfectly  water- 
proof, but  only  that  the  absorption  of 
water  shall  be  slow,  so  that  it  may  pene- 
trate only  part  way  through  the  wall 
during  a  long-continued  rain.  Walls 
made  entirely  water-tight  are,  in  fact, 
objectionable,  owing  to  their  tendency  to 
"sweat"  from  condensation  of  moisture 
on  the  inside  surface.  For  health  and 
comfort,  walls  must  be  slightly  porous, 
so  that  any  moisture  formed  on  the  in- 
side may  be  gradually  absorbed  and 
carried  away. 

Excessive  water  absorption  may  be 
avoided  in  the  following  ways: 

1.  Use  of  Properly  Graded  Materials. 
— It  has  been  shown  by  Feret  and  others 
that  porosity  and  permeability  are  two 
different    things;    porosity    is    the    total 
proportion  of  voids  or  open  spaces  in  the 
mass,  while  permeability  is  the  rate  at 
which  water,  under  a  given  pressure,  will 
pass  through  it.      Permeability  depends 
on  the  size  of  the  openings  as  well  as  on 
their  total  amount.    In  two  masses  of  the 
same   porosity   or   percentage   of   voids, 
one  consisting  of  coarse  and  the  other  of 
fine  particles,  the  permeability  will  be 
greater  in  the  case  of  the  coarse  material. 
The    least    permeability,    and    also    the 
least  porosity,  are,  however,  obtained  by 
use  of  a  suitable  mixture  of  coarse  and 
fine  particles.     Properly  graded  gravel  or 
screenings,   containing  plenty  of  coarse 
fragments  and  also  enough  fine  material 
to  fill  up  the  pores,  will  be  found  to  give 
a  much  less  permeable  concrete  than  fine 
or  coarse  sand  used  alone. 

2.  Use   of    Rich    Mixtures. — All   con- 
cretes are  somewhat  permeable  by  water 
under  sufficient  pressure.     Mixtures  rich 
in    cement    are    of    course    much    less 
permeable  than  poorer  mixtures.     If  the 
amount   of   cement   used   is   more  than 
sufficient  to  fill  the  voids  in  the  sand  and 
gravel,  a  very  dense  concrete  is  obtained, 
into   which  the  penetration  of  water  is 
extremely  slow.      The  permeability  also 
decreases  considerably  with  age,  owing 
to    the    gradual    crystallization    of    the 
cement  in   the   pores,   so  that  concrete 


which  is  at  first  quite  absorbent  may  be- 
come practically  impermeable  after  ex- 
posure to  weather  for  a  few  weeks  or 
months.  There  appears  to  be  a  very 
decided  increase  in  permeability  when 
the  cement  is  reduced  below  the  amount 
necessary  to  fill  the  voids.  For  example, 
a  well-mixed  sand  and  gravel  weighing 
123  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  therefore 
containing  25  per  cent  voids,  will  give  a 
fairly  impermeable  concrete  in  mixtures 
up  to  1  to  4,  but  with  less  cement  will  be 
found  quite  absorbent.  A  gravel  with 
only  20  per  cent  voids  would  give  about 
equally  good  results  with  a  1  to  5  mix- 
ture; such  gravel  is,  however,  rarely  met 
with  in  practice.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  best  sand,  mixed  fine  and  coarse, 
seldom  contains  less  than  33  per  cent 
voids,  and  concrete  made  from  such 
material  will  prove  permeable  if  poorer 
than  1  to  3. 

3.  Use  of  a  Facing. — Penetration   of 
water  may  be  effectively  prevented   by 
giving    the    blocks    a    facing    of    richer 
mixture  than  the  body.     For  the  sake  of 
smooth  appearance,  facings  are  generally 
made  of  cement  and  fine  sand,  and  it  is 
often  noticed  that  these  do  not  harden 
well.     It  should  be  remembered  that  a 
1  to  3  sand  mixture  is  no  stronger  and 
little  if  any  better  in  water  absorption 
than  a  1  to  5  mixture  of  well-graded  sand 
and  gravel.     To  secure  good  hardness 
and  resistance  to  moisture  a  facing  as 
rich  as  1  to  2  should  be  used. 

4.  Use  of  an  Impervious  Partition. — 
When  blocks  are  made  on  a  horizontal- 
face  machine,  it  is  a  simple  matter,  after 
the  face  is  tamped  and  cores  pushed  into 
place,  to  throw  into  each  opening  a  small 
amount  of  rich  and  rather  wet  mortar, 
spread  this  fairly  evenly,  and  then  go  on 
tamping  in  the  ordinary   mixture   until 
the  mold  is  filled.      A  dense  layer  across 
each  of  the  cross  walls  is  thus  obtained, 
which  effectually  prevents  moisture  from 
passing    beyond   it.      A    method    of   ac- 
complishing the  same  result  with  vertical- 
face     machines,     by    inserting     tapered 
wooden  blocks  in  the  middle  of  the  cross 
walls,    withdrawing    these    blocks    after 
tamping,  and  filling  the  spaces  with  rich 
mortar,  has  been  patented.      In  the  two- 
piece  system  the  penetration  of  moisture 
through  the  wall  is  prevented  by  leaving 
an  empty  space  between  the  web  of  the 
block  and   the  inside  face,  or  by  filling 
this  space  with  rich  mortar. 

5.  Use  of  Waterproof  Compounds. — 
There   are   compounds   on   the    market, 
of  a  fatty  or  waxy  nature,  which,  when 
mixed    with   cement   to   the    amount    of 


698 


STONE 


only  1  or  2  per  Cent  of  its  weight,  in- 
crease its  water-resisting  qualities  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  By  thoroughly  mix- 
ing 1  to  2  pounds  of  suitable  compound 
with  each  sack  of  cement  used,  blocks 
which  are  practically  waterproof  may  be 
made,  at  very  small  additional  cost, 
from  1  to  4  or  1  to  5  mixtures.  In 
purchasing  waterproof  compound,  how- 
ever, care  should  be  taken  to  select  such 
as  has  been  proved  to  be  permanent  in 
its  effect,  and  some  of  the  materials  used 
for  this  purpose  lose  their  effect  after  a 
few  days'  exposure  to  weather,  and  are 
entirely  worthless. 

6.  Application  to  Surface  after  Erect- 
ing.—  Various  washes,  to  make  concrete 
and  stone  impervious  to  water,  have 
been  used  with  some  success.  Among 
these  the  best  known  is  the  Sylvester 
wash  of  alum  and  soap  solution.  It  is 
stated  that  this  requires  frequent  re- 
newal, and  it  is  hardly  likely  to  prove  of 
any  value  in  the  concrete  industry.  The 
writer's  experience  has  been  that  the 
most  effective  remedy,  in  case  a  concrete 
building  proves  damp,  is  to  give  the  out- 
side walls  a  very  thin  wash  of  cement 
suspended  in  water.  One  or  two  coats 
will  be  found  sufficient.  If  too  thick 
a  coating  is  formed  it  will  show  hair 
cracks.  The  effect  of  the  cement  wash 
is  to  make  the  walls  appear  lighter  in 
color,  and  if  the  coating  is  thin  the  ap- 
pearance is  in  no  way  injured. 

General  Hints  on  Waterproof  Quali- 
ties.— To  obtain  good  water-resisting 
properties  the  first  precaution  is  to 
make  the  concrete  sufficiently  wet.  Dry- 
tamped  backs,  even  from  rich  mixture, 
will  always  be  porous  and  absorbent, 
while  the  same  mixture  in  plastic  con- 
dition will  give  blocks  which  are  dense, 
strong,  and  water-tight.  The  difference 
in  this  respect  is  shown  by  the  following 
tests  of  small  concrete  blocks,  made  by 
the  writer.  The  concrete  used  was  made 
of  1  part  cement  and  5  parts  mixed  fine 
and  coarse  sand,  by  weight. 

No.  1.  With  8  per  cent  water,  rather 
dryer  than  ordinary  block  concrete, 
tamped  in  mold. 

No.  2.  With  10  per  cent  %  water, 
tamped  in  the  mold,  ana  the  mold  removed 
at  once. 

No.  3.  With  25  per  cent  water, 
poured  into  a  mold  resting  on  a  flat 
surface  of  dry  sand;  after  1  hour  the  sur- 
face was  troweled  smooth;  mold  not 
removed  until  set. 

These  blocks  were  allowed  to  harden  a 
week  in  moist  air,  then  dried.  The 


weights,  voids,  and  water  absorption 
were  as  follows: 

123 
Damp-     Wet-     pourpfi 
tamped  tamped  ^( 
Weight,    per    cubic 

foot,  pounds 122.2    123.9    110.0 

Voids,     calculated, 

per  cent  of  volume      25.9      24.9      33.3 
Water    required    to 
fill  voids,  per  cent 

of  weight 9.8        9.4      12.5 

Water  absorbed,  af- 
ter 2   hours,   per 

cent  of  weight ...  8.8  6.4  10.5 
The  rate  at  which  these  blocks  ab- 
sorbed water  was  then  determined  by 
drying  them  thoroughly,  then  placing 
them  in  a  tray  containing  water  |  inch 
in  depth,  and  weighing  them  at  intervals. 

123 

Damp-  Wet-     Poured 

tamped  tamped 

i  hour 2.0         0.9         1.8 

1  hour 3.2         1.1         2.5 

2  hours 4.1         1.6        3.2 

4    hours 5.2        2.0        3.8 

24  hours 6.1         3.4         7.0 

48     hours 6.4         4.3         7.5 

These  figures  show  that  concrete 
which  is  sufficiently  wet  to  be  thoroughly 
plastic  absorbs  water  much  more  slow- 
ly than  dryer  concrete,  and  prove  the 
importance  of  using  as  much  water  as 
possible  in  the  damp-tamping  process. 

Cost. — Concrete  blocks  can  be  sold 
and  laid  up  at  a  good  profit  at  25  cents 
per  cubic  foot  of  wall.  Common  red 
brick  costs  (at  this  writing)  generally 
about  $12  per  thousand,  laid.  At  24  to 
the  cubic  foot,  a  thousand  brick  are 
equal  to  41.7  cubic  foot  of  wall;  or, 
$12,  29  cents  per  cubic  foot.  Brick  walls 
with  pressed  brick  facing  cost  from  40 
cents  to  50  cents  per  cubic  foot,  and 
dressed  stone  from  $1  to  $1.50  per  foot. 

The  factory  cost  of  concrete  blocks 
varies  according  to  the  cost  of  materials. 
Let  us  assume  cement  to  be  $1.50  per 
barrel  of  380  pounds,  and  sand  and  gravel 

25  cents  per  ton.     With  a  1  to  4  mixture, 
1  barrel  cement  will  make  1,900  pounds 
of  solid  concrete,  or  at  130  pounds  per 
cubic  foot,  14.6  cubic  feet.     The  cost  of 
materials  will  then  be: 

Cement,  380  pounds $1.50 

Sand  and  gravel,  1,500  pounds.  . .       0.19 

Total $1.69 

or  11.5  cents  per  cubic  foot  solid  con- 
crete. Now,  blocks  9  inches  high  and 
32  inches  long  make  2  square  feet  of 
face  of  wall,  each.  Blocks  of  this  height 


STONE 


699 


and  length,  8  inches  thick,  make  1$  cubic 
feet  of  wall;  and  blocks  12  inches  thick 
make  2  cubic  feet  of  wall.  From  these 
figures  we  may  calculate  the  cost  of 
materials  for  these  blocks,  with  cores  or 
openings  equal  to  3  or  |  the  total  volume, 
as  follows: 

Per  cubic  foot  of  block,  ^  open- 

ing .......................     7.7  cts. 

Per  cubic  foot  of  block,  |  open- 

ing ......................      5.8  cts. 

Block  8  x  9  x  32  inches,  ^  open- 

ing .......................    10.3  cts. 

Block  8  x  9  x  32  inches,  $  open- 

ing .......................     7.7  cts. 

Block  12  x  9  x  32  inches,  ^ 

opening  ..................   15.4  cts. 

Block  12  x  9  x  32  inches,  $ 

opening  ..................    11.6  cts. 

If  one-third  of  the  cement  is  replaced 
by  hydrate  lime  the  quality  of  the  blocks 
will  be  improved,  and  the  cost  of 
material  reduced  about  10  per  cent. 
The  cost  of  labor  required  in  manufac- 
turing, handling,  and  delivering  blocks 
will  vary  with  the  locality  and  the  size 
and  equipment  of  factory.  With  hand 
mixing,  3  men  at  an  average  of  $1.75  each 
will  easily  make  75  8-inch  or-  50  12-inch 
blocks,  with  £  openings,  per  day.  The 
labor  cost  for  these  sizes  of  blocks  will 
therefore  be  7  cents  and  10^  cents 
respectively.  At  a  factory  equipped  with 
power  concrete  mixer  and  cars  for  trans- 
porting blocks,  in  which  a  number  of 
machines  are  kept  busy,  the  labor  cost 
will  be  considerably  less.  An  extensive 
industry  located  in  a  large  city  is,  how- 
ever, subject  to  many  expenses  which 
are  avoided  in  a  small  country  plant, 
such  as  high  wages,  management,  office 
rent,  advertising,  etc.,  so  that  the  total 
cost  of  production  is  likely  to  be  about 
the  same  in  both  cases.  A  fair  estimate 
of  total  factory  cost  is  as  follows: 

Material    Labor        Total 
8  x  32  inch,  £ 

space  ......  10.3  7  17.3  cts. 

8  x  32  inch, 


space 
12  x  32  inch, 


10.3 

7.7 


6 


13.7  cts. 


15.4 


10.5         25.9  cts. 


9 


20.6  cts. 


space 
12  x  32  inch,  \ 

space  ......  11.6 

With  fair  allowance  for  outside  ex- 
penses and  profit,  8-inch  blocks  may  be 
sold  at  30  cents  and  12-inch  at  40  cents 
each.  For  laying  12-inch  blocks  in  the 
wall,  contractors  generally  figure  about 
10  cents  each.  Adding  5  cents  for 
teaming,  the  blocks  will  cost  55  cents 
each,  erected,  or  27  \  cents  per  cubic 


foot  of  wall.  This  is  less  than  the  cost 
of  common  brick,  and  the  above  figures 
show  that  this  price  could  be  shaded 
somewhat,  if  necessary,  to  meet  com- 
petition.— S.  B.  Newberry  in  a  monograph 
issued  by  the  American  Association  of  Port- 
land Cement  Manufacturers. 

Artificial  Marbles. — I. — The  mass  used 
by  Beaumel  consists  of  alum  and  heavy 
spar  (barium  sulphate)  with  addition  of 
water  and  the  requisite  pigments.  The 
following  proportions  have  been  found 
to  be  serviceable:  Alum,  1,000  parts; 
heavy  spar,  10  to  100  parts;  water,  100 
parts;  the  amount  of  heavy  spar  being 
governed  by  the  degree  of  translucence 
desired.  The  alum  is  dissolved  in  water 
with  the  use  of  heat.  As  soon  as  the 
solution  boils  the  heavy  spar  is  mixed  in, 
stirred  with  water  and  the  pigment;  this 
is  then  boiled  down  until  the  mixture  has 
lost  about  3  per  cent  of  its  weight,  at 
which  moment  the  mass  exhibits  a  density 
of  34°  Be.  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F. 
The  mixture  is  allowed  to  cool  with  constant 
stirring  until  the  substance  is  semi-liquid. 
The  resultant  mass  is  poured  into  a  mold 
covered  on  the  inside  with  several  layers 
of  collodion  and  the  cast  permitted  to 
cool  completely  in  the  mold,  whereupon 
it  is  taken  out  and  dried  entirely  in  an 
airy  room.  Subsequently  the  object  may 
be  polished,  patinized,  or  finished  in  some 
other  way. 

II.— Imitation  Black  Marble.  — A 
black  marble  of  similar  character  to 
that  exported  from  Belgium — the  lat- 
ter product  being  simply  prepared  slate 
— may  be  produced  in  the  following 
manner:  The  slate  suitable  for  the  pur- 
pose is  first  smoothly  polished  with  a 
sandstone,  so  that  no  visible  impression 
is  made  on  it  with  a  chisel — this  being 
rough — after  which  it  is  polished  finely 
with  artificial  pumice  stone,  and  lastly 
finished  with  extremely  light  natural 
pumice  stone,  the  surface  then  present- 
ing a  soft,  velvet-like  appearance.  After 
drying  and  thoroughly  heating  the  finely 
polished  surface  is  impregnated  with  a 
neated  mixture  of  oil  and  fine  lampblack. 
This  is  allowed  to  remain  12  hours;  and, 
according  to  whether  the  slate  used  is 
more  or  less  gray,  the  process  is  repeated 
until  the  gray  appearance  is  lost.  Pol- 
ishing thoroughly  with  emery  on  a  linen 
rag  follows,  and  the  finishing  polish  is  done 
with  tin  ashes,  to  which  is  added  some 
lampblack.  A  finish  being  made  thus, 
wax  dissolved  in  turpentine,  with  some 
lampblack,  is  spread  on  the  polished 
plate  and  warmed  again,  which  after  a 
while  is  rubbed  off  vigorously  with  a 


700 


STOPPERS— STOVE    POLISH 


clean  linen  rag.      Treated  thus,  the  slate 
has  the  appearance  of  black  marble. 

STONE  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives. 

STONE  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

STONES  FOR  SHARPENING: 

See  Tool  Setting  and  Whetstones. 

STONES  (PRECIOUS),  IMITATION  OF: 

See  Gems,  Artificial. 

STONEWARE: 

See  Ceramics. 

STONEWARE  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives  and  Lutes. 

STOPPERS. 

I. — To  make  an  anti-leak  and  lubri- 
cating mixture  for  plug-cocks  use  2 
parts  of  tried  suet  and  1  part  of  beeswax 
melted  together;  stir  thoroughly,  strain, 
and  cool. 

II. — A  mixture  for  making  glass  stop- 
pers tight  is  made  by  melting  together 
equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  paraffine. 

To  Loosen  a  Glass  Stopper. — I. — Make 
a  mixture  of 

Alcohol 2  drachms 

Glycerine 1  drachm 

Sodium  chloride 1  drachm 

Let  a  portion  of  this  stand  in  the  space 
above  the  stopper  for  a  few  hours,  when 
a  slight  tap  will  loosen  the  stopper. 

II. — A  circular  adjustable  clamp,  to 
which  is  attached  a  strip  of  asbestos  in 
which  coils  of  platinum  wire  are  im- 
bedded, is  obtained.  By  placing  this  on 
the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and  passing  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity  through  the  coils  of 
wire,  sufficient  heat  will  be  generated  to 
expand  the  neck  and  liberate  the  stopper. 
Heat  may  also  be  generated  by  passing 
a  yard  of  cord  once  around  the  bottle 
neck  and,  by  taking  one  end  of  the  cord 
in  each  hand,  drawing  it  rapidly  back 
and  forth.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
the  contents  of  the  bottle  are  not  spilled 
on  the  hand  or  thrown  into  the  face 
when  the  stopper  does  come  out — or 
when  the  bottle  breaks. 

STOPPER  LUBRICANTS: 

See  Lubricants. 

STOVE  POLISH: 

See  also  Polishes. 

The  following  formula  gives  a  liquid 
stove  blacking: 


Graphite,  in  fine  pow- 
der        1  pound 

Lampblack 1  ounce 

Rosin 4  ounces 

Turpentine 1  gallon 

The  mixture  must  be  well  shaken  when 
used,  and  must  not  be  applied  when 
there  is  a  fire  or  light  near  on  account  of 
the  inflammability  of  the  vapor. 

This  form  may  be  esteemed  a  con- 
venience by  some,  but  the  rosin  and  tur- 
pentine will,  of  course,  give  rise  to  some 
disagreeable  odor  on  first  heating  the 
stove,  after  the  liquid  is  applied. 

Graphite  is  the  foundation  ingredient 
in  many  stove  polishes;  lampblack, 
which  is  sometimes  added,  as  in  the  fore- 
going formula,  deepens  the  color,  but 
the  latter  form  of  carbon  is  of  course 
much  more  readily  burned  off  than  the 
former.  Graphite  may  be  applied  by 
merely  mixing  with  water,  and  then  no 
odor  follows  the  heating  of  the  iron.  The 
coating  must  be  well  rubbed  with  a  brush 
to  obtain  a  good  luster. 

The  solid  cakes  of  stove  polish  found 
in  the  market  are  made  by  subjecting 
the  powdered  graphite,  mixed  with 
spirit  of  turpentine,  to  great  pressure. 
They  have  to  be  reduced  to  powder  and 
mixed  with  "water  before  being  applied. 

Any  of  them  must  be  well  rubbed  with 
a  brush  after  application  to  give  a  hand- 
some finish. 

STOVE  CEMENT: 

See  Cement. 

STOVE  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

STOVE  LACQUER: 

See  Lacquers. 

STOVE  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

STRAMONIUM,  ANTIDOTE  FOR: 

See  Atropine. 

STRAP  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricant. 

STRAW  FIREPROOFING: 

See  Fireproofing. 

STRAWBERRIES,  FROZEN: 
See  Ice  Creams. 

STRAWBERRY  JUICE: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

STRAW -HAT  CLEANERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth* 
ods. 

STRAW-HAT  DYES: 
See  Hats, 


STYPTICS— SYRUPS 


701 


STROPPING  PASTES: 
See  Razor  Pastes. 


STYPTICS. 

Styptics  are  substances  which  arrest 
local  bleeding.  Creosote,  tannic  acid, 
alcohol,  alum,  and  most  of  the  astringent 
salts  belong  to  this  class. 

Brocchieri's  Styptic. — A  nostrum  con- 
sisting of  the  water  distilled  from  pine 
tops. 

Helvetius's  Styptic. — Iron  filings  (fine) 
and  cream  of  tartar  mixed  to  a  proper 
consistence  with  French  brandy. 

Eaton's  Styptic. — A  solution  of  sul- 
phate disguised  by  the  addition  of  some 
unimportant  substances.  Helvetius's 
styptic  was  for  a  long  time  employed 
under  this  title. 

Styptic  Paste  of  Gutta  Percha. — Gutta 
percha,  1  ounce;  Stockholm  tar,  li  or  2 
ounces;  creosote,  1  drachm;  shellac,  1 
ounce;  or  quantity  sufficient  to  render  it 
sufficiently  hard.  To  be  boiled  together 
with  constant  stirring,  till  it  forms  a  ho- 
mogeneous mass.  For  alveolar  hemor- 
rhage, and  as  a  styptic  in  toothache.  To 
be  softened  by  molding  with  the  fingers. 

SULPHATE  STAINS,  TO  REMOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

SULTANA  ROLL: 
See  Ice  Creams. 

SUNBURN  REMEDIES: 

See  Cosmetics. 

SUTURES  OF  CATGUT,  THEIR  PREP- 
ARATION: 

See  Catgut. 

SYNDETICON: 

See  Adhesives. 

Syrups 

(See  also  Essences  and  Extracts.) 

The  syrups  should  either  be  made 
from  the  best  granulated  sugar,  free 
from  ultramarine,  or  else  rock-candy 
syrup.  If  the  former,  pure  distilled 
water  should  be  used  in  making  the 
syrup,  as  only  in  this  manner  can  a  syrup 
be  obtained  that  will  be  free  from  im- 
purities and  odor.  There  are  two  meth- 
ods by  which  syrup  can  be  made,  namely, 
by  the  cold  process,  or  by  boiling.  The 
advantage  of  the  former  is  its  con- 


venience; of  the  latter,  that  it  has  better 
keeping  qualities.  In  the  cold  process, 
the  sugar  is  either  stirred  up  in  the  water 
until  it  is  dissolved,  or  water  is  percolated 
or  filtered  through  the  sugar,  thus  forming 
a  solution.  In  the  hot  process,  the  sugar 
is  simply  dissolved  in  the  water  by  the  aid 
of  heat,  stirring  until  solution  is  effected. 
The  strength  of  the  syrup  for  fountain  use 
should  be  about  6  pounds  in  the  gallon 
of  finished  syrup;  it  is  best,  however,  to 
make  the  stock  syrup  heavier,  as  it  will 
keep  much  better,  using  15  pounds  of 
granulated  sugar,  and  1  gallon  of  water. 
When  wanted  for  use  it  can  be  diluted 
to  the  proper  density  with  water.  The 
syrups  of  the  market  are  of  this  con- 
centrated variety.  Unless  the  apart- 
ments of  the  dispenser  are  larger  than  is 
usual,  it  is  often  best  to  buy  the  syrup, 
the  difference  in  cost  being  so  small  that 
when  the  time  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion the  profit  is  entirely  lost.  Foamed 
syrups  should,  however,  never  be  pur- 
chased; they  are  either  contaminated 
with  foreign  flavor,  or  are  more  prone  to 
fermentation  than  plain  syrup. 

Fruit  Syrups. — These  may  be  pre- 
pared from  fruit  juices,  and  the  desired 
quantity  of  syrup,  then  adding  soda 
foam,  color,  and  generally  a  small 
amount  of  fruit- acid  solution.  They 
may  also  be  made  by  reducing  the  con- 
centrated fruit  syrups  of  the  market  with 
syrup,  otherwise  proceeding  as  above. 
As  the  fruit  juices  and  concentrated 
syrups  always  have  a  tried  formula  at- 
tached, it  is  needless  to  use  space  for  this 
purpose. 

When  a  flavor  is  weak  it  may  be  forti- 
fied by  adding  a  small  amount  of  flav- 
oring extract,  but  under  no  condition 
should  a  syrup  flavored  entirely  with  an 
essence  be  handed  out  to  the  consumer 
as  a  fruit  syrup,  for  there  is  really  no 

freat     resemblance     between     the    two. 
'ruit  syrups  may  be  dispensed  solid  by 
adding  the  syrup  to  the  soda  water  and 
stirring  with  a  spoon.      Use  nothing  but 
the  best  ingredients  in  making  syrups. 

Preservation  of  Syrups. — The  preser- 
vation of  syrups  is  purely  a  pharma- 
ceutical question.  Tney  must  be  made 
right  in  order  to  keep  right.  Syrups, 
particularly  fruit  syrups,  must  be  kept 
aseptic,  especially  when  made  without 
heat.  The  containers  should  be  made 
of  glass,  porcelain,  or  pure  block  tin,  so 
that  they  may  be  sterilized,  and  should 
be  easily  and  quickly  removed,  so  that 
the  operation  may  be  effected  with 
promptness  and  facility.  As  is  well 
known,  the  operation  of  sterilization  is 


702 


SYRUPS 


very  simple,  consisting  in  scalding  the 
article  with  boiling  water.  No  syrup 
should  ever  be  filled  into  a  container 
without  first  sterilizing  the  container.  The 
fruit  acids,  in  the  presence  of  sugar,  serve 
as  a  media  for  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  germ  life  upon  exposure  to  the 
air.  Hence  the  employment  of  heat  as 
pasteurization  and  sterilization  in  the  pre- 
serving of  fruits,  etc. 

A  pure  fruit  syrup,  filled  into  a  glass 
bottle,  porcelain  jar,  or  block-tin  can, 
which  has  been  rendered  sterile  with 
boiling  water,  maintained  at  a  cool  tem- 
perature, will  keep  for  any  reasonable 
length  of  time.  All  danger  of  fracturing 
the  glass,  by  pouring  water  into  it,  may 
be  obviated  by  first  wetting  the  interior 
of  the  bottle  with  cold  water. 

The  fruits  for  syrups  must  not  only  be 
fully  ripe,  but  they  must  be  used  imme- 
diately after  gathering.  The  fruit  must 
be  freed  from  stems,  seeds,  etc.,  filled  into 
lightly  tied  linen  sacks,  and  thus  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  to  obtain  their  juices. 
Immediately  after  pressure  the  juice 
should  be  heated  quickly  to  167°  F.,  and 
filtered  through  a  felt  bag.  The  filtrate 
should  fall  directly  upon  the  sugar  neces- 
sary to  make  it  a  syrup.  The  heating 
serves  the  purpose  of  coagulating  the  al- 
buminous bodies  present  in  the  juices, 
and  thus  to  purify  the  latter. 

Syrups  thus  prepared  have  not  only  a 
most  agreeable,  fresh  taste,  but  are  very 
stable,  remaining  in  a  good  condition 
for  years. 

Hints  on  Preparation  of  Syrups. — 
Keep  the  extracts  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
Never  add  flavoring  extracts  to  hot 
syrup.  It  will  cause  them  to  evaporate, 
and  weaken  the  flavor.  Keep  all  the 
mixing  utensils  scrupulously  clean. 
Never  mix  fruit  syrups,  nor  let  them 
stand  in  the  same  vessels  in  which  sarsa- 
parilla,  ginger,  and  similar  extract  flavors 
are  mixed  and  kept.  If  possible,  always 
use  distilled  water  in  making  syrup. 
Never  allow  a  syrup  containing  acid  to 
come  in  contact  with  any  metal  except 
pure  block  tin.  Clean  the  syrup  jars 
each  time  before  refilling.  Keep  all 
packages  of  concentrated  syrups  and 
crushed  fruits  tightly  corked.  Mix  only  a 
small  quantity  of  crushed  fruit  in  the  bowl 
at  a  time,  so  as  to  have  it  always  fresh. 

How  to  Make  Simple  Syrups — Hot 
Process.  —  Put  25  pounds  granulated 
sugar  in  a  large  pail,  or  kettle,  and  pour 
on  and  stir  hot  water  enough  to  make 
4  gallons,  more  or  less  depending  on  how 
thick  the  syrup  is  desired.  Then  strain 
while  hot  tnrough  fine  cheese  cloth. 


Cold  Process. — By  agitation.  Sugar, 
25  pounds;  water,  2  gallons.  Put  the. 
sugar  in  a  container,  add  the  water,  and 
agitate  with  a  wooden  paddle  until  the 
sugar  is  dissolved.  An  earthenware  jar 
with  a  cover  and  a  faucet  at  the  bottom 
makes  a  very  convenient  container. 

Cold  Process.  —  By  percolation.  A 
good,  easy  way  to  keep  syrup  on  hand 
all  the  time:  Have  made  a  galvanized 
iron  percolator,  2  feet  long,  8  inches 
across  top,  and  4  inches  at  base,  with  a 
4-inch  wire  sieve  in  bottom.  Finish  the 
bottom  in  shape  of  a  funnel.  Put  a 
syrup  faucet  in  a  barrel,  and  set  on  a  box, 
so  that  the  syrup  can  be  drawn  into  a  gallon 
measure.  Bore  a  hole  in  the  barrel  head, 
arid  insert  the  percolator.  Fill  three- 
fourths  full  of  sugar,  and  fill  with  water. 
As  fast  as  the  syrup  runs  into  the  barrel 
fill  the  percolator,  always  putting  in  plenty 
of  sugar.  By  this  method  20  to  25  gal- 
lons heavy  syrup  can  be  made  in  a  day. 

Rock-Candy  Syrup. — Sugar,  32  pounds; 
water,  2  gallons.  Put  the  sugar  and 
water  in  a  suitable  container,  set  on 
stove,  and  keep  stirring  until  the  mixture 
boils  up  once.  Strain  and  allow  to  cool. 
When  cool  there  will  be  on  top  a  crust, 
or  film,  of  crystallized  sugar.  Strain 
again  to  remove  this  film,  and  the  prod- 
uct will  be  what  is  commonly  known  as 
rock-candy  syrup.  This  may  be  reduced 
with  .one-fifth  of  its  bulk  of  water  when 
wanted  for  use.  % 

COLORS  FOR  SYRUPS: 

Caramel. — Place  3  pounds  of  crushed 
sugar  in  a  kettle  with  1  pint  of  water, 
and  heat.  The  sugar  will  at  first  dis- 
solve, but  as  the  water  evaporates  a 
solid  mass  will  be  formed.  This  must 
be  broken  up. 

Continue  to  heat,  with  constant  stir- 
ring, until  the  mass  has  again  become 
liquefied.  Keep  on  a  slow  fire  until  the 
mass  becomes  very  dark;  then  remove 
the  kettle  from  the  fire  and  pour  in  slowly 
3  pints  of  boiling  water.  Set  the  kettle 
back  on  the  fire  and  permit  contents  to 
boil  for  a  short  time,  then  remove,  and 
cool.  Add  simple  syrup  to  produce  any 
required  consistency. 

Blue. — 

I. — Indigo  carmine 1  part 

Water 20  parts 

Indigo  carmine  may  usually  be  ob- 
tained commercially; 

H. — Tincture  of  indigo  also  makes  a 
harmless  blue. 


SYRUPS— TABLES 


703 


Sap  Blue. — 

Dark  blue 3  parts 

Grape  sugar 1  part 

Water 6  parts 

Green. — The  addition  of  indigo-car- 
mine solution  to  any  yellow  solution  will 
give  various  shades  of  green.  Indigo 
carmine  added  to  a  mixture  of  tincture 
of  crocus  and  glycerine  will  give  a  fine 
green  color.  A  solution  of  commercial 
chlorophyll  yields  grass-green  shades. 

Pink.— 

I. — Carmine 1  part 

Liquor  potasses 6  parts 

Rose  water  to  make. .    48  parts 
Mix.     If  the  color  is  too  high,  dilute 
with  distilled  water  until  the  required  tint 
is  obtained. 

II. — Soak  red-apple  parings  in  Cali- 
fornia brandy.  The  addition  of  rose 
leaves  makes  a  fine  flavoring  as  well  as 
coloring  agent. 

Red.— 

Carmine,  No.  40  ....      1  part 

Strong    ammonia 

water 4  parts 

Distilled  water  to  make  24  parts 
Rub  up  the  carmine  and  ammonia 
water  and  to  the  solution  add  the  water 
under  trituration.  If,  in  standing,  this 
shows  a  tendency  to  separate,  a  drop  or 
two  of  water  of  ammonia  will  correct 
the  trouble.  This  statement  should  be 
put  on  the  label  of  the  bottle  as  the 
volatile  ammonia  soon  escapes  even  in 
glass-stoppered  vials.  Various  shades 
of  red  may  be  obtained  by  using  fruit 
juices,  such  as  black  cherry,  raspberry, 
etc.,  and  also  the  tinctures  of  sudbear, 
alkanet,  red  saunders,  erythroxylon,  etc. 

Orange. — 

Tincture  of  red  sandal- 
wood  1  part 

Ethereal  tincture  of  Orlean,  q.  s. 

Add  the  orlean  tincture  to  the  sandal- 
wood  gradually  until  the  desired  tint  is 
obtained.  A  red  color  added  to  a  yellow 
one  gives  an  orange  color. 

Purple. — A  mixture  of  tincture  of 
indigo,  or  a  solution  of  indigo  carmine, 
added  to  cochineal  red  gives  a  fine 
purple. 

Yellow. — Various  shades  o.f  yellow 
may  be  obtained  by  the  maceration  of 
saffron  or  turmeric  in  alcohol  until  a 
strong  tincture  is  obtained.  Dilute  with 
water  until  the  desired  tint  is  reached. 

SYRUP,  TABLE: 
See  Tables. 


Tables 

ALCOHOL  DILUTION. 

The  following  table  gives  the  per- 
centage, by  weight,  of  alcohol  of  95  per 
cent  and  of  distilled  water  to  make  1 
liter  (about  1  quart),  or  1  kilogram  (2.2 
pounds),  of  alcohol  of  various  dilutions. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  DILUTION  OF 
ALCOHOL. 


1  Liter 

^ 

1  Kilogram 

contains 

•g 

contains 

oj  o3 

£> 

8,-rf 

C-r 

| 

0^ 

§ 

"O    . 

#1 

G  v 

|> 

•3 

|| 

00 

<G*i 
'o  ^ 

5 

o>  ^ 

35 

& 

PnJ2 

| 

uffc: 

I 

a 

0 

alfe 

PM.Q 

Q 

02 

3 

P 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Gms. 

5 

42.87 

950.13 

0.993 

43.17 

956.83 

3.99 

10 

85.89 

900.11 

0.986 

87.11 

912.89 

8.05 

15 

128.87 

852.13 

0.981 

131.37 

868.63 

12.14 

20 

171.83 

804.17 

0.976 

176.06 

823.94 

16.27 

25 

214.77 

756.23 

0.971 

221.18 

778.82 

20.44 

30 

257.93 

707.07 

0.965 

267.28 

732.72 

24.70 

35 

300.74 

658.26 

0.959 

313.60 

686.40 

28.98 

40 

343.77 

608.23 

0.952 

361.10 

638.90 

33.37 

45 

386.75 

557.25 

0.944 

409.69 

590.31 

37.86 

50 

429.65 

504.35 

0.934 

460.01 

539.99 

42.51 

55 

472.64 

451.36 

0.924 

511.52 

488.48 

47.27 

60 

515.60 

398.40 

0.914 

564.11 

435.89 

52.13 

65 

558.61 

343.39 

0.902 

619.30 

380.70 

57.23 

70 

601.55 

288.45 

0.890 

675.90 

324.10 

62.46 

75 

644.58 

232.42 

0.877 

734.98 

265.02 

67.92 

80 

687.57 

176.43 

0.864 

795.80 

204.20 

73.54 

85 

730.51 

119.49 

0.850 

859.43 

140.57 

79.42 

90 

773.53 

0.47 

0.834 

927.49 

72.51 

85.71 

Capacities  of  Common  Utensils. — For 
ordinary  measuring  purposes  a  wine- 
glass may  be  said  to  hold  2  ounces. 

A  tablespoon,  £  ounce. 

A  dessertspoon,  J  ounce. 

A  teaspoon,  J  ounce,  or  1  drachm. 

A  teacupful  of  sugar  weighs  £  pound. 

Three  tablespoonfuls  weign  J  pound. 

Cook's  Table. — Two  teacupfuls  (well 
heaped)  of  coffee  and  of  sugar  weigh  1 
pound. 

Two  teacupfuls  (level)  of  granulated 
sugar  weigh  1  pound. 

Two  teacupfuls  soft  butter  (well  packed) 
weigh  1  pound. 

One  and  one-third  pints  of  powdered 
sugar  weigh  1  pound. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar 
or  flour  weigh  1  pound. 

Four  teaspoonfuls  are  equal  to  1  table- 
spoon. 

Two  and  one-half  teacupfuls  (level)  of 
the  best  brown  sugar  weigh  1  pound. 

Two  and  three-fourths  teacupfuls  (level) 
of  powdered  sugar  weigh  1  pound. 

One  tablespoonful  (well  heaped)  of 
granulated  or  best  brown  sugar  equals  1 
ounce. 


704 


TABLES 


One  generous  pint  of  liquid,  or  1  pint 
finely  chopped  meat,  packed  solidly, 
weighs  1  pound. 

Table  of  Drops. — Used  in  estimating 
the  amount  of  a  flavoring  extract  neces- 
sary to  flavor  a  gallon  of  syrup.  Based 
on  the  assumption  of  450  drops  being 
equal  to  1  ounce. 

One  drop  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  is  equal  to  2  drachms  to  a  gallon. 

Two  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  4^  drachms  to  a  gallon. 

Three  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  64  drachms  to  a  gallon. 

Four  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  1  ounce  and  1  drachm 
to  a  gallon. 

Five  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  1  ounce  and  3J  drachms 
to  a  gallon. 

Six  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  1  ounce  and  5^  drachms 
to  a  galloTi. 

Seven  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  2  ounces  to  the  gallon. 

Eight  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  2  ounces  and  2£  drachms 
to  a  gallon. 

Nine  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  2  ounces  and  4£  drachms 
to  a  gallon. 

Ten  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  2  ounces  and  6|  drachms 
to  a  gallon. 

Twelve  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce  of 
syrup  are  equal  to  3  ounces  and  3|  drachms 
to  a  gallon. 

Fourteen  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce 
of  syrup  are  equal  to  4  ounces  to  a  gallon. 

Sixteen  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce 
of  syrup  are  equal  to  4  ounces  and  4£ 
drachms  to  a  gallon. 

Eighteen  drops  of  extract  to  an  ounce 
of  syrup  are  equal  to  5  ounces  and  1 
drachm  to  a  gallon. 

NOTE. — The  estimate  450  drops  to  the 
ounce,  while  accurate  and  reliable 
enough  in  this  particular  relation,  must 
not  be  relied  upon  for  very  exact  purposes, 
in  which,  as  has  frequently  been  demon- 
strated, the  drop  varies  within  a  very  wide 
range,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
liquid,  its  consistency,  specific  gravity, 
temperature;  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
aperture  from  which  it  is  allowed  to 
escape,  etc. 

Fluid  Measure.  —  U.  S.  Standard,  or 
Wine  Measure. — Sixty  minims  are  equal 
to  1  fluidrachm. 

Eight  fluidrachms  are  equal  to  1  fluid- 
ounce. 

Sixteen  fluidounces  are  equal  to  1  pint. 


Two  pints  are  equal  to  1  quart. 
Four  quarts  are  equal  to  1  gallon. 
One    pint    of    distilled    water    weighs 
about  1  pound. 

Percentage  Solutions. — To  prepare 
the  following  approximately  correct  solu- 
tions, dissolve  the  amount  of  medicament 
indicated  in  sufficient  water  to  make  one 
imperial  pint. 

For  J-o  per  cent,  or  1  in  5,000  solution, 
use  If  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For-/j  per  cent,  or  1  in  2,000  solution, 
use  4|  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For-fV  per  cent,  or  1  in  1,000  solution, 
use  8|  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  I  per  cent,  or  1  in  400  solution, 
use  21|  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  £  per  cent,  or  1  in  200  solution, 
use  43f  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  1  per  cent,  or  1  in  100  solution, 
use  87i  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  2  per  cent,  or  1  in  50  solution, 
use  175  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  4  per  cent,  or  1  in  25  solution, 
use  350  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  5  per  'cent,  or  1  in  20  solution, 
use  437£  grains  of  the  medicament. 

For  10  per  cent,  or  1  in  10  solution, 
use  875  grains  of  the  medicament. 

To  make  smaller  quantities  of  any 
solution,  use  less  water  and  reduce  the 
medicament  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  water  employed;  thus  i  imperial  pint 
of  a  1  per  cent  solution  will  require  43| 
grains  of  the  medicament. 

Pressure  Table. — This  table  shows  the 
amount  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid 
(HsSOO  and  sodium  bicarbonate  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  given  pressure: 

120  Pounds  Pressure. 

Water,  Soda  Bicar.,  Acid  Sulph., 

gallons  Av.  ounces  Av.  ounces 

10  86  50 

20  123  71 

30  161  93 

40  198  118 

50  236  138 

135  Pounds  Pressure. 

Water,  Soda  Bicar.,         Acid  Sulph., 

gallons  Av.  ounces  Av.  ounces. 

10  96  56 

20  134  73 

30  171  100 

40  209  122 

50  246  144 

K  marble  dust  be  used,  reckon  at  the 
rate  of  18  ounces  hot  water  for  use. 

Syrup  Table. — The  following  table  shows 
the  amount  of  syrup  obtained  from 

1.  The  addition  of  pounds  of  sugar  to 
1  gallon  of  water;  and  the 


TABLES-TERRA    COTTA    SUBSTITUTES 


705 


2.   Amount  of  sugar  in  each  gallon  of 
syrup  resulting  therefrom: 


Pounds 
of  sugar 
added  to 
one  gallon 
of  cold 
water. 

Quantity  of  syrup  actually 
obtained. 

Pounds 
of  sugar 
in  one 
gallon  of 
syrup. 

Gallons. 

Pints. 

Fluid- 
ounces. 

1 

_ 

10 

.93 

2 

1 

4 

1.73 

3 

1 

14 

2.43 

4 

2 

3 

3.05 

5 

3 

2 

3.6 

6 

3 

12 

4.09 

7 

4 

6 

4.52 

8 

5 

— 

4.92 

9 

5 

10 

5.28 

10 

6 

4 

5.62 

11 

6 

14 

5.92 

12 

1 

7 

8 

6.18 

13 

2 

— 

2 

6.38 

14 

2 

— 

12 

6.7 

15 

2 

1 

«   6 

6.91 

TABLE-TOPS,  ACID-PROOF: 

See  Acid- Proofing. 

TABLES  FOR  PHOTOGRAPHERS: 

See  Photography. 

TAFFY: 

See  Confectionery. 

TALCUM  POWDER: 

See  Cosmetics. 

TALLOW: 

See  Fats. 

TALMI  GOLD: 

See  Alloys. 

TAMPRING: 

See  Tampring,  under  Steel. 

TAN  REMEDY: 
See  Cosmetics. 

TANK: 

To  Estimate  Contents  of  a  Circular 
Tank. — The  capacity  of  a  circular  tank 
may  be  determined  by  multiplying  the 
diameter  in  inches  by  itself  and  by  .7854 
and  by  the  length  (or  depth)  in  inches, 
which  gives  the  capacity  of  the  tank  in 
inches,  and  then  dividing  by  231,  the 
number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  United 
States  gallon. 

TANNING: 
See  Leather. 

TAPS,  TO  REMOVE  BROKEN. 

First  clean  the  hole  by  means  of  a 
small  squirt  gun  filled  with  kerosene. 


All  broken  pieces  of  the  tap  can  be  re- 
moved with  a  pair  of  tweezers,  which 
should  be  as  large  as  possible.  Then 
insert  the  tweezers  between  the  hole  and 
flutes  of  the  tap.  By  slowly  working 
back  and  forth  and  occasionally  blowing 
out  with  kerosene,  the  broken  piece  is 
easily  released. 

TAR  PAINTS : 

See  Wood. 

TAR-SPOTS  ON  WOODWORK: 

See  Paint. 

TAR-SULPHUR  SOAP: 

See  Soap. 

TAR  SYRUP: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

TATTOO  MARKS,  REMOVAL  OF. 

Apply  a  highly  concentrated  tannin 
solution  on  the  tattooed  places  and  treat 
them  with  the  tattooing  needle  as  the 
tattooer  does.  Next  vigorously  rub  the 
places  with  a  lunar  caustic  stick  and 
allow  the  silver  nitrate  to  act  for  some 
time,  until  the  tattooed  portions  have 
turned  entirely  black.  Then  take  oft 
by  dabbing.  At  first  a  silver  tannate 
forms  on  the  upper  layers  of  the  skin, 
which  dyes  the  tattooing  black;  with 
slight  symptoms  of  inflammation  a  scurf 
ensues  which  comes  off  after  14  to  16 
days,  leaving  behind  a  reddish  scar. 
The  latter  assumes  the  natural  color  of 
the  skin  after  some  time.  The  process  is 
said  to  have  given  good  results. 

TAWING: 

See  Leather. 

TEA  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 

TEETH,  TO  WHITEN  DISCOLORED. 

Moisten  the  corner  of  a  linen  hand- 
kerchief with  hydrogen  peroxide,  and 
with  it  rub  the  teeth,  repeating  the  rub- 
bing occasionally.  Use  some  exceed- 
ingly finely  pulverized  infusorial  earth, 
or  pumice  ground  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  in  connection  with  the  hydrogen 
peroxide,  and  the  job  will  be  quicker 
than  with  the  peroxide  alone. 


TEMPERING  OF  STEEL: 

See  Steel. 

TERRA  COTTA  SUBSTITUTE. 

A  substance,  under  this  name,  designed 
to  take  the  place  of  terra  cotta  and  plaster 
of  Paris  in  the  manufacture  of  small  orna- 
mental objects,  consists  of 


706 


THERMOMETERS— TIN 


Albumen 10  parts 

Magnesium  sulphate .      4  parts 

Alum 9  parts 

Calcium  sulphate,  cal- 
cined     45  parts 

Borax , 2  parts 

Water 30  parts 

The  albumen  and  alum  are  dissolved 
in  the  water  and  with  the  solution  so 
obtained  the  other  ingredients  are  made 
into  a  paste.  This  paste  is  molded  at 
once  in  the  usual  way  and  when  set  the 
articles  are  exposed  in  an  oven  to  a  heat 
of  140°  F. 

TERRA  COTTA  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

TEXTILE  CLEANING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods and  Household  Formulas. 

Thermometers 

Table  Showing  the  Comparison  of  tve 
Readings  of  Thermometers. 


CELSIUS,   OR  CENTIGRADE    (C).     REAUMUR   (R). 

FAHRENHEIT  (F). 

C. 

R. 

F. 

C. 

R. 

F. 

-30 

-24.0 

-22.0 

23 

18.4 

73.4 

-25 

-20.0 

-13.0 

24 

19.2 

75.2 

-20 

-16.0 

-   4.0 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

-15 

-12.0 

+   5.0 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

-10 

-    8.0 

14.0 

27 

21.6 

80.6 

-   5 

-    4.0 

23.0 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

-   4 

-   3.2 

24.8 

29 

23.2 

84.2 

-   3 

-    2.4 

26.6 

30 

24.0 

86.0 

-    2 

-    1.6 

28.4 

1     31 

24.8 

87.8 

-    1 

-    0.8 

30.2 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

j     33 

26.4 

91.4 

Freezing  point  of  water. 

i     34 

27.2 

93.2 

i     35 

28.0 

95.0 

0 

0.0 

32.0 

!     36 

28.8 

96.8 

1 

0.8 

33.8 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

2 

1.6 

35.6 

38 

30.4 

100.4 

3 

2.4 

37.4 

39 

31.2 

102.2 

4 

3.2 

39.2 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

5 

4.0 

41.0 

41 

32.8 

105.8 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

42 

33.6 

107.6 

7 

5.6 

44.6 

43 

34.4 

109.4 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

44 

35.2 

111.2 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

45 

36.0 

113.0 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

50 

40.0 

122.0 

11 

8.8 

51.8 

55 

44.0 

131.0 

12 

9.6 

53.6 

60 

48.0 

140.0 

13 

10.4 

55.4 

65 

52.0 

149.0 

14 

11.2 

57.2 

70 

56.0 

158.0 

15 

12.0 

59.0 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

17 

13.6 

62.6 

85 

68.0 

185.0 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

19 

15.2 

66.2 

95 

76.0 

203.0 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

21 

16.8 

69.8 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

Boiling  point  of  water. 

Readings  on  one  scale  can  be  changed 
into  another  by  the  following  formulas, 

in  which  t°  indicates  degrees  of  temper- 
ature: 


Re'au.  to  Fahr. 


Re'au  to  Cent. 


Cent,  to  Fahr. 
i°C  +  32°  =  Z0  F 
Cent,  to  Re'au. 


Fahr.  to  Cent. 


Fahr.  to  Rdau. 


THREAD  : 

See  also  Cordage. 

Dressing  for  Sewing  Thread.  —  For 
colored  thread:  Irish  moss,  3  pounds; 
gum  arabic,  2^-  pounds;  Japan  wax,  | 
pound;  stearine,  185  grams;  borax,  95 
grams;  boil  together  for  |  hour. 

For  white  thread:  Irish  moss,  2  pounds; 
tapioca,  1|  pounds;  spermaceti,  f  pound; 
stearine,  110  grams;  borax,  95  grams; 
boil  tpgether  for  20  minutes. 

For  black  thread:  Irish  moss,  3  pounds; 
gum  Senegal,  2J  pounds;  ceresin,  1  pound; 
borax,  95  grams;  logwood  extract,  95  grams; 
blue  vitriol,  30  grams;  boil  together  for 
20  minutes.  Soak  the  Irish  moss  in  each 
case  overnight  in  45  liters  of  water,  then 
boil  for  1  hour,  strain  and  add  the  other 
ingredients  to  the  resulting  solution.  It 
is  of  advantage  to  add  the  borax  to  the 
Irish  moss  before  the  boiling. 

THROAT  LOZENGES: 

See  Confectionery. 

THYMOL: 

See  Antiseptics. 

TICKS,  CATTLE  DIP  FOR: 

See  Insecticides. 

TIERCES: 

See  Disinfectants. 

TILEMAKERS'  NOTES: 

See  Ceramics. 

Tin 

Etching  Bath  for  Tin.  —  The  design  is 
either  freely  drawn  upon  the  metal  with 
a  needle  or  a  lead  pencil,  or  pricked 
into  the  metal  through  tracing  paper 
with  a  needle.  The  outlines  are  filled 
with  a  varnish  (wax,  colophony,  asphalt). 
The  varnish  is  rendered  fluid  with  tur- 
pentine and  applied  with  a  brush.  The 
article  after  having  dried  is  laid  in  a 
^  solution  of  nitric  acid  for  1^  to  2  hours. 
It  is  then  washed  and  dried  with  blotting 


TIN— TINFOIL 


707 


paper.  The  protective  coating  of  as- 
phalt is  removed  by  heating.  The  zinc 
oxide  in  the  deeper  portions  is  cleaned 
away  with  a  silver  soap  and  brush. 

Recovery  of  Tin  and  Iron  in  Tinned- 
Plate  Clippings. — The  process  of  utiliz- 
ing tinned-plate  scrap  consists  essentially 
in  the  removal  of  the  tin.  This  must  be 
very  completely  carried  out  if  the  re- 
maining iron  is  to  be  available  for  cast- 
ing. The  removal  of  the  outer  layer  of 
pure  tin  from  the  tinned  plate  is  an  easy 
matter.  Beneath  this,  however,  is  an- 
other crystalline  layer  consisting  of  an 
alloy  of  tin  and  iron,  which  is  more  dif- 
ficult of  treatment.  It  renders  the  iron 
unavailable  for  casting,  as  even  0.2 
per  cent  of  tin  causes  brittleness.  Its 
removal  is  best  accomplished  by  elec- 
trolysis. If  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  used 
as  an  electrolyte,  the  deposit  is  spongy 
at  first,  and  afterwards,  when  the  acid 
has  been  partly  neutralized,  crystalline. 
After  6  hours  the  clippings  are  taken  out 
and  the  iron  completely  dissolved  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid;  the  residue  of  tin 
is  then  combined  with  the  tin  obtained  by 
the  electrolysis.  Green  vitriol  is  there- 
fore a  by-product  in  this  process. 

Gutensohn's  process  has  two  objects: 
To  obtain  tin  and  to  render  the  iron  fit 
for  use.  The  tin  is  obtained  by  treating 
the  tinned  plate  repeatedly  with  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  tin  is  then  removed 
from  the  solution  by  means  of  the  electric 
current.  The  tinned  plate  as  the  positive 
pole  is  placed  in  a  tank  made  of  some  in- 
sulating material  impervious  to  the  action 
of  acids,  such  as  slate.  A  copper  plate 
forms  the  cathode.  The  bichloride  of 
tin  solution,  freed  from  acid,  is  put  round 
the  carbon  cylinder  in  the  Bunsen  ele- 
ment. Another  innovation  in  this  proc- 
ess is  that  the  tank  with  the  tinned- 
plate  clippings  is  itself  turned  into  an 
electric  battery  with  the  aid  of  the  tin. 
A  still  better  source  of  electricity  is,  how- 
ever, obtained  during  the  treatment  of 
the  untinned  iron  which  will  be  de- 
scribed presently.  The  final  elimination 
of  the  tin  takes  place  in  the  clay  cup 
of  the  Bunsen  elements.  Besides  the 
chloride  of  tin  solution  (free  from  acid), 
another  tin  solution,  preferably  chromate 
of  tin,  nitrate  of  tin,  or  sulphate  of  tin, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  current 
desired,  may  be  used.  To  render  the 
iron  of  the  tinned  plate  serviceable  the 
acid  is  drawn  off  as  long  as  the  iron  is 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  an  alloy  of 
iron  and  tin.  The  latter  makes  the  iron 
unfit  for  use  in  rolling  mills  or  for  the 
precipitation  of  copper.  Fresh  hydro- 


chloric acid  or  sulphuric  acid  is  there- 
fore poured  over  the  plate  to  remove  the 
alloy,  after  the  treatment  with  the  bi- 
chloride of  tin  solution.  This  acid  is 
also  systematically  used  in  different  vats 
to  the  point  of  approximate  saturation. 
This  solution  forms  the  most  suitable 
source  of  electricity,  a  zinc-iron  element 
being  formed  by  means  of  a  clay  cell  and 
a  zinc  cylinder.  The  electrical  force 
developed  serves  to  accelerate  the  solu- 
tion in  the  next  tank,  which  contains 
tinned  plate,  either  fresh  or  treated  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  Ferrous  oxide,  or 
spongy  metallic  iron  if  the  current  is 
very  strong,  is  liberated  in  the  iron  bat- 
tery. Both  substances  are  easily  oxi- 
dized, and  form  red  oxide  of  iron  when 
heated.  The  remaining  solution  can  be 
crystallized  by  evaporation,  so  that  fer- 
rous sulphate  (green  vitriol)  or  ferric 
chloride  can  be  obtained,  or  it  can  be 
treated  to  form  red  oxide  of  iron. 

Tin  in  Powder  Form. — To  obtain  tin 
in  powder  form  the  metal  is  first  melted; 
next  pour  it  into  a  box  whose  sides,  etc., 
are  coated  with  powdered  chalk.  Agitate 
the  box  vigorously  and  without  discon- 
tinuing, until  the  metal  is  entirely  cold. 
Now  pass  this  powder  through  a  sieve 
and  keep  in  a  closed  flask.  This  tin 
powder  is  eligible  for  various  uses  and 
makes  a  handsome  effect,  especially  in 
bronzing.  It  can  be  browned. 

TINFOIL: 

See  also  Metal  Foil. 

By  pouring  tin  from  a  funnel  with  a 
very  long  and  narrow  mouth  upon  a 
linen  surface,  the  latter  being  tightly 
stretched,  covered  with  a  mixture  of 
chalk  and  white  of  egg,  and  placed  in  a 
sloping  position,  very  thin  sheets  can  be 
produced,  and  capable  of  being  easily 
transformed  into  thin  foil.  Pure  tin  should 
never  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  foil 
intended  for  packing  tobacco,  chocolate, 
etc.,  but  an  alloy  containing  5  to  40  per 
cent  of  lead.  Lead  has  also  been  recently 
plated  on  both  sides  with  tin  by  the  fol- 
lowing method:  A  lead  sheet  from  0.64 
to  .80  inches  thick  is  poured  on  a  casting 
table  as  long  as  it  is  hot,  a  layer  of  tin 
from  0.16  to  0.20  inches  in  thickness  add- 
ed, the  sheet  then  turned  over  and  coated 
on  the  other  side  with  tin  in  the  same 
manner.  The  sheet  is  then  stretched 
between  rollers.  Very  thin  sheet  tin  can 
also  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  sheet 
lead,  by  cutting  up  a  tin  cylinder  into 
spiral  sections.  Colored  tinfoil  is  pre 
pared  by  making  the  foil  thoroughly 
bright  by  rubbing  with  purified  chalk 


708 


TINFOIL— TOOL   SETTING 


and  cotton,  then  adding  a  coat  of  gela- 
tin, colored  as  required,  and  covering  the 
whole  finally  with  a  transparent  spirit  var- 
nish. In  place  of  this  somewhat  trouble- 
some process,  the  following  much  simpler 
method  has  lately  been  introduced:  Ani- 
line dyes  dissolved  in  alcohol  are  applied 
on  the  purified  foil,  and  the  coat,  when 
dry,  covered  with  a  very  thin  layer  of  a 
colorless  varnish.  This  is  done  by  pour- 
ing the  varnish  on  the  surface  and  then 
inclining  the  latter  so  that  the  varnish 
may  reach  every  part  and  flow  off. 

TIN,  SILVER-PLATING: 

See  Plating. 

TIN  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

TINNING: 

See  Plating. 

TIRE: 

Anti-Leak  Rubber  Tire. — Pneumatic 
tires  can  be  made  quite  safe  from  punc- 
tures by  using  a  liberal  amount  of  the 
following  cheap  mixture:  One  pound  of 
sheet  glue  dissolved  in  hot  water  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  3  pints  of  molasses. 
This  mixture  injected  into  the  tire 
through  the  valve  stem,  semi-hardens  into 
an  elastic  jelly,  being,  in  fact,  about  the 
same  as  the  well-known  ink  roller  com- 
position used  for  the  rollers  of  printing 
presses.  This  treatment  will  usually  be 
found  to  effectually  stop  leaks  in  punc- 
tured or  porous  tires. 

TIRE  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Rubber  Cements. 

TISSIER'S  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

TITANIUM  STEEL: 

See  Steel. 

TODDY,  HOT  SODA: 

See  Beverages. 

TOILET  CREAMS,  MILKS,  POWDERS, 
ETC.: 

See  Cosmetics. 

TOLIDOL  DEVELOPER: 

See  Photography. 

TOMATO  BOUILLON  EXTRACT: 

See  Condiments. 

TOMBACK: 

See  Jewelers'  Formulas. 

TONING  BATHS: 

See  Photography. 

TONKA  EXTRACT: 

See  Essences  and  Extracts. 


TONKA,  ITS  DETECTION  IN  VANILLA 
EXTRACTS : 

See  Vanilla. 

TOOL  SETTING. 

The  term  "setting"  (grinding)  is  ap- 
plied to  the  operation  of  giving  an  edge 
to  the  tools  designed  for  cutting,  scrap- 
ing, or  sawing.  Cutting  tools  are  rubbed 
either  on  flat  sandstones  or  on  rapidly 
turned  grindstones.  The  wear  on  the 
faces  of  the  tools  diminishes  their  thick- 
ness and  rendeis  the  cutting  angle 
sharper.  Good  edges  cannot  be  ob- 
tained except  with  the  aid  of  the  grind- 
stone; it  is  therefore  important  to  select 
this  instrument  with  care.  It  should  be 
soft,  rather  than  hard,  of  fine,  smooth 
grain,  perfectly  free  from  seams  or 
flaws.  The  last  condition  is  essential, 
for  it  often  happens  that,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  revolving  motion,  a  de- 
fective stone  suddenly  yields  to  the 
centrifugal  force,  bursts  and  scatters  its 
pieces  with  such  violence  as  to  wound 
the  operator.  This  accident  may  also 
happen  with  perfectly  formed  stones. 
On  this  account  artificial  stones  have 
been  substituted,  more  homogeneous  and 
coherent  than  the  natural  ones. 

Whatever  may  be  the  stone  selected,  it 
ought  to  be  kept  constantly  moist  during 
the  operation.  If  not,  the  tools  will 
soon  get  heated  and  their  temper  will  be 
impaired.  When  a  tool  has  for  a  certain 
time  undergone  the  erosive  action  of  the 
stone,  the  cutting  angle  becomes  too 
acute,  too  thin,  and  bends  over  on  itself, 
constituting  what  is  called  "the  feather 
edge."  This  condition  renders  a  new 
setting  necessary,  which  is  usually  ef- 
fected by  bending  back  the  feather  edge, 
if  it  is  long,  and  whetting  the  blade 
on  a  stone  called  a  "setter."  There  are 
several  varieties  of  stones  used  for  this 
purpose,  though  they  are  mostly  com- 
posed of  calcareous  or  argilaceous  mat- 
ter, mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
silica. 

The  scythestone,  of  very  fine  grain, 
serves  for  grinding  off  the  feather  edge  of 
scythes,  knives,  and  other  large  tools. 
The  Lorraine  stone,  of  chocolate  color 
and  fine  grain,  is  employed  with  oil  for 
carpenters'  tools.  American  carborun- 
dum is  very  erosive.  It  is  used  with 
water  and  with  oil  to  obtain  a  fine  edge. 
The  lancet  stone  is  not  inferior  to  any  of 
the  preceding.  As  its  name  indicates, 
it  is  used  for  sharpening  surgical  instru- 
ments, and  only  with  oil.  The  Levant 
stone  (Turkish  sandstone)  is  the  best  of 
all  for  whetting.  It  is  gray  and  semi- 
transparent;  when  of  inferior  quality,  it 


TOOTHACHE— TRANSPARENCIES 


709 


is    somewhat    spotted    with   red.      It  is 
usually  quite  soft. 

To  restore  stones  and  efface  the  in- 
equalities and  hollows  caused  by  the 
friction  of  the  tools,  they  are  laid  flat 
on  a  marble  or  level  stone,  spread  over 
with  fine,  well-pulverized  sandstone,  and 
rubbed  briskly.  When  tools  have  a 
curved  edge,  they  are  subjected  to  a 
composition  formed  of  pulverized  stone, 
molded  into  a  form  convenient  for  the 
concavity  or  convexity.  Tools  are  also 
whetted  with  slabs  of  walnut  or  aspen 
wood  coated  with  emery  of  different 
numbers,  which  produces  an  excellent 
setting. 


TOOL  LUBRICANT: 

See  Lubricant. 

Toothache 

TOOTHACHE  GUMS: 

See  also  Pain  Killers. 

I. — Paraffine 94     grains 

Burgundy  pitch.  .  .800     grains 

Oil  of  cloves £  fluidrachm 

Creosote £  fluidrachm 

Melt  the  first  two  ingredients,  and, 
when  nearly  cool,  add  the  rest,  stirring 
well.  May  be  made  into  small  pills  or 
turned  out  in  form  of  small  cones  or 
cylinders. 

II. — Melt  white  wax  or  spermaceti, 
2  parts,  and  when  melted  add  carbolic- 
acid  crystals,  1  part,  and  chloral-hydrate 
crystals,  2  parts;  stir  well  until  dissolved. 
While  still  liquid,  immerse  thin  layers  of 
carbolized  absorbent  cotton  wool  and 
allow  them  to  dry.  When  required  for 
use  a  small  piece  may  be  snipped  off  and 
slightly  warmed,  when  it  can  be  in- 
serted into  the  hollow  tooth,  where  it 
will  solidify. 

Toothache  Remedy. — 

Camphor 4  drachms 

Chloral  hydrate..  4  drachms 

Oil  of  cloves 2  drachms 

Oil  of  cajeput. ...  2  drachms 

Chloroform 12  drachms 

Tincture  of  capsi- 
cum   24  drachms 

TOOTH  CEMENTS: 
See  Cements. 

TOOTH   PASTES.  POWDERS.  SOAPS, 

AND  WASHES: 
See  Dentifrices. 


TORTOISE-SHELL  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

TOOTH  STRAIGHTENING: 

See  Watchmakers'  Formulas. 

TOUCHSTONE,  AQUAFORTIS   FOR 
THE: 

See  Aquafortis. 

TOY  PAINT: 

See  Paint. 

TRACING-CLOTH  CLEANERS : 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

TRAGACANTH,  MUCILAGE  OF: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Mucilages. 

TRANSPARENCIES: 

See  also  Photography. 

A  good  method  of  preparing  hand- 
some London  transparencies  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

White  paper  is  coated  with  a  liquid 
whose  chief  constituent  is  Iceland  moss 
strongly  boiled  down  in  water  to  which  a 
slight  quantity  of  previously  dissolved 
gelatin  is  added.  In  applying  the  mass, 
which  should  always  be  kept  in  a  hot 
condition,  the  paper  should  be  covered 
uniformly  throughout.  After  it  has  been 
dried  well  it  is  smoothed  on  the  coated 
side  and  used  for  a  proof.  The  trans 
parent  colors  to  be  used  must  be  ground 
in  stronger  varnish  than  the  opaque  ones. 
In  order  to  produce  a  handsome  red, 
yellow  lake  and  red  sienna  are  used;  the 
tone  of  the  latter  is  considerably  warmer 
than  that  of  the  yellow  lake.  Where  the 
cost  is  no  consideration,  aurosolin  may 
also  be  employed.  For  pale  red,  madder 
lakes  should  be  employed,  but  for  darker 
shades,  crimson  lakes  and  scarlet  cochi- 
neal lakes.  The  vivid  geranium  lake 
gives  a  magnificent  shade,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  at  all  fast  in  sunlight.  The 
most  translucent  blue  will  always  be 
Berlin  blue.  For  purple,  madder  pur- 
ple is  the  most  reliable  color,  but  pos- 
sesses little  gloss.  Luminous  effects 
can  be  obtained  with  the  assistance 
of  aniline  colors,  but  these  are  only  of 
little  permanence  in  transparencies. 
Light,  transparent  green  is  hardly  avail- 
able. Recourse  has  to  be  taken  to  mix- 
ing Berlin  blue  with  yellow  lake,  or  red 
sienna.  Green  chromic  oxide  may  be 
used  if  its  sober,  cool  tone  has  no  dis- 
turbing influence.  Almost  all  brown 
coloring  bodies  give  transparent  colors, 
but  the  most  useful  are  madder  lakes 
and  burnt  umber.  Gray  is  produced  by 
mixing  purple  tone  colors  with  suitable 
brown,  but  a  gray  color  hardly  ever  oc- 


710 


TRANSPARENCIES— TRANSFER   PROCESSES 


curs  in  transparent  prints.  Liquid  sic- 
cative must  always  be  added  to  the  colors, 
otherwise  the  drying  will  occupy  too 
much  time.  After  the  drying,  the  prints 
are  varnished  on  both  sides.  For  this 
purpose,  a  well-covering,  quickly  drying, 
colorless,  not  too  thick  varnish  must  be 
used,  which  is  elastic  enough  not  to 
crack  nor  to  break  in  bending. 

Frequently  the  varnishing  of  the  pla- 
cards is  done  with  gelatin.  This  imparts 
to  the  picture  an  especially  handsome, 
luminous  luster.  After  an  equal  quantity 
of  alcohol  has  been  added  to  a  readily 
flawing  solution  of  gelatin,  kept  for  use 
in  a  zinc  vessel,  the  gelatin  solution  is 
poured  on  the  glass  plates  destined  for 
the  transparencies.  After  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  take  the  placard,  moisten  its 
back  uniformly,  arid  lay  it  upon  a  gela- 
tin film  which  has  meanwhile  formed 
on  the  glass  plate,  where  it  remains  2  to 
3  days.  When  it  is  to  be  removed  from 
the  plate,  the  edge  of  the  gelatin  film 
protruding  over  the  edge  of  the  placard 
is  lifted  up  with  a  dull  knife,  and  it  is 
thus  drawn  off.  A  fine,  transparent  gloss 
remains  on  the  placard  proper.  In  order 
to  render  the  covering  waterproof  and 
pliable,  it  is  given  a  coating  of  collodion, 
which  does  not  detract  from  the  trans- 

Earence.      The    glass    plates    and    their 
;ames  must  be  cleaned  of  adhering  gela- 
tin particles  before  renewed  use. 

TRANSFER  PROCESSES: 

To  Transfer  Designs. — Designs  can  be 
transferred  on  painted  surfaces,  cloth, 
leather,  velvet,  oil  cloth,  and  linen 
sharply  and  in  all  the  details  with  little 
trouble.  Take  the  original  design,  lay 
it  on  a  layer  of  paper,  and  trace  the  lines 
of  design  accurately  with  a  packing 
needle,  the  eye  of  which  is  held  by  a  piece 
of  wood  for  a  handle.  It  is  necessary 
to  press  down  well.  The  design  be- 
comes visible  on  the  back  by  an  eleva- 
tion. When  everything  has  been  accu- 
rately pressed  through,  take,  e.  g.,  for  dark 
objects,  whiting  (formed  in  pieces),  lay 
the  design  face  downward  on  the  knee 
and  pass  mildly  with  the  whiting  over 
the  elevations;  on  every  elevation  a  chalk 
line  will  appear.  Then  dust  off  the 
superfluous  whiting  with  the  fingers,  lay 
the  whiting  side  on  the  cloth  to  hold  it 
so  that  it  cannot  slide,  and  pass  over  it 
with  a  soft  brush.  For  light  articles 
take  powdered  lead  pencil,  which  is 
rubbed  on  with  the  finger,  or  limewood 
charcoal.  For  tracing  use  oil  paint  on 
cloth  and  India  ink  on  linen. 

To  Copy  Engravings. — To  make  a 
facsimile  of  an  engraving  expose  it  in 


a  warm,  closed  box  to  the  vapor  o_ 
iodine,  then  place  it,  inkside  downward, 
on  a  smooth,  dry  sheet  of  clean  white 
paper,  which  has  been  brushed  with 
starch  water.  After  the  two  prepared 
surfaces  have  been  in  contact  for  a  short 
time  a  facsimile  of  the  engraving  will  be 
reproduced  more  or  less  accurately,  ac- 
cording to  the  skill  of  the  operator. 

To  Transfer  Engravings. — The  best 
way  to  transfer  engraving  from  one 
piece  to  another  is  to  rub  transfer  wax 
into  the  engraved  letters.  This  wax  is 
made  of  beeswax,  3  parts;  tallow,  3 
parts;  Canada  balsam,  1  part;  olive  oil, 
1  part.  If  the  wax  becomes  too  hard, 
add  a  few  drops  of  olive  oil,  and  if  too 
soft,  a  little  more  beeswax.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  wax  does  not  remain 
on  the  surface  about  the  engraving, 
otherwise  the  impression  would  be  blurred. 
Then  moisten  a  piece  of  paper  by  draw- 
ing it  over  the  tongue  and  lay  it  on  the 
engraving.  Upon  this  is  laid  another 
piece  of  dry  paper,  and  securing  both 
with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
left  hand,  so  they  will  not  be  moved, 
go  over  the  entire  surface  with  a  bur- 
nisher made  of  steel  or  bone,  with  a 
pointed  end.  This  will  press  the  lower 
paper  into  the  engraving  and  cause  the 
wax  to  adhere  to  it.  Then  the  top  paper 
is  removed  and  the  corner  of  the  lower 
one  gently  raised.  The  whole  is  then 
carefully  peeled  off,  and  underneath 
will  be  found  a  reversed,  sharp  impres- 
sion of  the  engraving.  The  edges  of  the 
paper  are  then  cut  so  it  can  be  fitted  in 
a  position  on  the  other  articles  similar 
to  that  on  the  original  one.  When  this 
is  done  lay  the  paper  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion and  rub  the  index  finger  lightly  over 
it,  which  will  transfer  a  clear  likeness  of 
the  original  engraving.  If  due  care  is 
taken  two  dozen  or  more  transfers  can 
be  made  from  a  single  impression. 

TRICKS  WITH  FIRE: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

TUBERS,  THEIR  PRESERVATION: 

See  Roots. 

TUBS:     TO      RENDER     SHRUNKEN 
TUBS  WATER-TIGHT: 

See  Casks. 

TUNGSTEN  STEEL: 
See  Steel. 

TURMERIC  IN  FOOD: 
See  Foods. 

TURPENTINE  STAINS: 
See  Wood. 


TYPEWRITER   RIBBONS— VALVES 


711 


TURTLE  (MOCK)  EXTRACT: 
See  Condiments. 

TWINE: 

See  also  Thread  and  Cordage. 

Tough  twine  may  be  greatly  strength- 
ened by  dissolving  plenty  of  alum  in 
water  and  laying  the  twine  in  this  solu- 
tion. After  drying,  the  twine  will  have 
much  increased  tensile  strength. 

Typewriter  Ribbons 

(See  also  Inks.) 

The  constituents  of  an  ink  for  type- 
writer ribbons  may  be  broadly  divided 
into  four  elements:  1,  the  pigment;  2,  the 
vehicle;  3,  the  corrigent;  4,  the  solvent. 
The  elements  will  differ  with  the  kind  of 
ink  desired,  whether  permanent  or  copy- 
ing- 
Permanent  (Record)  Ink. — Any  finely 
divided,  non-fading  color  may  be  used  as 
the  pigment;  vaseline  is  the  best  vehicle 
and  wax  the  best  corrigent.  In  order  to 
make  the  ribbon  last  a  long  time  with 
one  inking,  as  much  pigment  as  feasible 
should  be  used.  To  make  black  record 
ink:  Take  some  vaseline,  melt  it  on  a 
slow  fire  or  water  bath,  and  incorporate 
by  constant  stirring  as  much  lampblack 
as  it  will  take  up  without  becoming 
granular.  Take  from  the  fire  and  allow 
it  to  cool.  The  ink  is  now  practically 
finished,  except,  if  not  entirely  suitable 
on  trial,  it  may  be  improved  by  adding 
the  corrigent  wax  in  small  quantity. 
The  ribbon  should  be  charged  with  a 
very  thin,  evenly  divided  amount  of  ink. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  a  solvent — in  this 
instance  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
petroleum  benzine  and  rectified  spirit  of 
turpentine.  In  this  mixture  dissolve  a 
sufficient  amount  of  the  solid  ink  by 
vigorous  agitation  to  make  a  thin  paint. 
Try  the  ink  on  one  extremity  of  the 
ribbon;  if  too  soft,  add  a  little  wax  to 
make  it  harder;  if  too  pale,  add  more  color- 
ing matter;  if  too  hard,  add  more  vaseline. 
If  carefully  applied  to  the  ribbon,  and 
the  excess  brushed  off,  the  result  will  be 
satisfactory. 

On  the  same  principle,  other  colors 
may  be  made  into  ink;  but  for  delicate 
colors,  albolene  and  bleached  wax 
should  be  the  vehicle  and  corrigent, 
respectively. 

The  various  printing  inks  may  be  used 
if  properly  corrected.  They  require  the 
addition  of  vaseline  to  make  them  non- 
drying  on  the  ribbon,  and  of  some  wax 
if  found  too  soft.  Where  printing  inks 
are  available,  they  will  be  found  to  give 


excellent  results  if  thus  modified,  as  the 
pigment  is  well  milled  and  finely  divided. 
Even  black  cosmetic  may  be  made  to 
answer,  by  the  addition  of  some  lamp- 
black to  the  solution  in  the  mixture  of 
benzine  and  turpentine. 

After  thus  having  explained  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  the  manufacture  of 
permanent  inks,  we  can  pass  more  rapidly 
over  the  subject  of  copying  inks,  which 
is  governed  by  the  same  general  rules. 

For  copying  inks,  aniline  colors  form 
the  pigment;  a  mixture  of  about  3  parts 
of  water  and  1  part  of  glycerine,  the 
vehicle;  transparent  soap  (about  £  part), 
the  corrigent;  stronger  alcohol  (about  6 
parts),  the  solvent.  The  desired  aniline 
color  will  easily  dissolve  in  the  hot 
vehicle,  soap  will  give  the  ink  the  neces- 
sary body  and  counteract  the  hygro- 
scopic tendency  of  the  glycerine,  and  in 
the  stronger  alcohol  the  ink  will  readily 
dissolve,  so  that  it  can  be  applied  in  a 
finely  divided  state  to  the  ribbon,  where 
the  evaporation  of  the  alcohol  will  leave 
it  in  a  thin  film.  There  is  little  more  to 
add.  After  the  ink  is  made  and  tried — 
if  too  soft,  add  a  little  more  soap;  if  too 
hard,  a  little  more  glycerine;  if  too  pale, 
a  little  more  pigment.  Printer's  copy- 
ing ink  can  be  utilized  here  likewise. 

Users  of  the  typewriter  should  so  set  a 
fresh  ribbon  as  to  start  at  the  edge  near- 
est the  operator,  allowing  it  to  run  back 
and  forth  with  the  same  adjustment  until 
exhausted  along  that  strip;  then  shift  the 
ribbon  forward  the  width  of  one  letter, 
running  until  exhausted,  and  so  on. 
Finally,  when  the  whole  ribbon  is  ex- 
hausted, the  color  will  have  been  equably 
used  up,  and  on  reinking,  the  work  will 
appear  even  in  color,  while  it  will  look 
patchy  if  some  of  the  old  ink  has  been 
left  here  and  there  and  fresh  ink  applied 
over  it. 

UDDER  INFLAMMATION: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 


VALVES. 

The  manufacturers  of  valves  test  each 
valve  under  hydraulic  pressure  before  it 
is  sent  out  from  the  factory,  yet  they 
frequently  leak  when  erected  in  the  pipe 
lines.  This  is  due  to  the  misuse  of  the 
erector  in  most  cases.  The  following  are 
the  most  noteworthy  bad  practices  to  be 
avoided  when  fitting  in  valves: 

I. — Screwing  a  valve  on  a  pipe  very 
tightly,  without  first  closing  the  valve. 
Closing  the  valve  makes  the  body  much 


VALVES 


more  rigid  and  able  to  withstand  greater 
strains  and  also  keeps  the  iron  chips 
from  lodging  under  the  seats,  or  in  the 
working  parts  of  the  valves.  This,  of 
course,  does  not  apply  to  check  valves. 

II. — Screwing  a  long  mill  thread  into 
a  valve.  The  threads  on  commercial 
pipes  are  very  long  and  should  never  be 
screwed  into  a  valve.  An  elbow  or  tee 
will  stand  the  length  of  thread  very  well, 
but  a  suitable  length  thread  should  be 
cut  in  every  case  on  the  pipe,  when  used 
to  screw  into  a  valve.  If  not,  the  end  of 
pipe  will  shoulder  against  the  seat  of 
valve  and  so  distort  it  that  the  valve  will 
leak  very  badly. 

III. — The  application  of  a  pipe  wrench 
on  the  opposite  end  of  the  valve  from  the 
end  which  is  being  screwed  on  the  pipe. 
Th?s  should  never  be  done,  as  it  in- 
variably springs  or  forces  the  valve  seats 
from  their  true  original  bearing  with  the 
disks. 

IV. — Never  place  the  body  of  a  valve 
in  the  vise  to  remove  the  bonnet  or  center- 
piece from  a  valve,  as  it  will  squeeze 
together  the  soft  brass  body  and  throw 
all  parts  out  of  alignment.  Properly  to 
remove  the  bonnet  or  centerpiece  from 
a  valve,  either  screw  into  each  end  of  the 
valve  a  short  piece  of  pipe  and  place  one 
piece  of  the  pipe  in  the  vise,  using  a 
wrench  on  the  square  of  bonnet;  or  if  the 
vise  is  properly  constructed,  place  the 
square  of  the  bonnet  in  same  and  use 
the  short  piece  of  pipe  screwed  in  each 
end  as  a  lever.  When  using  a  wrench 
on  square  of  bonnet  or  centerpiece,  use 
a  Stillson  or  Trimo  wrench  with  a  piece 
of  tin  between  the  teeth  of  the  jaws  and 
the  finished  brass.  It  may  mark  the  brass 
slightly,  but  this  is  preferable  to  round- 
ing off  all  the  corners  with  an  old  monkey 
wrench  which  is  worn  out  and  sprung. 
As  the  threads  on  all  bonnets  or  center- 
pieces are  doped  with  litharge  or  cement, 
a  sharp  jerk  or  jar  on  the  wrench  will 
start  the  bonnet  much  more  quickly 
than  a  steady  pull.  Under  no  circum- 
stances try  to  replace  or  remove  the 
bonnet  or  centerpiece  of  a  valve  without 
first  opening  it  wide.  This  will  prevent 
the  bending  of  the  stem,  forcing  the  disk 
down  through  the  seat  or  stripping  the 
threads  on  bonnet  where  it  screws  into 
body.  If  it  is  impossible  to  remove  bon- 
net or  centerpiece  by  ordinary  methods, 
heat  the  body  of  the  valve  just  outside 
the  thread.  Then  tap  lightly  all  around 
the  thread  with  a  soft  hammer.  This 
method  never  fails,  as  the  heat  expands 
the  body  ring  and  breaks  the  joint  made 
by  the  litharge  or  cement. 


V. — The  application  of  a  large 
monkey  wrench  to  the  stuffing  box  of 
valve.  Many  valves  are  returned  with 
the  stuffing  boxes  split,  or  the  threads  in 
same  stripped.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  fitter  or  engineer  has  used  a  large- 
sized  monkey  wrench  on  this  small  part. 

VI. — The  screwing  into  a  valve  of  a 
long  length  of  unsupported  pipe.  For 
example,  if  the  fitter  is  doing  some  re- 
pair work  and  starts  out  with  a  run  of 
2-inch  horizontal  pipe  from  a  2-inch 
valve  connected  to  main  steam  header, 
the  pipe  being  about  18  feet  long,  after 
he  has  screwed  the  pipe  tightly  into  the 
valve,  he  leaves  the  helper  to  support  the 
pipe  at  the  other  end,  while  he  gets  the 
hanger  ready.  The  helper  in  the  mean- 
time has  become  tired  and  drops  his 
shoulder  on  which  the  pipe  rests  about 
3  inches  and  in  consequence  the  full 
weight  of  this  18-foot  length  of  pipe 
bears  on  the  valve.  The  valve  is  badly 
sprung  and  when  the  engineer  raises 
steam  the  next  morning  the  valve  leaks. 
When  a  valve  is  placed  in  the  center  of  a 
long  run  of  pipe,  the  pipe  on  each  side, 
and  close  to  the  valve,  should  be  well 
supported. 

VII. — The  use  of  pipe  cement  in 
valves.  When  it  is  necessary  to  use  pipe 
cement  in  joints,  this  mixture  should 
always  be  placed  on  the  pipe  thread 
which  screws  into  the  valve,  and  never  in 
the  valve  itself.  If  the  cement  is  placed  in 
the  valve,  as  the  pipe  is  screwed  into  the 
valve  it  forces  the  cement  between  the 
seats  and  disks,  where  it  will  soon  harden 
and  thus  prevent  the  valve  from  seating 
properly. 

VIII. — Thread  chips  and  scale  in 
pipe.  Before  a  pipe  is  screwed  into  a 
valve  it  should  be  stood  in  a  vertical 

Eosition  and  struck  sharply  with  a 
ammer.  This  will  release  the  chips 
from  the  thread  cutting,  and  loosen  the 
scale  inside  of  pipe.  When  a  pipe  line 
containing  valves  is  connected  up,  the 
valves  should  all  be  opened  wide  and  the 
pipe  well  blown  out  before  they  are  again 
closed.  This  will  remove  foreign  sub- 
stances which  are  liable  to  cut  and 
scratch  the  seats  and  disks. 

IX.  —  Expansion  and  contraction. 
Ample  allowance  must  be  provided  for 
expansion  and  contraction  in  all  steam 
lines,  especially  when  brass  valves  are 
included.  The  pipe  and  fittings  are 
much  more  rigid  and  stiff  than  the  brass 
valves  and  in  consequence  the  expan- 
sion strains  will  relieve  themselves  at 
the  weakest  point,  unless  otherwise  pro- 
vided for. 


VALVES— VANILLA 


713 


X. — The  use  of  wrenches  or  bars  on 
valve  wheels  to  close  the  valves  tightly. 
This  should  never  be  done,  as  it  springs 
the  entire  valve  and  throws  all  parts  out 
of  alignment,  thus  making  the  valve  leak. 
The  manufacturer  furnishes  a  wheel 
sufficiently  large  properly  to  close  against 
any  pressure  for  which  it  is  suitable. 
If  the  valves  cannot  be  closed  tightly  by 
this  means,  there  is  something  between 
the  disks  and  seats  or  they  have  been  cut 
or  scratched  by  foreign  substances. 


Vanilla 

(See  also  Essences  and  Extracts.) 

The  best  Mexican  vanilla  yields  only 
in  the  neighborhood  of  1.7  per  cent  of 
vanillin;  that  from  Reunion  and  Gua- 
deloupe about  2.5  per  cent;  and  that 
from  Java  2.75  per  cent.  There  seems 
to  be  but  little  connection  between  the 
quantity  of  vanillin  contained  in  vanilla 
pods  and  their  quality  as  a  flavor  pro- 
ducer. Mexican  beans  are  esteemed 
the  best  and  yet  they  contain  far  less 
than  the  Java.  Those  from  Brazil  and 
Peru  contain  much  less  than  those  from 
Mexico,  and  yet  they  are  considered  in- 
ferior in  quality  to  most  others.  The 
vanillin  of  the  market  is  chiefly,  if  not 
entirely,  artificial  and  is  made  from  the 
coniferin  of  such  pines  and  firs  as  abies 
excelsa,  a.  pectinata,  pinus  cembra,  and 
p.  strobus,  as  well  as  from  the  eugenol 
of  cloves  and  allspice.  Vanillin  also  ex- 
ists in  asparagus,  lupine  seeds,  the  seeds 
of  the  common  wild  rose,  asafetida,  and 
gum  benzoin. 

A  good  formula  for  a  vanilla  extract  is 
the  following: 

Vanilla 1  ounce 

Tonka 2  ounces 

Alcohol,      deodor- 
ized   32  fluidounces 

Syrup 8  fluidounces 

Cut  and  bruise  the  vanilla,  afterwards 
adding  ami  bruising  the  Tonka;  macerate 
for  14  days  in  16  fluidounces  of  the  alco- 
hol, with  occasional  agitation;  pour  off 
the  clear  liquid  and  set  aside;  pour  the 
remaining  alcohol  on  the  magma,  and 
heat  by  means  of  a  water  bath  to  about 
168°  F.,  in  a  closely  covered  vessel. 
Keep  it  at  that  temperature  for  2  or  3 
hours,  then  strain  through  flannel  with 
slight  pressure;  mix  the  two  portions  of 
liquid  and  filter  through  felt.  Lastly, 
add  the  syrup.  To  render  this  tinc- 
ture perfectly  clear  it  may  be  treated 


with   pulverized   magnesium   carbonate, 
using  from  £  to  1  drachm  to  each  pint. 

To  Detect  Artificial  Vanillin  in 
Vanilla  Extracts  (see  also  Foods). — There 
is  no  well-defined  test  for  vanillin,  but 
one  can  get  at  it  in  a  negative  way.  The 
artificial  vanillin  contains  vanillin  iden- 
tical with  the  vanillin  contained  in  the 
vanilla  bean;  but  the  vanilla  bean,  as  the 
vanilla  extract,  contains  among  its  many 
"extractive  matters"  which  enter  into  the 
food  and  fragrant  value  of  vanilla  extract, 
certain  rosins  which  can  be  identified  with 
certainty  in  analysis  by  a  number  of  de- 
termining reactions.  Extract  made  with- 
out true  vanilla  can  be  detected  by  nega- 
tive results  in  all  these  reactions. 

Vanilla  beans  contain  4  to  11  per  cent 
of  this  rosin.  It  is  of  a  dark  red  to  brown 
color  and  furnishes  about  one-half  the 
color  of  the  extract  of  vanilla.  This 
rosin  is  soluble  in  50  per  cent  alcohol, 
so  that  in  extracts  of  high  grade,  where 
sufficient  alcohol  is  used,  all  rosin  is  kept 
in  solution.  In  cheap  extracts,  where  as 
little  as  20  per  cent  of  alcohol  by  volume 
is  sometimes  used,  an  alkali — usually 
potassium  bicarbonate — is  added  to  aid 
in  getting  rosin,  gums,  etc.,  in  solution, 
ana  to  prevent  subsequent  turpidity. 
This  treatment  deepens  the  color  very 
materially. 

Place  some  of  the  extract  to  be  exam- 
ined in  a  glass  evaporating  dish  and 
evaporate  the  alcohol  on  the  water  bath. 
When  alcohol  is  removed,  make  up 
about  the  original  volume  with  hot  water. 
If  alkali  has  not  been  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  extract,  the  rosin  will  ap- 
pear as  a  flocculent  red  to  brown  residue. 
Acidify  with  acetic  acid  to  free  rosin 
from  bases,  separating  the  whole  of  the 
rosin  and  leaving  a  partly  decolorized, 
clear  supernatant  liquid  after  standing  a 
short  time.  Collect  the  rosin  on  a  filter, 
wash  with  water,  and  reserve  the  filtrate 
for  further  tests. 

Place  a  portion  of  the  filter  with  the 
attached  rosin  in  a  few  cubic  centimeters 
of  dilute  caustic  potash.  The  rosin  is 
dissolved  to  a  deep-red  solution.  Acid- 
ify. The  rosin  is  thereby  precipitated. 
Dissolve  a  portion  of  the  rosin  in  alcohol; 
to  one  fraction  add  a  few  drops  of  fer- 
ric chloride;  no  striking  coloration  is 
produced.  To  another  portion  add 
hydrochloric  acid;  again  there  is  little 
change  in  color.  In  alcoholic  solution 
most  rosins  give  color  reactions  with  fer- 
ric chloride  or  hydrochloric  acid.  To 
a  portion  of  the  nitrate  obtained  above 
add  a  few  drops  of  basic  lead  acetate. 
The  precipitate  is  so  bulky  as  to  almost 


714 


VANILLA— VARNISHES 


solidify,  due  1o  the  excessive  amount  of 
organic  acids,  gums,  and  other  extractive 
matter.  The  filtrate  from  this  precipi- 
tate is  nearly,  but  not  quite,  colorless. 
Test  another  portion  of  tne  filtrate  from 
the  rosin  for  tannin  with  a  solution  of 
gelatin.  Tannin  is  present  in  varying 
but  small  quantities.  It  should  not  be 
present  in  groat  excess. 

To  Detect  Tonka  in  Vanilla  Extract. — 
The  following  test  depends  on  the  chem- 
ical difference  between  cournarin  and 
vanillin,  the  odorous  principles  of  the  two 
beans.  Coumarin  is  the  anhydride  of 
coumaric  acid,  and  on  fusion  with  a  caus- 
tic alkali  yields  acetic  and  salicylic  acids, 
while  vanillin  is  methyl  protocatechin 
aldehyde,  and  when  treated  similarly 
yields  protocatechuic  acid.  The  test  is 
performed  by  evaporating  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  extract  to  dryness,  and  melting 
the  residue  with  caustic  potash.  Trans- 
fer the  fused  mass  to  a  test  tube,  neu- 
tralize with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  add 
a  few  drops  of  ferric  chloride  solution. 
If  Tonka  be  present  in  the  extract,  the 
beautiful  violet  coloration  characteristic 
of  salicylic  acid  will  at  once  become  evi- 
dent. 

Vanilla  Substitute. — A  substitute  for 
vanilla  extract  is  made  from  synthetic 
vanillin.  The  vanillin  is  simply  dis- 
solved in  diluted  alcohol  and  the  solution 
colored  with  a  little  caramel  and  sweet- 
ened perhaps  with  syrup.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  typical  formula: 

•  Vanillin 1  ounce 

Alcohol 6  quarts 

Water 5  quarts 

Syrup 1  quart 

Caramel  sufficient  to  color. 
An  extract  so  made  does  not  wholly 
represent  the  flavor  of  the  bean;  while 
vanillin  is  the  chief  flavoring  constituent 
of  the  bean,  there  are  present  other  sub- 
stances which  contribute  to  the  flavor; 
and  connoisseurs  prefer  this  combina- 
tion, the  remaining  members  of  which 
have  not  yet  been  made  artificially. 


VANILLIN: 
See  Vanilla. 

Varnishes 

(See  also  Enamels,  Glazes,  Oils,  Paints, 
Rust  Preventives,  Stains,  and  Water- 
proofing.) 

Varnish  is  a  solution  of  resinous  matter 
forming  a  clear,  limpid  fluid  capable  of 
hardening  without  losing  its  transparency. 


It  is  used  to  give  a  shining,  transparent, 
hard,  and  preservative  covering  to  the 
finished  surface  of  woodwork,  capable  of 
resisting  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  the 
influence  of  the  air  and  moisture.  This 
coating,  when  applied  to  metal  or  mineral 
surfaces,  takes  the  name  of  lacquer,  and 
must  be  prepared  from  rosins  at  once 
more  adhesive  and  tenacious  than  those 
entering  into  varnish. 

The  rosins,  commonly  called  gums, 
suitable  for  varnish  are  of  two  kinds — 
the  hard  and  the  soft.  The  hard  varie- 
ties are  copal,  amber,  and  the  lac  rosins. 
The  dry  soft  rosins  are  juniper  gum 
(commonly  called  sandarac),  mastic,  and 
dammar.  The  elastic  soft  rosins  are 
benzoin,  elemi,  anime,  and  turpentine. 
The  science  of  preparing  varnish  con- 
sists in  combining  these  classes  of  rosins 
in  a  suitable  solvent,  so  that  each  conveys 
its  good  qualities  and  counteracts  the 
bad  ones  of  the  others,  and  in  giving  the 
desired  color  to  this  solution  without 
affecting  the  suspension  of  the  rosins,  or 
detracting  from  the  drying  and  harden- 
ing properties  of  the  varnish. 

In  spirit  varnish  (that  made  with  alco- 
hol) the  hard  and  the  elastic  gums  must  be 
mixed  to  insure  tenderness  and  solidity, 
as  the  alcohol  evaporates  at  once  after 
applying,  leaving  the  varnish  wholly 
dependent  on  the  gums  for  the  tenacious 
and  adhesive  properties;  and  if  the  soft 
rosins  predominate,  the  varnish  will 
remain. "tacky"  for  a  long  time.  Spirit 
varnish,  however  good  and  convenient  to 
work  with,  must  always  be  inferior  to  oil 
varnish,  as  the  latter  is  at  the  same  time 
more  tender  and  more  solid,  for  the  oil  in 
oxidizing  and  evaporating  thickens  and 
forms  rosin  which  continues  its  softening 
and  binding  presence,  whereas  in  a  spirit 
varnish  the  alcohol  is  promptly  dissi- 

Eated,  and  leaves  the  gums  on  the  sur- 
ice  of  the  work  in  a  more  or  less  granu- 
lar and  brittle   precipitate   which   chips 
readily  and  peels  off. 

Varnish  must  be  tender  and  in  a 
manner  soft.  It  must  yield  to  the 
movements  of  the  wood  in  expanding  or 
contracting  with  the  heat  or  cold,  and 
must  not  inclose  the  wood  like  a  sheet  of 
glass.  This  is  why  oil  varnish  is  superior 
to  spirit  varnish.  To  obtain  this  supple- 
ness the  gums  must  be  dissolved  in  some 
liquid  not  highly  volatile  like  spirit,  but 
one  which  mixes  with  them  in  substance 
permanently  to  counteract  their  extreme 
friability.  Such  solvents  are  the  oils  of 
lavender,  spike,  rosemary,  and  turpen- 
tine, combined  with  linseed  oil.  The 
vehicle  in  which  the  rosins  are  dissolved 
must  be  soft  and  remain  so  in  order  to 


VARNISHES 


715 


keep  the  rosins  soft  which  are  of  them- 
selves naturally  hard.  Any  varnish  from 
which  the  solvent  has  completely  dried 
out  must  of  necessity  become  hard  and 
glassy  and  chip  off.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  varnish  remains  too  soft  and 
"tacky,"  it  will  "cake"  in  time  and 
destroy  the  effect  desired. 

Aside  from  this,  close  observers  if  not 
chemists  will  agree  that  for  this  work  it 
is  much  more  desirable  to  dissolve  these 
rosins  in  a  liquid  closely  related  to  them 
in  chemical  composition,  rather  than  in  a 
liquid  of  no  chemical  relation  and  which 
no  doubt  changes  certain  properties  of 
the  rosins,  and  cuts  them  into  solution 
more  sharply  than  does  turpentine  or 
linseed  oil.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
each  time  glue  is  liquefied  it  loses  some 
of  its  adhesive  properties.  On  this 
same  principle  it  is  not  desirable  to  dis- 
solve varnish  rosins  in  a  liquid  very  un- 
like them,  nor  in  one  in  which  they  are 
quickly  and  highly  soluble.  Modern  ef- 
fort has  been  bent  on  inventing  a  cheap 
varnish,  easily  prepared,  that  will  take 
the  place  of  oil  varnish,  and  the  market 
is  flooded  with  benzine,  carbon  bisul- 
phide, and  various  ether  products  which 
are  next  to  worthless  where  wearing  and 
durable  properties  are  desired. 

Alcohol  will  hold  in  solution  only 
about  one-third  of  its  weight  in  rosins. 
Turpentine  must  be  added  always  last  to 
spirit  varnish.  Turpentine  in  its  clear 
recently  distilled  state  will  not  mix  with 
alcohol,  but  must  first  be  oxidized  by 
exposing  it  to  the  air  in  an  uncorked 
bottle  until  a  small  quantity  taken  there- 
from mixes  perfectly  with  alcohol.  This 
usually  takes  from  a  month  to  six  weeks. 
Mastic  must  be  added  last  of  all  to  the 
ingredients  of  spirit  varnish,  as  it  is  not 
wholly  soluble  in  alcohol  but  entirely  so 
in  a  solution  of  rosins  in  alcohol.  Spirit 
varnishes  that  prove  too  hard  and  brittle 
may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of 
either  of  the  oils  of  turpentine,  castor 
seed,  lavender,  rosemary,  or  spike,  in  the 
proportion  required  to  bring  the  varnish 
to  the  proper  temper. 

Coloring  "  Spirit "  Varnishes.  —  In 
modern  works  the  following  coloring 
substances  are  used,  separately  and 
in  blends:  Saffron  (brilliant  golden 
yellow),  dragon's  blood  (deep  reddish 
brown),  gamboge  (bright  yellow),  Soco- 
trine  or  Bombay  aloes  (liver  brown), 
asphalt,  ivory,  and  bone  black  (black), 
sandalwood,  pterocarpus  santalinus,  the 
heartwood  (dark  red),  Indian  sandal- 
wood,  pterocarpus  indica,  the  heart- 
wood  (orange  red),  brazil  wood  (dark 


yellow),  myrrh  (yellowish  to  reddish 
brown;  darkens  on  exposure),  madder 
(reddish  brown),  logwood  (brown),  red 
scammony  rosin  (light  red),  turmeric 
(orange  yellow),  and  many  others  ac- 
cording to  the  various  shades  desired. 

Manufacturing  Hints. — Glass,  coarse- 
ly powdered,  is  often  added  to  varnish 
when  mixed  in  large  quantities  for  the 
purpose  of  cutting  the  rosins  and  pre- 
venting them  from  adhering  to  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  the  container.  When 
possible,  varnish  should  always  be  com- 
pounded without  the  use  of  heat,  as  this 
carbonizes  and  otherwise  changes  the 
constituents,  and,  besides,  danger  always 
ensues  from  the  highly  inflammable 
nature  of  the  material  employed.  How- 
ever, when  heat  is  necessary,  a  water 
bath  should  always  be  used;  the  varnish 
should  never  fill  the  vessel  over  a  half  to 
three-fourths  of  its  capacity. 

The  Gums  Used  in  Making  Varnish. — • 
Juniper  gum  or  true  sandarac  comes  in 
long,  yellowish,  dusty  tears,  and  requires 
a  high  temperature  for  its  manipulation 
in  oil.  The  oil  must  be  so  hot  as  to 
scorch  a  feather  dipped  into  it,  before 
this  gum  is  added;  otherwise  the  gum  is 
burned.  Because  of  this,  juniper  gum  is 
usually  displaced  in  oil  varnish  by  gum 
dammar.  Both  of  these  gums,  by  their 
dryness,  counteract  the  elasticity  of  oil 
as  well  as  of  other  gums.  The  usual 
sandarac  of  commerce  rs  a  brittle,  yellow, 
transparent  rosin  from  Africa,  more 
soluble  in  turpentine  than  in  alcohol. 
Its  excess  renders  varnish  hard  and  brit- 
tle. Commercial  sandarac  is  also  often 
a  mixture  of  the  African  rosin  with  dam- 
mar or  hard  Indian  copal,  the  place  of 
the  African  rosin  being  sometimes  taken 
by  true  juniper  gum.  This  mixture  is 
the  pounce  of  the  shops,  and  is  almost 
insoluble  in  alcohol  or  turpentine. 
Dammar  also  largely  takes  the  place  of 
tender  copal,  gum  anime,  white  amber, 
white  incense,  and  white  rosin.  The 
latter  three  names  are  also  often  applied 
to  a  mixture  of  oil  and  Grecian  wax, 
sometimes  used  in  varnish.  When  gum 
dammar  is  used  as  the  main  rosin  in  a 
varnish,  it  should  be  first  fused  and 
brought  to  a  boiling  point,  but  not 
thawed.  This  eliminates  the  property 
that  renders  dammar  varnish  soft  and 
"tacky"  if  not  treated  as  above. 

Venetian  turpentine  has  a  tendency  to 
render  varnish  "tacky"  and  must  be 
skillfully  counteracted  if  this  effect  is  to 
be  avoided.  Benzoin  in  varnish  exposed 
to  any  degree  of  dampness  has  a  ten- 


716 


VARNISHES 


dency  to  swell,  and  must  in  such  cases 
be  avoided.  Elemi,  a  fragrant  rosin 
from  Egypt,  in  time  grows  hard  and 
brittle,  and  is  not  so  soluble  in  alcohol  as 
anime,  which  is  highly  esteemed  for  its 
more  tender  qualities.  Copal  is  a  name 
given  rather  indiscriminately  to  various 
gums  and  rosins.  The  East  Indian  or 
African  is  the  tender  copal,  and  is  softer 
and  more  transparent  than  the  other 
varieties;  when  pure  it  is  freely  soluble 
in  oil  of  turpentine  or  rosemary.  Hard 
copal  comes  in  its  best  form  from  Mexico, 
and  is  not  readily  soluble  in  oil  unless 
first  fused.  The  brilliant,  deep-red  col- 
or of  old  varnish  is  said  to  be  based  on 
dragon's  blood,  but  not  the  kind  that 
comes  in  sticks,  cones,  etc.  (which  is 
always  adulterated),  but  the  clear,  pure 
tear,  deeper  in  color  than  a  carbuncle, 
and  as  crystal  as  a  ruby.  This  is  sel- 
dom seen  in  the  market,  as  is  also  the 
tear  of  gamboge,  which,  mixed  with  the 
tear  of  dragon's  blood,  is  said  to  be  the 
basis  of  the  brilliant  orange  and  gold 
varnish  of  the  ancients. 

Of  all  applications  used  to  adorn  and 
protect  the  surface  of  objects,  oil  var- 
nishes or  lacquers  containing  hard  ros- 
ins are  the  best,  as  they  furnish  a  hard, 
glossy  coating  which  does  not  crack  and 
is  very  durable  even  when  exposed  to  wind 
and  rain. 

To  obtain  a  varnish  of  these  desirable 
qualities  the  best  old  linseed  oil,  or 
varnish  made  from  it,  must  be  combined 
with  the  residue  left  by  the  dry  distilla- 
tion of  amber  or  very  hard  copal.  This 
distillation  removes  a  quantity  of  vola- 
tile oil  amounting  to  one-fourth  or  one- 
fifth  of  the  original  weight.  The  residue 
is  pulverized  and  dissolved  in  hot  linseed- 
oil  varnish,  forming  a  thick,  viscous, 
yellow-brown  liquid,  which,  as  a  rule, 
must  be  thinned  with  oil  of  turpentine 
before  being  applied. 

Hard  rosin  oil  varnish  of  this  sort  may 
conveniently  be  mixed  with  the  solution 
of  asphalt  in  the  oil  of  turpentine  with 
the  aid  of  the  simple  apparatus  described 
below,  as  the  stiffness  of  the  two  liquids 
makes  hand  stirring  slow  and  laborious. 
A  cask  is  mounted  on  an  axle  which 
projects  through  both  heads,  but  is 
inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  cask,  so  that 
when  the  ends  of  the  axle  are  set  in  bear- 
ings and  the  cask  is  revolved,  each  end 
of  the  cask  will  rise  and  fall  alternately, 
and  any  liquid  which  only  partly  fills  the 
cask  will  be  thoroughly  mixed  and 
churned  in  a  short  time.  The  cask  is 
two-thirds  filled  with  the  two  thick  vai- 
nishes  (hard  rosin  in  linseed  oil  and 
asphalt  in  the  oil  of  turpentine)  in  the 


desired  proportion,  and  after  these  have 
been  intimately  mixed  by  turning  the 
cask,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rectified  oil 
of  turpentine  to  give  proper  consistence 
is  added  and  the  rotation  is  continued 
until  the  mixture  is  perfectly  uniform. 

To  obtain  the  best  and  most  durable 
result  with  this  mixed  oil,  rosin,  and  as- 
phalt varnish  it  is  advisable  to  dilute  it 
freely  with  oil  of  turpentine  and  to  apply 
2  or  3  coats,  allowing  each  coat  to  dry 
before  the  next  is  put  on.  In  this  way  a 
deep  black  and  very  glossy  surface  is 
obtained  which  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  genuine  Japanese  lacquer. 

Many  formulas  for  making  these 
mixed  asphalt  varnishes  contain  rosin — 
usually  American  rosin.  The  result  is 
the  production  of  a  cheaper  but  inferior 
varnish.  The  addition  of  such  soft 
rosins  as  elemi  and  copaiba,  however,  is 
made  for  another  reason,  and  it  im- 
proves the  quality  of  the  varnish  for 
certain  purposes.  Though  these  rosins 
soften  the  lacquer,  they  also  make  it  more 
elastic,  and  therefore  more  suitable  for 
coating  leather  and  textile  fabrics,  as  it 
does  not  crack  in  consequence  of  repeated 
bending,  rolling,  and  folding. 

In  coloring  spirit  varnish  the  alcohol 
should  always  be  colored  first  to  the 
desired  shade  before  mixing  with  the 
rosin,  except  where  ivory  or  bone  black 
is  used.  If  the  color  is  taken  from  a 
gum,  due  allowance  for  the  same  must 
be  made  in  the  rosins  of  the  varnish. 
For  instance,  in  a  varnish  based  on 
mastic,  10  parts,  and  tender  copal,  5 
parts,  in  100  parts,  if  this  is  to  be  colored 
with,  say,  8  parts  of  dragon's  blood  (or 
any  other  color  gum),  the  rosins  must  be 
reduced  to  mastic,  8  parts,  and  tender 
copal,  4  parts.  Eight  parts  of  color  gum 
are  here  equivalent  to  3  parts  of  varnish 
rosin.  This  holds  true  with  gamboge, 
aloes,  myrrh,  and  the  other  gum  rosins 
used  for  their  color.  This  seeming  dis- 
proportion is  due  to  the  inert  matter  and 
gum  insoluble  in  alcohol,  always  present 
in  these  gum  rosins. 

Shellac  Varnish. — This  is  made  in  the 
general  proportion  of  3  pounds  of  shellac 
to  a  gallon  of  alcohol,  the  color,  temper, 
etc.,  to  be  determined  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  purchaser,  and  the  nature  of 
the  wood  to  which  the  varnish  is  to  be 
applied.  Shellac  varnish  is  usually  tem- 
pered with  sandarac,  elemi,  dammar,  and 
the  oil  of  linseed,  turpentine,  spike,  or 
rosemary. 

Various  impurities  held  in  suspension 
in  shellac  varnish  may  be  entirely  pre- 
cipitated by  the  gradual  addition  of  some 


VARNISHES 


717 


crystals  of  oxalic  acid,  stirring  the  varnish 
to  aid  their  solution,  and  then  setting  it 
aside  overnight  to  permit  the  impurities 
to  settle.  No  more  acid  should  be  used 
than  is  really  necessary. 

Rules  for  Varnishing. — 1.  Avoid  as  far 
as  possible  all  manipulations  with  the 
varnishes;  do  not  dilute  them  with  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  least  of  all  with  siccative, 
to  expedite  the  drying.  If  the  varnish 
has  become  too  thick  in  consequence  of 
faulty  storing,  it  should  be  heated  and 
receive  an  addition  of  hot,  well-boiled 
linseed-oil  varnish  and  oil  of  turpentine. 
Linseed-oil  varnish  or  oil  of  turpentine 
added  to  the  varnish  at  a  common  tem- 
perature renders  it  streaky  (flacculent) 
and  dim  and  has  an  unfavorable  influ- 
ence on  the  drying;  oil  of  turpentine  takes 
away  the  gloss  of  varnish. 

2.  Varnishing  must  be  done  only  on 
smooth,  clean  surfaces,  if  a  fine,  mirror- 
like  gloss  is  desired. 

3.  Varnish  must  be  poured  only  into 
clean  vessels,  and  from  these  never  back 
into  the  stationary  vessels,  if  it  has  been 
in  contact  with  the  brush.     Use  only  dry 
brushes   for   varnishing,    which   are   not 
moist  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  linseed  oil 
or  varnish. 

4.  Apply  varnishes  of  all  kinds  as  uni- 
formly   as    possible;    spread    them    out 
evenly  on  the  surfaces  so  that  they  form 
neither  too  thick  nor  too  thin  a  layer. 
If  the  varnish  is  put  on  too  thin  the  coat- 
ing shows  no  gloss;  if  applied  too  thick 
it  does  not  get  even  and  does  not  form  a 
smooth  surface,  but  a  wavy  one. 

5.  Like   all   oil-paint   coatings,    every 
coat  of   varnish   must  be   perfectly   dry 
before  a  new  one  is  put  on;  otherwise 
it    is    likely   that    the    whole    work    will 
show  cracks.       The  consumer  of  varnish 
is  only  too  apt  to  blame  the  varnish  for 
all  defects  which  appear  in  his  work  or 
develop  after  some  time,  although  this 
can  only  be  proven  in  rare  cases.      As  a 
rule,  the  ground  was  not  prepared  right 
and  the  different  layers  of  paint  were  not 
sufficiently  dry,  if  the  surfaces  crack  after 
a  comparatively  short  time  and  have  the 
appearance  of  maps.     The  cracking  of 
paint  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
cracking  of  the  varnish,  for  the  cracking 
of   the    paint  will  cause  the  varnish  to 
crack  prematurely.      The  varnish  has  to 
stand  more  than  the  paint;  it  protects  the 
latter,  and  as  it  is  transparent,  the  de- 
fects of  the  paint  are  visible  through  the 
varnish,  which  frequently  causes  one  to 
form  the  erroneous  conclusion  that  the 
varnish  has  cracked, 

6.  All     varnish     coatings     must     dry 


slowly,  and  during  the  drying  must  be 
absolutely  protected  from  dust,  flies,  etc., 
until  they  have  reached  that  stage  when 
we  can  pass  the  back  of  the  hand  or  a 
finger  over  them  without  sticking  to  it. 

The  production  of  faultless  varnishing 
in  most  cases  depends  on  the  accuracy 
of  the  varnisher,  on  the  treatment  of  his 
brush,  his  varnish  pot,  and  all  the  other 
accessories.  A  brush  which  still  holds 
the  split  points  of  the  bristles  never  var- 
nishes clear;  they  are  rubbed  off  easily 
and  spoil  the  varnished  work.  A  brush 
which  has  never  been  used  does  not  pro- 
duce clean  work;  it  should  be  tried  several 
times,  and  when  it  is  found  that  the  var- 
nishing accomplished  by  its  use  is  neat 
and  satisfactory  it  should  be  kept  very 
carefully. 

The  preservation  of  the  brush  is  thus 
accomplished:  First  of  all  do  not  place  it 
in  oil  or  varnish,  for  this  would  form  a 
skin,  parts  of  which  would  adhere  to  it, 
rendering  the  varnished  surface  unclean 
and  grainy;  besides  these  skins  there  are 
other  particles  which  accumulate  in  the 
corners  and  cannot  be  removed  by  dust- 
ing off;  these  will  also  injure  the  work. 
In  order  to  preserve  the  brush  properly, 
insert  it  in  a  glass  of  suitable  size  through 
a  cork  in  the  middle  of  which  a  hole  has 
been  bored  exactly  fitting  the  handle. 
Into  the  glass  pour  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  oil  of  turpentine, 
and  allow  only  the  point  of  the  brush 
to  touch  the  mixture,  if  at  all.  If  the 
cork  is  air-tight  the  brush  cannot  dry  in 
the  vapor  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  spirit. 
From  time  to  time  the  liquids  in  the  glass 
should  be  replenished. 

If  the  varnish  remains  in  the  varnish 
receptacle,  a  little  alcohol  may  be  poured 
on,  which  can  do  the  varnish  no  harm. 
At  all  events  the  varnish  will  be  pre- 
vented from  drying  on  the  walls  of  the 
vessel  and  from  becoming  covered  by  a 
skin  which  is  produced  by  the  linseed  oil, 
and  which  indicates  that  the  varnish  is 
both  fat  and  permanent.  No  skin  forms  on 
a  meager  varnish,  even  when  it  drys  thick. 

After  complete  drying  of  the  coat  of 
varnish  it  sometimes  happens  that  the 
varnish  becomes  white,  blue,  dim,  or 
blind.  If  varnish  turns  white  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air  the  quality  is  at  fault. 
The  varnish  is  either  not  fat  enough  or  it 
contains  a  rosin  unsuitable  for  exterior 
work  (copal).  The  whitening  occurs  a 
few  days  after  the  drying  of  the  varnish 
and  can  be  removed  only  by  rubbing  off 
the  varnish. 

Preventing  Varnish  from  Crawling. — 
Rub  down  the  surface  to  be  varnished 


718 


VARNISHES 


with  sharp  vinegar.  Coating  with  strong- 
ly diluted  ox  gall  is  also  of  advantage. 

Amber  Varnish. — This  varnish  is  cap- 
able of  giving  a  very  superior  polish  or 
surface,  and  is  especially  valuable  for 
coach  and  other  high-class  work.  The 
amber  is  first  bleached  by  placing  a 
quantity — say  about  7  pounds — of  yel- 
low amber  in  a  suitable  receptacle,  such 
as  an  earthenware  crucible,  of  suffi- 
cient strength,  adding  14  pounds  of  sal 
gemmae  (rock  or  fossil  salt),  and  then 
pouring  in  as  much  spring  water  as  will 
dissolve  the  sal  gemmae.  VVhen  the  lat- 
ter is  dissolved  more  water  is  added,  and 
the  crucible  is  placed  over  a  fire  until 
the  color  of  the  amber  is  changed  to  a 
perfect  white.  The  bleached  amber  is 
then  placed  in  an  iron  pot  and  heated 
over  a  common  fire  until  it  is  completely 
dissolved,  after  which  the  melting  pot  is 
removed  from  the  fire,  and  when  suffi- 
ciently cool  the  amber  is  taken  from  the 
pot  and  immersed  in  spring  water  to 
eliminate  the  sal  gemmae,  after  which 
the  amber  is  put  back  into  the  pot  and  is 
again  heated  over  the  fire  till  the  amber 
is  dissolved.  When  the  operation  is 
finished  the  amber  is  removed  from  the 
pot  and  spread  out  upon  a  clean  marble 
slab  to  dry  until  all  the  water  has  evap- 
orated, and  is  afterwards  exposed  to  a 
gentle  heat  to  entirely  deprive  it  of  hu- 
midity. 

Asphalt  Varnishes. — Natural  asphalt  is 
not  entirely  soluble  in  any  liquid.  Al- 
cohol dissolves  only  a  small  percentage 
of  it,  ether  a  much  larger  proportion. 
The  best  solvents  are  benzol,  benzine, 
rectified  petroleum,  the  essential  oils, 
and  chloroform,  which  leave  only  a 
small  residue  undissolved.  The  em- 
ployment of  ether  as  a  solvent  is  im- 
practicable because  of  its  low  boiling 
point,  97°  F.,  and  great  volatility.  The 
varnish  would  dry  almost  under  the 
brush.  Chloroform  is  not  open  to  this 
objection,  but  it  is  too  expensive  for 
ordinary  use.  Rectified  petroleum  is  a 
good  solvent  of  asphalt,  but  it  is  not  a 
desirable 'ingredient  of  varnish  because, 
though  the  greater  part  of  it  soon 
evaporates,  a  small  quantity  of  less 
volatile  substances,  wnich  is  usually 
present  in  even  the  most  thoroughly 
rectified  petroleum,  causes  the  varnish 
to  remain  "tacky"  for  a  considerable 
time  and  to  retain  a  disagreeable  odor 
much  longer.  Common  coal-tar  benzine 
is  also  a  good  solvent  and  has  the  merit 
of  cheapness,  but  its  great  volatility 
makes  the  varnish  dry  too  quickly  for 
convenient  use,  especially  in  summer. 


The  best  solvent,  probably,  is  oil  of 
turpentine,  which  dissolves  asphalt  al- 
most completely,  producing  a  varnish 
which  dries  quickly  and  forms  a  perfect 
coating  if  the  turpentine  has  been  well 
rectified.  The  turpentine  should  be  a 
"water  white,"  or  entirely  colorless, 
liquid  of  strong  optical  refractive  power 
and  agreeable  odor,  without  a  trace  of 
smokiness.  A  layer  £  of  an  inch  in  depth 
should  evaporate  in  a  short  time  so  com- 
pletely as  to  leave  no  stain  on  a  glass 
dish. 

But  even  solutions  of  the  best  Syrian 
asphalt  in  the  purest  oil  of  turpentine, 
if  they  are  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed 
for  a  long  time  in  large  vessels,  deposit 
a  thick,  semi-fluid  precipitate  which  a 
large  addition  of  oil  of  turpentine  fails  to 
convert  into  a  uniform  thin  liquid.  It 
may  be  assumed  that  this  deposit  con- 
sists of  an  insoluble  or  nearly  insoluble 
part  of  the  asphalt  which,  perhaps,  has 
been  deprived  of  solubility  by  the  action 
of  light.  Hence,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
uniform  solution,  this  thick  part  must  be 
removed.  This  can  be  done,  though 
imperfectly,  by  carefully  decanting  the 
solution  after  it  has  stood  for  a  long 
time  in  large  vessels.  This  tedious  and 
troublesome  process  may  be  avoided  by 
filtering  the  solution  as  it  is  made,  by 
the  following  simple  and  quite  satis- 
factory method:  The  solution  is  made  in 
a  large  cask,  lying  on  its  side,  with  a 
round  hole  about  8  inches  in  diameter  in 
its  upper  bilge.  This  opening  is  pro- 
vided with  a  well-fitting  cover,  to  the 
bottom  of  which  a  hook  is  attached. 
The  asphalt  is  placed  in  a  bag  of  closely 
woven  canvas,  which  is  inclosed  in  a 
second  bag  of  the  same  material.  The 
diameter  of  the  double  bag,  when  filled, 
should  be  such  as  to  allow  it  to  pass 
easily  through  the  opening  in  the  cask, 
and  its  length  such  that,  when  it  is  hung 
on  the  hook,  its  lower  end  is  about  8 
inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  cask. 
The  cask  is  then  filled  with  rectified  oil 
of  turpentine,  closed,  and  left  undis- 
turbed for  several  days.  The  oil  of  tur- 
pentine penetrates  into  the  bag  and  dis- 
solves the  asphalt,  and  the  solution,  which 
is  heavier  tnan  pure  oil  of  turpentine, 
exudes  through  the  canvas  and  sinks  to 
the  bottom  of  the  cask.  Those  parts  of 
the  asphalt  which  are  quite  insoluble,  or 
merely  swell  in  the  oil  of  turpentine, 
cannot  pass  through  the  canvas,  and  are 
removed  with  the  bag,  leaving  a  perfect 
solution.  When  all  soluble  portions 
have  been  dissolved,  the  bag,  with  the 
cover,  is  raised  and  hung  over  the  open- 
ing  to  drain.  If  pulverized  asphalt  has 


VARNISHES 


719 


been  used  the  bag  is  found  to  contain 
only  a  small  quantity  of  semi-fluid 
residue.  This,  thinned  with  oil  of 
turpentine  and  applied  with  a  stiff  brush 
and  considerable  force,  forms  a  thick, 
weather-resisting,  and  very  durable  coat- 
ing for  planks,  etc. 

The  proportion  of  asphalt  to  oil  of 
turpentine  is  so  chosen  as  to  produce,  in 
the  cask,  a  pretty  thick  varnish,  which 
may  be  thinned  to  any  desired  degree  by 
adding  more  turpentine.  For  use,  it 
should  be  just  thick  enough  to  cover 
bright  tin  and  entirely  conceal  the  metal 
with  a  single  coat.  When  dry,  this  coat 
is  very  thin,  but  it  adheres  very  firmly, 
and  continually  increases  in  hardness, 
probably  because  of  the  effect  of  light. 
This  supposition  is  supported  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  removing  an  old  coat  of  asphalt 
varnish,  which  will  not  dissolve  in  tur- 
pentine even  after  long  immersion,  and 
usually  must  be  removed  by  mechanical 
means. 

For  a  perfect,  quick-drying  asphalt 
varnish  the  purest  asphalt  must  be  used, 
such  as  Syrian,  or  the  best  Trinidad. 
Trinidad  seconds,  though  better  than 
some  other  asphalts,  yield  an  inferior 
varnish,  owing  to  the  presence  of  impur- 
ities. 

Of  artificial  asphalt,  the  best  for  this 
purpose  is  the  sort  known  as  "mineral 
caoutchouc,"  which  is  especially  suit- 
able for  the  manufacture  of  elastic 
dressings  for  leather  and  other  flexible 
substances.  For  wood  and  metal  it  is 
less  desirable,  as  it  never  becomes  as  hard 
as  natural  asphalt. 

FORMULAS: 

I. — A  solution  of  1  part  of  caoutchouc 
in  16  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  or  kero- 
sene is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  16  parts 
of  copal  in  8  parts  of  linseed-oil  varnish. 
To  the  mixture  is  added  a  solution  of 
2  parts  of  asphalt  in  3  or  4  parts  of  lin- 
seed-oil varnish  diluted  with  8  or  10  parts 
of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  the  whole  is 
filtered.  This  is  a  fine  elastic  varnish. 

II. — Coal-tar  asphalt,  American  as- 
phalt, rosin,  benzine,  each  20  parts; 
linseed-oil  varnish,  oil  of  turpentine,  coal- 
tar  oil,  each  10  parts;  binoxide  of  man- 
ganese, roasted  lampblack,  each  2  parts. 
The  solid  ingredients  are  melted  to- 
gether and  mixed  with  the  linseed-oil 
varnish,  into  which  the  lampblack  has 
been  stirred,  and,  finally,  the  other 
liquids  are  added.  The  varnish  is 
strained  through  tow. 

Bicycle  Varnish. — This  is  a  spirit  var- 
nish, preferably  made  by  a  cold  proc- 


ess, and  requires  less  technical  knowl- 
edge than  the  preparation  of  fatty  var- 
nishes. The  chief  dependence  is  upon 
the  choice  of  the  raw  materials.  These 
raw  materials,  copal,  shellac,  etc.,  are 
first  broken  up  small  and  placed  in  a 
barrel  adapted  for  turning  upon  an  axis, 
with  a  hand  crank,  or  with  a  belt  and 
pulley  from  a  power  shaft.  The  barrel 
is  of  course  simply  mounted  in  a  frame  of 
wood  or  iron,  whichever  is  the  most  con- 
venient. After  the  barrel  has  received 
its  raw  material,  it  may  be  started  and 
kept  revolving 'for  24  hours.  Long  in- 
terruptions in  the  turning  must  be  care- 
fully avoided,  particularly  in  summer, 
for  the  material  in  the  barrel,  when  at 
rest,  will,  at  this  season,  soon  form  a 
large  lump,  to  dissolve  which  will  con- 
sume much  time  and  labor.  To  prevent 
the  formation  of  a  semi-solid  mass,  as 
well  as  to  facilitate  the  dissolving  of  the 
gum,  it  would  be  well  to  put  some  hard, 
smooth  stones  into  the  barrel  with  the 
varnish  ingredients. 

Bicycle  Dipping  Varnish  (Baking  Var- 
nish).— Take  50  parts,  by  weight,  of 
Syrian  asphalt;  50  parts,  by  weight,  of 
copal  oil;  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  thick 
varnish  oil,  and  105  parts,  by  weight, 
turpentine  oil,  to  which  add  7  parts,  by 
weight,  of  drier.  When  the  asphalt  is 
melted  through  and  through,  add  the 
copal  oil  and  heat  it  until  the  water  is 
driven  off,  as  copal  oil  is  seldom  free 
from  water.  Now  take  it  off  the  fire 
and  allow  it  to  cool;  add  first  the  sicca- 
tive, then  the  turpentine  and  linseed  oil, 
which  have  been  previously  thoroughly 
mixed  together.  This  bicycle  varnish 
does  not  get  completely  black  until  it  is 
baked. 

Black  Varnishes. — Black  spirit  lacquers 
are  employed  in  the  wood  and  metal  in- 
dustries. Different  kinds  are  produced 
according  to  their  use.  They  are  called 
black  Japanese  varnishes,  or  black  brill- 
iant varnishes. 

Black  Japanese  Varnish. — I. — Sculpture 
varnish,  5  parts;  red  acaroid  varnish,  2 
parts;  aniline  black,  f  part;  Lyons  blue, 
.0015  parts.  If  a  sculpture  varnish  pre- 
pared with  heated  copal  is  employed,  a 
black  lacquer  of  especially  good  quality 
is  obtained.  Usually  1  per  cent  of  oil  of 
lavender  is  added. 

II. — Shellac 4 'parts 

Borax. 2  parts 

Glycerine 2  parts 

Aniline  black 5  parts 

Water 50  parts 

Dissolve  the  borax  in  the  water,  add 


120 


VARNISHES 


the  shellac,  and  heat  Until  solution  is 
effected;  then  add  the  other  ingredients. 
This  is  a  mat-black  varnish. 

For  Blackboards. — For  blackening 
these  boards  mix  \  liter  (1.05  pints)  good 
alcohol,  70  grams  (1,080  grains)  shellac, 
6  grams  (92  grains)  fine  lampblack,  3 
grams  (46  grains)  fine  chalk  free  from 
sand.  If  red  lines  are  to  be  drawn,  mix 
the  necessary  quantity  of  red  lead  in 
alcohol  and  shellac. 

Bookbinders'  Varnishes. — 

I        II      III     IV       V 

Per     Per     Per     Per     Per 
Cent  Cent  Cent  Cent  Cent 

Shellac 14.5     6.513.5     6.3     8.3 

Mastic 6.0     2.0         ..         ..      1.1 

Sandarac..  .6.0  13.0  ..  1.3  1.1 
Camphor...  1.0  ..  0.5  1.5 

Benzoin .13.7 

Alcohol 72.5  78.5  86.0  79.2  75.8 

Scent  with  oil  of  benzoin,  of  lavender, 
or  of  rosemary.  Other  authors  give  the 
following  recipes: 

VI        VII     VIII      IX 
Per        Per        Per       Per 

Cent     Cent     Cent     Cent 
Blond  shellac.  11. 5      13.0        9.0 

White  shellac.  11. 5  

Camphor 0.7 

Powdered 

sugar 0.7 

Sandarac 18.0        6.6 

Mastic .,  ..      13.0 

Venice  turpen- 
tine   .,        2.0       6.6 

Alcohol 77.0     85.6     71.0     73.8 

All  solutions  may  be  prepared  in  the 
cold,  but  the  fact  that  mastic  does 
not  dissolve  entirely,  must  not  be  lost 
sight  of. 

Bottle  Varnish. — Bottles  may  be  made 
to  exclude  light  pretty  well  by  coating 
them  with  asphaltum  lacquer-or  varnish. 
A  formula  recommended  for  this  purpose 
is  as  follows:  Dissolve  asphaltum,  1  part, 
in  light  coal-tar  oil,  2  parts,  and  add  to 
the  solution  about  1  per  cent  of  castor  oil. 
This  lacquer  dries  somewhat  slowly,  but 
adheres  very  firmly  to  the  glass.  As- 
phaltum lacquer  may  also  be  rendered 
less  brittle  by  the  addition  of  elemi. 
Melt  together  asphaltum,  10  parts,  and 
elemi,  1  part,  and  dissolve  the  cold  fused 
mass  in  light  coal-tar  oil,  12  parts. 

Amber-colored  bottles  for  substances 
acted  upon  by  the  actinic  rays  of  light 
may  be  obtained  from  almost  any  manu- 
facturer of  bottles. 

Can  Varnish. — Dissolve  shellac,  15 
parts,  by  weight;  Venice  turpentine,  2 


parts,  by  weight;  and  sandarac,  8  parts, 
by  weight,  in  spirit,  75  parts,  by  weight. 

Copal  Varnish. — Very  fine  copal  var- 
nish for  those  parts  of  carriages  which 
require  the  highest  polish,  is  prepared  as 
follows: 

I. — Melt  8  pounds  best  copal  and  mix  with 
20  pounds  very  clear  matured  oil.  Then 
boil  4  to  5  hours  at  moderate  heat  until  it 
draws  threads;  now  mix  with  35  pounds 
oil  of  turpentine,  strain  and  keep  for  use. 
This  varnish  dries  rather  slowly,  there- 
fore varnishers  generally  mix  it  one-half 
with  another  varnish,  which  is  prepared 
by  boiling  for  4  hours,  20  pounds  clear 
linseed  oil  and  8  pounds  very  pure,  white 
anime  rosin,  to  which  is  subsequently 
added  35  pounds  oil  of  turpentine. 

II. — Mix  the  following  two  varnishes: 

(a)  Eight  pounds  copal,  10  pounds  lin- 
seed oil,  I  pound  dried  sugar  of  lead,  35 
pounds  oil  of  turpentine. 

(6)  Eight  pounds  good  anime  rosin,  10 
pounds  linseed  oil,  \  pound  zinc  vitriol, 
35  pounds  oil  of  turpentine.  Each  of 
these  two  sets  is  boiled  separately  into 
varnish  and  strained,  and  then  both  are 
mixed.  This  varnish  dries  in  6  hours  in 
winter,  and  in  4  hours  in  summer.  For 
old  articles  which  are  to  be  re-varnished 
black,  it  is  very  suitable. 

Elastic  Limpid  Gum  Varnishes. — I. — 
In  order  to  obtain  a  limpid  rubber 
varnish,  it  is  essential  to  have  the  rubber 
entirely  free  from  water.  This  can  be 
obtained  by  cutting  the  rubber  into  thin 
strips,  or  better,  into  shreds  as  fine  as 
possible,  and  drying  them,  at  a  temper- 
ature of  from  104°  to  122°  F.,  for  several 
days  or  until  they  are  water  free,  then 
proceed  as  follows: 

II. — Dissolve  1  part  of  the  desiccated 
rubber  in  8  parts  of  petroleum  ether 
(benzine)  and  add  2  parts  of  fat  copal 
varnish  and  stir  in.  Or,  cover  2  parts  of 
dried  rubber  with  1  part  of  ether;  let 
stand  for  several  days,  or  until  the  rubber 
has  taken  up  as  much  of  the  ether  as  it 
will,  then  liquefy  by  standing  in  a  vessel 
of  moderately  warm  water.  While  still 
warm,  stir  in  2  parts  of  linseed  oil.  cut 
with  2  parts  of  turpentine  oil. 

ENAMEL  VARNISHES: 

Antiseptic  Enamel. — This  consists  of  a 
solution  of  spirituous  gum  lac,  rosin,  and 
copal,  with  addition  of  salicylic  acid, 
etc.  Its  purpose  is  mainly  the  preven- 
tion or  removal  of  mold  or  fungous 
formation.  The  salicylic  acid  contained 
in  the  mass  acts  as  an  antiseptic  during 
the  painting,  and  destroys  all  fungi 
present. 


VARNISHES 


721 


Bath-Tub  Enamel  Unaffected  by  Hot 
Water. — I. — In  order  to  make  paint  hold 
on  the  zinc  or  tinned  copper  lining  of  a  bath 
tub,  a  wash  must  be  used  to  produce  a 
film  to  which  oil  paint  will  adhere.  First 
remove  all  grease,  etc.,  with  a  solution  of 
soda  or  ammonia  and  dry  the  surface 
thoroughly;  then  apply  with  a  wide,  soft 
brush  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  chloride 
of  copper,  nitrate  of  copper,  and  sal 
ammoniac,  dissolved  in  64  parts,  by 
weight,  of  water.  When  dissolved  add 
1  part,  by  weight,  of  commercial  muri- 
atic acid.  This  solution  must  be  kept 
in  glass  or  earthenware.  It  will  dry  in 
about  12  hours,  giving  a  grayish-black 
coating  to  which  paint  will  firmly  adhere. 

The  priming  coat  should  be  white  lead 
thinned  with  turpentine,  with  only  just 
sufficient  linseed  oil  to  bind  it.  After 
this  is  thoroughly  dry,  apply  one  or  more 
coats  of  special  bath-tub  enamel,  or  a 
gloss  paint  made  by  mixing  coach  colors 
ground  in  Japan  with  hard-drying  varnish 
of  the  best  quality.  Most  first-class 
manufacturers  have  special  grades  that 
will  stand  hot  water. 

II. — The  following  preparation  pro- 
duces a  brilliant  surface  on  metals  and 
is  very  durable,  resisting  the  effect  of 
blows  without  scaling  or  chipping  off, 
and  being  therefore  highly  suitable  for 
cycles  and  any  other  articles  exposed  to 
shock: 

For  the  manufacture  of  44  gallons,  11 
pounds  of  red  copper,  8.8  pounds  of  yel- 
low copper,  4.4  pounds  of  hard  steel,  and 
4.4  pounds  of  soft  steel,  all  in  a  com- 
minuted condition,  are  well  washed  in 
petroleum  or  mineral  spirit,  and  are  then 
treated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
in  a  lead-lined  vessel,  with  continued 
stirring  for  2  hours.  After  12  hours' 
rest  the  sulphuric  acid  is  neutralized 
with  Javel  extract,  and  the  fine  powder 
left  in  the  vessel  is  passed  through  a  silk 
sieve  to  remove  any  fragments  of  metal, 
then  ground  along  with  linseed  oil,  ivory 
black,  and  petroleum,  the  finely  divided 
mass  being  afterwards  filtered  through 
flannel  and  incorporated  with  a  mixture 
of  Bombay  gum,  22  pounds;  Damascus 
gum,  11  pounds;  Judea  bitumen,  22 
pounds;  Norwegian  tar  rosin,  11  pounds; 
and  11  pounds  of  ivory  black  ground 
very  fine  in  refined  petroleum.  When 
perfectly  homogeneous  the  mass  is  again 
filtered,  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  It  is 
laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  then  fixed  by 
exposure  to  a  temperature  of  between 
400°  and  800°  F.  The  ivory  black  may 
be  replaced  by  other  coloring -matters, 
According  to  recjuirementsr 


A  Color  Enamel. — On  the  piece  to  be 
enameled  apply  oil  varnish  or  white  lead, 
and  add  a  powder  giving  brilliant  re- 
flections, such  as  diamantine,  brilliantine, 
or  argentine.  Dry  in  a  stove.  Apply  a 
new  coat  of  varnish.  Apply  the  powder 
again,  and  finally  heat  in  the  oven. 
Afterwards,  apply  several  layers  of 
varnish;  dry  each  layer  in  the  oven. 
Apply  pumice  stone  in  powder  or  tripoli, 
and  finally  apply  a  layer  of  Swedish 
varnish,  drying  in  the  oven.  This 
enamel  does  not  crack.  It  adheres  per- 
fectly, and  is  advantageous  for  the  pieces 
of  cycles  and  other  mobiles. 

Cold  Enameling. — This  style  of  enam- 
eling is  generally  employed  for  repairing 
purposes.  The  various  colors  are  either 
prepared  with  copal  varnish  and  a  little 
oil  of  turpentine,  or  else  they  are  melted 
together  with  mastic  and  a  trifle  of  oil  of 
spike.  In  using  the  former,  the  surface 
usually  settles  down  on  drying,  and 
ordinarily  the  latter  is  preferred,  which 
is  run  on  the  cracked-off  spot  by  warming 
the  article.  After  the  cooling,  file  the 
cold  enamel  off  uniformly,  and  restore 
the  gloss  by  quickly  drawing  it  through 
the  flame.  For  black  cold  enamel  melt 
mastic  together  with  lampblack,  which  is 
easily  obtained  by  causing  the  flame  of 
a  wick  dipped  into  linseed  oil  to  touch  a 
piece  of  tin. 

White.— White  lead  or  flake  white. 

Red. — Carmine  or  cinnabar  (vermil- 
ion). 

Blue. — Ultramarine  or  Prussian  blue. 

Green. — Scheele's  green  or  Schwein- 
furt  green. 

Brown. — Umber. 

Yellow. — Ocher  or  chrome  yellow. 

The  different  shades  are  produced  by 
mixing  the  colors. 

Enamel  for  Vats,  etc. — Two  different 
enamels  are  usually  employed,  viz.,  one  for 
the  ground  and  one  for  tne  top,  the  latter 
being  somewhat  harder  than  the  former. 
Ground  enamel  is  prepared  by  melting 
in  an  enameled  iron  kettle  625  parts 
brown  shellac,  125  parts  French  oil  of 
turpentine,  with  80  parts  colophony,  and 
warming  in  another  vessel  4,500  parts 
of  spirit  (90  per  cent).  As  soon  as  the 
rosins  are  melted,  remove  the  pot  from 
the  fire  and  add  the  spirit  in  portions  o* 
250  parts  at  a  time,  seeing  to  it  that  the 
spirit  added  is  completely  combined 
with  the  rosins  by  stirring  before  adding 
any  more.  When  all  the  spirit  is  added, 
warm  the  whole  again  for  several  min- 
utes on  the  water  bath  (free  fire  should 


722 


VARNISHES 


be  avoided,  on  account  of  danger  of  fire), 
and  allow  to  settle.  If  a  yellow  color  is 
desired,  add  yellow  ocher,  in  which  case 
the  mixture  may  also  be  used  as  floor 
varnish. 

The  top  enamel  (hard)  consists  of  500 
parts  shellac,  125  parts  French  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, and  3,500  parts  spirit  (90  per 
cent).  Boiling  in  the  water  bath  until 
the  solution  appears  clear  can  only  be 
of  advantage.  According  to  the  thick- 
ness desired,  one  may  still  dilute  in  the 
cold  with  high-strength  spirit.  Tinting 
may  be  done,  as  desired,  with  earth 
colors,  viz.,  coffee  brown  with  umber, 
red  with  English  red,  yellow  with  ocher, 
silver  gray  with  earthy  cerussite,  and 
some  lampblack.  Before  painting,  dry 
out  the  vats  and  putty  up  the  joints  with 
a  strip  of  dough  which  is  prepared  from 
ground  enamel  and  finely  sifted  charcoal 
or  brown  coal  ashes,  and  apply  the 
enamel  after  the  putty  is  dry.  The 
varnish  dries  quickly,  is  odorless  and 
tasteless,  and  extraordinarily  durable. 
If  a  little  annealed  soot  black  is  added 
to  this  vat  enamel,  a  fine  iron  varnish  is 
obtained  which  adheres  very  firmly. 
Leather  -(spattering  leather  on  car- 
riages) can  also  be  nicely  varnished 
with  it. 

Finishing  Enamel  for  White  Furni- 
ture.—  Various  methods  are  practiced 
in  finishing  furniture  in  white  enamel, 
and  while  numerous  preparations  in- 
tended for  the  purpose  named  are  gen- 
erally purchasable  of  local  dealers  in 
paint  supplies,  it  is  often  really  difficult, 
and  frequently  impossible,  to  obtain 
a  first-class  ready-made  enamel.  To 
prepare  such  an  article  take  £  pint  of 
white  lead  and  add  to  it  \  pint  of  pure 
turpentine,  £  gill  of  pale  coach  Japan, 
and  \  gill  of  white  dammar  varnish. 
Mix  all  the  ingredients  together  thor- 
oughly. Apply  with  a  camel's-hair  brush, 
and  for  large  surfaces  use  a  2-inch  double 
thick  brush.  There  should  be  at  least 
three  coats  for  good  work,  applied  after 
an  interval  of  24  hours  between  coats; 
and  for  strictly  high-class  work  four  coats 
will  be  necessary.  Each  coat  should  be 
put  on  thin  and  entirely  free  from  brush 
marks,  sandpapering  being  carefully  done 
upon  each  coat  of  pigment.  Work  that 
has  been  already  painted  or  varnished 
needs  to  be  cut  down  with,  say,  No.  \ 
sandpaper,  and  then  smoothed  fine  with 
No.  \  paper.  Then  thin  white  lead  to  a 
free  working  consistency  with  turpentine, 
retaining  only  a  weak  binder  of  oil  in  the 
pigment,  and  apply  two  coats  of  it  to  the 
surface.  Give  each  coat  plenty  of  time 


to  harden  (36  hours  should  suffice),  after 
which  sandpapering  with  No.  \\  paper 
had  best  be  done.  Ordinarily,  upon  two 
coats  of  white  lead,  the  enamel  finish,  as 
above  detailed,  may  be  successfully  pro- 
duced. For  the  fine,  rich  enamel  finish 
adapted  to  rare  specimens  of  furniture 
and  developed  in  the  mansions  of  the 
multimillionaires,  a  more  elaborate  and 
complex  process  becomes  necessary. 

Quick-Drying  Enamel  Colors.  —  En- 
amel colors  which  dry  quickly,  but  re- 
main elastic  so  that  applied  on  tin  they 
will  stand  stamping  without  cracking  off, 
can  be  produced  as  follows: 

In  a  closed  stirrer  or  rolling  cask  place 
21.5  parts,  by  weight,  of  finely  powdered 
pale  French  rosin,  24 \  parts,  by  weight, 
of  Manila  copal,  as  well  as  35  parts,  by 
weight,  of  denaturized  spirit  (95  per 
cent),  causing  the  cask  or  the  stirrer  to 
rotate  until  all  the  gum  has  completely 
dissolved,  which,  according  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  in  which  the  stirrer 
is  and  the  hardness  of  the  gums,  re- 
quires 24  to  48  hours.  When  the  gums 
are  entirely  dissolved  add  to  the  mix- 
ture a  solution  of  21  \  parts,  by  weight, 
of  Venice  oil  turpentine  in  0.025  parts, 
by  weight,  of  denaturized  spirit  of  95  per 
cent,  allowing  the  stirrer  to  run  another  2 
to  3  hours.  For  the  purpose  of  removing 
any  impurities  present  or  any  undis- 
solved  rosin  from  the  varnish,  it  is  poured 
through  a  hair  sieve  or  through  a  three- 
fold layer  of  fine  muslin  (organdie)  into 
suitable  tin  vessels  or  zinc-lined  barrels 
for  further  clarification.  After  10  to  14 
days  the  varnish  is  readv^  for  use.  By 
grinding  this  varnish  with  the  corre- 
sponding dry  pigments  the  desired 
shades  of  color  may  be  obtained;  but  it 
is  well  to  remark  that  chemically  pure 
zinc  white  cannot  be  used  with  advan- 
tage because  it  thickens  and  loses  its 
covering  power.  The  grinding  is  best 
carried  out  twice  on  an  ordinary  funnel 
mill.  Following  are  some  recipes: 

I.  —  Enamel  White.  —  Lithopone,  2 
parts,  by  weight;  white  lead,  purest,  \ 
part,  by  weignt;  varnish,  20  parts,  by 
weight. 

II. — Enamel  Black. — Ivory  black,  2 
parts,  by  weight;  Paris  blue,  0.01  part, 
by  weight;  varnish,  23  parts,  by  weight. 

III. — Pale  Gray. — Graphite,  2  parts, 
by  weight;  ultramarine,  0.01  part,  by 
weight;  lithopone,  40  parts,  by  weight; 
varnish,  100  parts,  by  weight. 

IV.— Dark  Gray. — Graphite,  3  parts, 
by  weight;  ivory  black,  2  parts,  by  weight; 
lithopong,  40  parts,  by  weight;  varnish, 
110  parts,  by  weight. 


VARNISHES 


723 


V. — Chrome  Yellow,  Pale. — Chrome 
yellow,  2  parts,  by  weight;  lithopone,  2 
parts,  by  weight;  varnish,  40  parts,  by 
weight;  benzine,  1  \  parts,  by  weight. 

VI. — Chrome  Yellow,  Dark. — Chrome 
yellow,  dark,  2  parts,  by  weight;  chrome 
orange,  |  part,  by  weight;  lithopone,  1 
part,  by  weight;  varnish,  35  parts,  by 
weight;  benzine,  1  part,  by  weight. 

VII. — Pink,  Pale. — Carmine,  \  part, 
by  weight;  lithopone,  15  parts,  by  weight; 
varnish,  40  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  1^ 
parts,  by  weight. 

VIII. — Pink,  Dark. — Carmine,  \  part, 
by  weight;  Turkey  red,  1  part,  by  weight; 
lithopone,  15  parts,  by  weight;  varnish, 
40  parts,  by  weight. 

IX. — Turkey  Red. — Turkey  red,  pale, 
2  parts,  by  weight;  lithopone,  1  part,  by 
weight;  Turkey  red,  dark,  1  part,  by  weight; 
white  lead,  pure,  \  part,  by  weight;  var- 
nish, 18  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  \  part, 
by  weight. 

X. — Flesh  Tint. — Chrome  yellow,  pale, 
\\  parts,  by  weight;  graphite,  \  part,  by 
weight;  lithopone,  15  parts,  by  weight; 
Turkey  red,  pale,  2  parts,  by  weight; 
varnish,  42  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  \ 
part,  by  weight. 

XI. — Carmine  Red. — Lead  sulphate, 
5  parts,  by  weight;  Turkey  red,  pale,  6 
parts,  by  weight;  carmine,  \\  parts,  by 
weight;  orange  minium,  3  parts,  by 
weight;  vermilion,  2  parts,  by  weight; 
varnish,  50  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  1£ 
parts,  by  weight. 

XII. — Sky  Blue. — Ultramarine,  5  parts, 
by  weight;  lithopone,  5  parts,  by  weight; 
ultramarine  green,  0.05  parts,  by  weight; 
varnish,  30  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  1 
part,  by  weight. 

XIII. — Ultramarine. — Ultra  blue,  5 
parts,  by  weight;  varnish,  12  parts,  by 
weight;  benzine,  \  part,  by  weight. 

XIV. — Violet. — Ultramarine,  with  red 
tinge,  10  parts,  by  weight;  carmine,  O.a 
parts,  by  weight;  varnish,  25  parts,  by 
weight. 

XV. — Azure. — Paris  blue,  10  parts,  by 
weight;  lithopone,  100  parts,  by  weight; 
varnish,  300  parts,  by  weight. 

XVI. — Leaf    Green. — Chrome    green, 

Cale,  5  parts,  by  weight;  varnish,  25  parts, 
y  weight;  benzine,  \  part,  by  weight. 

XVII.— Silk  Green.— Silk  green,  10 
parts,  by  weight;  chrome  yellow,  pale,  \ 
part,  by  weight;  lead  sulphate,  5  parts, 
by  weight;  varnish,  30  parts,  by  weight; 
benzine.  \  part,  by  weight. 

XVIII."— Brown.  — English  red,  10 
parts,  by  weight;  ocher,  light,  3  parts,  by 


weight;  varnish,  30  parts,  by  weight; 
benzine,  \  part,  by  weight. 

XIX. — Ocher. — French  ocher,  10  parts, 
by  weight;  chrome  yellow,  dark,  \  part, 
by  weight;  varnish,  30  parts,  by  weight; 
benzine,  A  part,  by  weight. 

XX. — Chocolate. — Umber,  10  parts,  by 
weight;  Florentine  lake,  \  part,  by  weight; 
varnish,  25  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  \ 
part,  by  weight. 

XXI. — Terra  Cotta. — Chrome  yellow, 
pale,  10  parts,  by  weight;  Turkey  red, 
dark,  3  parts,  by  weight;  varnish,  35 
parts,  by  weight. 

XXII.  —  Olive,  Greenish.  —  French 
ocher,  5  parts,  by  weight;  Paris  blue,  \ 
part,  by  weight;  graphite,  \  part,  by 
weight;  varnish,  25  parts,  by  weight; 
lithopone,  5  parts,  by  weight. 

XXIIL— Olive,  Brownish.— Chrome 
orange,  5  parts,  by  weight;  Paris  blue,  2 
parts,  by  weight;  lead  sulphate,  10  parts, 
by  weight;  English  red,  1  part,  by  weight; 
varnish,  40  parts,  by  weight;  benzine,  \\ 
parts,  by  weight. 

XXI V.— Olive,  Reddish.— Turkey  red, 
dark,  75  parts,  by  weight;  sap  green,  75 
parts,  by  weight;  ocher,  pale,  5  parts,  by 
weight;  varnish,  300  parts,  by  weight; 
benzine,  1^  parts,  by  weight. 

ENGRAVERS'  VARNISHES. 

In  copper-plate  engraving  the  plate 
must  be  covered  with  a  dark-colored 
coating  which,  though  entirely  unaffected 
by  the  etching  fluid,  must  be  soft  enough 
to  allow  the  finest  lines  to  be  drawn  with 
the  needle  and  must  also  be  susceptible 
of  complete  and  easy  removal  when  the 
etching  is  finished.  Varnishes  which 
possess  these  properties  are  called  "etch- 
ing grounds."  They  are  made  accord- 
ing to  various  formulas,  but  in  all  cases 
the  principal  ingredient  is  asphalt,  of 
which  only  the  best  natural  varieties  are 
suitable  for  this  purpose.  Another  com- 
mon ingredient  is  beeswax,  or  tallow. 

Etching  grounds  are  usually  made  in 
small  quantities,  at  a  single  operation,  by 
melting  and  stirring  the  solid  ingredients 
together  and  allowing  the  mass  to  cool 
in  thin  sheets,  which  are  then  dissolved 
in  oil  of  turpentine.  The  plate  is  coated 
uniformly  with  this  varnish  through 
which  the  engraver's  tool  readily  pene- 
trates, laying  bare  the  metal  beneath. 
After  the"  lines  thus  drawn  have  been 
etched  by  immersing  the  plate  in  acid, 
the  varnish  is  washed  off  with  oil  of 
turpentine. 

The  following  formulas  for  etching 
grounds  have  been  extensively  used  by 
engravers; 


724 


VARNISHES 


I     II    III    IV 

Yellow  wax 50     30     110  40  parts 

Syrian  asphalt.  .  .20     20       25  40  parts 

Rosin 20  parts 

Amber 20  .  .  parts 

Mastic 25     25        25  ..parts 

Tallow 2  parts 

Bergundy  pitch . .  10  parts 

FLOOR  VARNISHES. 
I. — Manila    copal,    spirit- 
soluble 12  parts 

Ruby     shellac,     pow- 
dered        62  parts 

Venice,  turpentine 12  parts 

Spirit,  96  per  cent ....  250  parts 
The  materials  are  dissolved  cold  in  a 
covered  vat  with  constant  stirring,  or 
better  still,  in  a  stirring  machine,  and 
filtered.  For  the  pale  shades  take  light 
ocher;  for  dark  ones,  Amberg  earth, 
which  are  well  ground  with  the  varnish 
in  a  paint  mill. 

II. — Shellac,  A  C  leaf,  1.2  parts;  san- 
darac,  8  parts;  Manila  copal,  2  parts; 
rosin,  5  parts;  castor  or  linoleic  acid  or 
wood  oil  acid,  1.50  parts;  spirit  (96  per 
cent),  65  parts. 

French  Varnish. — So-called  French 
varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  1  part  of 
bleached  or  orange  shellac  in  5  parts  of 
alcohol,  the  solution  being  allowed  to 
stand  and  the  clear  portion  then  being  de- 
canted. The  varnish  may  be  colored  by 
materials  which  are  soluble  in  alcohol. 

For  red,  use  1  part  of  eosin  to  49  parts 
of  the  bleached  shellac  solution.  For 
blue,  use  1  part  of  aniline  blue  to  24 
parts  of  the  bleached  shellac  solution,  as 
the  orange  shellac  solution  would  impart 
a  greenish  cast.  For  green,  use  1  part  of 
aniline  green  (brilliant  green)  to  49  parts 
of  the  orange  shellac  solution.  For  yel- 
low, use  either  2  parts  of  extract  of  tur- 
meric or  1  part  of  gamboge  to  24  parts  of 
the  solution,  or  1  part  of  aniline  yellow 
to  49  parts  of  the  solution.  For  golden 
yellow,  use  2  parts  of  gamboge  and  1 
part  of  dragon's  blood  to  47  parts  of  the 
orange  shellac  solution.  The  gamboge 
and  dragon's  blood  should  be  dissolved 
first  in  a  little  alcohol. 

Golden  Varnishes. — 

I. — Powdered  benzoin.  .      1  part 

Alcohol  enough  to  make  10  parts. 
Pure  saffron,  roughly  broken  up, 

about  6  threads  to  the  ounce. 
Macerate  3  days  and  filter.  Vary  the 
quantity  of  saffron  according  to  the 
shade  desired.  Mastic  and  juniper  gum 
may  be  added  to  this  varnish  if  a  heavier 
body  is  desired. 


II. — Benzoin,  juniper  gum,  gum  mas- 
tic, equal  parts. 

Dissolve  the  gums  in  9  times  their 
weight  of  alcohol  (varied  more  or  less 
according  to  the  consistency  wanted), 
and  color  to  the  desired  shade  with 
threads  of  pure  saffron.  This  varnish  is 
very  brilliant  and  dries  at  once. 

India -Rubber  Varnishes. — I. — Dissolve 
10  pounds  of  India  rubber  in  a  mix- 
ture of  10  pounds  of  turpentine  and  20 
pounds  of  petroleum  by  treating  same 
on  a  water  bath.  When  the  solution  is 
completed  add  45  pounds  of  drying  oil 
and  5  pounds  of  lampblack  and  mix 
thoroughly. 

II. — Dissolve  7  pounds  of  India  rub- 
ber in  25  pounds  of  oil  of  turpentine.  By 
continued  heating  dissolve  14  pounds  of 
rosin  in  the  mixture.  Color  while  hot 
with  3  pounds  of  lampblack. 

Inlay  Varnish. — 

Ozokerite 17  parts 

Carnauba  wax 3  parts 

Turpentine  oil 15  parts 

Melt  the  ozokerite  and  Carnauba  wax, 
then  stir  in  the  turpentine  oil.  This 
varnish  is  applied  like  a  polish  and  im- 
parts to  the  wood  a  dark  natural  color 
and  a  dull  luster. 

Japanning  Tin. — The  first  thing  to  be 
done  when  a  vessel  is  to  be  japanned,  is 
to  free  it  from  all  grease  and  oil,  by  rub- 
bing it  with  turpentine.  Should  the  oil, 
however,  be  linseed,  it  may  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  vessel,  which  must  in  that 
case  be  put  in  an  oven  and  heated  till 
the  oil  becomes  quite  hard. 

After  these  preliminaries,  a  paint  of 
the  shade  desired,  ground  in  linseed  oil, 
is  applied.  For  brown,  umber  may  be 
used. 

When  the  paint  has  been  satisfactorily 
applied  it  should  be  hardened  by  heat- 
ing, and  then  smoothed  down  by  rubbing 
with  ground  pumice  stone  applied  gently 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  felt  moistened 
with  water.  To  be  done  well,  this  re- 
quires care  and  patience,  and,  it  might 
be  added,  some  experience. 

The  vessel  is  next  coated  with  a  var- 
nish, made  by  the  following  formula: 
Turpentine  spirit ....      8  ounces 

Oil  of  lavender 6  ounces 

Camphor 1  drachm 

Bruised  copal 2  ounces 

Perhaps  some  other  good  varnish 
would  give  equally  satisfactory  results. 

After  this  the  vessel  is  put  in  an  oven 
and  heated  to  as  high  a  temperature  as  it 
will  bear  without  causing  the  varnish  to 


VARNISHES 


725 


blister  or  run.  When  the  varnish  has 
become  hard,  the  vessel  is  taken  out  and 
another  coat  is  put  on,  which  is  submitted 
to  heat  as  before.  This  process  may  be 
repeated  till  the  judgment  of  the  opera- 
tor tells  him  that  it  is  no  longer  advisable. 
Some  operators  mix  the  coloring  mat- 
ter directly  with  the  varnish;  when  this  is 
done,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  pig- 
ment is  first  reduced  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  and  then  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  liquid. 

LABEL  VARNISHES. 

I. — Sandarac 3     ounces  av. 

Mastic |  ounce  av. 

Venice  turpentine  150    grains 
Alcohol 16     fluidounces 

Macerate  with  repeated  stirring  until 
solution  is  effected,  and  then  filter. 

The  paper  labels  are  first  sized  with 
diluted  mucilage,  then  dried,  and  then 
coated  with  this  varnish.  If  the  labels 
have  been  written  with  water-soluble 
inks  or  color,  they  are  first  coated  with  2 
coats  of  collodion,  and  then  varnished. 

II. — The  varnished  labels  of  stock  ves- 
sels often  suffer  damage  from  the  spilling 
of  the  contents  and  the  dripping  after 
much  pouring. 

Formalin  gelatin  is  capable  of  with- 
standing the  baneful  influence  of  ether, 
benzine,  water,  spirit  of  wine,  oil,  and 
most  substances.  The  following  method 
of  applying  the  preservative  is  recom- 
mended: Having  thoroughly  cleaned 
the  surface  of  the  vessel,  paste  the  label 
on  and  allow  it  to  dry  well.  Give  it  a 
coat  of  thin  collodion  to  protect  the 
letters  from  being  dissolved  out  or  caused 
to  run,  then  after  a  few  minutes  paint 
over  it  a  coat  of  gelatin  warmed  to 
fluidity — 5  to  25 — being  careful  to  cover 
in  all  the  edges.  Just  before  it  solidifies 
go  over  it  with  a  tuft  of  cotton  dipped 
into  a  40  per  cent  formalin  solution.  It 
soon  dries  and  becomes  as  glossy  as 
varnish,  and  may  be  coated  again  and 
again  without  danger  of  impairing  the 
clear  white  of  the  label  or  decreasing  its 
transparency. 

Leather  Varnishes. — I. — -An  excellent 
varnish  for  leather  can  be  made  from  the 
following  recipe:  Heat  400  pounds  of 
boiled  oil  to  212°  F.,  and  add  little  by 
little  2  pounds  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
keeping  the  same  temperature.  The 
addition  of  the  bichromate  should  take 
about  15  minutes.  Raise  to  310°  F., 
and  add  gradually  during  1  hour  at  that 
temperature,  40  pounds  Prussian  blue. 
Heat  for  3  hours  more,  gradually  raising 
to  482°  to  572°  F.,  with  constant  stirring. 


In  the  meantime,  heat  together  at  392° 
F.,  for  |  an  hour,  25  pounds  linseed  oil, 
35  pounds  copal,  75  pounds  turpentine, 
and  7  pounds  ceresine.  Mix  the  two 
varnishes,  and  dilute,  if  necessary,  when 
cold  with  turpentine.  The  varnish  should 
require  to  be  warmed  for  easy  application 
with  the  brush. 

II. — Caoutchouc,  1  part;  petroleum, 
1  part;  carbon  bisulphide,  1  part; 
shellac,  4  parts;  bone  black,  2  parts; 
alcohol,  20  parts.  First  the  caoutchouc 
is  brought  together  with  carbon  bisul- 
phide in  a  well-closed  bottle  and  stood 
aside  for  a  few  days.  As  soon  as  the 
caoutchouc  is  soaked  add  the  petroleum 
and  the  alcohol,  then  the  finely  powdered 
shellac,  and  heat  to  about  125°  F.  When 
the  liquid  appears  pretty  clear,  which 
indicates  the  solution  of  all  substances, 
the  bone  black  is  added  by  shaking 
thoroughly  and  the  varnish  is  at  once 
filled  in  bottles  which  are  well  closed. 
This  pouch  composition  excels  in  drying 
quickly  and  produces  upon  the  leather  a 
smooth,  deep  black  coating,  which  pos- 
sesses a  certain  elasticity. 

METAL  VARNISHES. 

The  purpose  of  these  varnishes  is  to 
protect  the  metals  from  oxidation  and  to 
render  them  glossy. 

Aluminum  Varnish. — The  following  is 
a  process  giving  a  special  varnish  for 
aluminum,  but  it  may  also  be  employed 
for  other  metals,  giving  a  coating  unal- 
terable and  indestructible  by  water  or 
atmospheric  influences:  Dissolve,  prefer- 
ably in  an  enameled  vessel,  10  parts,  by 
weight,  of  gum  lac  in  30  parts  of  liquid 
ammonia.  Heat  on  the  water  bath  for 
about  1  hour  and  cool.  The  aluminum 
to  be  covered  with  this  varnish  is  care- 
fully cleaned  in  potash,  and,  having 
applied  the  varnish,  the  article  is  placed 
in  a  stove,  where  it  is  heated,  during  a 
certain  time,  at  a  suitable  temperature 
(about  1062°  F.). 

Brass  Varnishes  Imitating  Gold. — I. — 
An  excellent  gold  varnish  for  brass  ob- 
jects, surgical  or  optical  instruments, 
etc.,  is  prepared  as  follows:  Gum  lac,  in 
grains,  pulverized,  30  parts;  dragon's 
blood,  1  part;  red  sanders  wood,  1  part; 
pounded  glass,  10  parts;  strong  alcohol, 
600  parts;  after  sufficient  maceration, 
filter.  The  powdered  o-Jass  simply  serves 
for  accelerating  the  dissolving,  by  inter- 
posing between  the  particles  of  gum  lac 
and  opal. 

II. — Reduce  to  powder,  160  parts,  by 
weight,  of  turmeric  of  best  quality,  and 
pour  over  it  2  parts,  by  weight,  of  saffron, 


726 


VARNISHES 


and  1,700  parts,  by  weight,  of  spirit; 
digest  in  a  warm  place  24  hours,  and 
filter.  Next  dissolve  80  parts,  by  weight, 
of  dragon's  blood;  80  parts,  by  weight,  of 
sandarac;  80  parts,  by  weight,  of  elemi 
gum;  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  gamboge;  70 
parts,  by  weight,  of  seedlac.  Mix  these 
substances  with  250  parts,  by  weight,  of 
crushed  glass,  place  them  in  a  flask,  and 
pour  over  this  mixture  the  alcohol  colored 
as  above  described.  Assist  the  solution  by 
means  of  a  sand  or  water  bath,  and  filter 
at  the  close  of  the  operation.  This  is  a 
fine  varnish  for  brass  scientific  instru- 
ments. 

Bronze  Varnishes. — I. — The  follow- 
ing process  yields  a  top  varnish  for 
bronze  goods  and  other  metallic  ware  in 
the  most  varying  shades,  the  varnish  ex- 
celling, besides,  in  high  gloss  and  dur- 
ability. Fill  in  a  bottle,  pale  shellac, 
best  quality,  40  parts,  by  weight;  pow- 
dered Florentine  lake,  12  parts,  by 
weight;  gamboge,  30  parts,  by  weight; 
dragon's  blood,  also  powdered,  6  parts, 
by  weight;  and  add  400  parts,  by  weight, 
of  spirit  of  wine.  This  mixture  is  al- 
lowed to  dissolve,  the  best  way  being  to 
heat  the  bottle  on  the  water  bath  until  the 
boiling  point  of  water  is  almost  reached, 
shaking  from  time  to  time  until  all  is 
dissolved.  Upon  cooling,  decant  the 
liquid,  which  constitutes  a  varnish  of 
dark-red  color,  from  any  sediment  that 
may  be  present.  In  a  second  bottle  dis- 
solve in  the  same  manner  24  parts,  by 
weight,  of  gamboge  in  400  parts,  by 
weight,  of  spirit  of  wine,  from  which  will 
result  a  varnish  of  golden-yellow  tint. 
According  to  the  hue  desired,  mix  the 
red  varnish  with  the  yellow  variety,  pro- 
ducing in  this  way  any  shade  from  the 
deepest  red  to  the  color  of  gold.  If  re- 
quired, dilute  with  spirit  of  wine.  The 
application  of  the  varnish  should  be  con- 
ducted as  usual,  that  is,  the  article  should 
be  slightly  warm,  it  being  necessary  to 
adhere  strictly  to  a  certain  temperature, 
which  can  be  easily  determined  by  trials 
and  maintained  by  experience.  In  order 
to  give  this  varnish  a  pale-yellow  to 
greenish-yellow  tone,  mix  10  drops  of 
picric  acid  with  about  3  parts,  by  weight, 
of  spirit  of  wine,  and  add  to  a  small 
quantity  of  the  varnish  some  of  this  mix- 
ture until  the  desired  shade  has  been 
reached.  Picric  acid  is  poisonous,  and 
the  keeping  of  varnish  mixed  with  this 
acid  in  a  closed  bottle  is  not  advisable, 
because  there  is  danger  of  an  explosion. 
Therefore,  it  is  best  to  prepare  only  s ) 
much  varnish  at  one  time  as  is  necessary 
for  the  immediate  purpose. 


Brown  Varnish. — An  excellent  and 
quickly  drying  brown  varnish  for  metals 
is  made  by  dissolving  20  ounces  of  gum 
kino  and  5  ounces  of  gum  benjamin  in  60 
ounces  of  the  best  cold  alcohol;  20  ounces 
of  common  shellac  and  2  ounces  of  thick 
turpentine  in  36  ounces  of  alcohol  also 
give  a  very  good  varnish.  If  the  brown 
is  to  have  a  reddish  tint,  dissolve  50 
ounces  of  ruby  shellac,  5  ounces  balsam 
of  copaiba,  and  2  to  5  ounces  of  aniline 
brown,  with  or  without  ^  to  1  ounce  of 
aniline  violet,  in  150  ounces  of  alcohol. 

Copper  Varnishes. — These  two  are  for 
polished  objects: 

I. — One  hundred  and  ten  parts  of 
sandarac  and  30  parts  of  rosin,  dissolved 
in  sufficient  quantity  of  alcohol;  5  parts 
of  glycerine  are  to  be  added. 

II. — Sandarac 10     parts 

Rosin 3     parts 

Glycerine i  part 

Alcohol,  a  sufficient  quantity. 

Dissolve  the  two  rosins  in  sufficient 
alcohol  and  add  the  glycerine. 

Decorative  Metal  Varnishes. — 

I  II        III        IV 

Per         Per       Per        Per 
Cent      Cent     Cent     Cent 

Seedlac 11.5  

Amber 7.6  ..  ..      13.5 

Gamboge....    7.6  ..  ..        ; -.•'„. 

Dragon's 

blood 0.18  ..  ..       :-i..- 

Saffron 0.16          ;. 

Sandarac 11.2     15.9      16.6 

Mastic 6.5     14.0       3.4 

Elemi 3.3 

Venice       tur- 
pentine   ..        1.0        3.4 

Camphor 1.5 

Aloe 7.0 

Alcohol ..72.96     77.5     66.1      63.2 

As  will  be  seen,  only  natural  colors  are 
used.  The  so-called  "gold  lacquer"  is 
composed  as  follows:  Sandarac,  6.25 
parts;  mastic,  3  parts;  shellac,  12.5  parts; 
Venice  turpentine,  2.5  parts;  aloe,  0.75 
parts;  gamboge,  3  parts;  alcohol,  72 
parts.  The  solution  is  filtered.  Ap- 
plied in  a  thin  coating  this  varnish  shows 
a  handsome^ golden  shade.  Other  metal 
varnishes  have  the  following  composi- 
tion: 

V  VI  VII 
Per  Per  Per 
Cent  Cent  Cent 

Shellac 17.5  ..      18.0 

Yellow  acaroid  gum..  13.1      25.0 

Manila 8.0       9.0 

Alcohol..  ..69.4     67.0     63.0 


VARNISHES 


727 


Gold  Varnish. — I. — A  good  gold  var- 
nish for  coating  moldings  which  pro- 
duces great  brilliancy  is  prepared  as 
follows:  Dissolve  3  pounds  of  shellac  in 
30  quarts  of  alcohol,  5  pounds  of  mas- 
tic in  5  quarts  of  alcohol,  3  pounds  of 
sandarac  in  5  quarts  of  alcohol,  5  pounds 
of  gamboge  in  5  quarts  of  alcohol,  1  pound 
of  dragon's  blood  in  1  quart  of  alcohol, 
3  pounds  of  saunders  in  5  quarts  of  alco- 
hol, 3  pounds  of  turpentine  in  3  quarts 
of  alcohol.  After  all  the  ingredients  have 
been  dissolved  separately  in  the  given 
quantity  of  absolute  alcohol  and  filtered, 
the  solutions  are  mixed  at  a  moderate 
heat. 

II. — A  varnish  which  will  give  a 
splendid  luster,  and  any  gold  color  from 
deep  red  to  golden  yellow,  is  prepared  by 
taking  50  ounces  pale  shellac,  15  pounds 
Florentine  lake  (precipitated  from  cochi- 
neal or  redwood  decoction  by  alum  onto 
strach,  kaolin,  or  gypsum),  25  ounces  of 
sandalwood,  and  8  ounces  of  dragon's 
blood.  These  in  fine  powder  are  dis- 
solved on  the  water  bath,  in  500  ounces 
rectified  spirit.  The  spirit  must  boil 
and  remain,  with  occasional  shaking,  for 
2  to  3  hours  on  the  bath.  Then  cool  and 
decant.  In  the  meantime  heat  in  an- 
other flask  on  the  bath  30  ounces  of 
gamboge  in  500  ounces  of  the  same  spirit. 
The  two  liquids  are  mixed  until  the  right 
color  needed  for  the  particular  purpose 
in  hand  is  obtained.  Dilute  with  spirit 
if  too  thick.  The  addition  of  a  little 
picric  acid  gives  a  greenish-yellow  bronze 
but  makes  the  varnish  very  liable  to  ex- 
plode. These  varnishes  are  applied  to 
gently  warmed  surfaces  with  a  soft 
bristle  brush. 

Gold  Varnish  for  Tin. — This  is  obtained 
in  the  following  manner:  Spread  out  5 
parts,  by  weight,  of  finely  powdered 
crystallized  copper  acetate  in  a  warm 
spot,  allowing  it  to  lie  for  some  time;  then 
grind  the  powder,  which  will  have  ac- 
quired a  light-brown  shade,  with  oil  of 
turpentine  and  add,  with  stirring,  15 
parts,  by  weight,  of  fat  copal  varnish 
heated  to  140°  F.  When  the  copper 
acetate  has  dissolved  (in  about  I  hour), 
the  mass  is  filled  in  a  bottle  and  allowed 
to  stand  warm,  for  several  days,  shaking 
frequently.  The  gold  varnish  is  then 
ready  for  use.  Coat  the  articles  uni- 
formly with  it,  and  heat  in  a  drying 
chamber,  whereupon,  according  to  the 
degree  of  temperature,  varying  colora- 
tions are  obtained,  changing  from  green 
to  yellow,  then  golden  yellow,  and  finally 
orange  to  brown.  When  good  copal  var- 
nish is  employed,  the  varnish  will  adhere 


very  firmly,  so  that  the  article   can   be 
pressed  without  damage. 

Iron  Varnishes. — I. — A  varnish  ob- 
tained by  dissolving  wax  in  turpentine  is 
useful.  It  gives  a  fairly  hard  coat,  but 
has  the  drawback  of  filling  up  fine 
grooves,  and  so  injuring  the  appearance 
of  many  metal  ornaments. 

II. — Shellac,  15  pounds;  Siam  benja- 
min, 13  pounds;  alcohol,  80  pounds; 
formylchloride,  20  pounds. 

III. — Sierra  Leone  copal,  6  pounds; 
dammar,  18  pounds;  oleic  acid,  3  pounds; 
alcohol,  40  pounds;  oil  of  turpentine,  20 
pounds;  formylchloride,  15  pounds.  The 
formylchloride  not  only  effects  the  rapid 
drying  necessary  to  prevent  the  varnish 
gravitating  into  hollows,  but  enables 
the  alcohol  to  make  a  perfect  solution  of 
the  rosin.  The  varnishes  are  excessively 
volatile,  and  must  be  stored  accordingly. 

Stove  Varnishes. — 

Shellac 12  parts 

Manila  copal 14  parts 

Rosin 12  parts 

Gallipot 2  parts 

Benzoin 1  part 

Lampblack.. 5  parts 

Nigrosin,     spirit-sol- 
uble   1?  parts 

Alcohol 250  parts 

Tin  Varnishes. — I. — For  Tin  Boxes. — 
In  75  parts  of  alcohol  dissolve  15  parts 
of  shellac,  2  parts  of  Venice  turpentine, 
and  8  parts  of  sandarac. 

II. — For  Trays  and  Other  Tinware. — 
The  ground  is  prepared  by  adding  to  the 
white  lead  the  tinting  colors  ground  in 
good  rubbing  varnish  and  half  oil  of 
turpentine.  For  drier  an  admixture  of 
"terebine"  is  recommended.  With  this 
lean  and  dull  paint,  coat  the  tins  2  or  3 
times  and  blend.  Next,  grain  with 
water  or  vinegar  glaze,  and  varnish  with 
pure  Zanzibar  copal  varnish,  or  finest 
amber  table-top  varnish.  There  are 
other  tried  methods  for  varnishing  tin, 
which  are  applicable  for  new  goods, 
manufactured  in  large  quantities,  while 
they  are  less  advantageous  for  the  res- 
toration of  old,  repeatedly  used  articles. 

VARNISH  SUBSTITUTES. 

A  substitute  for  varnish  is  produced 
by  adding  to  100  parts  of  casein  10  to 
25  parts  of  a  1  to  10  per  cent  soap  solu- 
tion and  then  20  to  25  parts  of  slaked 
lime. .  The  mixture  is  carefully  kneaded 
until  a  perfectly  homogeneous  mass  re- 
sults. Then  gradually  add  25  to  40 
parts  of  turpentine  oil  and  sufficient 


728 


VARNISHES— VETERINARY   FORMULAS 


water  for  the  mass  to  assume  the  con- 
sistency of  varnish.  If  it  is  desired  to 
preserve  it  for  some  time  a  little  ammonia 
is  added  so  that  the  casein  lime  does  not 
separate.  The  surrogate  is  considerably 
cheaper  than  varnish  and  dries  so  quick- 
Jy  that  paint  ground  with  it  may  be  ap- 
plied twice  in  quick  succession. 

Zapon  Varnishes. — In  the  case  of 
many  articles  which  have  been  colored 
mechanically  or  by  the  battery,  par- 
ticularly with  large  pieces,  an  opaque 
varnish  is  used  as  a  protection  against 
atmospheric  influences.  The  so-called 
brassoline,  of  a  brown  color,  negroline, 
black,  and  zapon.  which  is  colorless,  are 
employed,  according  to  the  color  of  the 
article.  The  last-named  varnish  is  most 
commonly  used,  and  gives  a  fine  and 
durable  coating,  insoluble  in  almost  all 
liquids  which  would  come  into  consider- 
ation here,  except  that  it  will  wash  off  in 
soap  and  water.  Zapon  varnish  is  a 
solution  of  collodion  cotton  and  camphor 
in  amyl  acetate  and  amyl  alcohol,  and 
was  formerly  used  to  preserve  old  manu- 
scripts and  legal  documents.  In  the 
process  of  zaponizing,  the  article  is 
slightly  warmed  and  immersed  in  the 
varnish,  or  the  latter  is  applied  with  a 
brush.  The  solution  is  very  durable, 
and  has  the  advantage  that  after  drying 
it  will  not  show  edges,  rings,  or  spots. 
Zapon  varnish  which  has  become  too 
thick  must  be  diluted,  and  the  brushes 
must  be  kept  from  becoming  dry.  If  it 
is  desired  to  give  an '  especially  warm 
tone,  the  article  is  treated  with  brushes 
which  have  been  drawn  over  beeswax  or 
mineral  wax. 

For  the  production  of  zapon  or  celluloid 
varnish,  pour  20  parts  of  acetone  over  2 
parts  of  colorless  celluloid  waste,  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  for  several  days  in  a  closed 
vessel,  stirring  frequently  until  the  whole 
has  dissolved  into  a  clear,  thick  mass. 
Admix  78  parts  of  amyl  acetate  and  clarify 
the  zapon  varnish  by  allowing  it  to  settle 
for  weeks. 

VARNISH,  HOW  TO  POUR  OUT: 
See  Castor  Oil. 

VARNISHES,  INSULATING: 

See  Insulation. 

VARNISHES,     PHOTOGRAPHIC     RE- 
TOUCHING: 

See  Photography. 

VARNISH  REMOVERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 


VASELINE     STAINS,     TO      REMOVE 
FROM  CLOTHING: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

VASOLIMENTUM. 

This  unguent  is  of  two  kinds,  liquid 
and  semi-solid.  The  former  is  prepared 
by  mixing  500  parts  of  olein,  250  parts  of 
alcoholic  ammonia,  and  1,000  parts  of  liq- 
uid paraffine,  the  whole  being  warmed 
until  completely  dissolved,  and  any  loss 
in  weight  made  up  by  addition  of  spirit. 
The  semi-solid  preparation  is  made  of 
the  same  ingredients,  except  the  paraffine 
salve  is  substituted  for  the  liquid.  The 
product  is  used  as  a  basis  for  ointments 
in  place  of  yasogene,  and  can  be  in- 
corporated with  a  number  of  medica- 
ments, such  as  10  per  cent  of  naphthol, 
20  per  cent  of  guaiacol,  25  per  cent  of 
juniper  tar,  5  per  cent  of  thiol,  6  per 
cent  of  iodine,  5  per  cent  of  creosote,  10 
per  cent  of  ichthyol,  5  per  cent  of  creolin, 
2  per  cent  of  menthol,  etc. 

VAT  ENAMELS  AND  VARNISHES: 

See  Varnishes. 

VEGETABLES,  TESTS  FOR  CANNED: 
See  Foods. 

VEGETABLE  PARCHMENT: 
See  Parchment. 

VICHY: 

See  Waters. 

VICHY  SALT: 

See  Salts  (Effervescent). 

Veterinary  Formulas 

FOR  BIRDS: 

Asthma  in  Canaries. — 

Tincture  capsicum.  .  .      5     drachms 
Spirits  chloroform ...    90     minims 
Iron  citrate,  soluble.  .    45     grains 
Fennel  water.  .......      3£  ounces 

Give  a  few  drops  on  lump  of  sugar  in 
the  cage  once  daily. 

Colas.— 

Tincture     ferri     per- 

chloride 1     drachm 

Acid  hydrochloric,  dil.        |  drachm 

Glycerine l|  drachms 

Aqua  camphor,  q.  s  .  .      1     ounce 

Use  3  to  6  drops  in  drinking  water. 

Ointment  for  Healing. — 

Peru  balsam 60     grains 

Cola  cream 1     ounce 

Apply. 


VETERINARY   FORMULAS 


729 


Constipation  in  Birds. — 

F.  E.  senna 2  drachms 

Syrup  manna 1  ounce 

Fennel  water,  q.  s. .  . .      4  ounces 

Give  a  few   drops   on   sugar  in   cage 
once  daily. 

Diarrhoea. — 

Tincture  iron  chloride     2     drachms 

Paregoric 2     drachms 

Caraway  water 3^  ounces 

Give  few  drops  on  lump  of  sugar  once 
daily. 

Mocking-Bird  Food. — 

Crackers 8  ounces 

Corn 9  ounces 

Rice • .  2  ounces 

Hemp  seed 1   ounce 

Capsicum 10  grains 

Mix  and  reduce  to  a  coarse  powder. 

Foods  for  Red  Birds. — 

Sunflower  seed 8  ounces 

Hemp  seed 16  ounces 

Canary  seed 10  ounces 

Cracked  wheat 8  ounces 

Unshelled  rice 6  ounces 

Mix  and  grind  to  a  coarse  powder. 

Canary-Bird  Food. — 

Yolk  of  egg  (dry)  ....      2     ounces 

Poppy  heads  (pow- 
dered)    1  ounce 

Cuttlefish  bone  (pow- 
dered)    1  ounce 

Sugar 2    ounces 

Powdered  crackers.  .  .      8     ounces 

Bird  Tonic. — 

Powdered  capsicum. 
Powdered  gentian.. . 
Ferri  peroxide.  . 
Powdered  sugar 


20 
1 


grains 
drachm 
ounce 
ounce 


Syrup,  q.  s. 
Put  a  piece  size  of  pea  in  cage  daily. 

Tonic. — 

I. — Tincture  cinchona ...  \  drachm 

Tincture  iron. ...  v ...  2     drops 

Glycerine 1     drachm 

Caraway  water 1     ounce 

Put  a  few  drops  on  lump  of  sugar  in 
cage  daily. 

II. — Compound  t  i  n  c  t  ure 

cinchona 2    drachms 

Compound  tincture 

gentian 2     drachms 

Syrup  orange 1     ounce 

Simple  elixir 2£  ounces 

Put  a  few  drops  on  lump  of  sugar  in 
the  cage  daily. 


Antiseptic  Wash  for  Cage  Birds. — 

Chinosol,  F 2  drachms 

Sugar  (burnt) 20  minims 

Aqua  cinnamon 4  ounces 

Aqua 20  ounces 

Add  1  or  2  teaspoonfuls  to  the  bath 
water  and  allow  the  birds  to  use  it,  when 
it  will  quickly  destroy  all  parasites  or 
germs  in  the  feathers.  To  wash  out  the 
cages,  use  a  mixture  of  1  tablespoonful 
in  a  pint  of  hot  water. 

Mixed  Bird  Seed. — 

Sicily  canary 10  ounces 

German  rape 2  ounces 

Russian  hemp 1  ounce 

German  millet 3  ounces 

FOR  HORSES  AND  CATTLE: 

Blistering.  —  Tincture  cantharides,  1 
ounce;  camphorated  oil,  \  ounce.  Apply 
a  portion  with  friction  3  times  a  day  un- 
til a  blister  shows.  As  it  subsides  apply 
again. 

Horse -Colic  Remedy. — I. — In  making 
a  horse-colic  remedy  containing  tincture 
of  opium,  ether  and  chloroform,  to  be 
given  in  tablespoonful  doses,  apportion 
the  ingredients  about  equally,  and  mix 
the  dose  with  a  pint  of  water. 

Other  formulas  are: 
II. — Chloroform  anodyne     1  ounce 
Spirit    of  nitrous 

ether 2  ounces 

Linseed  oil 13  ounces 

Give  in  one  dose  and  repeat  in  an  hour 
if  necessary. 

Condition  Powders. — I. — Sulphur,  2 
pounds;  Glauber  salts,  1  pound;  black 
antimony,  \  pound;  powdered  blood- 
root,  4  ounces;  copperas,  \  pound;  rosin, 
\  pound;  asafetida,  2  ounces;  saltpeter 
\  pound.  Powder  and  mix  well. 

II. — Gentian,  4  ounces;  potassium  ni- 
trate, 1  ounce;  sulphur,  4  ounces;  ginger 
(African),  4  ounces;  antimony,  4  ounces; 
rosin,  2  ounces;  Foenugreek,  2  ounces; 
capsicum,  2  ounces;  serpentaria,  2  ounces; 
sodium  sulphate,  9  ounces;  flaxseed  meal, 
16  ounces.  All  ingredients  in  fine  pow- 
der. Dose:  1  tablespoonful  in  feed  twice 
a  day. 

Veterinary  Dose  Table. — For  a  colt  1 
month  old  give  -/?  of  the  full  dose;  3 
months  old, -yV;  6  months  old,  \\  1  year 
old,  \\  2  years  old,  A;  3  years  old,  f. 
Fluids  for  cattle  usually  the  same  dose 
as  for  the  horse.  Solids  for  cattle  usu- 
ally 1 J  times  the  dose  for  the  horse. 


750 


VETERINARY   FORMULAS 


Drug. 

Horses. 

Cattle. 

Aloes  

1  to    8  dr. 
1  to    3  dr. 

i  to    2  oz. 
1  to    3  dr. 

Aqua  ammonia.  .... 
Ammonia  bromide  .  . 
Ammonia  carbonate. 
Ammonia  iodide  .... 
Antimony  black  .... 

3  to    5  dr. 
i  to    2  oz. 
1  to    3  dr. 
\  to    3  dr. 
15  to  50  gr. 
3  to    5  dr. 

3  to    5  dr. 
Jto    2oz. 
2  to    5  dr. 
1  to    5  dr. 

Arsenic  

5  to  12  gr. 

5  to  12  gr. 

Asafetida  
Belladonna  leaves.  .  . 
Buchu  leaves  
Calaber  bean  

1  to    4  dr. 
\  to    2  oz. 
|  to    3  oz. 
4  to  12  gr. 
|  to    2  dr. 

to    2  oz. 
to    2  oz. 
to    4oz. 
4  to  12  gr. 
2  to    3  dr. 

Cantharides  
Capsicum  

5  to  25  gr. 
1  to    2  dr. 
1  to    2  dr. 

12  to  30  gr. 
1  to    3  dr. 
2  to    4  dr. 

Chalk  preparation.  .  . 
Chloral  hydrate  

2  to    3oz. 
|  toll  oz. 
$  to    1  dr. 

2  to    4  oz. 
\  to  \\  oz. 
1  to    2  dr. 

Cinchona  
Copper  sulphate  
Creolin  

1  to    3  dr. 
i  to    2  dr. 
1  to    5  dr. 

i  to    2  oz. 
|  to    3  dr. 
2  to    5  dr. 

Creosote  
Digitalis  leaves. 

15  to  30  min. 
10  to  20  gr. 

Ito    2  dr. 
20  to  50  gr. 

Dover  powder  

i  to    2  dr. 

i  to    2  dr. 

Ergot  
Ether 

J  to    1  oz. 

|  to  2J  oz. 

i  to    1  oz. 
1  to    3  oz. 

Ex.  belladonna  fluid  . 

i  to    2  dr. 
1  to    5  dr 

2  to    4  dr. 

Extract  cannabis  in- 
dica  

\  to    \  dr. 

i  to    1  dr. 

Foenugreek  
Gallnuts 

\  to    3  oz. 
2  to    4  dr. 

1  to    3  oz. 
to    1  oz. 

Gentian  

2  to    6  dr. 

to    1  oz. 

Ginger                 

3  to    5  dr. 

to    2  oz. 

Ipecac  

i  to    2  dr. 
1  to    2  dr. 

to    3  dr. 

Iron  sulphate  

ito    2  dr. 
1  to    2  oz. 

Ito    3  dr. 
1  to    3  oz. 

Limewater  
Magnesia  sulphate.  .  . 

3  to    6oz. 
ito    31b. 
2  to    4  dr. 

3  to    6  oz. 
ito    31b. 
2  to    6  dr. 

Nux  vomica  
Oil  castor           

i  to    1  dr. 
|  to    1  pt. 

2  to    3  dr. 
i  to   1  pt. 

OilCroton  
Oil  juniper  
Oil  linseed 

10  to  20  min. 
Ito    2  dr. 
to    1  pt. 

1  to    2  dr. 
§to    2  dr. 
|  to    2  pt. 

Oil  olive  

to    2  pt. 

1  to    2  pt. 

Oil  savin  

1  to    3  dr. 
\  to    2  oz. 

1  to    3  dr. 
$  to    2  oz. 

Opium  
Potassium  iodide.  .  .  . 
Potassium  nitrate.  .  . 
Potassium  sulphide.  . 

i  to    2  dr. 
2  to    4  dr. 
1  to    2  oz. 
1  to    2  dr. 
10  to  30  gr. 

i  to    2  dr. 
2  to    6  dr. 
1  to    2  oz. 
1  to    2  dr. 
20  to  40  gr. 

Rhubarb  

\  to    1  oz. 

1  to    2  oz. 

Santonine  
Sodium  hyposulphite 
Sodium  sulphate.  .  .  . 
Sodium  sulphite  .... 
Spirits  ammonia,  aro- 
matic   

15  to40gr. 
i  to    1  oz. 
|  to    2  Ib. 
J  to    1  oz. 

i  to    2  oz. 

i  to    1  dr. 
1  to    3  oz. 
Ito    21b. 
1  to    3  oz. 

1  to    3  oz. 

Spirits  chloroform.  .  . 
Spirits  nitrous  ether  . 
Spirits  peppermint.  . 
Strychnine  sulphite.  . 

i  to    1  oz. 
1  to    3  oz. 
1  to    2  oz. 
i  to    1  gr. 
2  to    4  oz. 

1  to    2  oz. 
1  to    3  oz. 
1  to    2  oz. 
Ito    3gr. 
2  to    4  oz. 

Tincture  aconite  .... 

5  to  30  min. 
1  to    4  dr 

5  to  20  min. 

Tincture  belladonna 
Tincture  cantharides 
Tincture  columbo.  .  . 
Tincture  digitalis  
Tincture  iron  
Tincture  ginger  
Tincture  nux  vomica 
Tincture  opium  
Tobacco  

1  to    3  dr. 
1  to    2  oz. 
i  to    2  oz. 
1  to    3  dr. 
1  to    2  oz. 
i  to    2  oz. 
2  to    4  dr. 
i  to    3  oz. 
i  to    1  dr. 

2  to    4  dr. 
to    1  oz. 
to    2  oz. 
2  to    4  dr. 
1  to    2  oz. 
1  to    2  oz. 
$  to    1  oz. 
1  to    3  oz. 
i  to    1  dr. 

Vinegar 

1  to    3  oz. 

2  to    6  oz. 

Whisky 

2  to  10  oz. 

White  vitriol  

5  to  15  gr. 

5  to  15  gr. 

Astringent. — 

I. — Opium 12    grains 

Camphor \  drachm 

Catechu 1     drachm 

One  dose. 

II. — Opium 12  grains 

Camphor 1  drachm 

Ginger 2  drachms 

Castile  soap 2  drachms 

Anise 3  drachms 

Licorice 2  drachms 

Contracted  Hoof  or  Sore  Feet. — 

I.— Lard 

Yellow  wax. 

Linseed  oil !-Equal  parts. 

Venice  turpentine..  .  . 

Tar J 

Apply  to  the  edge  of  the  hair  once  a 
day. 

II. — Rosin .      4  ounces 

Lard 8  ounces 

Melt  and  add 

Powdered  vertigris. .  .      1  ounce 
Stir  well;  when  partly  cool  add 

Turpentine 2  ounces 

Apply  to  hoof  about  1  inch  down  from 
the  hair. 

Cough. — 

I. — Sodii  bromide 

Creosote  water. . .  . 

Fennel  water 

Half  tablespoonful  4 

II. — Ammonia  bromide. 

Fennel  water 

Syrup  licorice 

Teaspoonful  4  times 

Cow  Powder. — 

Powdered  catechu. 
Powdered  ginger. .  . 
Powdered  gentian. 
Powdered  opium... 


.  .    180  grains 
2  ounces 
4  ounces 
times  daily. 

. .  .  180  grains 
4  ounces 
4  ounces 


daily. 


60  grains 
240  grains 
240  grains 

30  grains 


CUTS,  WOUNDS,  SORES. 

I. — Tincture  opium,  2  ounces;  tannin, 
\  ounce. 

II. — Tincture  aloes,  1  ounce;  tincture 
of  myrrh,  }  ounce;  tincture  of  opium,  $ 
ounce;  water,  4  ounces.  Apply  night 
and  morning. 

III. — Lard,  4  ounces;  beeswax,  4 
ounces;  rosin,  2  ounces;  carbolic  acid,  | 
ounce. 

Diarrhrea. — 

I. — Opium 15      grains 

Peppermint J  ounce 

Linseed  meal 1      ounce 

Give  half  in  morning  and  remainder 
in  evening  in  a  pint  of  warm  water. 


VETERINARY    FORMULAS 


731 


II. — Prepared  chalk 6     ounces 

Catechu 3     ounces 

Opium 1|  ounces 

Ginger 3     ounces 

Gentian 3     ounces 

One  powder  3  times  a  day  in  half  a 
pint  of  warm  water.  One-sixth  of  dose 
for  calves. 


Diuretic  Ball. — 
I. — Oil  juniper 

Rosin 

Saltpeter 

Camphor 

Castile  soap 

Flaxseed  meal.. . . 
Make  1  pill. 

II.— Rosin. 

Potassium  nitrate. 

Po  buchu  leaves. . 

Dose:  1  twice  a  day. 

Drying  Drink. — 

Powdered  alum 

Armenian  bole 

Powdered  juniper  ber- 
ries . 


\  drachm 
2     drachms 
2     drachms 

\  drachm 
1     ounce 


90  grains 
90  grains 
45  grains 


>     ounces 
I    ounces 

\  ounce 


Once  daily  in  1  quart  of  warm  gruel. 

Epizo'oty  or  Pinkeye. — 

Sublimed  sulphur  ....  \  ounce 

Epsom  salt 1     ounce 

Charcoal \  ounce 

Extract  licorice 1     ounce 

Fever. — 

I. — Salicylic  acid f  ounce 

Sodium  bicarbonate..        \  ounce 
Magnesium  sulphate.   10     ounces 
Give  half  in  quart  of  warm  bran  water 
at  night. 

II. — Spirits  niter 3     ounces 

Tincture  aconite 2     drachms 

Fluid    extract    bella- 
donna         \  ounce 

Nitrate  potash 2     ounces 

Muriate  ammonia.  ..  2     ounces 

Water,  q.  s 1     quart 

Dose:  Teaspoonful  every  2  or  3  hours 
till  better. 

Heaves.  —  I.  —  Balsam  copaiba,  1 
ounce;  spirits  of  turpentine,  2  ounces; 
balsam  fir,  1  ounce;  cider  vinegar,  16 
ounces. 

Tablespoonful  once  a  day. 

II. — Saltpeter,     1     ounce;     indigo,     \ 
ounce;  rain  or  distilled  water,  4  pints. 
Dose:  1  pint  twice  a  day. 


Hide  Bound. — 

Elecampane 2  ounces 

Licorice  root. 2  ounces 

Fcenugreek 2  ounces 

Rosin 2  ounces 

Copperas \  ounce 

Ginger 2  drachms 

Gentian 1  drachm 

Saltpeter 1  drachm 

Valerian 1  drachm 

Linseed  meal 3  ounces 

Sublimed  sulphur. ...  1  ounce 

Black  antimony 4  drachms 

Tablespoonful  twice  a  day. 

HORSE   EMBROCATIONS  AND   LINI- 
MENTS. 

I. — Camphor 1  ounce 

Acetic  acid 15  ounces 

Alcohol 18  ounces 

Oil  turpentine 51  ounces 

Eggs 6 

Distilled  witch  hazel .  45  ounces 

II. — Iodine 50  grains 

Pot  iodide 125  grains 

Soap  liniment 6  ounces 

INFLUENZA. 

I. — Ammonia  muriate.  .  . 

Gum  camphor 

Pot  chloride 

Extract  licorice,  pow- 
dered  

Molasses,  q.  s. 

JV^ake  a  mass.      Dose:  Tablespoonful 
in  form  of  pill  night  and  morning. 

II. — Ammonium  chloride. 
Potassium  nitrate..  .  . 
Potassium  sulphate  in 

little  crystals 

Licorice  powder 


ounces 
ounce 

1  ounce 

2  ounces 


30  parts 
30  parts 

100  parts 
65  parts 


Mix.      Dose:     A   tablespoonful,  in    a 
warm  mash,  3  times  daily. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  UDDER. 

I. — Salicylic  acid 40     grains 

Mercurial  ointment.  .      1     ounce 
Liniment  of  camphor     3£  ounces 
Apply   and   rub   the    udder    carefully 
twice  a  day. 

II. — Belladonna  root 1  drachm 

Oil  turpentine 1  ounce 

Camphor 1  drachm 

Solution  green  soap,  q.  s.   6  ounces 
Mix  and  make  a  liniment.     Bathe  the 

udder    several    times    with    hot    water. 

Dry  and  apply  above  liniment. 

MANGE. 

Sulphur  is  a  specific  for  mange;  the 
trouble  consists  in  its  application,      "The 


732 


VETERINARY   FORMULAS 


old-fashioned  lotion  of  train  oil  and 
black  sulphur  serves  well  enough,  but  for 
stabled  animals  something  is  wanted 
which  will  effectually  destroy  the  para- 
sites in  harness  and  saddlery  without 
injury  to  those  expensive  materials. 
The  creosote  emulsions  and  coal-tar 
derivatives  generally  are  fatal  to  the 
sarcopts  if  brought  into  actual  contact, 
but  a  harness  pad  with  ridges  of  ac- 
cumulated grease  is  a  sufficient  retreat 
for  a  few  pregnant  females  during  a  per- 
functory disinfection,  and  but  a  few  days 
will  be  needed  to  reproduce  a  new  and 
vigorous  stock.  A  cheap  and  efficient 
application  can  be  made  by  boiling  to- 
gether flowers  of  sulphur  and  calcis  hydras 
in  the  proportion  of  4  parts  of  the  former 
to  1  of  the  latter,  and  100  of  water,  for 
half  an  hour.  It  should  be  applied  warm, 
or  immediately  after  washing  with  soft 
soap. 

Milk  Powder  for  Cows. — For  increas- 
ing the  flow  of  milk,  in  cows,  Hager  rec- 
ommends the  following  mixture: 
Potassium  nitrate. ...      1  part 

Alum 1  part 

Sublimed  sulphur.  ...      1  part 

Prepared  chalk 1  part 

White  bole 2  parts 

Red  clover 5  parts 

Anise 10  parts 

Fennel 10  parts 

Salt 10  parts 

All  should  be  in  tolerably  fine  powder 
and  should  be  well  mixed.  The  direc- 
tions are  to  give  1  or  2  handfuls  with  the 
morning  feed. 

LAXATIVES. 

I. — Aloes 1  drachm 

Soap 12  drachms 

Caraway 4  drachms 

Ginger 4  drachms 

Treacle,  q.  s. 
Make  4  balls.     Dose:  1  daily. 

II. — Rochelle  salts 2  ounces 

Aloes,  powdered 150  grains 

Linseed  meal 150  grains 

One  dose,  given  in  warm  water. 

Lice.— 

Crude  oil 1  ounce 

Oil  tar 1  ounce 

Oil  cedar 1  drachm 

Cottonseed  oil 5  ounces 

Apply  to  parts. 

DOMESTIC  PETS. 

The  sarcoptic  itch  of  the  dog,  as  well 

as  that  of  the  cat,  is  transmissible  to  man. 

The    Tinea    tonsurans,    the    so-called 


barbers'  itch,  due  to  a  trychophyton,  and 
affecting  both  the  dog  and  cat,  is  highly 
contagious  to  man.  Favus,  Tinea  favos, 
caused  by  achorion  schoenleini,  of  both 
animals,  is  readily  transmissible  to  hu- 
man beings.  The  dog  carries  in  his 
intestines  many  kinds  of  tcsnia  (tape- 
worm), among  them  Ticnia  echinococ- 
cus,  the  eggs  of  which  cause  hydatic 
cysts.  Hydatic  cysts  occur  in  persons 
who  are  always  surrounded  with  dogs, 
or  in  constant  contact  with  them. 

Aviar  diphtheria  (i.  e.,  the  diphtheria 
of  birds),  caused  by  at  least  two  microbes 
(bacillus  of  Klebs-Loeffler  and  bacillus 
coli),  may  easily  be  transmitted  to  man 
and  cause  in  him  symptoms  analogous 
to  those  of  true  diphtheritic  angina. 

Parrots  are  subject  to  an  infectious 
enteritis  which  may  be  communicated 
to  human  beings,  giving  rise  to  the  so- 
called  psittacosis  (from  the  Greek, 
psitta,  a  parrot),  of  which  there  have 
been  a  number  of  epidemics  in  France. 
It  is  determined  by  the  bacillus  of  No- 
card. 

Human  tuberculosis  is  certainly  trans- 
mitted to  dogs,  cats,  and  birds.  Cadiot, 
Gibert,  Roger,  Benjamin,  Petit,  and 
Basset,  as  well  as  other  observers,  cite 
cases  where  dogs,  cats,  and  parrots, 
presenting  all  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis, 
were  shown  to  have  contracted  it  from 
contact  with  human  beings;  while  there 
are  no  recorded  cases,  there  can  scarcely 
be  a  natural  doubt  that  man  may,  in  a 
similar  manner,  become  attainted  through 
them,  and  that  their  tuberculosis  con- 
stitutes an  actual  danger  to  man. 

Need  we  recall  here  the  extraordinary 
facility  with  which  hydrophobia  is  com- 
municated to  man  through  the  dog,  cat, 
etc.? 

We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  we 
should  not  permit  these  animals  to  take 
up  so  much  space  in  our  apartments, 
nor  should  they  be  petted  and  caressed 
either  by  adults  or  children  in  the  reck- 
less manner  common  in  many  house- 
holds. The  disgusting  habit  of  teaching 
animals  to  take  bits  of  food,  lumps  of 
sugar,  etc.,  from  between  the  lips  of 
members  of  the  family  is  also  to  be 
shunned. 

Finally,  any  or  all  of  them  should  be 
banished  from  the  house  the  moment 
that  they  display  certain  morbid  symp- 
toms. Besides,  in  certain  cases,  there 
should  be  a  rigid  prophylaxis  against 
certain  diseases — as  echiuococcus,  for 
instance. 

Worms. — In  cats  and  dogs,  round 
worms,  of  which  ascaris  mystax  is  the 


VETERINARY   FORMULAS 


most  common  in  cats,  are  found  chiefly 
in  young  animals.  This  worm  has  hir- 
sute appendages  somewhat  resembling 
a  mustache.  To  treat  an  animal  in- 
fected with  such  "guests,"  the  patient 
should  be  made  to  fast  for  24  hours. 
For  a  small  kitten  t  grain  of  santonin, 
up  to  a  grain  or  two  for  large  cats,  fol- 
lowed in  an  hour  by  a  dose  of  castor  oil, 
is  recommended.  To  avoid  spilling  the 
oil  on  the  animal's  coat  the  "doctor" 
should  have  it  heated  and  whipped  with 
warm  milk.  Another  way  to  get  cats  to 
take  it  is  to  smear  it  on  the  bottoms  of 
their  front  feet,  when  they  will  lick  it  off. 
Areca  nut,  freshly  ground  by  the  drug- 
gist himself  and  administered  in  liberal 
doses,  say  30  to  60  grains,  will  usually 
drive  out  any  worms  in  the  alimentary 
canal. 

It  is  important  that  animals  success- 
fully treated  for  worms  once  should 
undergo  the  treatment  a  second  or  third 
time,  as  all  the  parasites  may  not  have 
been  killed  or  removed  the  first  time, 
or  their  progeny  may  have  developed  in 
the  field  vacated  by  the  parents. 

The  following  is  an  effective  formula: 

German       wormseed, 

powdered 1  drachm 

Fluid  extract    of   spi- 

gelia 3  drachms 

Fluid  extract  of  senna.   1  drachm 

Fluid  extract  of  vale- 
rian      1  drachm 

Syrup  of  buckthorn  .  .    2  ounces 
Dose:  From  |  to  1  teaspoonful  night 
and  morning. 

Foot  Itch.— The  itch  that  affects  the 
feet  of  poultry  is  contagious  in  a  most 
insidious  way.  The  various  birds  of  a 
poultry  yard  in  which  the  disease  is 
prevalent,  rarely  contract  it  until  after  a 
comparatively  long  period  of  exposure, 
but  sooner  or  later  every  bird  will  con- 
tract it.  One  infected  bird  is  enough  to 
infect  a  whole  yard  full,  and  once  in- 
fected, it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  get 
rid  of.  The  disease,  however,  affects 
birds  only. 

The  treatment  is  simple.  Having 
softened  the  feet  by  keeping  them  for 
some  minutes  in  tepid  water,  the  scabs 
that  cover  them  are  carefully  detached, 
avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  causing  them 
to  bleed,  and  taking  the  precaution  of 
throwing  every  scab  into  the  fire.  The 
feet  are  then  carefully  dried,  with  a  bit  of 
soft  cotton  material,  which  should  after- 
wards be  burned;  then  the  entire  surface 
is  covered  with  ointment  (Unguentum  sul-> 
phuris  kalinum).  An  alcoholic  solution 
of  Canada  balsam  is  preferred  by  some. 


Protect  the  ointment  by  a  proper  ap- 
pliance, and  allow  it  to  remain  in  contact 
2  or  3  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time  re- 
move the  applications  and  wash  off  with 
tepid  suds.  The  bird  will  generally  be 
found  cured,  but  if  not,  repeat  the  treat- 
ment— removing  the  remaining  scabs, 
which  will  be  found  soft  enough  without 
resorting  to  soaking  in  tepid  water,  and 
apply  the  ointment  directly. 

There  is  another  method  of  treatment 
that  has  been  found  successful,  which 
not  only  cures  the  infected  birds  but 
prevents  the  infection  of  others.  It  is 
simply  providing  a  sand  bath  for  the 
birds,  under  a  little  shed,  where  they  can 
indulge  themselves  in  rolling  and  scratch- 
ing, the  bath  being  composed  of  equal 
parts  fine  sand,  charcoal  in  fine  powder, 
ashes,  and  flowers  of  sulphur,  sifted 
together.  .The  bath  should  be  renewed 
every  week.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks  the  cure  is  complete. 

Foods. — 
I. — Powdered  egg  shell  or 

phosphate  of  lime.    4  ounces 

Iron  sulphate 4  ounces 

Powdered  capsicum..    4  ounces 
Powdered  Foenugreek  2  ounces 
Powdered  black  pep- 
per     1  ounce 

Silver  sand 2  ounces 

Powdered  lentils  ....    6  ounces 
A    tablespoonful    to    be    mixed    with 
sufficient  feed  for  20  hens. 

II. — Oyster  shell,  ground.  5     ounces 

Magnesia 1     ounce 

Calcium  carbonate  .  .  3     ounces 

Bone,  ground 1^  ounces 

Mustard  bran 1J  ounces 

Capsicum 1     ounce 

Powders. — 

I. — Cayenne  pepper 2     parts 

Allspice 4     parts 

Ginger 6     parts 

Powder  and  mix  well  together.  A 
teaspoonful  to  be  mixed  with  every 
pound  of  food,  and  fed  2  or  3  times  a 
week.  Also  feed  fresh  meat,  finely 
chopped. 

II. — Powdered  egg  shells..    4     parts 
Powdered  capsicum. .    4     parts 

Sulphate  of  iron 4     parts 

Powdered  Fu>nugreek  2     parts 
Powdered  black  pep- 
per     1     part 

Sand. : 2     parts 

Powdered  dog  biscuit  6     parts 
A    tablespoonful    to    be    mixed    with 

sufficient   meal   or   porridge   to   feed   20 

hens. 


734 


VETERINARY   FORMULAS— VINEGAR 


Lice  Powders. — 

I. — Sulphur 4  ounces 

Tobacco  dust 6  ounces 

Cedar  oil £  ounce 

White  hellebore 4  ounces 

Crude  naphthol 1  ounce 

Powdered  chalk,  q.  s.  2  pounds 

II. — Sulphur 1     ounce 

Carbolic  acid |  ounce 

Crude  naphthol 1     ounce 

Powdered  chalk 1     pound 

Roup  or  Gapes. — Roup  in  poultry  is 
caused  by  the  presence  of  parasites 
or  entozoa  in  the  windpipe.  Young  birds 
are  most  commonly  affected.  The  best 
method  of  treatment  is  to  expose  the 
affected  bird  to  the  fumes  of  heated 
carbolic  acid  until  on  the  point  of  suffo- 
cation. The  bird  may  be  placed  in  a 
box  with  a  hot  brick,  and  carbolic  acid 
placed  thereon.  The  fowls  soon  re- 
cover from  the  incipient  suffocation,  and 
are  almost  always  freed  from  the  disease. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  burn  the  parasites 
coughed  out,  and  the  bodies  of  any  birds 
which  may  die  of  the  disease.  The 
following  powders  for  the  treatment  of 
"roup"  in  poultry  have  been  recom- 
mended: 

I. — Potassium  chlorate  .  .    1     ounce 
Powdered  cubebs..  ..    1     ounce 

Powdered  anise |  ounce 

Powdered  licorice..  .  .    l|  ounces 
Mix  a  teaspoonf ul  with  the  food  for  20 
hens. 
II. — Ammonium  chloride.    1     ounce 

Black  antimony J  ounce 

Powdered  anise |  ounce 

Powdered  squill £  ounce 

Powdered  licorice..  ..    2    ounces 
Mix  and  use  in  the  foregoing. 
FOR  SHEEP: 

Dips. — For  the  prevention  of  "scab" 
in  sheep,  which  results  from  the  burrow- 
ing of  an  acarus  or  the  destruction  of  the 
parasite  when  present,  various  prepara- 
tions of  a  somewhat  similar  character 
are  used.  The  following  formulas  for 
sheep  dips  are  recommended  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture: 

I. — Soap 1  pound 

Crude  carbolic  acid.  .      1  pint 

Water 50  gallons 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  a  gallon  or  more 
of  boiling  water,  add  the  acid,  and  stir 
thoroughly. 
II. — Fresh  skimmed  milk  .  .    1  gallon 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

Churn  together  until  emulsified,  or 
mix  and  put  into  the  mixture  a  force 


pump  and  direct  the  stream  from  the 
pump  back  into  the  mixture.  The 
emulsification  will  take  place  more 
rapidly  if  the  milk  be  added  while  boil- 
ing hot. 

use  1  gallon  of  this  emulsion  to  each 
10  gallons  of  water  required. 

Constipation. — 

I. — Green  soap 150     grains 

Linseed  oil 1£  ounces 

Water 15     ounces 

Give  -J-  every  £  hour  till  action  takes 
place. 

II. — Calomel 1  £  grains 

Sugar 15     grains 

One  dose. 
Loss  of  Appetite. — 
Sodium   sulphate, 

dried 90  grains 

Sodium  bicarbonate.  .    30  grains 

Rhubarb 30  grains 

Calamus 90  grains 

Form  the  mass  into  6  pills.     Give  one 
twice  daily. 

Inflammation  of  the  Eyes. — 

Zinc  sulphate 20  grains 

Mucilage  quince  seed.     4  ounces 
Distilled  water 4  ounces 

Bathe  eyes  twice  daily. 


Vinegar 

I. — Into  a  hogshead  with  a  large  bung- 
hole  put  1,500  parts,  by  weight,  of  honey, 
125  parts  of  carob-pods,  cut  into  pieces, 
50  parts  of  powdered  red  or  white 
potassium  bitartrate,  125  parts  of  pow- 
dered tartaric  acid,  2,000  parts  of  raisin 
stems,  400  parts  of  the  best  brewers' 
yeast,  or  500  of  leaven  rubbed  up  in 
water;  add  16,000  parts  of  triple  vinegar 
and  34,000  parts  of  40  per  cent  spirit, 
containing  no  fusel  oil.  Stir  all  vigor- 
ously together;  fill  up  the  hogshead  with 
hot  water  (100°  F.),  close  the  bunghole 
with  gauze  to  keep  out  insects,  and  let 
the  contents  of  the  cask  stand  for  from 
4  to  6  weeks  or  until  they  have  turned  to 
vinegar.  The  temperature  of  the  room 
should  be  from  77°  to  88°  F. 

Draw  off  half  the  vinegar,  and  fill  the 
hogshead  up  again  with  15  parts  of  soft 
water  and  1  part  of  spirit  (40  per  cent). 
Do  this  4  times,  then  draw  off  all  the 
vinegar  and  begin  the  first  process  over 
•  again.  This  method  of  making  vinegar 
is  suitable  for  households  and  small 
dealers,  but  would  not  suffice  for  whole- 


VINEGAR 


735 


sale  manufacturers,  since  it  would  take   I 
too  long  to  produce  any  large  amount. 

II. — -Put  into  an  upright  wine  cask 
open  at  the  top,  14,000  parts,  by  weight, 
of  lukewarm  water,  2,333  parts  of  60  per 
cent  alcohol,  500  parts  of  brown  sugar, 
125  parts  of  powdered  red  or  white 
potassium  bitartrate,  250  parts  of  good 
brewers'  yeast,  or  125  parts  of  leaven, 
1,125  parts  of  triple  vinegar,  and  stir 
until  the  substances  are  dissolved.  Lay 
a  cloth  and  a  perforated  cover  over  the 
cask  and  let  it  stand  in  a  temperature  of 
72°  to  77°  F.  from  4  to  6  weeks;  then 
draw  off  the  vinegar.  The  thick  deposit 
at  the  bottom,  the  "mother  of  vinegar," 
so  called,  can  be  used  in  making  more 
vinegar.  Pour  over  it  the  same  quan- 
tities of  water  and  alcohol  used  at  first; 
but  after  the  vinegar  has  been  drawn  off 
twice,  half  the  first  quantity  of  sugar  and 
potassium  bitartrate,  and  the  whole 
quantity  of  yeast,  must  be  added.  This 
makes  excellent  vinegar. 

III. — A  good  strong  vinegar  for  house- 
hold use  may  be  made  from  apple  or 
pear  peelings.  Put  the  peelings  in  a 
stone  jar  (not  glazed  with  lead)  or  in  a 
cask,  and  pour  over  them  water  and  a 
little  vinegar,  fermented  beer,  soured 
wine,  or  beet  juice.  Stir  well,  cover  with 
a  linen  cloth  and  leave  in  a  warm  room. 
The  vinegar  will  be  ready  in  2  or  3  weeks. 

IV. — Two  wooden  casks  of  any  desired 
size,  with  light  covers,  are  provided. 
They  may  be  called  A  and  B.  A  is  filled 
with  vinegar,  a  tenth  part  of  this  is 
poured  off  into  B,  and  an  equal  amount 
of  fermented  beer,  wine,  or  any  other 
sweet  or  vinous  liquid,  or  a  mixture  of 
1,125  parts,  by  weight,  of  alcohol,  11,500 
to  14,000  parts  of  water,  and  1,125  parts 
of  beet  juice,  put  into  A. 

When  vinegar  is  needed,  it  is  drawn 
out  of  B,  an  equal  quantity  is  poured 
from  A  into  B  and  the  same  quantity  of 
vinegar-making  liquids  put  into  A.  In 
this  way  vinegar  is  constantly  being 
made  and  the  process  may  go  on  for 
years,  provided  that  the  casks  are  large 
enough  so  that  not  more  than  a  tenth  of 
the  contents  of  A  is  used  in  a  week.  If 
too  much  is  used,  so  that  the  vinegar  in 
the  first  cask  becomes  weak,  the  course 
of  the  vinegar  making  is  disturbed  for  a 
long  time,  and  this  fact,  whose  import- 
ance has  not  been  understood,  prevents 
this  method — in  its  essential  principles 
the  best — from  being  employed  on  a 
large  scale.  The  surplus  in  A  acts  as  a 
fermentative. 

Aromatic  Vinegar. — I. — Sixteen  ounces 
glacial  acetic  acid,  40  drops  oil  of  cloves, 


40  drops  oil  of  rosemary,  40  drops  oil 
of  bergamot,  16  drops  oil  of  neroli,  30 
drops  oil  of  lavender,  1  drachm  benzoic 
acid,  ^  ounce  camphor,  30  to  40  drops 
compound  tincture  of  lavender,  3  ounces 
spirit  of  wine.  Dissolve  the  oils,  the  ben- 
zoic acid,  and  the  camphor  in  the  spirit 
of  wine,  mix  with  acetic  acid  and  shake 
until  bright,  lastly  adding  the  tincture  of 
lavender  to  color. 

II. — Dried  leaves  of  rosemary,  rue, 
wormwood,  sage,  mint,  and  lavender 
flowers,  each  \  ounce;  bruised  nutmegs, 
cloves,  angelica  root,  and  camphor,  each 
\  of  an  ounce;  rectified  alcohol,  4  ounces; 
concentrated  acetic  acid,  16  ounces. 
Macerate  the  materials  for  a  day  in  the 
alcohol;  then  add  the  acid  and  digest  for 
1  week  longer  at  a  temperature  of  490°  F. 
Finally  press  put  the  now  aromatised 
acid  and  filter  it. 

Cider  Vinegar. — By  "artificial  vine- 
gar "  is  meant  vinegar  made  by  the  quick 
method  with  beechwood  shavings.  This 
cannot  be  carried  out  with  any  economy 
on  a  small  scale,  and  requires  a  plant. 
A  modification  of  the  regular  plan  is  as 
follows:  Remove  the  head  from  a  good 
tight  whisky  barrel,  and  put  in  a  wooden 
faucet  near  the  bottom.  Fill  the  barrel 
with  corn  cobs  and  lay  an  empty  coffee 
sack  over  them.  Moisten  the  cobs  by 
sprinkling  them  with  some  good,  strong, 
natural  vinegar,  and  let  them  soak  for  a 
few  hours.  After  the  lapse  of  2  or  3 
hours  draw  off  the  vinegar  and  again 
moisten  the  cobs,  repeating  this  until 
they  are  rendered  sour  throughput, 
adding  each  time  1  quart  of  high  wines 
to  the  vinegar  before  throwing  it  back 
on  the  cobs.  This  prevents  the  vinegar 
from  becoming  flat,  by  the  absorption  of 
its  acetic  acid  by  the  cobs.  Mix  a 
gallon  of  molasses  with  a  gallon  of  high 
wine  and  14  gallons  of  water  and  pour  it 
on  the  cobs.  Soak  for  8  hours,  then 
draw  off  and  pour  on  the  cobs  again. 
Repeat  this  twice  daily,  until  the  vinegar 
becomes  sour  enough  to  suit.  By  hav- 
ing a  battery  of  barrels,  say  4  barrels 
prepared  as  above,  the  manufacture  may 
be  made  remunerative,  especially  if  the 
residue  of  sugar  casks  in  place  of  mo- 
lasses, and  the  remnants  of  ale,  etc.,  from 
the  bar-rooms  around  town  are  used. 
All  sugar-containing  fruit  may  be  utilized 
for  vinegar  making. 

VINEGAR,  TESTS  FOR: 
See  Foods. 

VINEGAR,  TOILET: 

See  Cosmetics. 


736 


WARTS— WATCHMAKERS'   FORMULAS 


VIOLET  AMMONIA: 

See  Cosmetics. 

VIOLET  WATER: 

See  Perfumes. 

VIOLIN  ROSIN: 

See  Rosin. 

VIOLIN  VARNISH: 

See  Varnishes. 

VISCOSE: 

See  Celluloid. 

VOICE  LOZENGES: 

See  Confectionery. 

VULCANIZATION  OF  RUBBER: 

See  Rubber. 

WAGON  GREASE: 
See  Lubricants. 

WALLS,  DAMP: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

WALL    AND    WALL-PAPER    CLEAN- 
ERS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods, also  Household  Formulas. 

WALL-PAPER  DYES: 
See  Dyes. 

WALL-PAPER  PASTE: 

See  Adhesives. 

WALL  PAPER,  REMOVAL  OF: 

See  Household  Formulas. 

WALL  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing  and  Household  For- 
mulas. 

WALL  PRIMING: 

See  Paints. 

WALNUT: 
See  Wood. 

WARMING  BOTTLE: 

See  Bottles. 

WARPING,  PREVENTION  OF: 
See  Wood. 


Warts 

Wart  Cure. — The  following  is  espe- 
cially useful  in  cases  where  the  warts 
are  very  numerous: 

I. — Chloral  hydrate 1  part 

Acetic  acid 1  part 

Salicylic  acid 4  parts 

Sulphuric  ether 4  parts 

Collodion 15  parts 

Mix.  Directions:  Every  morning  ap- 
ply the  foregoing  to  the  warts,  painting 
one  coat  on  another.  Should  the  mass 


fall  off  without  taking  the  warts  with  it, 
repeat  the  operation.  Take,  internally 
10  grains  of  burnt  magnesia  daily. 

II. — Sulphur 10  parts 

Acetic  acid 5  parts 

Glycerine 25  parts 

Keep  the  warts  covered  with  this 

mixture. 

WASHING  FLUIDS  AND   POWDERS: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

WASTE,    PHOTOGRAPHIC,   ITS    DIS- 
POSITION: 

See  Photography. 

WATCH -DIAL  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives,  under  Jewelers'  Ce- 
ments. 

WATCH  GILDING: 

See  Plating. 

Watchmakers'  Formulas 

WATCH  MANUFACTURERS'  ALLOYS. 

Some  very  tenacious  and  hard  alloys, 
for  making  the  parts  of  watches  which 
are  not  sensitive  to  magnetism,  are  as 
follows: 

I        II      III      IV       V    VI  VII 
Platinum.  62.75  62.75  62.75  54.32     0.5     0.5  — 
Copper. .  .  18        16.20  16.20  16        18.5  18.5  25 
Nickel....  18        18        16.5024.70  2        1 

Cadmium.    1.25     1.25     1.25     1.25    —    —     — 

Cobalt....     —  1.50     1.96 — 

Tungsten.     —       1.80     1.80     1.77    —    —     — 
Palladium     -  -     72      72      70 

Silver —       —       —        —       6.5     7        4 

Rhodium.     —       —        —        —       1      —     — 
Gold —       —        —        —       1.5—     — 

A  non-magnetic  alloy  for  watch- 
springs,  wheels,  etc.:  Gold,  30  to  40  parts; 
palladium,  30  to  40  parts;  copper,  10  to 
20  parts;  silver,  0.1  to  5  per  cent;  cobalt, 
0.1  to  2.5  per  cent;  tungsten,  0.1  to  5  per 
cent;  rhodium,  0.1  to  5  per  cent;  plati- 
num, 0.1  to  5  per  cent. 

An  Alloy  for  Watch  Pinion  Sockets. — 
Gold,  31  parts;  silver,  19  parts;  copper, 
39  parts;  palladium,  1  part. 

Replacing  Rubies  whose  Settings  have 
Deteriorated. — -Enlarge,  with  the  squarer 
(steel  brooch  for  enlarging  holes),  the 
hole  of  the  old  setting,  and  adjust  it, 
with  hard  rubbing,  to  the  extremity  of  a 
stem  of  pierced  brass  wire.  Take  the 
stem  in  an  American  nippers,  and  set  the 
ruby  at  the  extremity  (the  setting  may  be 
driven  back  by  using  a  flat  burnishing 
tool,  very  gently).  Then  take  off  with  a 
cleaving  file  the  part  of  the  stem  where 
the  ruby  is  set,  and  diminish  it  to  the 
thickness  desired,  by  filing  on  the  finger, 
or  on  cork.  These  operations  finished. 


WATCHMAKERS1   FORMULAS 


737 


a  set  stopper  is  obtained  which  now  needs 
only  to  be  solidly  fixed  at  the  suitable 
height,  in  the  hole  prepared. 

To  Straighten  Bent  Teeth. — Bent  teeth 
are  straightened  by  means  of  the  screw- 
driver used  as  a  lever  against  the  root  of 
the  adjacent  teeth,  and  bent  pivots  may 
be  held  in  the  jaws  of  the  pliers  and  the 
pinion  bent  with  the  fingers  in  the  direc- 
tion and  to  the  extent  required.  For 
such  a  purpose,  pliers  having  the  jaws 
lined  with  brass  are  used  so  that  the 
pivot  is  not  bruised,  and  the  bending  has 
to  be  done  with  great  care. 

To  Renew  a  Broken  Barrel  Tooth. — 

Frequently,  in  consequence  of  the  break- 
ing of  a  spring,  a  tooth  of  a  barrel  is 
broken.  Sometimes  it  may  only  be  bent, 
in  which  case  the  blade  of  a  penknife 
may  be  used  with  care.  If  2  or  3  suc- 
cessive teeth  are  lacking,  the  best  way  is 
to  change  the  barrel,  but  a  single  tooth 
may  be  easily  renewed  in  this  way: 
Drill  a  hole  through  the  thickness  of  the 
tooth,  taking  care  not  to  penetrate  the 
drum;  then  fit  in  a  piece  of  metal  tightly 
and  give  it,  as  well  as  possible,  the  cor- 
rect form  of  the  tooth.  To  assure 
solidity,  solder  it;  then  clean  and  round 
the  edges.  Properly  executed  the  repair 
will  scarcely  be  noticed. 

Heated  Sawdust. — Sawdust  is  known 
to  have  been  employed  from  time  im- 
memorial by  watchmakers  and  gold- 
smiths for  the  purpose  of  drying  rinsed 
articles.  The  process  of  drying  can  be 
accelerated  four-fold  if  the  sawdust  is 
heated  before  use.  This  must,  however, 
be  done  with  great  caution  and  constant 
stirring. 

To  Repair  a  Dial,  etc.,  with  Enamel 
Applied  Cold. — There  are  two  kinds  of 
false  enamel  for  application,  when  cold, 
to  damaged  dials.  The  first,  a  mixture 
of  white  rosin  and  white  lead,  melts  like 
sealing  wax,  which  it  closely  resembles. 
It  is  advisable  when  about  to  apply  it  to 

fently  heat  the  dial  and  the  blade  of  a 
nife",  and  with  the  knife  cut  the  piece  of 
enamel  of  the  requisite  size  and  lay  it  on 
the  dial.  The  new  enamel  must  project 
somewhat  above  the  old.  When  cold 
the  surface  is  leveled  by  scraping,  and  a 
shining  surface  is  at  once  produced  by 
holding  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
flame  of  a  spirit  lamp.  It  is  necessary 
to  be  very  careful  in  conducting  this 
operation,  as  the  least  excess  of  heat  will 
burn  the  enamel  and  turn  it  yellow.  It 
is,  however,  preferable  to  the  following 
although  more  difficult  to  apply,  as  it  is 
harder  and  does  not  become  dirty  so 


soon.  The  second  false  enamel  con- 
tains white  lead  mixed  with  melted 
white  wax.  It  is  applied  like  cement, 
neatly  filling  up  the  space  and  afterwards 
rubbing  with  tissue  paper  to  produce  a 
shining  surface.  If  rubbed  with  a  knife 
blade  or  other  steel  implement  its  surface 
will  be  discolored. 

Lettering  a  Clock  Dial.  —  Painting 
Roman  characters  on  a  clock  dial  is  not 
such  a  difficult  task  as  might  at  first  be 
imagined.  If  one  has  a  set  of  drawing 
instruments  and  properly  proportions  the 
letters,  it  is  really  simple.  The  letters 
should  be  proportioned  as  follows:  The 
breadth  of  an  "I"  and  a  space  should 
equal  \  the  breadth  of  an  "X,"  that  is, 
if  the  "X"  is  \  inch  broad,  the  "I"  will 
be  -,\<-  inch  broad  and  the  space  between 
letters  -fa  inch,  thus  making  the  "I"  plus 
one  space  equal  to  £  inch  or  half  the 
breadth  of  an  "X."  The  "V's"  should 
be  the  same  breadth  as  the  "X's."  After 
the  letters  have  been  laid  off  in  pencil, 
outline  them  with  a  ruling  pen  and  fill 
in  with  a  small  camel's-hair  brush,  using 
gloss  black  paint  thinned  to  the  proper 
consistency  to  work  well  in  the  ruling 
pen.  Using  the  ruling  pen  to  outline  the 
letters  gives  sharp  straight  edges,  which 
it  would  be  impossible  to  obtain  with  a 
brush  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced 
person. 

Verification  of  the  Depthings. — In  the 
verge  watches,  the  English  watches,  and 
those  of  analogous  caliber,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  verify  the  depthings,  except 
by  the  touch.  For  this  reason  we  often 
find  the  upper  plate  pierced  over  each 
depth.  In  the  jewelea  places,  instead  of 
perforating  the  upper  plate,  it  suffices  to 
deposit  a  drop  of  very  limpid  oil  on  the 
ruby,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  scatter. 
In  this  manner  a  lens  is  formed  and  one 
may  readily  distinguish  the  depthing. 

To  Make  or  Enlarge  a  Dial  Hole. — By 

wetting  the  graver  or  the  file  with  spirit 
of  turpentine,  cracks  may  be  avoided 
and  the  work  will  be  accomplished  much 
quicker. 

To  Repair  a  Repeating  Clock -Bell. — 
When  the  bell  is  broken,  whether  short 
off  or  at  a  distance,  file  it  away  and  pierce 
it,  and  after  having  sharpened  a  little  the 
stem  of  the  spring  which  remains,  push 
by  force,  in  the  hole  just  made,  a  thin 
piece  of  solder  (pewter).  The  sound 
will  not  have  changed  in  any  appreciable 
manner. 

A  seconds  pendulum  of  a  regulator, 
which  has  no  compensation  for  temper- 
ature will  cause  the  clock  to  lose  about 


738 


WATCHMAKERS'   FORMULAS 


1  second  per  day  for  each  3  degrees  of 
increase  in  heat.  A  watch  without  a 
compensation  balance  will  lose  6.11 
seconds  in  24  hours  for  each  increase  of 
1°  F.  in  heat. 

To  Remedy  Worn  Pinions. — Turn  the 
leaves  or  rollers  so  that  the  worn  places 
upon  them  will  be  toward  the  arbor  or 
shaft  and  fasten  them  in  that  position. 
If  they  are  "rolling  pinions,"  and  they 
cannot  be  secured  otherwise,  a  little  soft 
solder  should  be  used. 

Watchmakers*  Oil.  —  I.  —  Put  some 
lead  shavings  into  neat's  foot  oil,  and 
allow  to  stand  for  some  time,  the  longer 
the  better.  The  lead  neutralizes  the 
acid,  and  the  result  is  an  oil  that  never 
corrodes  or  thickens. 

II. — Stir  up  for  some  time  best  olive 
oil  with  water  kept  at  the  boiling  point; 
then  after  the  two  fluids  have  separated, 
decant  the  oil  and  shake  up  with  a  little 
freshly  burned  lime.  Let  the  mixture 
stand  for  some  weeks  in  a  bottle  ex- 
posed to  the  sunlight  and  air,  but  pro- 
tected from  wet  and  dirt.  When  filtered, 
the  oil  will  be  nearly  colorless,  perfectly 
limpid,  and  will  never  thicken  or  be- 
come rancid. 

To  Weaken  a  Balance  Spring. — A  bal- 
ance spring  may  need  weakening;  this  is 
effectea  by  grinding  the  spring  thinner. 
Remove  the  spring  from  the  collet  and 
place  it  upon  a  piece  of  pegwood  cut  to 
fit  the  center  coil.  A  piece  of  soft  iron 
wire,  flattened  so  as  to  pass  freely  be- 
tween the  coils  and  charged  with  a  little 
powdered  oilstone,  will  serve  as  a  grinder, 
and  with  it  the  strength  of  the  spring  may 
soon  be  reduced.  Operations  will  be  con- 
fined to  the  center  coil,  for  no  other  part 
of  the  spring  will  rest  sufficiently  against 
the  wood  to  enable  it  to  be  ground,  but 
this  will  generally  suffice.  The  effect  will 
be  rather  rapid;  therefore  care  should  be 
taken  or  the  spring  may  be  made  too 
weak. 

To  Make  a  Clock  Strike  Correctly. — 
Pry  the  plates  apart  on  the  striking  side, 
slip  the  pivots  of  the  upper  wheels  out, 
and  having  disconnected  them  from  the 
train,  turn  them  partly  around  and  put 
them  back.  If  still  incorrect,  repeat  the 
experiment.  A  few  efforts  at  most  will 
get  them  to  work  properly.  The  sound 
m  cuckoo  clocks  is  caused  by  a  wire  act- 
ing on  a  small  bellows  whicli  is  connected 
with  two  small  pipes  like  organ  pipes. 

To  Reblack  Clock  Hands. — One  coat 
of  asphaltum  varnish  will  make  old  rusty 
hands  look  as  good  as  new,  and  will  dry 
in  a  few  minutes. 


To  Tighten  a  Ruby  Pin. — Set  the  ruby 
pin  in  asphaltum  varnish.  It  will  be- 
come hard  in  a  few  minutes  and  be  much 
firmer  and  better  than  the  gum  shellac, 
generally  used. 

To  Loosen  a  Rusty  Screw  in  a  Watch 
Movement. — Put  a  little  oil  around  the 
screw;  heat  the  head  lightly  by  means  of 
a  red-hot  iron  rod,  applying  the  same  for 
2  or  3  minutes.  The  rusty  screw  may 
then  be  removed  as  easily  as  though  it 
had  just  been  put  in. 

Gilding  Watch  Movements.  (See  also 
Gilding.) — In  gilding  watch  movements, 
the  greatest  care  must  be  observed  with 
regard  to  cleanliness.  The  work  is  first 
to  be  placed  into  a  weak  solution  of  caustic 
potash  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  rinsed 
in  cold  water.  The  movements  are  now 
to  be  dipped  into  pickling  acid  (nitrous 
acid)  for  an  instant,  and  then  plunged 
immediately  into  cold  water.  After  being 
finally  rinsed  in  hot  water,  they  may  be 
placed  in  the  gilding  bath  and  allowed 
to  remain  therein  until  they  have  re- 
ceived the  required  coating.  A  few 
seconds  will  generally  be  sufficient,  as 
this  class  of  work  does  not  require  to  be 
very  strongly  gilt.  When  gilt,  the  move- 
ments are  to  be  rinsed  in  warm  water, 
and  scratch-brushed;  they  may  then  be 
returned  to  the  bath,  for  an  instant,  to 
give  them  a  good  color.  Lastly,  rinse 
in  hot  water  and  place  the  movements 
in  clean  box  sawdust.  An  economical 
mode  of  gilding  watch  movements  is  to 
employ  a  copper  anode — working  from 
the  solution,  add  10  parts  of  cream  of 
tartar  and  a  corresponding  quantity  of 
elutriated  chalk  to  obtain  a  pulp  that 
can  be  put  on  with  the  brush.  The 
gilding  or  silvering  obtained  in  this 
manner  is  pretty,  but  of  slight  durability. 
At  the  present  time  this  method  is  only 
seldom  employed,  since  the  electroplat- 
ing affords  a  means  of  producing  gilding 
and  silvering  in  a  handsome  and  com- 
paratively cheap  manner,  the  metallic 
coating  having  to  be  but  very  thin.  Gold 
and  silver  for  this  kind  of  work  are  used 
in  the  form  of  potassium  cyanide  of  gold 
or  potassium  cyanide  of  silver  solutions,  it 
being  a  custom  to  copper  the  zinc  articles 
previously  by  the  aid  of  a  battery,  since 
the  appearance  will  then  be  much  hand- 
somer than  on  zinc  alone.  Gilding  or 
silvering  with  leaf  metal  is  done  by  pol- 
ishing the  surface  of  the  zinc  bright  and 
coating  it  with  a  very  tough  linseed-oil 
varnish  diluted  with  10  times  the  quan- 
tity of  benzol.  The  metallic  leaf  is  then 
laid  on  and  polished  with  an  agate. 


WATER 


739 


WATCHMAKERS'   CLEANING   PREP- 
ARATIONS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

WATCH    MOVEMENTS,    PALLADIUM 
PLATING  OF: 

See  Plating. 

Water,   Natural   and  Artifi- 
cial 

In  making  an  artificial  mineral  water 
it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  sel- 
dom possible  to  reproduce  the  water 
by  merely  combining  its  chemical  com- 
ponents. In  other  words,  the  analysis 
of  the  water  cannot  serve  as  a  basis  from 
which  to  prepare  it,  because  even  though 
all  of  the  components  were  put  together, 
many  would  be  found  insoluble,  and 
others  would  form  new  chemical  com- 
binations, so  that  the  result  would  differ 
widely  from  the  mineral  water  imitated. 

For  example,  carbonate  of  magnesia 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  which  are  im- 
portant ingredients  in  most  mineral 
waters,  will  not  make  a  clear  solution 
unless  freshly  precipitated.  Hence, 
when  these  are  to  be  reproduced  in  a 
mineral  water  it  is  customary  to  employ 
other  substances  which  will  dissolve  at 
once,  and  which  will,  upon  combining, 
produce  these  salts.  The  order  in  which 
the  salts  are  added  is  also  a  very  im- 
portant matter,  for  by  dissolving  the 
salts  separately  and  then  carefully  com- 
bining them,  solutions  may  be  effected 
which  would  be  impossible  were  all  the 
salts  added  together  to  the  water  in  the 
portable  fountain. 

In  this  connection  the  following  table 
will  be  found  useful: 

Group  1 
Ammonium  carbon-       Sodium  carbonate. 

ate.  Sodium  chloride. 

Ammonium  chloride.       Sodium  fluoride. 
Sodium  borate  (bo-       Sodium  iodide. 

rax).  Sodium  nitrate. 

Potassium  carbon-       Sodium  phosphate. 

ate.  Sodium  pyrophos- 

Potassium  chloride.  phate. 

Potassium  nitrate.        Sodium  silicate. 
Potassium  sulphate.       Sodium  sulphate. 
Sodium  bromide. 

Group  2 
Lithium  carbonate. 

Group  3 

Aluminum  chloride.  Magnesium  chlo- 
Barium  chloride.  ride. 

Calcium  bromide.  Magnesium  nitrate. 
Calcium  chloride.  Strontium  chloride. 
Calcium  nitrate.  Lithium  chloride. 


Group  4 

Magnesium    s  u  1  -       Alum    (potassa   or 
phate.  soda  alum). 

Group  5 

Lime  carbonate.  Lime  sulphate  pre- 

Magnesium  carbon-  cipitate. 

ate  hydrate. 

Group  6 

Lithium  carbonate.       Iron  pyrophosphate. 
Acid  hydrochloric.       Iron  sulphate. 
Acid  sulphuric.  Manganese  chloride. 

Iron  chloride.  Manganese  sulphate. 

Group  7 

Sodium  arseniate,  or  sodium  sulphide, 
or  acid  hydrosulphuric. 

Explanation  of  Groups. — The  explana- 
tion of  the  use  of  these  groups  is  simple. 
When  about  to  prepare  an  artificial 
mineral  water,  first  ascertain  from  the 
formula  which  of  the  ingredients  belong 
to  group  1.  These  should  be  dissolved  in 
water,  and  then  be  filtered  and  added  to 
distilled  water,  and  thoroughly  agitated. 
Next  the  substance  or  substances  be- 
longing to  group  2  should  be  dissolved 
in  water,  then  filtered  and  added  to  the 
water,  which  should  again  be  agitated. 
And  so  the  operation  should  proceed; 
whatever  ingredients  are  required  from 
each  group  should  be  taken  in  turn,  a 
solution  made,  and  this  solution,  after 
being  filtered,  should  be  separately  add- 
ed to  the  fountain,  and  the  latter  be  well 
agitated  before  the  following  solution  is 
added. 

For  groups  1,  3,  and  4,  the  salts  should 
be  dissolved  in  5  times  their  weight  of 
boiling,  or  10  times  their  weight  of  cold, 
water.  For  group  2  (lithium  carbonate) 
the  proportions  should  be  1  part  of 
lithium  carbonate  to  about  130  parts  of 
cold  or  boiling  water.  The  substances 
mentioned  in  group  5  are  added  to  the 
portable  fountain  in  their  solid  state,  and 
dissolve  best  when  freshly  precipitated. 
As  carbonic  acid  gas  aids  their  solution, 
it  is  best  to  charge  the  fountain  after  they 
are  added,  and  agitate  thoroughly,  blow- 
ing off  the  charge  afterwards  if  necessary. 

In  group  5  the  lithium  carbonate  is 
dissolved  in  the  acids  (see  also  group  2), 
the  iron  and  manganese  salts  are  dis- 
solved in  5  parts  of  boiling,  or  10  parts  of 
cold,  water,  the  solution  quickly  filtered, 
the  acids  added  to  it,  and  the  whole 
mixture  added  to  the  fountain  already 
charged  with  gas,  the  cap  being  quickly 
taken  off,  and  the  solution  poured  in. 
The  iron  and  manganese  saJts  easily 
oxidize  and  produce  turbidity,  therefore 
the  atmospheric  air  should  be  carefully 


740 


WATER 


blown  off  under  high  pressure  several 
times  while  charging  fountains.  The 
substances  mentioned  in  group  7  are 
never  put  into  the  fountain,  except  the 
arseniate  of  sodium  in  the  case  of  Vichy 
water,  which  contains  but  a  trifling  amount 
of  this  compound. 

Most  of  the  solutions  may  be  prepared 
beforehand  and  be  used  when  required, 
thus  saving  considerable  time. 

Formulas  for  various  waters  will  be 
given  at  the  end  of  this  article. 

A  question  which  arises  in  preparing 
mineral  waters  is:  What  is  the  best 
charging  pressure  ?  As  a  general  rule,  they 
are  charged  to  a  lower  pressure  than  plain 
soda;  good  authorities  even  recommend 
charging  certain  mineral  waters  as  low  as 
30  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch,  but 
this  seems  much  too  low  a  pressure  for 
the  dispensing  counter.  From  50  to  120 
pounds  pressure  would  be  a  good  limit, 
while  plain  soda  may  be  served  out  as 
high  as  180  pounds.  There  must  be 
enough  pressure  completely  to  empty  the 
fountain,  while  enabling  sufficient  gas  to 
be  retained  by  the  water  to  give  it  a 
thorough  pungency.  Moreover,  a  high 
pressure  to  the  mineral  water  enables  a 
druggist  at  a  pinch,  when  he  runs  out  of 
plain  soda,  to  use  his  Vichy  water,  in- 
stead, with  the  syruped  drinks.  The  taste 
of  the  Vichy  is  not  very  perceptible  when 
covered  by  the  syrup,  and  most  custom- 
ers will  not  notice  it. 

Apollinaris  Water. — 

Sodium  carbonate. . .  .  2,835  grains 

Sodium  sulphate 335  grains 

Sodium  silicate 10  grains 

Magnesium  chloride.  198  grains 

Calcium  chloride 40  grains 

Potassa  alum 57  grains 

Magnesium      carbon- 
ate hydrate 158  grains 

Iron  sulphate 21  grains 

Hunyadi  Water. — 

Magnesium  sulphate.  400  parts 

Sodium  sulphate 400  parts 

Potassium  sulphate  .  .  2  parts 

Sodium  chloride 31  parts 

Sodium  bicarbonate..  12  parts 

Water 1  quart 

Lithia  Water.— 

Lithium  carbonate.  .  .     120  grains 
Sodium   bicarbonate.  1,1 00  grains 
Carbonated  water. ...       10  gallons 
For    "still"    lithia    water,    substitute 
lithium  citrate  for  the  carbonate  in  the 
above  formula. 

Seltzer  Water.  —  Hydrochloric  acid 
(chemically  pure),  2,520  grains;  pure 


water,  40  ounces.  Mix  and  add  marble 
dust,  240  grains;  carbonate  of  magnesium, 
420  grains.  Dissolve,  and  after  1  hour 
add  bicarbonate  of  sodium,  2,540  grains. 
Dissolve,  then  add  sufficient  pure  water 
to  make  10  gallons.  Filter  and  charge 
to  100  pounds  pressure. 

Vichy  Water. — The  following  formula, 
based  on  the  analysis  of  Bauer-Struve, 
yields  an  imitation  of 

Vichy  (Grande  Grille). 

Sodium  iodide 0.016  parts 

Sodium  bromide. ...  0.08     parts 

Sodium  phosphate .  .  2          parts 

Sodium  silicate 80          parts 

Potassium  sulphate  .  125  parts 
Sodium  chloride ....  139  parts 
Sodium  carbonate..  .  6,792  parts 
Aluminum  chloride.  1  part 

Strontium  chloride.  .  1          part 

Ammonium  chloride  3          parts 

Magnesium  chloride  24  parts 
Calcium  chloride.  ..  170  parts 
Manganese  sulphate  0.46  parts 

Iron  sulphate 1          part 

Sulphuric  acid 40          parts 

Water  to  make 10          gallons 

Mix  the  first  7  ingredients  with  about 
10  times  their  weight  of  water  and  filter. 
In  the  same  manner,  mix  the  next  5 
ingredients  with  water  and  filter;  and 
then  the  last  3  ingredients.  Pour  these 
solutions  into  sufficient  water  contained 
in  a  fountain  to  make  10  gallons,  and 
charge  at  once  with  carbon  dioxide  gas. 
Waters  like  the  above  are  more  cor- 
rectly named  "imitation"  than  "arti- 
ficial," as  the  acidic  and  basic  radicals 
may  bear  different  relations  to  one  an- 
other in  the  natural  and  the  other. 

PURIFYING  WATER. 

See  also  Filters. 

If  an  emulsion  of  clay  is  poured  into  a 
soap  solution,  the  clay  gradually  separates 
out  without  clarifying  the  liquid.  When 
a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  how- 
ever, are  added  to  a  soap  solution  and  a 
small  quantity — about  1.5.  per  cent — of 
a  clay  emulsion  poured  in,  the  liquid 
clarifies  at  once,  with  formation  of  a 
plentiful  sediment.  Exactly  the  same 
process  takes  place  when  the  waste 
waters  from  the  combing  process  in 
spinning  are  treated  with  clay.  The 
waters  which  remain  turbid  for  several 
days  contain  500  to  800  grams  of  fatty 
substances  per  cubic  meter.  If  to  1 
liter  of  this  liquid  1  gram  of  clay  is 
added,  with  15  to  20  per  cent  of  water, 
the  liquid  clarifies  with  separation  of  a 
sediment  and  assumes  a  golden-brown 


WATER— WATERPROOFING 


741 


color.  Besides  the  fatty  substances,  this 
deposit  also  contains  a  certain  quantity 
of  nitrogenous  bodies.  Dried  at  (100°  C.) 
212°  F.,  it  weighs  about  1.6  grams  and 
contains  30  per  cent  of  fat.  The  grease 
obtained  from  it  is  clear,  of  good  quality, 
and  deliquesces  at  95°  F.  After  removal 
of  this  fat,  the  mass  still  contains  1.19 
per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

Sterilization  of  Water  with  Lime 
Chloride. — In  order  to  disinfect  and 
sterilize  1,000  parts  of  drinking  water, 
0.15  parts  of  dry  chloride  of  lime  are 
sufficient.  The  lime  is  stirred  with  a 
little  water  into  a  thin  paste  and  intro- 
duced, with  stirring,  into  the  water  to  be 
disinfected  and  a  few  drops  of  officinal 
hydrochloric  acid  are  added.  After 
A  hour  the  clarification  and  disinfection 
is  accomplished,  whereupon  0.3  parts  of 
calcium  sulphite  are  added,  in  order  to 
kill  the  unpleasant  smell  and  taste  of  the 
chlorine. 

Clarifying  Muddy  Water. — The  water 
supply  from  rivers  is  so  muddy  at  times 
that  it  will  not  go  through  the  filter. 
When  this  happens  agitate  each  barrel 
of  water  with  2  pounds  of  phosphate  of 
lime  and  allow  it  to  settle.  This  will 
take  but  a  few  minutes,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  most  of  the  impurities  have 
been  carried  down  to  the  bottom.  The 
water  can  then  be  drawn  off  carefully 
and  filtered. 

Removal  of  Iron  from  Drinking 
Water. — The  simplest  method  for  re- 
moving the  taste  of  iron  in  spring  water 
is  to  pass  the  water  through  a  filter  con- 
taining a  layer  of  tricalcic  phosphate 
either  in  connection  with  other  filtering 
materials  or  alone.  The  phosphate  is 
first  recovered  in  a  gelatinous  form,  then 
dried  and  powdered. 

For  Hardness. — A  solution  perfectly 
adapted  to  this  purpose,  and  one  which 
may  be  kept  a  long  time,  is  prepared  as 
follows: 

Thirty-five  parts  of  almond  oil  are 
mixed  with  50  parts  of  glycerine  of 
1.26  specific  gravity  and  8.5  parts  of  50 
per  cent  soda  lye,  and  boiled  to  saponifi- 
cation.  To  this  mixture,  when  it  has 
cooled  to  from  85°  to  90°  C.  (185°  to  194° 
F.),  are  added  100  to  125  parts  of  boiling 
water.  After  cooling  again,  500  parts 
of  water  are  added,  and  the  solution  is 
poured  into  a  quart  flask,  with  94  per 
cent  alcohol  to  make  up  a  quart.  After 
standing  2  months  it  is  filtered.  Twenty 
hydrolimeter  degrees  of  this  solution 
make,  with  40  parts  of  a  solution  of  0.55 
grams  of  barium  chloride  in  1  quart  of 
water,  a  dense  lather  1  centimeter  high. 


WATER  (COPPER): 

See  Copper. 

WATER  ICES: 

See  Ice  Creams. 

WATER,  TO  FREEZE: 

See  Refrigeration. 

WATER   JACKETS,   ANTI-FREEZING 
SOLUTIONS  FOR: 

See  Freezing  Preventives. 

WATER  SPOTS,  PRIMING  FOR: 

See  Paint. 

WATER  STAINS: 
See  Wood. 

WATER-LILY  ROOTS: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

WATER,  STIRRED  YELLOW,  SCAR- 
LET AND  COLORLESS: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

WATERS   (TOILET): 

See  Cosmetics. 

WATER-GLASS  CEMENTS: 

See  Adhesives. 

WATER    GLASS    IN    STEREOCHRO- 
MATIC  PAINTING: 

See  Stereochromy. 

Waterproofing 

(See  also  Enamels,  Glazes,  Paints, 
Preservatives,  Varnishes.) 

Waterproofing  Brick  Arches. — Water- 

E roofing  of  brick  arches  is  done  in  the 
allowing  manner:  The  masonry  is  first 
smoothed  over  with  cement  mortar. 
This  is  then  covered  with  a  special 
compound  on  which  a  layer  of  Hydrex 
felt  is  laid  so  as  to  lap  at  least  12  inches 
on  the  transverse  seams.  Five  layers  of 
compound  and  5  of  felt  are  used,  and 
special  attention  is  paid  to  securing 
tightness  around  the  drain  pipes  and  at 
the  spandrel  walls.  In  fact  the  belt  is 
carried  up  the  back  of  the  latter  and 
turned  into  the  joint  under  the  coping 
about  2  inches,  where  it  is  held  with 
cement  mortar.  The  waterproofing  on 
the  arches  is  protected  with  1  inch  of 
cement  mortar  and  that  on  the  walls 
with  a  single  course  of  brickwork. 

Waterproofing  Bltie  Prints. — Use  re- 
fined paraffine,  and  apply  by  immersing 
the  print  in  the  melted  wax,  or  more 
conveniently  as  follows:  Immerse  in 
melted  paraffine  until  saturated,  a  number 
of  pieces  of  an  absorbent  cloth  a  foot 
or  more  square.  When  withdrawn  and 
cooled  they  are  ready  for  use  at  any  time. 


742 


WATERPROOFING 


To  apply  to  a  blue  print,  spread  one  of 
the  saturated  cloths  on  a  smooth  surface, 
place  the  dry  print  on  it  with  a  second 
waxed  cloth  on  top,  and  iron  with  a 
moderately  hot  flatiron.  The  paper 
immediately  absorbs  paraffine  until  sat- 
urated, and  becomes  translucent  and 
highly  waterproofed.  The  lines  of  the 
print  are  intensified  by  the  process,  and 
there  is  no  shrinking  or  distortion.  As 
the  wax  is  withdrawn  from  the  cloths, 
more  can  be  added  by  melting  small 
pieces  directly  under  the  iron. 

By  immersing  the  print  in  a  bath  of 
melted  paraffine  the  process  is  hastened, 
but  the  ironing  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  surplus  wax  from  the  surface,  unless 
the  paper  is  to  be  directly  exposed  to  the 
weather  and  not  to  be  handled.  The 
irons  can  be  heated  in  most  offices  by 
gas  or  over  a  lamp,  and  a  supply  of 
saturated  cloths  obviates  the  necessity 
of  the  bath.  This  process,  which  was 
originally  applied  to  blue  prints  to  be 
carried  by  the  engineer  corps  in  wet 
mines,  is  equally  applicable  to  any  kind 
of  paper,  and  is  convenient  for  water- 
proofing typewritten  or  other  notices  to 
be  posted  up  and  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Waterproof  Coatings. — I. — Rosin  oil, 
50  parts;  rosin,  30  parts;  white  soap, 
9  parts.  Apply  hot  on  the  surfaces  to  be 
protected. 

II. — It  has  been  observed  that  when 
gluten  dried  at  an  ordinary  temperature, 
hence  capable  of  absorbing  water,  is 
mixed  with  glycerine  and  heated,  it 
becomes  water-repelling  and  suitable  for 
a  waterproof  paint.  One  part  of  gluten 
is  mixed  with  1 1  parts  of  glycerine,  where- 
by a  slimy  mass  is  obtained  which  is  ap- 
plied on  fabrics  subsequently  subjected 
to  a  heat  of  248°  F.  The  heating  should 
not  last  until  all  glycerine  has  evaporated, 
otherwise  the  coating  becomes  brittle  and 
peels  off. 

Waterproofing  Canvas. — I. — The  can- 
vas is  coated  with  a  mixture  of  the  three 
solutions  named  below: 

1.  Gelatin,  50  parts;  by  weight,  boiled 
in  3,000  parts  of  water  free  from  lime. 
2.  Alum,  100  parts,  dissolved  in  3,000 
parts  of  water.  3.  Soda  soap  dissolved 
in  2,000  parts  of  water. 

II. — Prepare  a  zinc  soap  by  entirely 
dissolving  56  parts  of  soft  soap  in  125  to 
150  parts  of  water.  To  trie  boiling 
liquid  add,  with  constant  stirring,  28  to 
33  parts  of  zinc  vitriol  (white  vitriol). 
The  zinc  soap  floats  on  top  and  forms, 
after  cooling,  a  hard  white  mass,  which 
is  taken  out.  In  order  to  clean  it  of 


admixed  carbonic  alkali,  it  must  be  re- 
( melted    in    boiling    fresh    water.      Next 

Elace  232.5  parts  of  raw  linseed  oil  (free 
*om  mucus)  in  a  kettle  with  2.5  parts  of 
best  potash,  and  5  parts  of  water.  This 
mass  is  boiled  until  it  has  become  white 
and  opaque  and  forms  a  liquid,  soap-like 
compound.  Now,  add  sugar  of  lead,  1.25 
parts;  litharge,  1  part;  red  lead,  2  parts; 
and  brown  rosin,  10.5  parts.  The  whole 
is  boiled  together  about  1  hour,  the 
temperature  not  being  allowed  to  exceed 
212°  F.,  and  stirring  well  from  time  to 
time.  After  this  add  15  parts  of  zinc  soap 
and  stir  the  whole  until  the  metal  soap 
has  combined  with  the  oil,  the  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  212°  F.  When  the 
mixture  is  complete,  add  a  solution  of 
caoutchouc,  1.2  parts,  and  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, 8.56  parts,  which  must  be  well  in- 
corporated by  stirring.  The  material  is 
first  coated  on  one  side  by  means  of  a 
brush  with  this  composition,  which  must 
have  a  temperature  of  158°  F.  There- 
upon hang  it  up  to  dry,  then  apply  a 
second  layer  of  composition  possessing 
the  same  temperature,  which  is  likewise 
allowed  to  dry.  The  fiber  is  now  filled 
out,  so  that  the  canvas  is  waterproof. 

Waterproofing  Corks. — For  the  pur- 
pose of  making  corks  as  impervious  as 
possible,  while  at  the  same  time  keeping 
them  elastic,  saturate  them  with  caout- 
chouc solution.  Dissolve  caoutchouc  in 
benzine  in  the  ratio  of  1  part  of  caout- 
chouc to  19  parts  of  benzine.  Into  this 
liquid  lay  the  corks  to  be  impregnated 
and  subject  them  to  a  pressure  of  150  to 
180  pounds  by  means  of  a  force  pump,  so 
that  the  liquid  can  thoroughly  enter. 
The  corks  thus  treated  must  next  be  ex- 
posed to  a  strong  draught  of  air  until  all 
trace  of  benzine  has  entirely  evaporated 
and  no  more  smell  is  noticeable. 

WATERPROOFING  FABRICS. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  divide  water- 
proof fabrics  into  two  classes,  viz.,  those 
which  are  impervious  to  water,  and  those 
which  are  water-repellent.  It  is  im- 
portant to  make  this  distinction,  for, 
although  all  waterproof  material  is  made 
for  the  purpose  of  resisting  water,  there 
is  a  vast  difference  between  the  two 
classes.  The  physical  difference  be- 
tween them  can  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
follows:  Fabrics  which  are  completely 
impervious  to  water  comprise  oil-skins, 
mackintoshes,  and  all  materials  having 
a  water-resisting  film  on  one  or  both  sides, 
or  in  the  interior  of  the  fabric.  Those 
coming  under  the  second  heading  of 
water-repellent  materials  do  not  possess 


WATERPROOFING 


743 


this  film,  but  have  their  fibers  so  treated 
as  to  offer  less  attraction  to  the  water 
than  the  water  molecules  have  for  them- 
selves. 

The  principal  members  of  the  first 
group  are  the  rubber-proofed  goods;  in 
these  the  agent  employed  is  rubber  in 
greater  or  less  quantity,  together  with 
other  bodies  of  varying  properties.  Be- 
fore enlarging  on  this  class,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  give  a  short  description  of 
the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of 
rubber. 

Rubber,  or  caoutchouc,  is  a  natural 
gum  exuding  from  a  large  number  of 
plants,  those  of  the  Euphorbiacew  being 
the  chief  source  for  the  commercial  va- 
riety. The  raw  material  appears  on  the 
market  in  the  shape  of  blocks,  cakes,  or 
bottle-shaped  masses,  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  it  has  been  collected. 
It  possesses  a  dark-brown  —  sometimes 
nearly  black — exterior;  the  interior  of 
the  mass  is  of  a  lighter  shade,  and  varies 
from  a  dingy  brown  to  a  dirty  white,  the 
color  depending  on  the  different  brands 
and  sources.  In  the  raw  state  its  prop- 
erties are  very  different  from  what  they 
are  after  going  through  the  various  man- 
ufacturing processes,  and  it  has  only 
a  few  of  the  characteristics  which  are 
generally  associated  with  India  rubber. 
Chemically  it  is  a  complex  hydrocarbon 
with  the  formula  C46H36,  and  appears  to 
consist  of  a  highly  porous  network  of 
cells  having  several  different  rosins  iri 
their  interstices.  It  is  perfectly  soluble 
in  no  single  solvent,  but  will  yield  some 
of  its  constituents  to  many  different 
solvents.  At  a  temperature  of  10°  C. 
(50°  F.)  raw  caoutchouc  is  a  solid  body 
and  possesses  very  little  elasticity.  At 
36°  C.  (97°  F.)  it  is  soft  and  elastic  to  a 
high  degree,  and  is  capable  of  being 
stretched  16  times  its  length.  Further 
increase  of  temperature  lessens  its  elas- 
tic properties,  and  at  120°  C.  (248°  F.) 
it  melts.  While  in  the  raw  condition 
it  has  several  peculiar  properties,  one  of 
which  is:  After  stretching,  and  cooling 
suddenly  while  stretched,  it  retains  its 
new  form,  and  only  regains  its  former 
shape  on  being  warmed.  Another  strik- 
ing feature  is  its  strong  adhesive  capacity; 
this  property  is  so  powerful  that  the 
rubber  cannot  be  cut  with  a  knife  unless 
the  blade  is  wet;  and  freshly  cut  portions, 
if  pressed  together,  will  adhere  and  form 
a  homogeneous  mass.  From  these  facts 
it  will  be  seen  how  it  differs  from  rubber 
in  the  shape  of  a  cycle  tire  or  other  manu- 
factured form. 

The  most  valuable  property  possessed 
by  raw  caoutchouc  is  that  of  entering  into 


chemical  combination  with  sulphur,  after 
which  its  elasticity  is  much  increased;  it 
will  then  bear  far  greater  gradations  of 
heat  and  cold.  This  chemical  treatment 
of  caoutchouc  with  sulphur  is  known  as 
"vulcanizing,"  and,  if  properly  carried 
out,  will  yield  either  soft  vulcanized  rub- 
ber or  the  hard  variety  known  as  vulcan- 
ite. On  the  other  hand,  caoutchouc, 
after  vulcanizing,  has  lost  its  plastic 
nature,  and  can  no  longer  be  molded  into 
various  shapes,  so  that  in  the  production 
of  stamped  or  molded  objects,  the  cus- 
tomary method  is  to  form  them  in  un- 
vulcanized  rubber  and  then  to  vulcanize 
them. 

Raw  caoutchouc  contains  a  number  of 
natural  impurities,  such  as  sand,  twigs, 
soil,  etc.;  these  require  removing  before 
the  manufacturing  processes  can  be 
carried  out.  The  first  operation,  after 
rough  washing,  is  to  shred  the  raw 
material  into  small  strips,  so  as  to  en- 
able the  impurities  to  DC  washed  out. 
This  process  is  carried  out  by  pressing 
the  rubber  against  the  surface  of  a  re- 
volving drum  (A,  Fig.  1),  carrying  a 


FIG.  1 

number  of  diagonally  arranged  knives, 
B,  on  its  surface.  A  lever,  C,  presses 
the  rubber  against  the  knives;  D  is  the 
fulcrum  on  which  C  works,  E  being  a 
weight  which  throws  back  the  lever  on 
the  pressure  being  removed.  During 


744 


WATERPROOFING 


this  operation  a  jet  of  water  is  kept  play- 
ing onto  the  knives  to  cool  and  enable 
them  to  cut. 

Following  this  conies  the  passage 
between  a  pair  of  corrugated  steel  rollers 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  2).  These  rollers  have 
each  a  different  speed,  so  that  the  rubber 
gets  stretched  and  squeezed  at  the  same 
time.  Immediately  over  the  rollers  a 
water  pipe  is  fixed,  so  that  a  steady 
stream  of  water  washes  out  all  the  sand 
and  other  extraneous  matter.  In  Fig.  2, 
A  A  are  the  steel  rollers,  while  B  is  a 
screw  working  springs  which  regulate 
the  pressure  between  the  rollers.  The 
power  is  transmitted  from  below  from 
the  pulley,  C,  and  thence  to  the  gearing. 

The  next  operation,  after  well  drying, 
is  to  thoroughly  masticate  the  shredded 
rubber  between  hot  steel  rollers,  which 
resemble  those  already  described,  but 
usually  have  a  screw-thread  cut  on  their 
surfaces.  Fig.  3  shows  the  front  view 


FIG.  3. 

of  this  masticating  machine,  A  being  the 
rollers,  while  the  steam  pipe  for  heating 
is  shown  at  B.  Fig.  3a  gives  a  top  view 


FIG.  3A. 

of  the  same  machine,  showing   the   two 
rollers. 

After  passing  several  times  through 
these,  the  rubber  will  be  in  the  form  of 
homogeneous  strips,  and  is  then  ready 
either  for  molding  or  dissolving.  As 
we  are  dealing  solely  with  waterproofed 
textiles,  the  next  process  which  concerns 
us  is  the  dissolving  of  the  rubber  in  a 
suitable  solvent.  Benzol,  carbon  bi- 
sulphide, oil  of  turpentine,  ether,  and 
absolute  alcohol,  will  each  dissolve  a 


certain  amount  of  rubber,  but  no  one  of 
them  used  alone  gives  a  thorough  solu- 
tion. The  agent  commonly  employed 
is  carbon  bisulphide,  together  with  10 
per  cent  of  absolute  alcohol.  Whatever 
solvent  is  used,  after  being  steeped  in  it 
for  some  hours  the  caoutchouc  swells  out 
enormously,  and  then  requires  the  addi- 
tion of  some  other  solvent  to  effect  a 
complete  solution.  A  general  method  is 
to  place  the  finely  shredded  rubber  in  a 
closed  vessel,  to  cover  it  with  carbon 
bisulphide,  and  allow  to  stand  for  some 
hours.  Toward  the  end  of  the  time  the 
vessel  is  warmed  by  means  of  a  steam 
coil  or  jacket,  and  10  parts  absolute 
alcohol  are  added  for  every  100  parts  of 
carbon  bisulphide.  The  whole  is  then 
kept  gently  stirred  for  a  few  hours.  Fig. 
4  shows  a  common  type  of  the  vessel 


FIG.  4. 

used  for  dissolving  rubber.  In  this 
diagram  A  is  the  interior  of  the  vessel, 
and  B  a  revolving  mixer  in  the  same. 
The  whole  vessel  is  surrounded  by  a 
steam  jacket,  C,  with  a  steam  inlet  at  D 
and  a  tap  for  condensed  water  at  E. 
F  is  the  cock  by  which  the  solution  is 
drawn  off. 

After  the  rubber  is  dissolved,  about  12 
to  24  per  cent  of  sulphur  is  added,  and 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  solu- 
tion. The  sulphur  may  be  in  the  form 
of  chloride  of  sulphur,  or  as  sulphur  pure 
and  simple.  A  very  small  quantity  of 
sulphur  is  required  to  give  the  necessary 
result,  2  to  3  per  cent  being  sufficient  to 
effect  vulcanization;  but  a  large  quantity 
is  always  added  to  hasten  the  operation. 

Even  after  prolonged  treatment  with 
the  two  solvents,  a  solution  of  uniform 
consistency  is  never  obtained:  clots  of  a 
thicker  nature  will  be  found  floating 
in  the  solution,  and  the  next  operation 
is  to  knead  it  up  so  as  to  obtain  equal 


WATERPROOFING 


745 


density  throughout.     Fig.  5  will  give  an 
idea  of  how  this  mixing  is  done. 


FIG.  5. 

At  the  top  of  a  closed  wooden  chamber 
is  a  covered  reservoir,  A,  containing  the 
solution  of  rubber.  A  long  slit  at  the 
base  of  this  reservoir  allows  the  solution 
to  fall  between  sets  of  metal  rollers,  BBB 
below.  Neighboring  rollers  are  revolv- 
ing in  opposite  directions,  and  at  differ- 
ent speeds,  so  that,  after  passing  all 
three  sets  of  rollers,  and  emerging  at 
the  bottom,  the  solution  should  be  of  uni- 
form consistency.  CCC  are  the  guiding 
funnels,  and  EE  are  scrapers  to  clear  the 
solution  from  the  rollers.  D  is  a  wedge- 
shaped  plug  worked  by  a  rack  and  pinion, 
and  regulates  the  flow  of  the  solution. 

It  now  remains  to  apply  the  rubber  to 
the  fabric  and  vulcanize  it.  Up  to  this 
stage  the  sulphur  has  only  been  mechan- 
ically mixed  with  the  rubber;  the  aid  of 
heat  is  now  required  to  bring  about 
chemical  combination  between  the  two. 
This  process,  which  is  known  as  "burn- 
ing," consists  in  subjecting  the  rubber- 
covered  fabric  to  a  temperature  of  about 
248°  F.  Sulphur  itself  melts  at  239°  F., 


FIG.  6. 


and  the  temperature  at  which  combina- 
tion takes  place  must  be  above  this. 
Fig.  6  shows  one  of  the  methods  of 


spreading  the  rubber  on  the  cloth.  A 
is  the  tank  containing  the  solution  with 
an  outlet  at  the  bottom  arranged  so  as 
to  regulate  the  flow  of  solution.  The 
fabric  passes  slowly  underneath  this,  re- 
ceiving as  it  travels  a  thin  coating  of  the 
waterproofing.  The  two  rollers  at  B  press 
the  solution  into  the  fabric  and  distrib- 
ute the  proofing  evenly  over  the  entire 
surface. 

After  leaving  the  two  squeezing  rollers, 
the  cloth  travels  slowly  through  a  covered 
chamber,  C,  having  a  series  of  steam 
pipes,  EE,  underneath,  to  evaporate  the 
solvent;  this  condenses  on  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  chamber,  which  is  kept  cooled, 
and  flows  down  the  sides  into  suitable 
receptacles.  After  this  the  proofed  cloth 
is  vulcanized  by  passing  round  metal 
cylinders  heated  to  the  necessary  temper- 
ature, or  by  passing  through  a  heated 
chamber.  Fig.  7  shows  the  spreading  of 


FIG.  7. 

rubber  between  two  fabrics.  The  two 
cloths  are  wound  evenly  on  the  rollers, 
BB;  from  this  they  are  drawn  conjointly 
through  the  rollers,  D,  the  stream  of 
proofing  solution  flowing  down  between 
the  rollers,  which  then  press  the  two 
fabrics  together  with  the  rubber  inside. 
The  lower  rollers  marked  CC  are  heated 
to  the  necessary  degree,  and  cause  the 
rubber  and  sulphur  to  combine  in  chem- 
ical union. 

So  far  the  operation  of  proofing  has 
been  described  as  though  pure  rubber 
only  was  used;  in  practice  the  rubber 
forms  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
proofing  material,  its  place  being  taken 
by  cheaper  bodies.  One  of  the  common 
ingredients  of  proofing  mixtures  is  boiled 
linseed  oil.  together  with  a  small  quantity 
of  litharge;  this  dries  very  quickly,  and 
forms  a  glassy  flexible  film.  Coal  tar, 
shellac,  colophony,  etc.,  are  all  used,  to- 
gether with  India-rubber  varnish,  to  make 


746 


WATERPROOFING 


different  waterproof  compositions.  Oil 
of  turpentine  and  benzol  form  good  solvents 
for  rubber,  but  it  is  absolutely  essential 
that  both  rubber  and  solvent  be  perfectly 
anhydrous  before  mixing.  Oil  of  turpen- 
tine, alcohol,  etc.,  can  be  best  deprived 
of  water  by  mixing  with  either  sulphuric 
acid  or  dehydrated  copper  sulphate,  and 
allowing  to  stand.  The  acid  or  the 
copper  salt  will  absorb  the  water  and 
sink  to  the  bottom,  leaving  a  supernatant 
layer  of  dehydrated  turpentine  "or  what- 
ever solvent  is  used.  All  the  sulphur  in 
a  rubber-proofed  cloth  is  not  in  com- 
bination with  the  rubber;  it  is  frequently 
found  that,  after  a  lapse  of  time,  rubber- 
proofed  material  shows  an  efflorescence 
of  sulphur  on  the  surface,  due  to  excess 
of  sulphur,  and  occasionally  the  fabric 
becomes  stiff  and  the  proofing  scales  off. 
Whenever  a  large  proportion  of  sulphur 
is  present,  there  is  always  the  danger  of 
the  rubbers  forming  slowly  into  the  hard 
vulcanite  state,  as  the  substance  com- 
monly called  vulcanite  consists  only  of 
ordinary  vulcanized  rubber  carried  a 
stage  further  by  more  sulphur  being 
used  and  extra  heat  applied.  If  after 
vulcanizing,  rubber  is  treated  with  caus- 
tic soda,  all  this  superfluous  sulphur  can 
be  extracted;  if  it  is  then  well  washed 
the  rubber  will  retain  its  elasticity  for  a 
long  period.  With  the  old  methods  of 
proofing,  a  sheet  of  vulcanized  rubber 
was  cemented  to  a  fabric  with  rubber 
varnish,  and  frequently  this  desulphuriz- 
ing was  performed  before  cementing  to- 
gether. The  result  was  a  flexible  and 
durable  cloth,  but  of  great  weight  and 
thickness,  and  expensive  to  produce. 

The  chemistry  of  rubber  is  very  little 
understood;  as  mentioned  previously, 
rubber  is  a  highly  complex  body,  liable 
to  go  through  many  changes.  These 
changes  are  likely  to  be  greater  in  rub- 
ber varnish,  consisting  of  half  a  dozen  or 
more  ingredients,  than  in  the  case  of 
rubber  alone.  The  action  of  sunlight 
has  a  powerful  effect  on  rubber,  much 
to  its  detriment,  and  appears  to  increase 
its  tendency  to  oxidize.  Vulcanized 
rubber  keeps  its  properties  better  under 
water  than  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
changes  more  slowly  if  kept  away  from 
the  light.  It  appears  as  though  a  slight 
decomposition  always  takes  place  even 
with  pure  rubber;  but  the  presence  of  so 
many  differently  constituted  substances 
as  sometimes  occur  in  rubber  solutions 
no  doubt  makes  things  worse.  When- 
ever a  number  of  different  bodies  with 
varying  properties  are  consolidated  to- 
getner  by  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  rubber 
compositions,  it  is  only  reasonable  to 


expect  there  will  be  some  molecular  r  •»- 
arrangement  going  on  in  the  mass;  and 
this  can  be  assigned  as  the  reason  why 
some  proofings  last  as  long  again  as 
others.  Some  metallic  salts  have  a  very 
injurious  action  on  rubber,  one  of  the 
worst  being  copper  sulphate.  Dyers  are 
frequently  warned  that  goods  for  rubber- 
proofing  must  be  free  from  this  metal, 
as  its  action  on  rubber  is  very  powerful, 
though  but  little  understood.  As  is 
generally  known,  grease  in  any  form  is 
exceedingly  destructive  to  rubber,  and  it 
should  never  be  allowed  in  contact  in 
the  smallest  proportion.  Some  composi- 
tions are  made  up  by  dissolving  rubber 
in  turpentine  and  coal  tar;  but  in  this 
case  some  of  the  rubber's  most  valuable 
properties  are  destroyed,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  it  can  be  properly  vulcanized. 
Owing  to  rubber  being  a  bad  conductor 
of  heat,  it  requires  considerable  care  to 
vulcanize  it  in  any  thickness.  A  high 
degree  of  heat  applied  during  a  short 

Kriod  would  tend  to  form  a  layer  of 
,rd  vulcanite  on  the  surface,  while  that 
immediately  below  would  be  softer  and 
would  gradually  merge  into  raw  rubber 
in  the  center. 

The  different  brands  of  rubber  vary 
so  much,  especially  with  regard  to  solu- 
bility, that  it  is  always  advisable  to  treat 
each  brand  by  itself,  and  not  to  make  a 
solution  of  two  or  more  kinds.  Oilskins 
and  tarpaulins,  etc.,  are  mostly  proofed 
by  boiled  linseed  oil,  with  or  without 
thickening  bodies  added.  They  are 
not  of  sufficient  interest  to  enlarge  upon 
in  this  article,  so  the  second,  or  "water- 
repellent,"  class  has  now  to  be  dealt  with. 

All  the  shower-proof  fabrics  come 
under  this  heading,  as  well  as  every  cloth 
which  is  pervious  to  air  and  repulsive  to 
water.  The  most  time-honored  recipe 
for  proofing  woollen  goods  is  a  mixture 
of  sugar  of  lead  and  alum,  and  dates 
back  hundreds  of  years.  The  system  of 
using  this  is  as  follows:  The  two  ingre- 
dients are  dissolved  separately,  and  the 
solutions  mixed  together.  A  mutual  de- 
composition results,  the  base  of  the  lead 
salt  uniting  with  the  sulphuric  acid  out 
of  the  alum  to  form  lead  sulphate,  which 
precipitates  to  the  bottom.  The  clear 
solution  contains  alumina  in  the  form  of 
acetate,  and  this  supplies  the  proofing 
quality  to  the  fabric.  It  is  applied  in  a 
form  of  machine  shown  in  Fig.  8,  which 
will  be  seen  to  consist  of  a  trough  con- 
taining the  proofing  solution,  (7,  with  a 
pair  of  squeezing  rollers,  A,  over  the  top. 
The  fabric  is  drawn  down  through  the 
solution  and  up  through  the  squeezers 
in  the  direction  of  the  arrows.  At  the 


WATERPROOFING 


747 


back  of  the  machine  the  cloth  automatic- 
ally winds  itself  onto  a  roll,  J9,  and  then 
only  requires  drying  to  develop  the  water- 


FIG.  8. 

resisting  power.  D  is  a  weight  acting  on 
a  lever  which  presses  the  two  rollers,  A, 
together.  The  water-repelling  property 
is  gained  as  follows: 

Drying  the  fabric,  which  is  impreg- 
nated with  acetate  of  alumina,  drives  off 
some  of  the  volatile  acetic  acid,  leaving  a 
film  of  basic  acetate  of  alumina  on  each 
wool  fiber.  This  basic  salt  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  wet,  and  has  so  little  attraction 
for  moisture  that  in  a  shower  of  rain  the 
drops  remain  in  a  spheroidal  state,  and 
fall  off.  In  a  strong  wind,  or  under  pres- 
sure, water  eventually  penetrates  through 
fabrics  proofed  in  this  manner;  but  they 
will  effectually  resist  a  sharp  shower. 
Unfortunately,  shower-proofed  goods, 
with  wear,  gradually  lose  this  property 
of  repelling  water.  The  equation  repre- 
senting the  change  between  alum  and 
sugar  of  lead  is  given  below.  In  the  case 
of  common  alum  there  would,  of  course, 
be  potassium  acetate  in  solution  besides 
the  alumina. 

Alum.  Sugar  of  lead. 

Al9Ka  (So04 +  4Pb(C9H8O8)? 
Lead  Potassium         Aluminum 

sulphate.          acetate.  acetate. 

=  4PbSo4  +  2KC2H3O2  +  A12(C3H3O2)8 

Now  that  sulphate  of  alumina  is  in 
common  use,  alum  need  not  be  used,  as 
the  potash  in  it  serves  no  purpose  in 
proofing. 

There  are  many  compositions  con- 
ferring water:  resisting  powers  upon  tex- 
tiles, but  unfortunately  they  either  af- 
fect the  general  handle  of  the  material 
and  make  it  stiff,  or  they  stain  and  dis- 
color it,  which  is  equally  bad.  A  large 


range  of  waterproof  compositions  can  be 
got  by  using  stearates  'of  the  metals; 
these,  in  nearly  every  case,  are  insoluble 
bodies,  and  when  deposited  in  the  in- 
terior of  a  fabric  form  a  water-resisting 
"filling"  which  is  very  effective.  As  a 
rule  these  stearates  are  deposited  on  the 
material  by  means  of  double  baths;  for 
example,  by  passing  the  fabric  through 
(say)  a  bath  of  aluminum  acetate,  and 
then,  after  squeezing  out  the  excess  of 
liquid,  passing  it  through  a  bath  of  soap. 
The  aluminum  salt  on  the  fabric  de- 
composes the  soap,  resulting  in  a  deposit 
of  insoluble  stearate  of  alumina.  This 
system  of  proofing  in  two  baths  is  clean- 
er and  more  economical  than  adding  all 
the  ingredients  together,  as  the  stearate 
formed  is  just  where  it  is  required  "on 
the  fibers,"  and  not  at  the  bottom  of  the 
bath. 

One  of  the  most  important  patents 
now  worked  for  waterproofing  purposes 
is  on  the  lines  of  the  old  alumina  process. 
In  this  case  the  factor  used  is  rosin, 
dissolved  in  a  very  large  bulk  of  petro- 
leum spirit.  The  fabrics  to  be  proofed 
(usually  dress  materials)  are  passed 
through  a  bath  of  this  solution,  and 
carefully  dried  to  drive  off  the  solvent. 
Following  this,  the  goods  are  treated  by 
pressing  with  hot  polished  metal  rollers. 
This  last  process  melts  the  small  quan- 
tity of  rosin,  which  is  deposited  on  the 
cloth,  and  leaves  each  single  fiber  with 
an  exceedingly  thin  film  of  rosin  on  it. 
It  will  be  understood  that  only  a  very 
attenuated  solution  of  jrosin  is  per- 
missible, so  that  the  fibers  of  the  threads 
and  not  the  threads  themselves  are  coated 
with  it.  If  the  solution  contains  too 
much  rosin  the  fabric  is  stiffened,  and  the 
threads  cemented  together;  whereas  if 
used  at  the  correct  strength  (or,  rather, 
weakness)  neither  fabric  nor  dye  suffers, 
and  there  is  no  evidence  of  stickiness  of 
any  description. 


FIG.  9. 

Fig.  9  shows  a  machine  used  for 
spreading  a  coat  of  either  proofing  or  any 
other  fluid  on  one  side  of  the  fabric. 


748 


WATERPROOFING 


This  is  done  by  means  of  a  roller,  A, 
running  in  the  proofing  solution,  the 
material  to  be  coated  traveling  slowly 
over  the  top  and  just  in  contact  with  the 
roller,  A,  which  transfers  the  proofing 
to  it.  Should  the  solution  used  be  of  a 
thick  nature,  then  a  smooth  metal  roller 
will  transfer  sufficient  to  the  fabric.  If 
the  reverse  is  the  case,  and  the  liquid 
used  is  very  thin,  then  the  roller  is 
covered  with  felt,  which  very  materially 
adds  to  its  carrying  power.  As  shown  in 
Fig.  9,  after  leaving  the  two  squeezing 
rollers,  BB,  the  fabric  passes  slowly 
round  a  large  steam-heated  cylinder,  C, 
with  the  coated  side  uppermost.  This 
dries  the  proofing  and  fastens  it,  and  the 
cloth  is  taken  off  at  D. 

Besides  stearates  of  the  metals,  glues 
and  gelatins  have  been  used  for  proof- 
ing purposes,  but  owing  to  their  stiffen- 
ing effect,  they  are  only  of  use  in  some 
few  isolated  cases.  With  glue  and 
gelatin  the  fixing  agent  is  either  tannic 
acid  or  some  metallic  salt.  Tannic 
acid  converts  gelatin  into  an  insoluble 
leather-like  body;  this  can  be  deposited 
in  the  interstices  of  the  fabric  by  passing 
the  latter  through  a  gelatin  bath  first, 
and  then  squeezing  and  passing  through 
the  tannic  acid.  Bichromate  of  potash 
also  possesses  the  property  of  fixing  the 
proteid  bodies  and  rendering  them  in- 
soluble. 

The  following  are  special  processes 
used  to  advantage  in  the  manufacture  of 
waterproof  fabrics: 

I. — Ordinary  Fabrics,  Dressing  Ap- 
parel, etc. — Immerse  in  a  vat  of  acetate 
of  alumina  (5°  Be.)  for  12  hours,  lift,  dry, 
and  let  evaporate  at  a  temperature  of 
from  140°  to  149°  F. 

II. — Sailcloth,  Awnings,  Thick  Blank- 
ets, etc. — Soak  in  a  7  per  cent  solution  of 
gelatin  at  104°  F.,  dry,  pass  through  a 
4  per  cent  solution  of  alum,  dry  again, 
rinse  in  water,  and  dry. 

III. — Fabrics  of  Cotton,  Linen,  Jute, 
and  Hemp. — Put  into  a  bath  of  am- 
moniacal  cupric  sulphate  of  10°  Be.  at  a 
temperature  of  87°  F.;  let  steep  thorough- 
ly, then  put  in  a  bath  of  caustic  soda 
(20°  Be.)  and  dry.  To  increase  the  im- 
permeability, a  bath  of  sulphate  of  al- 
umina may  be  substituted  for  the  caustic- 
soda  bath. 

IV. — Saturate  the  fabrics  with  the  fol- 
lowing odorless  compound,  subjecting 
them  several  times  to  a  brushing  machi.ie 
having  several  rollers,  where  the  warp 
threads  will  be  well  smoothed,  and  a 
waterproof  product  of  fine  sheen  and 
scarcely  fading  will  be  the  result.  The 


compound  is  made  with  30  parts,  by 
weignt,  of  Japan  wax,  22|  parts,  by 
weight,  of  paraffine,  12  parts,  by  weight, 
of  rosin  soap,  35  parts,  by  weight,  of 
starch,  and  5  parts,  by  weight,  of  a  5  per 
cent  solution  of  alum.  Fabrics  thus  pre- 
pared are  particularly  adapted  to  the 
manufacture  of  haversacks,  shoes,  etc. 

V.— White  or  Light  Fabrics.— Pass 
first  through  a  bath  of  acetate  of  alumina 
of  4°  to  5°  Be.  at  a  temperature  of  104°  F., 
then  through  the  rollers  to  rid  of  all 
liquid;  put  into  a  warm  solution  of  soap 
(5  parts,  by  weight,  of  olive-oil  soap  to 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  fresh  water)  and 
finally  pass  through  a  2  per  cent  solution 
of  alum,  dry  for  2  or  3  days  on  the  drop- 
ping horse,  and  brush  off  all  particles  of 
soap. 

VI. — Dissolve  1£  parts,  by  weight,  of 
gelatin  in  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  boil- 
ing water,  add  1£  parts,  by  weight,  of 
scraped  tallow  soap  and  2|  parts,  by 
weight,  of  alum,  the  latter  being  put  in 
gradually;  lower  the  temperature  of  the 
bath  to  122°  F.,  lift  out  the  fabric,  dry, 
and  calender. 

VII. — Tent  Cloth. — Soak  in  a  warm 
solution  of  1  part,  by  weight,  of  gelatin, 
1  part,  by  weight,  of  glycerine,  and  1 

Eart,  by  weight,  of  tannin  in  12  parts, 
y  weight,  of  wood  vinegar  (pyroligne- 
ous  acid)  of  12°  Be.  The  whole  is 
melted  in  a  kettle  and  carefully  mixed. 
The  mass  is  poured  into  the  receiver  of 
the  brushing  machine,  care  being  taken 
to  keep  it  liquid.  For  a  piece  of  500 
feet  in  length  and  20  inches  in  width, 
50  to  80  parts,  by  weight,  of  this  com- 
pound are  needed. 

VIII. — To  freshen  worn  waterproof 
material,  cover  with  the  following:  Fifty- 
five  thousand  parts,  by  weight,  of  gelatin; 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  bichromate  of 
potash;  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  acetic 
acid  (to  keep  glue  from  congealing),  and 
from  3,000  to  5,000  parts,  by  weight,  of 
water;  to  this  add  500  parts,  by  weight, 
of  peroxide  of  ammoniacal  copper,  100° 
Be.  This  compound  is  put  on  the  fabric 
with  a  brush  and  then  exposed  to  air  and 
light. 

IX.— Soft  Hats.— The  hats  are  stiffened 
as  usual,  then  put  through  the  following 
three  baths:  Dissolve  £  part,  by  weight, 
of  tallow  soap  in  from  40  to  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  warm  water  (140°  F.).  Put 
3  to  4  dozen  hats  into  this  solution,  leave 
them  in  it  for  half  an  hour,  then  take  out 
and  put  them  as  they  are  into  another 
bath  prepared  with  40  to  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  water  and  J  part,  by  weight,  of 
alum  and  heated  to  86°  to  104°  F.  After 


WATERPROOFING 


749 


having  been  left  in  the  second  bath  for 
I  or  \  hour,  take  out  as  before,  put 
into  the  third  bath  of  40  to  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  water,  \  part,  by  weight,  of 
alum,  and  about  13  parts,  by  weight,  of 
fish  glue.  In  this  cold  bath  the  hats  are 
left  for  another  \  hour  or  more  until  they 
are  completely  saturated  with  the  liquid, 
then  dried  and  the  other  operations  con- 
tinued. 

X. — Woolen  cloth  may  be  soaked  in 
a  vat  filled  with  aluminum  acetate,  of 
5°  Be.,  for  12  hours,  then  removed,  dried, 
and  dried  again  at  a  temperature  of 
140°  F. 

XI. — Wagon  covers,  awnings,  and 
sails  are  saturated  with  a  7  per  cent 
gelatin  solution,  at  a  temperature  of 
104°  F.,  dried  in  the  air,  put  through  a  4 
per  cent  solution  of  alum,  dried  again  in 
the  air,  carried  through  water,  and  dried 
a  third  time. 

XII. — Cotton,  linen,  jute,  and  hemp 
fabrics  are  first  thoroughly  saturated  in 
a  bath  of  ammonio-cupric  sulphate,  of 
10°  Be.,  at  a  temperature  of  77°  F.,  then 
put  into  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  2° 
Be.,  and  dried.  They  may  be  made  still 
more  impervious  to  water  by  substituting 
a  solution  of  aluminum  sulphate  for  the 
caustic  soda. 

XIII. — White  and  light-colored  fabrics 
are  first  put  into  a  bath  of  aluminum 
acetate,  4°  to  5°  Be.,  at  a  temperature  of 
102°  F.,  the  superfluous  liquid  being  re- 
moved from  the  fabric  by  press  rollers. 
The  fabric  is  put  into  a  soap  solution 
(5  parts  of  good  Marseilles  soap  in  100 
parts  of  soft  water).  Finally  it  is  put 
through  a  2  per  cent  alum  solution,  and 
left  to  dry  for  2  or  3  days  on  racks.  The 
adhering  particles  of  soap  are  removed 
by  brushing  with  machinery. 

XIV. — Dissolve  1.5  parts  of  gelatin  in 
50  parts  of  boiling  water,  add  1 .5  parts 
of  shavings  of  tallow  grain  soap,  and 
gradually,  2.5  parts  of  alum.  Let  this 
cool  to  122°  F.,  draw  the  fabric  through 
it,  dry  and  calender. 

XV. — Cellular  tissues  are  made  water- 
proof by  impregnating  them  with  a  warm 
solution  of  1  part,  by  weight,  of  gelatin, 
1  part,  by  weight,  of  glycerine,  and  1  part, 
by  weight,  of  tannin,  in  12  parts,  by  weight, 
of  wood  vinegar,  12°  Be. 

XVI. — Linen,  hemp,  jute,  cotton,  and 
other  fabrics  can  be  given  a  good  odor- 
less waterproof  finish  by  impregnating 
them,  and  afterwards  subjecting  them  to 
the  action  of  several  mechanical  brush 
rollers.  By  this  process  the  fabric  is 
brushed  dry,  the  fibers  are  laid  smooth, 


the  threads  of  the  warp  brought  out,  and 
a  glossy,  odorless,  unfading  waterproof 
stuff  results.  Fabrics  manufactured  in 
the  usual  way  from  rough  and  colored 
yarns  are  put  through  a  bath  of  this 
waterproof  finish,  whose  composition  is 
as  follows:  Thirty  parts,  by  weight,  of 
Japanese  wax;  22.5  parts,  by  weight,  of 
paraffine;  15  parts,  by  weight,  of  rosin 
soap;  35  parts,  by  weight,  of  starch,  and  5 
parts,  by  weight,  of  a  5  per  cent  alum  solu- 
tion. The  first  three  components  are 
melted  in  a  kettle,  the  starch  and,  lastly, 
the  alum  added,  and  the  whole  stirred 
vigorously. 

XVII. — One  hundred  parts,  by  weight, 
of  castor  oil  are  heated  to  nearly  204°  F., 
with  50  parts,  by  weight,  of  caustic 
potash,  of  50°  Be\,  to  which  50  parts,  by 
weight,  of  water  have  previously  been 
added.  Forty  parts,  by  weight,  of 
cooler  water  are  then  added  slowly,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  temperature  of 
the  mixture  constant.  As  soon  as  the 
liquor  begins  to  rise,  40  parts,  by  weight, 
of  cooler  water  are  again  added,  with  the 
same  precaution  to  keep  the  temperature 
from  falling  below  204°  F.  At  the  same 
time  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
liquor  boiling,  as  this  would  produce  too 
great  saponification.  By  the  prolonged 
action  of  heat  below  the  boiling  point, 
the  oil  absorbs  water  and  caustic  potash 
without  being  changed,  and  the  whole 
finally  forms  a  perfectly  limpid,  nearly 
black  liquid.  This  is  diluted  with  5 
times  its  weight  of  hot  or  cold  water,  and 
is  then  ready  for  use  without  any  further 
preparation.  Other  vegetable  oils  may 
be  employed  besides  castor  oil,  and  the 
quantity  of  unsaponified  oil  present  may 
be  increased  by  stirring  the  prepared 
liquid  with  a  fresh  quantity  of  castor  or 
other  vegetable  oil.  The  product  is  slight- 
ly alkaline,  but  wool  fiber  is  not  injured, 
as  the  oiling  may  be  done  in  the  cold. 
The  solution  is  clear  and  limpid,  and  will 
not  separate  out  on  standing  like  an  emul- 
sion. This  product  in  spinning  gives  a 
10  per  cent  better  utilization  of  the  raw 
material  owing  to  the  greater  evenness 
and  regularity  with  which  the  fibers  are 
oiled;  in  weaving  less  oiling  is  required. 

The  product  can  be  completely  re- 
moved by  water,  preferably  by  cold 
water,  and  scouring  of  the  goods  subse- 
quently with  soap,  soda,  or  fuller's  earth 
can  thus  be  dispensed  with. 

XVIII. — Cloth  may  be  rendered  water- 
proof by  rubbing  the  under  side  with  a 
lump  of  beeswax  until  the  surface  presents 
a  uniform  white  or  grayish  appearance. 
This  method  it  is  said  renders  the  cloth 


750 


WATERPROOFING 


practically  waterproof,  although  still  leav- 
ing it  porous  to  air. 

XIX. — Coating  the  under  side  of  the 
cloth  with  a  solution  of  isinglass  and 
then  applying  an  infusion  of  galls  is 
another  method,  a  compound  being  thus 
formed  which  is  a  variety  of  leather. 

XX. — An  easy  method  is  the  formation 
of  aluminum  stearate  in  the  fiber  of  the 
cloth,  which  may  readily  be  done  by  im- 
mersing it  in  a  solution  of  aluminum 
sulphate  in  water  (1  in  10)  and  without 
allowing  it  to  dry  passing  through  a  solu- 
tion of  soap  made  from  soda  and  tallow 
or  similar  fat,  in  hot  water.  Reaction 
between  the  aluminum  sulphate  and  the 
soap  produces  aluminum  stearate  and 
sodium  sulphate.  The  former  is  insoluble 
and  remains  in  the  fiber;  the  latter  is  re- 
moved by  subsequently  rinsing  the  fabric 
in  water. 

XXI. — A  favorite  method  for  cloth  is 
as  follows:  Dissolve  in  a  receptacle, 
preferably  of  copper,  over  a  bright  coal 
fire,  1  liter  (1.76  pints)  of  pure  linseed  oil, 
1  liter  (1.76  pints)  of  petroleum,  |  liter 
(0.88  pints)  of  oil  turpentine,  and  125 
grams  (4.37  ounces)  of  yellow  wax,  the 
last  named  in  small  bits.  As  there  is 
danger  of  fire,  boiling  of  this  mass  should 
be  avoided.  With  this  hot  solution  re- 
moved from  the  fire,  of  course  the  felt 
material  is  impregnated;  next  it  is  hung 
up  in  a  warm,  dry  room  or  spread  out, 
but  in  such  a  manner  that  the  uniform 
temperature  can  act  upon  all  parts. 

Waterproofing  Leather.  —  I.  —  Ten- 
ning's  process  is  as  follows:  Melt  together 
equal  parts  of  zinc  and  linseed  oil,  at  a 
temperature  not  above  225°  F.  Put  the 
leather  in  the  molten  mixture  and  let  it 
remain  until  saturated.  The  "zinc  soap" 
is  made  by  dissolving  6  parts  of  white 
soap  in  16  parts  of  water,  and  stirring 
into  the  solution  6  parts  of  zinc  sulphate. 
To  make  sure  of  a  homogeneous  mixture 
remelt  the  whole  and  stir  until  it  begins 
to  cool.  The  process,  including  the  satu- 
ration of  the  leather,  requires  about  48 
hours.  Instead  of  zinc  sulphate,  copper 
or  iron  sulphate  may  be  used.  The  phi- 
losophy of  the  process  is  that  the  mois- 
ture and  air  contained  in  the  pores  of  the 
leather  are  driven  out  by  the  heat  of  the 
soap  mixture,  and  their  place  is  taken,  on 
cooling,  by  the  mixture.  The  surface  of 
the  leather  is  scraped  after  cooling,  and 
the  article  is  dried,  either  by  heating  over 
an  open  fire  or  by  hanging  in  a  drying 
room,  strongly  heated. 

II. — Prideaux'  process  consists  in  sub- 
mitting the  leather  to  treatment  with  a 


solution  of  caoutchouc  until  it  is  thor- 
oughly saturated  with  the  liquid.  The 
latter  consists  of  30  parts  of  caoutchouc 
in  500  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine.  Com- 
plete impregnation  of  the  leather  re- 
quires several  days,  during  which  the 
solution  must  be  frequently  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  leather  and  rubbed  in. 
III. — Villon's  process  consists  in  ap- 
plying a  soap  solution  to  the  leather, 
about  as  follows:  The  leather  is  first 
treated  to  a  solution  of  62  parts  of  soap, 
124  parts  of  glue,  and  2,000  parts  of 
water.  When  it  has  become  saturated 
with  the  solution,  it  is  treated  to  rubbing 
with  a  mixture  of  460  parts  of  common 
salt  and  400  parts  of  alum,  in  sufficient 
water  to  dissolve  the  same.  After  this  it 
is  washed  with  tepid  water  and  dried. 
This  process  is  much  the  quickest.  The 
application  of  the  soap  requires  about 
2  hours,  and  the  subsequent  treat- 
ment about  as  much  more,  or  4  or  5  hours 
in  all. 

Oilskins. — The  art  of  painting  over 
textile  fabrics  with  oily  preparations  to 
make  them  waterproof  is  probably  nearly 
as  old  as  textile  manufacture  itself,  an 
industry  of  prehistoric,  nay,  geologic, 
origin.  It  is  certainly  more  ancient  than 
the  craft  of  the  artistic  painter  in  oils,  whose 
canvases  are  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
art  oilskins,  and  when  out  of  their  frames, 
have  served  the  usual  purpose  of  those 
things  in  protecting  goods  or  the  human 
body  before  now.  The  art  of  water- 
proofing has  been  extended  beyond  the 
domain  of  the  oilskin  by  chemical 
processes,  especially  those  in  which  alum 
or  lead  salts,  or  tannin,  are  used,  as  well 
as  by  the  discovery  of  India  rubber  and 
gutta  percha.  These  two  have  revolu- 
tionized the  waterproofing  industry  in 
quite  a  special  manner,  and  the  oilskin 
manufacture,  although  it  still  exists  and 
is  in  a  fairly  flourishing  condition,  has 
found  its  products  to  a  very  large  extent 
replaced  by  rubber  goods.  The  natural 
result  has  been  that  the  processes  used  in 
the  former  industry  have  remained  now 
unchanged  for  a  good  many  years.  They 
had  already  been  brought  to  a  very  per- 
fect state  when  the  rubber- waterproofing 
business  sprang  up,  so  that  improve- 
ments were  even  then  difficult  to  hit  upon 
in  oilskin  making,  and  the  check  put 
upon  the  trade  by  India  rubber  made 
people  less  willing  to  spend  time  and 
money  in  experimenting  with  a  view  to 
improving  what  many  years  had  already 
made  it  difficult  to  better.  Hence  the 
three  cardinal  defects  of  the  oilskin:  its 
weight,  its  stiffness,  and  the  liability  of 


WATERPROOFING 


751 


its  folds  to  stick  together  when  it  is 
wrapped  up,  or  in  the  other  extreme  to 
crack,  still  remains.  The  weight,  of 
course,  is  inevitable.  An  oilskin  must 
be  heavy,  comparatively,  from  the  very 
essence  of  the  process  by  which  it  is 
made,  but  there  seems  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  in  time  be  made  much  more 
pliable  (an  old-time  oilskin  coat  could 
often  stand  up  on  end  when  empty)  and 
free  from  the  danger  of  cracking  or  being 
compacted  into  a  solid  block  when  it  has 
been  stored  folded  on  a  shelf. 

Probably  the  best  oilskins  ever  made 
are  those  prepared  by  combining  Dr. 
Stenhouse's  process  (patented  in  1864) 
with  the  ordinary  method,  which  con- 
sists in  the  main  of  painting  over  the 
fabric  with  two  or  more  coats  of  boiled 
linseed  oil,  allowing  each  coat  to  dry 
before  the  next  is  applied.  This,  with  a 
few  variations  in  detail,  is  the  whole 
method  of  making  oilskins.  Dr.  Sten- 
house's waterproofing  method  is  to  im- 
pregnate the  fabric  with  a  mixture  of 
hard  paraffine  and  boiled  oil  in  propor- 
tions varying  according  to  circum- 
stances from  95  per  cent  of  paraffine  and 
5  of  oil  to  70  per  cent  of  the  former  and 
30  of  the  latter.  The  most  usual  per- 
centages are  80  and  20.  The  mixture  is 
made  with  the  aid  of  heat,  and  is  then 
cast  into  blocks  for  storage.  It  is  ap- 
plied to  the  cloth  stretched  on  a  hot  plate 
by  rubbing  the  fabric  thoroughly  all 
over  with  a  block  of  the  composition, 
which  may  be  applied  on  one  or  both 
sides  as  may  be  wished.  The  saturation 
is  then  made  complete,  and  excess  of 
composition  is  removed  by  passing  the 
cloth  between  hot  rollers.  When  the 
cloth  is  quite  cold  the  process  is  com- 
plete. The  paraffine  and  the  drying  oil 
combine  their  waterproofing  powers,  and 
the  paraffine  prevents  the  oil  from  ex- 
erting any  injurious  action  upon  the 
material.  Drying  oil,  partly  on  account 
of  the  metallic  compounds  in  it,  and 
partly  on  account  of  its  absorbing  oxygen 
from  the  atmosphere,  has  a  decided  slow 
weakening  effect  upon  textile  fibers. 
Dr.  Stenhouse  points  out  that  the  in- 
flammability of  oilskins  may  be  much 
lessened  by  the  use  of  the  ordinary  fire- 
proofing  salts,  such  as  tungstate  of  soda, 
or  alum,  either  before  or  after  the  water- 
proofing process  is  carried  out. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  best 
recommended  recipes  for  making  oil- 
skins: 

I. — Dissolve  1  ounce  of  yellow  soap  in 
H  pints  of  boiling  water.  Then  stir  in 
1  quart  of  boiled  oil.  When  cold,  add 
I  pint  of  gold  size. 


II.— Take  fine  twilled  calico.  Soak 
it  in  bullock's  blood  and  dry  it.  Then 
give  it  2  or  3  coats  of  boiled  oil,  mixed 
with  a  little  litharge,  or  with  an  ounce  of 
gold  size  to  every  pint  of  the  oil. 

III. — Make  ordinary  paint  ready  to 
be  applied  thin  with  a  strong  solution  of 
soap. 

IV. — Make  96  pounds  of  ocher  to  a 
thin  paste  with  boiled  oil,  and  then  add 
16  pounds  of  ordinary  black  paint  mixed 
ready  for  use.  Apply  the  first  coat  of 
this  with  soap,  the  subsequent  coats 
without  soap. 

V. — Dissolve  rosin  in  hot  boiled  oil 
till  it  begins  to  thicken. 

VI. — Mix  chalk  or  pipe  clay  in  the 
finest  powder,  and  in  the  purest  state 
obtainable  to  a  thin  paste  with  boiled  oil. 

VII.— Melt  together  boiled  oil,  1  pint; 
beeswax  and  rosin,  each,  2  ounces. 

VIII. — Dissolve  soft  soap  in  hot  water 
and  add  solution  of  protosulphate  of 
iron  till  no  further  precipitate  is  produced. 
Filter  off,  wash,  and  dry,  and  form  the 
mass  into  a  thin  paste  with  boiled  oil. 

All  these  compositions  are  painted  on 
with  an  ordinary  painter's  brush.  The 
fabric  should  be  slightly  stretched,  both 
to  avoid  folds  and  to  facilitate  the  pene- 
tration of  the  waterproofing  mixture.  To 
aid  the  penetration  still  further,  the 
mixture  should  be  applied  hot.  It  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  that  the  fabric 
should  not  be  damp  when  the  composi- 
tion is  applied  to  it.  It  is  best  to  have  it 
warm  as  well  as  the  composition.  If 
more  than  one  coat  is  applied,  which  is 
practically  always  the  case,  three  being 
the  usual  number,  it  is  essential  that  the 
last  coat  should  be  perfectly  dry  before 
the  next  is  applied.  Neglect  of  this 
precaution  is  the  chief  cause  of  sticki- 
ness, which  frequently  results  in  serious 
damage  to  the  oilskins  when  they  have 
to  be  unfolded.  In  fact,  it  is  advisable 
to  avoid  folding  an  oilskin  when  it  can 
be  avoided.  They  should  be  hung  up 
when  not  in  use,  whenever  practicable, 
and  be  allowed  plenty  of  room.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  no  attempt  should 
be  made  to  sell  or  use  the  oilskin,  whether 
garment  or  tarpaulin,  until  the  final  coat 
of  composition  is  perfectly  dry  and  set. 
It  is  unadvisable  to  use  artificial  heat  in 
the  drying  at  any  stage  in  the  manu- 
facture. 

Waterproofing  Paper. — Any  conven- 
ient and  appropriate  machinery  or  ap- 
paratus may  be  employed;  but  the  best 
method  for  waterproofing  paper  is  as 
follows:  The  treatment  may  be  applied 


752 


WATERPROOFING 


while  the  pulp  is  being  formed  into  paper, 
cr  the  finished  paper  may  be  treated.  If 
the  material  is  to  be  treated  while  being 
formed  into  paper,  then  the  better  method 
is  to  begin  the  treatment  when  the  web 
of  pulpy  material  leaves  the  Foudrinier 
wire  or  the  cylinders,  it  then  being  in  a 
damp  condition,  but  with  the  larger  per- 
centage of  moisture  removed.  From  this 
point  the  treatment  of  the  paper  is  the 
same  whether  it  be  pulp  in  a  sheet,  as 
above  stated,  or  finished  paper. 

The  treatment  consists,  first,  in  satu- 
rating the  paper  with  glutinous  material, 
preferably  animal  glue,  and  by  preference 
the  bath  of  glutinous  material  should  be 
hot,  to  effect  the  more  rapid  absorption 
and  more  perfect  permeation,  impregna- 
tion, and  deposit  of  the  glutinous  ma- 
terial within  all  the  microscopic  inter- 
stices throughout  the  body  of  the  paper 
being  treated.  By  preference  a  suitable 
tank  is  provided  in  which  the  glutin- 
ous material  is  deposited,  and  in  which 
it  may  be  kept  heated  to  a  constant 
temperature,  the  paper  being  passed 
through  the  tank  and  saturated  during 
its  passage.  The  material  being  treated 
should  pass  in  a  continuous  sheet — that 
is,  be  fed  from  a  roll  and  the  finished 
product  be  wound  in  a  roll  after  final 
treatment.  This  saves  time  and  the 
patentee  finds  that  the  requisite  permea- 
tion or  incorporation  of  glutinous  mat- 
ter in  the  fiber  will  with  some  papers 
—  for  instance,  lightly  sized  manila 
hemp — require  but  a  few  seconds.  As 
the  paper  passes  from  the  glutin  tank 
the  surplus  of  the  glutinous  matter  is 
removed  from  the  surface  by  mechani- 
cal means,  as  contradistinguished  from 
simply  allowing  it  to  pass  off  by  gravity, 
and  in  most  instances  it  is  preferred  to 
pass  the  paper  between  suitable  pres- 
sure rolls  to  remove  such  surplus.  The 
strength  and  consistency  of  the  glutinous 
bath  may  be  varied,  depending  upon  the 
material  being  treated  and  the  uses  for 
which  such  material  is  designed.  It 
may,  however,  be  stated  that,  in  a  ma- 
jority of  cases,  a  hot  solution  of  about 
1  part  of  animal  glue  to  about  10  parts  of 
water,  by  weight,  gives  the  best  results. 
After  leaving  the  bath  of  glutinous  ma- 
terial and  having  the  surplus  adhering 
to  the  surfaces  removed,  the  paper  be- 
fore drying  is  passed  into  or  through 
a  solution  of  formaldehyde  and  water 
to  "set"  the  glutinous  material.  The 
strength  of  this  solution  may  also  be 
variable,  depending,  as  heretofore  stated, 
upon  the  paper  and  uses  for  which  it  is 
designed.  In  the  majority  of  cases, 
however,  a  solution  of  1  part  of  formalde- 


hyde (35  per  cent  solution)  to  5  parts  of 
water,  by  weight,  gives  good  results,  and 
the  best  result  is  attained  if  this  bath  is 
cold  instead  of  hot,  though  any  particu- 
lar temperature  is  not  essentially  neces- 
sary. The  effect  of  the  formaldehyde 
solution  upon  the  glutin-saturated  paper 
is  to  precipitate  the  glutinous  matter  and 
render  it  insoluble. 

As  the  material  comes  from  the  formal- 
dehyde bath,  the  surplus  adhering  to 
the  surfaces  is  removed  by  mechanical 
means,  pressure  rolls  being  probably 
most  convenient.  The  paper  is  then  dried 
in  any  convenient  manner.  The  best 
result  in  drying  is  attained  by  the  air- 
blast,  i.  e.,  projecting  blasts  of  air  against 
both  surfaces  of  the  paper.  This  drying 
removes  all  the  watery  constituents  and 
leaves  the  paper  in  a  toughened  or 
greatly  strengthened  condition,  but  not 
in  practical  condition  for  commercial 
uses,  as  it  is  brittle,  horny,  and  stiff,  and 
has  an  objectionable  odor  and  taste 
on  account  of  the  presence  of  the  alde- 
hydes, paraldehydes,  formic  acid,  and 
other  products,  the  result  of  oxidation. 
Hence  it  needs  to  be  "tempered."  Now 
while  the  glutinous  material  is  rendered 
insoluble — that  is,  it  is  so  acted  upon  by 
formaldehyde  and  the  chemical  action 
which  takes  place  while  the  united  solu- 
tions are  giving  off  their  watery  constit- 
uents that  it  will  not  fully  dissolve — it 
is,  however,  in  a  condition  to  be  acted 
on  by  moisture,  as  it  will  swell  and  ab- 
sorb, or  take  up  permanently  by  either 
chemical  or  mechanical  action  a  per- 
centage of  water,  and  will  also  become 
improved  in  many  respects,  so  that  to 
temper  and  render  the  paper  soft  and 
pliable  and  adapt  it  for  most  com- 
mercial uses  it  is  subjected  to  moisture, 
which  penetrates  the  paper,  causing  a 
welling  in  all  directions,  filling  the 
interstices  perfectly  and  resulting  in 
"hydration"  throughout  the  entire  cel- 
lular structure.  Two  actions,  mechanical 
and  chemical,  appear  to  take  place,  the 
mechanical  action  being  the  temporary 
absorption  of  water  analogous  to  the  ab- 
sorption of  water  by  a  dry  sponge,  the 
chemical  action  being  the  permanent 
union  of  water  with  the  treated  paper, 
analogous  to  the  union  of  water  and 
tapioca,  causing  swelling,  or  like  the 
chemical  combination  of  water  with  lime 
or  cement.  For  this  purpose  it  is  pre- 
ferred to  pass  the  paper  into  a  bath 
of  hot  water,  saturated  steam  or  equiva- 
lent heat-and-moisture  medium,  thus 
causing  the  fibers  and  the  non-soluble 
glutinous  material  filling  the  interstices 
to  expand  in  all  directions  and  forcing 


WATERPROOFING— WAX 


753 


the  glutinous  material  into  all  the  mi- 
croscopic pores  or  openings  and  into  the 
masses  of  fiber,  causing  a  commingling 
or  thorough  incorporation  of  the  fibers 
and  the  glutinous  compound.  At  the 
same  time,  as  heretofore  indicated,  a 
change  (hydration)  takes  place,  whereby 
the  hardened  mass  of  fiber,  glutinous 
material,  and  formaldehyde  become 
tempered  and  softened  and  the  strength 
imparted  by  the  previous  treatment  in- 
creased. To  heighten  the  tempering  and 
softening*  effect,  glycerine  may,  in  some 
instances,  be  introduced  in  the  temper- 
ing bath,  and  in  most  cases  one  two- 
hundredths  in  volume  of  glycerine  gives 
the  best  results. 

The  paper  may  be  dried  in  any  con* 
venient  manner  and  is  in  condition  for 
most  commercial  uses,  it  being  greatly 
strengthened,  more  flexible,  more  im- 
pervious to  moisture,  acids,  grease,  or 
alkalies,  and  is  suitable  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  binding-twine,  carpets,  and  many 
novelties,  for  dry  wrappings  and  lining 
packing  cases,  etc.,  but  is  liable  to  have 
a  disagreeable  taste  and  may  carry 
traces  of  acids,  rendering  it  impracti- 
cable for  some  uses — for  instance,  wrap- 
ping butter,  meats,  cheese,  etc.,  after 
receiving  the  alkali  treatment.  The 
paper  is  also  valuable  as  a  packing  for 
joints  in  steam,  water,  and  otner  pipes  or 
connections.  For  the  purpose,  there- 
fore, of  rendering  the  material  absolutely 
free  from  all  traces  of  acidity  and  all 
taste  and  odors  and,  in  fact,  to  render  it 
absolutely  hygienic,  it  is  passed  through 
a  bath  of  water  and  a  volatile  alkali  (am- 
monium hydrate),  the  proportion  by  pref- 
erence in  a  majority  of  cases  being  one- 
hundredth  of  ammonium  hydrate  to 
ninety-nine  one-hundredths  of  water  by 
volume.  A  small  percentage  of  wood 
alcohol  may  be  added.  This  bath  is 
preferably  cool,  but  a  variation  in  its 
temperature  will  not  interfere  to  a  seri- 
ous extent  with  the  results.  The  effect  of 
this  bath  followed  by  drying  is  to  com- 
plete the  chemical  reaction  and  destroy 
all  taste  or  odor,  removing  all  traces 
of  acids  and  rendering  the  paper  hy- 
gienic in  all  respects.  The  material  may 
be  calendered  or  cut  and  used  for  any 
of  the  purposes  desired.  If  the  material 
is  to  be  subjected  to  the  volatile  alkali 
bath,  it  is  not  necessary  to  dry  it  be- 
tween the  tempering  and  volatile  alkali 
baths. 

The  paper  made  in  accordance  with 
the  foregoing  will,  it  is  claimed,  be  found 
to  be  greatly  strengthened,  some  ma- 
terials being  increased  in  strength  from 
100  to  700  per  cent.  It  will  be  non- 


absorbent  to  acids,  greases,  and  alkalies, 
and  substantially  waterproof,  and  owing 
to  its  component  integrate  structure  will 
be  practically  non-conductive  to  elec- 
tricity, adapting  it  as  a  superior  insu- 
lating material.  It  may  with  perfect  safety 
be  employed  for  wrapping  butter,  meats, 
spices,  groceries,  and  all  materials,  whether 
unctuous  or  otherwise. 

The  term  "hydration"  means  the  sub- 
jecting of  the  material  (after  treatment 
with  glutinous  material  and  formalde- 
hyde and  drying)  to  moisture,  whereby 
the  action  described  takes  place. 

•  A  sheet  or  web  of  paper  can  be  treated 
by  the  process  as  rapidly  as  it  is  manu- 
factured, as  the  time  for  exposure  to  the 
action  of  the  glutinous  material  need  not 
be  longer  than  the  time  required  for  it  to 
become  saturated,  this,  of  course,  vary- 
ing with  different  thicknesses  and 
densities,  and  the  length  of  time  of  ex- 
posure may  be  fixed  without  checking 
the  speed  by  making  the  tank  of  such 
length  that  the  requisite  time  will  elapse 
while  the  sheet  is  passing  through  it  and 
the  guides  so  arranged  as  to  maintain  the 
sheet  in  position  to  be  acted  on  by  such 
solution  the  requisite  length  of  time. 
Four  seconds'  exposure  to  the  action  of 
formaldehyde  is  found  sufficient  in  most 
cases. 

Waterproof  Ropes. — For  making  ropes 
and  lines  impervious  to  weatherr  the 
process  of  tarring  is  recommended,  which 
can  be  done  either  in  the  separate  strands 
or  after  the  rope  is  twisted.  An  addi- 
tion of  tallow  gives  greater  pliability. 

Waterproof  Wood.  —  I.  —  Soak  in  a 
mixture  of  boracic  acid,  6  parts;  ammo- 
nium chloride,  5  parts;  sodium  borate,  3 
parts,  and  water,  100  parts. 

II. — Saturate  in  a  solution  of  zinc 
chloride. 

Wax 

Adulteration  of  Wax. — Wax  is  adulter- 
ated with  the  following  among  other 
substances:  Rosins,  pitch,  flowers  of  sul- 
phur, starch,  fecula,  stearine,  paraffine, 
tallow,  palm  oil,  calcined  bones,  yellow 
ocher,  water,  and  wood  sawdust. 

Rosins  are  detected  by  cold  alcohol, 
which  dissolves  all  rosinous  substances 
and  exercises  no  action  on  the  wax.  The 
rosins  having  been  extracted  from  the 
alcoholic  solution  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  alcohol,  the  various  kinds  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  odors  disengaged 
by  burning  the  mass  several  times  on  a 
plate  of  heated  iron. 

All  earthy  substances  may  be  readily 


754 


WAX 


separated  frcm  wax  by  means  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  which  dissolves  the  wax,  while 
the  earthy  matters  form  a  residue. 

Oil  of  turpentine  also  completely  sepa- 
rates wax  from  starchy  substances,  which, 
like  earthy  matters,  do  not  dissolve, 
but  form  a  residue.  A  simpler  method 
consists  in  heating  the  wax  with  boiling 
water;  the  gelatinous  consistency  assumed 
by  the  water,  and  the  blue  coloration  in 
presence  of  iodine,  indicate  that  the  wax 
contains  starchy  substances.  Adultera- 
tion by  means  of  starch  and  fecula  is 
quite  frequent.  These  substances  are 
sometimes  added  to  the  wax  in  a  pro- 
portion of  nearly  60  per  cent.  To  sepa- 
rate either,  the  suspected  product  is 
treated  hot  with  very  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  (2  parts  of  acid  per  100  parts  of 
water).  All  amylaceous  substances,  con- 
verted into  dextrin,  remain  dissolved  in 
the  liquid,  while  the  wax,  in  cooling,  forms 
a  crust  on  the  surface.  It  is  taken  off 
and  weighed;  the  difference  between  its 
weight  and  that  of  the  product  analyzed 
will  give  the  quantity  of  the  amylaceous 
substances. 

Flowers  of  sulphur  are  recognized 
readily  from  the  odor  of  sulphurous  acid 
during  combustion  on  red-hot  iron. 

Tallow  may  be  detected  by  the  taste 
and  odor.  Pure  wax  has  an  aromatic, 
agreeable  taste,  while  that  mixed  with 
tallow  is  repulsive  both  in  taste  and 
smell.  Pure  wax,  worked  between  the 
fingers,  grows  soft,  preserving  a  certain 
cohesion  in  all  parts.  It  divides  into 
lumps,  which  adhere  to  the  fingers,  if  it 
is  mixed  with  tallow.  The  adulteration 
may  also  be  detected  by  the  thick  and 
nauseating  fumes  produced  when  it  is 
burned  on  heated  iron. 

Stearic  acid  may  be  recognized  by 
means  of  boiling  alcohol,  which  dissolves 
it  in  nearly  all  proportions  and  causes  it 
to  deposit  crystals  on  cooling,  while  it  is 
without  action  on  the  wax.  Blue  litmus 
paper,  immersed  in  alcohol  solution, 
reddens  on  drying  in  air,  and  thus  serves 
for  detecting  the  presence  of  stearic  acid. 

Ocher  is  found  by  treating  the  wax 
with  boiling  water.  A  lemon-yellow 
deposit  results,  which,  taken  up  with 
chlorhydric  acid,  yields  with  ammonia  a 
lemon-yellow  precipitate  of  ferric  oxide. 

The  powder  of  burnt  bones  separates 
and  forms  a  residue,  when  the  wax  is 
heated  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

Artificial  Beeswax. — This  is  obtained 
by  mixing  the  following  substances,  in  ap- 
proximately the  proportions  stated:  Paraf- 
fine, 45  parts,  by  weight;  white  Japan 
vegetable  wax,  3C  parts,  by  weight;  rosins, 


or  colophonies,  10  parts,  by  weight;  white 
pitch,  10  parts,  by  weight;  tallow,  5  parts, 
by  weight;  ceresine,  colorant,  0.030  parts, 
by  weight;  wax  perfume,  0.100  parts,  by 
weight.  If  desired,  the  paraffine  may  be 
replaced  with  ozokerite,  or  by  a  mixture 
of  vaseline  and  ozokerite,  for  the  purpose 
of  varying  the  fusing  temperature,  or 
rendering  it  more  advantageous  for  the 
various  applications  designed.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  method  of  preparation: 
Melt  on  the  boiling  water  bath,  shaking 
constantly,  the  paraffine,  the  Japan  wax, 
the  rosins,  the  pitch,  and  the  tallow. 
When  the  fusion  is  complete,  add  the 
colorant  and  the  perfume.  When  these 
products  are  perfectly  mingled,  remove 
from  the  fire,  allow  the  mixture  to  cool, 
and  run  it  into  suitable  molds.  The  wax 
thus  obtained  may  be  employed  specially 
for  encaustics  for  furniture  and  floors,  or 
for  purposes  where  varnish  is  employed. 

Waxes  for  Floors,  Furniture,  etc. — 

I. — White  beeswax 16  parts 

Colophony 4  parts 

Venice  turpentine. .      1  part 

Melt  the  articles  together  over  a  gentle 
fire,  and  when  completely  melted  and 
homogeneous,  pour  into  a  sizable  earthen- 
ware vessel,  and  stir  in,  while  still  warm, 
o  parts  of  the  best  French  turpentine. 
Cool  for  24  hours,  by  which  time  the 
mass  has  acquired  the  consistence  of  soft 
butter,  and  is  ready  for  use.  Its  method 
of  use  is  very  simple.  It  is  smeared,  in 
small  quantities,  on  woolen  cloths,  and 
with  these  is  rubbed  into  the  wood. 

This  is  the  best  preparation,  but  one  in 
which  the  beeswax  is  merely  dissolved 
in  the  turpentine  in  such  a  way  as  to  have 
the  consistence  of  a  not  too  thin  oil  color, 
will  answer.  The  wood  is  treated  with 
this,  taking  care  that  the  surface  is 
evenly  covered  with  the  mixture,  and  that 
it  does  not  sink  too  deeply  in  the  orna- 
ments, corners,  etc.,  of  the  woodwork. 
This  is  best  achieved  by  taking  care  to 
scrape  off  from  the  cloths  all  excess  of 
the  wax. 

If,  in  the  course  of  24  hours,  the  sur- 
face is  hard,  then  with  a  stiff  brush  go 
over  it,  much  after  the  way  of  polishing 
a  boot.  For  the  corners  and  angles 
smaller  brushes  are  used;  when  necessary, 
stiff  pencils  may  be  employed.  Finally, 
the  whole  is  polished  with  plush,  or 
velvet  rags,  in  order  not  to  injure  the  orig- 
inal polish.  Give  the  article  a  good  coat 
of  linseed  oil  or  a  washing  with  petro- 
leum before  beginning  work. 

II. — Articles  that  are  always  exposed 
to  the  water,  floors,  doors,  especially  of 
oak,  should,  from  time  to  time,  be  satu 


WAX 


755 


rated  with  oil  or  wax.  A  house  door, 
plentifully  decorated  with  wood  carving, 
will  not  shrink  or  warp,  even  where  the 
sun  shines  hottest  on  it,  when  it  is  fre- 
quently treated  to  saturation  with  wax 
and  oil.  Here  a  plain  dosage  with  lin- 
seed oil  is  sufficient.  Varnish,  without 
the  addition  of  turpentine,  should  never 
be  used,  or  if  used  it  should  be  followed 
by  a  coat  of  wax. 

III. — A  good  floor  wax  is  composed  of 
2  parts  of  wax  and  3  parts  of  Venice 
turpentine,  melted  on  the  water  bath,  and 
the  mixture  applied  while  still  hot,  using 
a  pencil,  or  brush,  for  the  application, 
and  when  it  has  become  solid  and  dry, 
diligently  rubbed,  or  polished  down  with 
a  woolen  cloth,  or  with  a  floor  brush, 
especially  made  for  the  purpost,. 

IV. — An  emulsion  of  5  parts  of  yellow 
wax,  2  parts  of  crude  potassium  carbon- 
ate, and  12  parts  of  water,  boiled  to- 
gether until  they  assume  a  milky  color 
and  the  solids  are  dissolved,  used  cold, 
makes  an  excellent  composition  for  floors. 
Any  desired  color  may  be  given  this 
dressing  by  stirring  in  the  powdered  col- 
oring matter.  Use  it  exactly  as  de- 
scribed for  the  first  mass. 

Gilders*  Wax. — For  the  production  of 
various  colorings  of  gold  in  fire  gilding, 
the  respective  places  are  frequently 
covered  with  so-called  gilders'  wax. 
These  consist  of  mixtures  of  various 
chemicals  which  have  an  etching  action 
in  the  red  heat  upon  the  bronze  mass, 
thus  causing  roughness  of  unequal  depth, 
as  well  as  through  the  fact  that  the  com- 
position of  the  bronze  is  changed  some- 
what on  the  surface,  a  relief  of  the  gold 
color  being  effected  in  consequence  of 
these  two  circumstances.  The  gilding 
wax  is  prepared  by  melting  together  the 
finely  powdered  chemicals  with  wax  ac- 
cording to  the  following  recipes: 

I      II    III   IV      V 

Yellow  wax 32     32     32     96     36 

Red  chalk 3'     24     18     48     18 

Verdigris 2       4      18     32     18 

Burnt  alum 2       4     —     —     — 

Burnt  borax —     —       2        1        3 

Copper  ash —       4        6     20       8 

Zinc  vitriol —     —     —     32      18 

Green  vitriol —     —     —        1        6 

Grafting  Wax. — 

I. — Beeswax 7      parts 

Purified  rosin 12      parts 

Turpentine 3      parts 

Rape  oil 1      part 

Venice  turpentine.. . .  2.5  parts 

Zinc  white 2.5  parts 

Color  yellow  with  turmer.ic. 


II. — Japan  wax 1  part 

Yellow  wax 3  parts 

Rosin 8  parts 

Turpentine 4  parts 

Hard  paraffine 1  part 

Suet 3  parts 

Venice  turpentine. ...  6  parts 

Harness  Wax.— 

Oil  of  turpentine 90      parts 

Wax,  yellow 9      parts 

Prussian  blue 1      part 

Indigo 0.5  parts 

Bone  black 5      parts 

Dissolve  the  wax  in  the  oil  by  aid  of  a 
low  heat,  on  a  water  bath.  Mix  the  re- 
maining ingredients,  which  must  be  well 
powdered,  and  work  up  with  a  portion  of 
the  solution  of  wax.  Finally,  add  the 
mixture  to  the  solution,  and  mix  thor- 
oughly on  the  bath.  When  a  homogene- 
ous liquid  is  obtained,  pour  into  earthen 
boxes. 

Modeling  Wax.  —  I.  —  Yellow  wax, 
1,000  parts;  Venice  turpentine,  130  parts; 
lard,  65  parts;  bole,  725  parts.  The 
mixture  when  still  liquid  is  poured  into 
tepid  water  and  kneaded  until  a  plastic 
mass  is  obtained. 

II. — Summer  Modeling  Wax. — White 
wax,  20  parts;  ordinary  turpentine,  4 
parts;  sesame  oil,  1  part;  vermilion,  2 
parts. 

III.— Winter  Modeling  Wax.— White 
wax,  20  parts;  ordinary  turpentine,  6 
parts;  sesame  oil,  2  parts;  vermilion,  2 
parts.  Preparation  same  as  for  Formula  I . 

Sealing  Waxes. — The  following  for- 
mulas may  be  followed  for  making  seal- 
ing wax:  Take  4  pounds  of  shellac,  1 
pound  of  Venice  turpentine,  and  3  pounds 
of  vermilion.  Melt  the  lac  in  a  copper 
pan  suspended  over  a  clear  charcoal  fire, 
then  add  the  turpentine  slowly  to  it,  and 
soon  afterwards  add  the  vermilion,  stir- 
ring briskly  all  the  time  with  a  rod  in 
either  hand.  In  forming  the  round  sticks 
of  sealing  wax,  a  certain  portion  of  the 
mass  should  be  weighed  while  it  is  duc- 
tile, divided  into  the  desired  number  of 
pieces,  and  then  rolled  out  upon  a  warm 
marble  slab  by  means  of  a  smooth  wooden 
block  like  that  used  by  apothecaries  for 
rolling  a  mass  of  pills. 

The  oval  and  square  sticks  of  sealing 
wax  are  cast  in  molds,  with  the  above 
compound,  in  a  state  of  fusion.  The 
marks  of  the  lines  of  junction  of  the 
mold  box  may  be  afterwards  removed  by 
holding  the  sticks  over  a  clear  fire,  or 
passing  them  over  a  blue  gas  flame. 
Marbled  sealing  wax  is  made  by  mixing 


756 


WAX— WEATHER   FORECASTERS 


two,  three,  or  more  colored  kinds  to- 
gether while  they  are  in  a  semi-fluid 
state.  From  the  viscidity  of  the  several 
portions  their  incorporation  is  left  in- 
complete, so  as  to  produce  the  appearance 
of  marbling.  Gold  sealing  wax  is  made 
simply  by  adding  gold  chrome  instead  of 
vermilion  into  the  melted  rosins.  Wax 
may  be  scented  by  introducing  a  little 
essential  oil,  essence  of  musk,  or  other 
perfume.  If  1  part  of  balsam  of  Peru  be 
melted  along  with  99  parts  of  the  seal- 
ing-wax composition,  an  agreeable  fra- 
grance will  be  exhaled  in  the  act  of  sealing 
with  it.  Either  lampblack  or  ivory  black 
serves  for  the  coloring  matter  of  black 
wax.  Sealing  wax  is  often  adulterated 
with  rosin,  in  which  case  it  runs  into  thin 
drops  at  the  flame  of  a  candle. 

The  following  mistakes  are  some- 
times made  in  the  manufacture  of  sealing 
wax: 

I. — Use  of  filling  agents  which  are  too 
coarsely  ground. 

II. — Excessive  use  of  filling  agents. 

III. — Insufficient  binding  of  the  pig- 
ments and  fillings  with  a  suitable  ad- 
hesive agent,  which  causes  these  bodies 
to  absorb  the  adhesive  power  of  the 
gums. 

IV. — Excessive  heating  of  the  mass, 
caused  by  improper  melting  or  faulty 
admixture  of  the  gummy  bodies.  Tur- 
pentine and  rosin  must  be  heated  before 
entering  the  shellac.  If  this  rule  is  in- 
verted, as  is  often  the  case,  the  shellac 
sticks  to  the  bottom  and  burns  partly. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  mix  the 
coloring  matter  to  a  paste  with  spirit  or 
oil  of  turpentine  before  adding  to  the 
other  ingredients.  Unless  this  is  done 
the  wax  will  not  be  of  a  regular  tint. 

Dark  Blue  Wax. — Three  ounces  Vene- 
tian turpentine,  4  ounces  shellac,  1  ounce 
rosin,  1  ounce  Prussian  blue,  \  ounce 
magnesia. 

Green  Wax. — Two  ounces  Venetian 
turpentine,  4  ounces  shellac,  1J  ounces 
rosin,  \  ounce  chrome  yellow,  \  ounce 
Prussian  blue,  1  ounce  magnesia. 

Carmine  Red  Wax. — One  ounce  Vene- 
tian turpentine,  4  ounces  shellac,  1  ounce 
rosin,  colophony,  1  \  ounces  Chinese  red, 
1  drachm  magnesia,  with  oil  of  turpen- 
tine. 

Gold  Wax.  —  Four  ounces  Venetian 
turpentine,  8  ounces  shellac,  14  sheets  of 
genuine  leaf  gold,  \  ounce  bronze,  \ 
ounce  magnesia,  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

White  Wax.— I.— The  wax  is  bleached 
by  exposing  to  moist  air  and  to  the  sun, 


but  it  must  first  be  prepared  in  thin 
sheets  or  ribbons  or  in  grains.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  first  washed,  to  free  it  from 
the  honey  which  may  adhere,  melted, 
and  poured  into  a  tin  vessel,  whose  bot- 
tom is  perforated  with  narrow  slits. 
The  melted  wax  falls  in  a  thin  stream 
on  a  wooden  cylinder  arranged  below 
and  half  immersed  in  cold  water.  This 
cylinder  is  turned,  and  the  wax,  rolling 
round  in  thin  leaves,  afterwards  falls  in- 
to the  water.  To  melt  it  in  grains,  a 
vessel  is  made  use  of,  perforated  with 
small  openings,  which  can  be  rotated. 
The  wax  is  projected  in  grains  into  the 
cold  water.  It  is  spread  on  frames  of 
muslin,  moistened  with  water  several 
times  a  day,  and  exposed  to  the  sun  until 
the  wax  assumes  a  fine  white.  This 
whiteness,  however,  is  not  perfect.  The 
operation  of  melting  and  separating  into 
ribbons  or  grains  must  be  renewed. 
Finally,  it  is  melted  and  flowed  into 
molds.  The  duration  of  the  bleaching 
may  be  abridged  by  adding  to  the  wax, 
treated  as  above,  from  1.25  to  1.75  per 
cent  of  rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  free 
from  rosin.  In  6  or  8  days  a  result  will 
be  secured  which  would  otherwise  re- 
quire 5  or  6  weeks. 

II. — Bleached  shellac. ....  28  parts 
Venetian  turpentine..  13  parts 
Plaster  of  Paris 30  parts 

WAX  FOR  BOTTLES: 

See  Photography. 

WAX,  BURNING,  TRICK: 

See  Pyrotechnics. 

WAXES,  DECOMPOSITION  OF: 
See  Oil. 

WAX  FOR  IRONING: 

See  Laundry  Preparations. 

WAX  FpR  LINOLEUM: 

See  Linoleum. 


Weather  Forecasters 

(See  also  Hygrometers  and  Hygroscopes.) 

I. — It  is  known  that  a  leaf  of  blotting 
paper  or  a  strip  of  fabric  made  to  change 
color  according  to  the  hygrometric  state 
of  the  atmosphere  has  been  employed 
for  weather  indications  in  place  of  a 
barometer.  The  following  compound  is 
recommended  for  this  purpose:  One  part 
of  cobalt  chloride,  75  parts  of  nickel 
oxide,  20  parts  of  gelatin,  and  200  parts 
of  water.  A  strip  of  calico,  soaked  in 
this  solution,  will  appear  green  in  fine 
weather,  but  when  moisture  intervenes 
the  color  disappears. 


WEATHER   FORECASTERS 


757 


II. — Copper  chloride.  ...        1  part 

Gelatin 10  parts 

Water 100  parts 

III. — This  is  a  method  of  making  old- 
fashioned  weather  glasses  containing  a 
liquid  that  clouds  or  solidifies  under 
certain  atmospheric  conditions: 

Camphor 2^-  drachms 

Alcohol 11     drachms 

Water 9     drachms 

Saltpeter 38     grains 

Sal  ammoniac.  ...  38  grains 
Dissolve  the  camphor  in  the  alcohol 
and  the  salts  in  the  water  and  mix  the 
solutions  together.  Pour  in  test  tubes, 
cover  with  wax  after  corking  and  make  a 
hole  through  the  cork  with  a  red-hot 
needle,  or  draw  out  the  tube  until  only  a 
pin  hole  remains.  When  the  camphor, 
etc.,  appear  soft  and  powdery,  and 
almost  filling  the  tube,  rain  with  south  or 
southwest  winds  may  be  expected;  when 
crystalline,  north,  northeast,  or  north- 
west winds,  with  fine  weather,  may  be 
expected;  when  a  portion  crystallizes 
on  one  side  of  the  tube,  wind  may  be 
expected  from  that  direction.  Fine 
weather:  The  substance  remains  entirely 
at  bottom  of  tube  and  the  liquid  per- 
fectly clear.  Coming  rain:  Substance 
will  rise  gradually,  liquid  will  be  very 
clear,  with  a  small  star  in  motion.  A 
coming  storm  or  very  high  wind:  Sub- 
stance partly  at  top  of  tube,  and  of  a 
leaflike  form,  liquid  very  heavy  and  in 
a  fermenting  state.  These  effects  are 
noticeable  24  hours  before  the  change  sets 
in.  In  winter:  Generally  the  substance 
lies  higher  in  the  tube.  Snow  or  white 
frost:  Substance  very  white  and  small 
stars  in  motion.  Summer  weather:  The 
substance  will  lie  quite  low.  The  sub- 
stance will  lie  closer  to  the  tube  on  the 
opposite  side  to  the  quarter  from  which 
the  storm  is  coming.  The  instrument  is 
nothing  more  than  a  scientific  toy. 

WEATHERPROOFING : 

See  Paints. 

WEED  KILLERS: 

See  Disinfectants. 

Weights  and  Measures 

INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS. 

The  International  Committee  on 
Atomic  Weights  have  presented  this 


table  as  corrected: 

Aluminum Al 

Antimony Sb 

Argon A 


O=16 
27.1 

120.2 
39.9 


26.9 

119.3 

39.6 


O  =  16 

H=l 

Arsenic  

As 

75 

74.4 

Barium  

Ba 

137.4 

136.4 

Bismuth  

Bi 

208.5 

206.9 

Boron  

B 

11 

10.9 

Bromine  

Br 

79.96 

79.36 

Cadmium  

Cd 

112.4 

111.6 

Caesium  

Cs 

132.9 

131.9 

Calcium  

Ca 

40.1 

39.7 

Carbon  

C 

12 

11.91 

Cerium  

Ce 

140.25 

139.2 

Chlorine  

Cl 

35.45 

35.18 

Chromium  

Cr 

52.1 

51.7 

Cobalt  .  .  

Co 

59 

58.55 

Columbium.  .  .  . 

Cb 

94 

93.3 

Copper  
Erbium  

Cu 
Er 

63.6 
166 

63.1 
164.8 

Fluorine  

F 

19 

18.9 

Gadolinium..  .-. 

Gd 

156 

154.8 

Gallium  

Ga 

70 

69.5 

Germanium..  .  . 

Ge 

72.5 

72 

Glucinum  

Gl 

9.1 

9.03 

Gold  

Au 

197.2 

195.7 

Helium  

He 

4 

4 

Hydrogen  

H 

1.008 

1 

Indium  

In 

115 

114.1 

Iodine  

I 

126.97 

126.01 

Iridium  

Ir 

193 

191.5 

Iron  

Fe 

55.9 

55.5 

Krypton  

Kr 

81.8 

81.2 

Lanthanum.  .  .  . 

La 

138.9 

137.9 

Lead  

Pb 

206.9 

205.35 

Lithium  

Li 

7.03 

6.98 

Magnesium.  .  .  . 

Mg 

24.36 

24.18 

Manganese  .  .  .  . 

Mn 

55 

54.6 

Mercury  

Hg 

200 

198.5 

Molybdenum  .  . 

,.  _P 
Mo 

96 

95.3 

Neodymium..  .  . 

Nd 

143.6 

142.5 

Neon  

Ne 

20 

19.9 

Nickel  

Ni 

58.7 

58.3 

Nitrogen  

N 

14.04 

13.93 

Osmium  

Os 

191 

189.6 

Oxygen  

O 

16 

15.88 

Palladium  

Pd 

106.5 

105.7 

Phosphorus.  .  .  . 

P 

31 

30.77 

Platinum  

Pt 

194.8 

193.3 

Potassium  

K 

39.15 

38.85 

Praseodymium  . 

Pr 

140.5 

139.4 

Radium  

Ra 

225 

223.3 

Rhodium  

Rh 

103 

102.2 

Rubidium  

Rb 

85.5 

84.9 

Ruthenium  .... 

Ru 

101.7 

100.9 

Samarium  

Sm 

150.3 

149.2 

Scandium  

Sc 

44.1 

43.8 

Selenium  

Se 

79.2 

78.6 

Silicon  

Si 

28.4 

28.2 

Silver  

Ag 

107.93 

107.11 

Sodium  

Na 

23.05 

22.88 

Strontium  

Sr 

87.6 

86.94 

Sulphur  

S 

32.06 

31.82 

Tantalum  

Ta 

183 

181.6 

Tellurium  

Te 

127.6 

126.6 

Terbium  

Tb 

160 

158.8 

Thallium  

Tl 

204.1 

202.6 

758 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 


INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS— Continued. 


Thorium Th 

Thulium Tm 

Tin Sn 

Titanium Ti 

Tungsten W 

Uranium U 


O=16 
232.5 
171 
119 
48.1 
184 
238.5 


H=l 

230.8 
169.7 
118.1 
47.7 
182.6 
236.7 


Vanadium V 

Xenon Xe 

Ytterbium Yb 

Yttrium Yt 

Zinc Zn 

Zirconium.  .      .  Zr 


O=16 
51.2 

128 

173 
89 
65.4 
90.6 


50.8 
127 
171.7 

88.3 
64.9 
89.9 


UNITED  STATES  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

(According  to  existing  standards) 


12  inches  =1  foot. 
3  feet  =  1  yard. 
5  .  5  yards  =  1  rod. 
40  rods=l  furlong. 
8  furlongs  =  1  mile. 

LINEAL 

Inches.       Feet. 
12  =          1 
36=          3 
198=        16. 
7,920=      660 
63,360=  5,280 

KMB 

Yards 

1 
5. 
220 
1,760 

.    Rods 

5=      1 
=    40 
=  320 

Fur's.  Mile. 

=    1 

=   8=1 

144  sq.  inches  =  1  square  foot. 
9  square  feet=  1  square  yard. 
30.25  square  yards  =  1  square  rod 
40  square  rods  =  1  square  rood. 
4  square  roods  =  1  acre. 
640  acres  =  1  square  mile. 


Rods.     Roods.  Acres. 


SURFACE— LAND 

Feet.  Yards. 

9=1 

272.25=         30.25=  1 

10,890=         1,210=  40=         1 

43,560=         4,840=         160=         4=      1 
27,878,400  =  3,097,600=102,400  =  2,560  =  640 

VOLUME— LIQUID 


4  gills      =  1  pint. 
2  pints    =  1  quart. 
4  quarts  =  1  gallon. 


Gills.  Pints.  Gallon.  Cub.  In. 
32  =  8     =     1      =231 


FLUID  MEASURE 

Gallon.    Pints.    Ounces.       Drachms.       Minims.  Cubic  Centimeters. 

1      =      8     =      128      =      1,024     =      61,440  =      3,785.435 

1      =        16     =         128     =        7,680  =         473.179 

1      =  8     =  480  =  29.574 

1     =  60  =  3.697 

16  ounces,  or  a  pint,  is  sometimes  called  a  fluidpound. 

TROY  WEIGHT 

Pound.  Ounces.       Pennyweights.          Grains.  Grams. 

1          =          12          =          240          =          5,760          =          373.24 

1          =  20          =  480          =  31.10 

1          =  24  1.56 


APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT 

ib.  3  3  3 

Pound.   Ounces.  Drachms.  Scruples. 
1      =      12      =      96     =      288      = 
24     = 
3     = 


96 
8     = 
1      = 


gr. 

Grains. 
5,760 

480 
60 


Grams 
373.24 
31.10 
3.89 

1      =  20     =          1.30 

1      =  .06 

The  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  are  the  same  as  in  Troy  weight. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT 

Pound.  Ounces.  Drachms.  Grains  (Troy)         Grams. 

1      =      16     =      256     =       7,000  =      453.60 

1      =        16     =          437.5        =        28.35 

1      =  27.34     =          1.77 

ENGLISH    WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES 


APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT 

20  grains      =  1  scruple  =        20  grains 

3  scruples  =  1  dracnm  =        60  grains 

8  drachms  =  1  ounce     =     480  grains 

12  ounces     =  1  pound    =  5,760  grains 

FLUID  MEASURE 
60  minims     =  1  fluidrachm 
8  drachms  =  1  fluidounce 
20  ounces     =  1  pint 

8  pints         =  1  gallon 
The  above  weights  are  usually  adopted 
in  formulas. 


All  chemicals  are  usually  sold  by 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT 

27 J£  grains  =1  drachm  =  27 J£  grains 
16  drachms  =  1  ounce  =  437?  grains 
16  ounces  =  1  pound  =7,000  grains 

Precious  metals  are  usually  sold  by 

TROY  WEIGHT 

24  grains  =  1  pennyweight  =       24  grains 

20  penny  weights  =  1  ounce  =     480  grains 

1 2  ounces  =  1  pound  =5,760  grains 

NOTE. — An  ounce  of  metallic  silver  contains 
480  grains,  but  an  ounce  of  nitrate  of  silver  con- 
tains only  437?  grains. 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 


759 


METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
MEASURES  OF  LENGTH 


DENOMINATIONS  AND 

VALUES. 

EQUIVALENTS  IN  USE. 

Myriameter.  . 

10,000  meters 

6.2137    miles 

Kilometer  
Hectometer  . 

1  ,000  meters 
100  meters 

.62137  miles,  or  3,280  feet,  10  inches 
328              feet  and  1  inch 

10  meters 

393.7          inches 

Meter  

1  meter 
1-1  Oth  of  a  meter 

39.37        inches 
3.937      inches 

Centimeter  
Millimeter  ... 

l-100th  of  a  meter 
1-1,  000th  of  a  meter 

.3937    inches 
.0394    inches 

MEASURES  OF  SURFACE 


DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 


EQUIVALENTS  IN  USE. 


Hectare..  . 

Are 

Centare.  .. 


10,000  square  meters 

100  square  meters 

1  square  meter 


2.471  acres 
119.6      square  yards 
1 ,550         square  inches 


MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 


DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 


EQUIVALENTS  IN  USE. 


NAMES. 

No.  OF 
LITERS. 

CUBIC  MEASURES. 

DRY  MEASURE. 

WINE  MEASURE. 

Kiloliter  or  stere. 
Hectoliter. 

Dekaliter  
Liter  

1,000 
100 

10 
1 

1  cubic  meter 
1-1  Oth  cubic  meter 

10  cubic  decimeters 
1  cubic  decimeter 

1.308    cubic  yards 
2            bushels    and 
3.35  pecks 
9.08      quarts 
.908    quarts 

264.17      gallons 
26.417    gallons 

2.6417  gallons 
1.0567  quarts 

Deciliter  
Centiliter  
Milliliter  

1-10 
1-100 
1-1,000 

l-10th  cubic  decimeter 
10  cubic  centimeters 
1  cubic  centimeter 

6.1023  cubic  inches 
.6102  cubic  inches 
.061    cubic  inches 

.845    gills 
.338    fluidounces 
.27      fluidrachms 

WEIGHTS 


DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 

EQUIVALENTS 
IN  USE. 

NAMES. 

NUMBER 
OF  GRAMS. 

WEIGHT  OF  VOLUME  OF  WATER 
AT  ITS  MAXIMUM  DENSITY. 

AVOIRDUPOIS 
WEIGHT. 

Millier  or  Tonneau 

1,000,000 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
1 
1-10 
1-100 
1-1,000 

1  cubic  meter 
1  hectoliter 
10  liters 
1  liter 
1  deciliter 
10  cubic  centimeters 
1  cubic  centimeter 
l-10th  of  a  cubic  centimeter 
10  cubic  millimeters 
1  cubic  millimeter 

2,204.6        pounds 
220.46      pounds 
22.046    pounds 
2.2046  pounds 
3.5274  ounces 
.3527  ounces 
15.432    grains 
1.5432  grains 
.1543  grains 
.0154  grains 

Quintal  

Kilogram  or  Kilo  
Hectogram.  ... 

Gram  

Centigram  

Milligram  . 

For  measuring  surfaces,  the  square  dekameter  is  used  under  the  term  of  ARE  ;  the  hectare, 
or  100  ares,  is  equal  to  about  2|  acres.  The  unit  of  capacity  is  the  cubic  decimeter  or  LITER, 
and  the  series  of  measures  is  formed  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  table  of  lengths.  The 
cubic  meter  is  the  unit  of  measure  for  solid  bodies,  and  is  termed  STERE.  The  unit  of  weight 
is  the  GRAM,  which  is  the  weight  of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  pure  water  weighed  in  a  vacuum 
at  the  temperature  of  4°  C.  or  39.2°  F.,  which  is  about  its  temperature  of  maximum  density. 
In  practice,  the  term  cubic  centimeter,  abbreviated  c.c.,  is  generally  used  instead  of  milliliter, 
and  cubic  meter  instead  of  kilbliter. 


760 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   METRIC   INTO   ENGLISH    WEIGHT 

The  following  table,  which  contains  no  error  greater  than  one-tenth  of  a  grain,  will 
suffice  for  most  practical  purposes: 

1  gram  =  15§  grains 

2  grams  =  30|  grains 

3  grams  =  46^  grains 

4  grams  =  61  f  grains,  or  1  drachm,      1|  grains 

5  grams  =  77g  grains,  or  1  drachm,    17£  grains 

6  grams  =  92f  grains,  or  1  drachm,    32f  grains 

7  grams  =  108    grains,  or  1  drachm,    48  grains 

8  grams  =  123§  grains,  or  2  drachms,    3§  grains 

9  grams  =  138f  grains,  or  2  drachms,  18*  grains 
10grams=  154§  grains,  or  2  drachms,  34f  grains 

11  grams  =  1691  grains,  or    2  drachms,  49|  grains 

12  grams=  185£  grains,  or    3  drachms,  5£  grains 

13  grams  =  200f  grains,  or    3  drachms,  20|  grains 

14  grams  =  216    grains,  or    3  drachms,  36   grains 

1 5  grams  =  23  If  grains ,  or    3  drachms ,  5 1  §  grains 
16grams=  247    grains,  or    4  drachms,    7   grains 

17  grams  =    262|  grains,  or    4  drachms,  22 f  grains 

18  grams  =    277|  grains,  or    4  drachms,  37f  grains 
19grams=     293^  grains,  or    4  drachms,  53&  grains 
20  grams  =     308§  grains,  or    5  drachms,    8g  grains 
30  grams  =     463    grains,  or    7  drachms,  43   grains 
40  grams  =     6 1 7£  grains ,  or  1 0  drachms ,  1 7£  grains 
50  grams  =     77 If  grains,  or  12  drachms,  51§  grains 
60  grams  =     926    grains,  or  15  drachms,  26   grains 
70  grams  =  1 ,080s  grains,  or  18  drachms,    Q£  grains 
80  grams  =  1 ,234f  grains,  or  20  drachms,  34f  grains 
90  grams  =  1 ,389    grains,  or  23  drachms,    9   grains 

100  grams=  1,543£  grains,  or  25  drachms,  43£  grains 
1,000  grams  =  1  kilogram  =32  ounces,  1  drachm,  12§  grains 


THE  CONVERSION  OF  METRIC  INTO  ENGLISH  MEASURE 


1  cubic  centimeter  = 

2  cubic  centimeters  = 

3  cubic  centimeters  = 

4  cubic  centime  ters  = 

5  cubic  centimeters = 

6  cubic  centimeters  = 

7  cubic  centime  ters= 

8  cubic  centimeters= 

9  cubic  centimeters  = 
10  cubic  centimeters  = 
20  cubic  centime ters= 
30  cubic  centimeters  = 
40  cubic  centime  ters  = 
50  cubic  centime ters= 
60  cubic  centime ters= 
70  cubic  centimeters  = 
80  cubic  centimeters  = 
90  cubic  cent!  meters  = 

100  cubic  centimeters  = 
1,000  cubic  centimeters' 


17  minims 
34  minims 
51  minims 

••       68  minims,  or  1  drachm,     8  minims 
85  minims,  or  1  drachm,   25  minims 
!     101  minims,  or  1  drachm,   41  minims 
1 18  minims,  or  1  drachm,   58  minims 
'     135  minims,  or  2  drachms,  15  minims 
••     152  minims,  or  2  drachms,  32  minims 
169  minims,  or  2  drachms,  49  minims 
338  minims,  or  5  drachms,  38  minims 
507  minims,  or  1  ounce,  0  drachm,   27  minims 
=     676  minims,  or  1  ounce,  3  drachms,  16  minims 
••     845  minims,  or  1  ounce,   6  drachms,    5  minima 
1,014  minims,  or  2  ounces,  0  drachms,  54  minims 
1,183  minims,  or  2  ounces,  3  drachms,  43  minims 
1 ,352  minims,  or  2  ounces,  6  drachms,  32  minims 
•1,521  minims,  or  3  ounces,  1  drachm,   21  minims 
1 ,690  minims,  or  3  ounces,  4  drachms,  10  minims 
>  1  liter  =  34  fluidounces  nearly,  or  2&  pints. 


WELDING    POWDERS— WHITEWASH 


761 


WELDING  POWDERS. 

See  also  Steel. 

Powder  to  Weld  Wrought  Iron  at  Pale- 
red  Heat  with  Wrought  Iron. — I. — Borax, 
1  part  (by  weight);  sal  ammoniac,  \  part; 
water,  \  part.  These  ingredients  are 
boiled  with  constant  stirring  until  the 
mass  is  stiff;  then  it  is  allowed  to  harden 
over  the  fire.  Upon  cooling,  the  mass  is 
rubbed  up  into  a  powder  and  mixed  with 
one-third  wrought-iron  filings  free  from 
rust.  When  the  iron  has  reached  red 
heat,  this  powder  is  sprinkled  on  the 
parts  to  be  welded,  and  after  it  has 
liquefied,  a  few  blows  are  sufficient  to 
unite  the  pieces. 

II.  —  Borax,  2  parts;  wrought-iron 
filings,  free  from  rust,  2  parts;  sal  am- 
moniac, 1  part.  These  pulverized  parts 
are  moistened  with  copaiba  balsam  and 
made  into  a  paste,  then  slowly  dried  over 
a  fire  and  again  powdered.  The  applica- 
tion is  the  same  as  for  Formula  I. 

Welding  Powder  to  Weld  Steel  on 
Wrought  Iron  at  Pale -red  Heat. — Borax, 
3  parts;  potassium  cyanide,  2  parts; 
Berlin  blue,  1-100  part.  These  substances 
are  powdered  well,  moistened  with  water; 
next  they  are  boiled  with  constant  stirring 
until  stiff;  then  dry  over  a  fire.  Upon 
cooling,  the  mass  is  finely  pulverized  and 
mixed  with  1  part  of  wrought-iron  filings, 
free  from  rust.  This  powder  is  sprinkled 
repeatedly  upon  the  hot  pieces,  and  after 
it  nas  burned  in  the  welding  is  taken  in 
hand. 

WHEEL  GREASE: 

See  Lubricants. 

WHETSTONES. 

To  make  artificial  whetstones,  take 
gelatin  of  good  quality,  dissolve  it  in 
equal  weight  of  water,  operating  in 
almost  complete  darkness,  and  add  \\ 
per  cent  of  bichromate  of  potash,  pre- 
viously dissolved.  Next  take  about  9 
times  the  weight  of  the  gelatin  employed 
of  very  fine  emery  or  fine  powdered  gun 
stone,  which  is  mixed  intimately  with  the 
gelatinized  solution.  The  paste  thus  ob- 
tained is  molded  into  the  desired  shape, 
taking  care  to  exercise  an  energetic 
pressure  in  order  to  consolidate  the  mass. 
Finally  dry  by  exposure  to  the  sun. 

WHITING: 

To  Form  Masses  of  Whiting. — Mix 
the  whiting  into  a  stiff  paste  with  water, 
and  the  mass  will  retain  its  coherence 
when  dry. 


Whitewash 

(See  also  Paint.) 

Wash  the  ceiling  by  wetting  it  twice 
with  water,  laying  on  as  much  88  can 
well  be  floated  on,  then  rub  the  old 
color  up  with  a  stumpy  brush  and  wipe 
off  with  a  large  sponge.  Stop  all  cracks 
with  whiting  and  plaster  of  Paris.  When 
dry,  claricole  with  size  and  a  little  of  the 
whitewash  when  this  is  dry.  If  very 
much  stained,  paint  those  parts  with 
turps,  color,  and,  if  necessary,  claricole 
again.  To  make  the  whitewash,  take  a 
dozen  pounds  of  whiting  (in  large  balls), 
break  them  up  in  a  pail,  and  cover  with 
water  to  soak.  During  this  time  melt 
over  a  slow  fire  4  pounds  common  size, 
and  at  the  same  time,  with  a  palette 
knife  or  small  trowel,  rub  up  fine  about  a 
dessertspoonful  of  blue-black  with  water 
to  a  fine  paste;  then  pour  the  water  off 
the  top  of  the  whiting  and  with  a  stick 
stir  in  the  black;  when  well  mixed,  stir  in 
the  melted  size  and  strain.  When  cold, 
it  is  fit  for  use.  If  the  jelly  is  too  stiff  for 
use,  beat  it  up  well  and  add  a  little  cold 
water.  Commence  whitewashing  over 
the  window  and  so  work  from  the  light. 
Distemper  color  of  any  tint  may  be 
made  by  using  any  other  color  instead  of 
the  blue-black — as  ocher,  chrome,  Dutch 
pink,  raw  sienna  for  yellows  and  buff; 
Venetian  red,  burnt  sienna,  Indian  red  or 
purple  brown  for  reds;  celestial  blue, 
ultramarine,  indigo  for  blues;  red  and 
blue  for  purple,  gray  or  lavender;  red 
lead  and  chrome  for  orange;  Brunswick 
green  for  greens. 

Ox  blood  in  lime  paint  is  an  excellent 
binding  agent  for  the  lime,  as  it  is  chief- 
ly composed  of  albumin,  which,  like 
casein  or  milk,  is  capable  of  transform- 
ing the  lime  into  casein  paint.  But  the 
ox  blood  must  be  mixed  in  the  lime  paint; 
to  use  it  separately  is  useless,  if  not  harm- 
ful. Whitewashing  rough  mortar-plas- 
tering to  saturation  is  very  practical,  as  it 
closes  all  the  pores  and  small  holes. 

A  formula  used  by  the  United  States 
Government  in  making  whitewash  for 
light-houses  and  other  public  buildings 
is  as  follows: 

Unslaked  lime 2     pecks 

Common  salt 1     peck 

Rice  flour 3     pounds 

Spanish  whiting \  pound 

Glue      (clean      and 

white) 1     pound 

Water,      a      sufficient 
quantity. 

Slake  the  lime  in  a  vessel  of  about  10 
gallons  capacity;  cover  it,  strain,  and  add 


WHITEWASH— WINES   AND    LIQUORS 


the  salt  previously  dissolved  in  warm 
water.  Boii  the  rice  flour  in  water;  soak 
the  glue  in  water  and  dissolve  on  a  water 
bath,  and  add  both,  together  with  the 
whiting  and  5  gallons  of  hot  water  to 
the  mixture,  stirring  all  well  together. 
Cover  to  protect  from  dirt,  and  let  it 
stand  for  a  few  days,  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use.  It  is  to  be  applied  hot, 
and  for  that  reason  should  be  used  from 
a  kettle  over  a  portable  furnace. 

To  Soften  Old  Whitewash.— Wet  the 
whitewash  thoroughly  with  a  wash  made 
of  1  pound  of  potash  dissolved  in  10 
quarts  of  water. 

WHITEWASH,  TO  REMOVE: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods. 

WHITE  METAL: 
See  Alloys. 

WINDOW-CLEANING  COMPOUND: 

See  Cleaning  Compounds. 

WINDOW  DISPLAY: 

See  also  Sponges. 

An  attractive  window  display  for 
stores  can  be  prepared  as  follows: 

In  a  wide-mouth  jar  put  some  sand, 
say,  about  6  inches  in  depth.  Make  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  aluminum  sul- 
phate, copper  sulphate,  and  iron  sul- 
phate, coarsely  powdered,  and  strew  it 
over  the  surface  of  the  sand.  Over  this 
layer  gently  pour  a  solution  of  sodium 
silicate,  dissolved  in  3  parts  of  hot  water, 
taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  layer  of 
sulphates.  In  about  a  week  or  10  days 
the  surface  will  be  covered  with  crystals 
of  different  colors,  being  silicates  of 
different  metals  employed.  Now  take 
some  pure  water  and  let  it  run  into  the 
vessel  by  a  small  tube,  using  a  little  more 
of  it  than  you  used  of  the  water-glass 
solution.  This  will  displace  the  water- 
glass  solution,  and  a  fresh  crop  of  crystals 
will  come  in  the  silicates,  and  makes, 
when  properly  done,  a  pretty  scene. 
Take  care  in  pouring  in  the  water  to  let 
the  point  of  the  tube  be  so  arranged  as 
not  to  disturb  the  crop  of  silicates. 

WINDOW  PERFUME. 

In  Paris  an  apparatus  has  been  intro- 
duced consisting  of  a  small  tube  which 
is  attached  lengthwise  on  the  exterior  of 
the  shop  windows.  Through  numerous 
little  holes  a  warm,  lightly  perfumed 
current  of  air  is  passed,  which  pleasantly 
tickles  the  olfactory  nerves  of  tne  looker- 
on  and  at  the  same  time  keeps  the  panes 


clear  and  clean,  so  that  the  goods  exhib- 
ited present  the  best  possible  appearance. 

WINDOW  POLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

WINDOWS,  FROSTED: 

See  Glass. 

WINDOWS,  TO  PREVENT  DIMMING 
OF: 

See  Glass. 

Wines  and  Liquors 

BITTERS. 

Bitters,  as  the  name  indicates,  are 
merely  tinctures  of  bitter  roots  and 
barks,  with  the  addition  of  spices  to 
flavor,  and  depend  for  their  effect  upon 
their  tonic  action  on  the  stomach.  Taken 
too  frequently,  however,  they  may  do 
harm,  by  overstimulating  tne  digestive 
organs. 

The  recipes  for  some  of  these  prepara- 
tions run  to  great  lengths,  one  for  An- 
gostura bitters  containing  no  fewer  than 
28  ingredients.  A  very  good  article,  how- 
ever, may  be  made  without  all  this  elabo- 
ration. The  following,  for  instance,  make 
a  very  good  preparation: 

Gentian  root  (sliced)..  12  ounces 

Cinnamon  bark 10  ounces 

Caraway  seeds 10  ounces 

Juniper  berries 2  ounces 

Cloves 1  ounce 

Alcohol,  90  per  cent . .  7  pints 

Macerate  for  a  week;  strain,  press  out, 
and  filter,  then  add 

Capillaire 1 J  pints 

Water  to  make  up. ...    2^  gallons 

Strength  about  45  u.  p. 

Still  another  formula  calls  for  Angostura 
bark,  2£  ounces;  gentian  root,  1  ounce; 
cardamom  seeds,  Bounce;  Turkey  rhubarb, 
^  ounce;  orange  peel,  4  ounces;  caraways, 
|  ounce;  cinnamon  bark,  $  ounce;  cloves, 
J  ounce. 

Brandy  Bitters. — 

Sliced  gentian  root.  ..  3    pounds 

Dried  orange  peel 2     pounds 

Cardamom  seed 1     pound 

Bruised  cinnamon.. . .        \  pound 

Cochineal 2     ounces 

Brandy 10     pints 

Macerate  for  14  days  and  strain. 

Hostetter's  Bitters. — 

Calamus  root 1  pound 

Orange  peel 1  pound 

Peruvian  bark 1  pound 

Gentian  root 1  pound 


WINES    AND   LIQUORS 


763 


Calumba  root 1  pound 

Rhubarb  root 4  ounces 

Cinnamon  bark 2  ounces 

Cloves 1  ounce 

Diluted  alcohol 2  gallons 

Water 1  gallon 

Sugar 1  pound 

Macerate  together  for  2  weeks. 
CORDIALS. 

Cordials,  according  to  the  Spatula, 
are  flavored  liquors  containing  from  40 
to  50  per  cent  of  alcohol  (from  52  to  64 
fluidounces  to  each  gallon)  and  from  20 
to  25  per  cent  of  sugar  (from  25  to  32 
ounces  avoirdupois  to  each  gallon). 

Cordials,  while  used  in  this  country  to 
some  degree,  have  their  greatest  con- 
sumption in  foreign  lands,  especially  in 
France  and  Germany. 

Usually  such  mixtures  as  these  are 
clarified  or  "fined"  only  with  consider- 
able difficulty,  as  the  finally  divided 
particles  of  oil  pass  easily  through  the 
pores  of  the  filter  paper.  Purified  talcum 
will  be  found  to  be  an  excellent  clarifying 
medium;  it  should  be  agitated  with  the 
liquid  and  the  liquid  then  passed  through 
a  thoroughly  wetted  filter.  The  filtrate 
should  be  returned  again  and  again  to 
the  filter  until  it  filters  perfectly  bright. 
Purified  talcum  being  chemically  inert  is 
superior  to  magnesium  carbonate  and 
other  substances  which  are  recom- 
mended for  this  purpose. 

When  the  filtering  process  is  com- 
pleted the  liquids  should  at  once  be  put 
into  suitable  bottles  which  should  be 
filled  and  tightly  corked  and  sealed. 
Wrap  the  bottles  in  paper  and  store 
away,  laying  the  bottles  on  their  sides  in 
a  moderately  warm  place.  A  shelf  near 
the  ceiling  is  a  good  place.  Warmth  and 
age  improve  the  beverages,  as  it  appears 
to  more  perfectly  blend  the  flavors,  so 
that  the  older  the  liquor  becomes  the 
better  it  is.  These  liquids  must  never 
be  kept  in  a  cold  place,  as  the  cold  might 
cause  the  volatile  oils  to  separate. 

The  following  formulas  are  for  the 
production  of  cordials  of  the  best  quality, 
and  therefore  only  the  very  best  of 
materials  should  be  used;  the  essential 
oils  should  be  of  unquestionable  quality 
and  strictly  fresh,  while  the  alcohol  must 
be  free  from  fusel  oil,  the  water  distilled, 
and  the  sugar  white,  free  from  bluing, 
and  if  liquors  of  any  kind  should  be 
called  for  in  any  formula  only  the  very 
best  should  be  used.  The  oils  and  other 
flavoring  substances  should  be  dissolved 
in  the  alcohol  and  the  sugar  in  the  water. 
Then  mix  the  two  solutions  and  filter 
clear. 


Alkermes  Cordial. — 

Mace 1^  avoirdupois  ounces 

Ceylon  cinnamon   1J  avoirdupois  ounces 

Cloves f  avoirdupois  ounce 

Rose    water 

(best) 6    fluidounces 

Sugar 28    avoirdupois  ounces 

Deodorized       al- 
cohol   52    fluidounces 

Distilled     water, 

q.  s 1    gallon 

Reduce  the  mace,  cinnamon,  and 
cloves  to  a  coarse  powder  macerate  with 
the  alcohol  for  several  days,  agitating 
occasionally,  then  add  the  remaining 
ingredients,  and  filter  clear. 

Anise  Cordial. — 

Anethol 7  fluidrachms 

Oil  of  fennel  seed. .   80  minims 
Oil     of     bitter 

almonds 16  drops 

Deodorized  alcohol     8  pints 

Simple  syrup 5  pints 

Distilled  water,  q.  s.   16  pints 
Mix   the    oils    and   anethol    with    the 
alcohol  and  the  syrup  with  the  water; 
mix  the  two  and  filter  clear,  as  directed. 

Blackberry  Cordial. — This  beverage  is 
usually  misnamed  "blackberry  brandy" 
or  "blackberry  wine."  This  latter  be- 
longs only  to  wines  obtained  by  the 
fermentation  of  the  blackberry  juice. 
When  this  is  distilled  then  a  true  black- 
berry brandy  is  obtained,  just  as  ordinary 
brandy  is  obtained  by  distilling  ordinary 
wines. 

The  name  is  frequently  applied  to  a 
preparation  containing  blackberry  root 
often  combined  with  other  astringents, 
but  the  true  blackberry  cordial  is  made 
according  to  the  formulas  given  here- 
with. Most  of  these  mention  brandy, 
and  this  article  should  be  good  and  fusel 
free,  or  it  may  be  replaced  by  good 
whisky,  or  even  by  diluted  alcohol,  de- 
pending on  whether  a  high-priced  or  cheap 
cordial  is  desired. 

I. — Fresh  blackberry  juice,  3  pints; 
sugar,  7^  ounces;  water,  30  fluidounces; 
brandy,  7^  pints;  oil  of  cloves,  3  drops; 
oil  of  cinnamon,  3  drops;  alcohol,  6 
fluidrachms.  Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the 
water  and  juice,  then  add  the  liquor. 
Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol  and  add 
£  to  the  first  solution,  and  if  not  suffi- 
ciently flavored  add  more  of  the  sejond 
solution.  Then  filter. 

II. — Fresh  blackberry  juice,  4  pints; 
powdered  nutmeg  (fresh),  1  ounce;  pow- 
dered cinnamon  (fresh),  1  ounce;  powdered 
pimento  (fresh),  Bounce;  powdered  cloves 


764 


WINES   AND   LIQUORS 


(fresh),  |  ounce;  brandy,  2£  pints;  sugar, 
2|  pounds.  Macerate  the  spices  in  the 
brandy  for  several  days.  Dissolve  the 
sugar  in  the  juice  and  mix  and  filter  clear. 

Cherry  Cordials. — 
I. — Oil  of  bitter  almonds     8  drops 

Oil  of  cinnamon 1  drop 

Oil  of  cloves 1  drop 

Acetic  etjaer 12  drops 

Ceuanthic  ether 1  drop 

Vanilla  extract 1  drachm 

Alcohol 3  pints 

Sugar 3  pounds 

Cherry  juice 20  ounces 

Distilled  water,  q.  s.  .  1  gallon 
The  oils,  ethers,  and  extracts  must  be 
dissolved  in  the  alcohol,  the  sugar  in 
part  of  the  water,  then  mix,  add  the 
juice  and  filter  clear.  When  the  juice  is 
not  sufficiently  sour,  add  a  small  amount 
of  solution  of  citric  acid.  To  color,  use 
caramel. 

II. — Vanilla  extract 10    drops 

Oil  of  cinnamon 10     drops 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds.   10     drops 

Oil  of  cloves 3     drops 

Oil  of  nutmeg 3     drops 

Alcohol 2  £  pints 

Cherry  juice 2£  pints 

Simple  syrup 3     pints 

Dissolve  the  oils  in  the  alcohol,  then 
add  the  other  ingredients  and  filter  clear. 
It  is  better  to  make  this  cordial  during 
the  cherry  season  so  as  to  obtain  the 
fresh  expressed  juice  of  the  cherry. 

Curacoa  Cordials. — 
I. — Curacoa  orange  peel..     6     ounces 

Cinnamon f  ounce 

Mace 2 1  drachms 

Alcohol 3i  pints 

Water 4£  pints 

Sugar 12     ounces 

Mix  the  first  three  ingredients  and  re- 
duce them  to  a  coarse  powder,  then  mix 
with  the  alcohol  and  4  pints  of  water  and 
macerate  for  8  days  with  an  occasional 
agitation,  express,  add  the  sugar  and 
enough  water  to  make  a  gallon  of  finished 
product.  Filter  clear. 

II. — Curacoa    or   bitter 

orange  peel 2  ounces 

Cloves 80  grains 

Cinnamon 80  grains 

Cochineal 60  grains 

Oil  of  orange  (best).  .      1  drachm 
Orange-flower  water.        £  pint 

Holland  gin 1  pint 

Alcohol 2  pints 

Sugar 3  pints 

Water,  q.  s 1  gallon 


Reduce  the  solids  to  a  coarse  powder, 
add  the  alcohol  and  macerate  3  days. 
Then  add  the  oil,  gin,  and  3  pints  of 
water  and  continue  the  maceration  for 
8  days  more,  agitating  once  a  day,  strain 
and  add  sugar  dissolved  in  balance  of 
the  water.  Then  add  the  orange-flower 
water  and  filter. 

Kola  Cordial. — 

Kola   nuts,    roasted 

and  powdered 7  ounces 

Cochineal  powder..  .  .    30  grains 
Extract  of  vanilla. ...      3  drachms 

Arrac 3  ounces 

Sugar 7  pounds 

Alcohol 6  pints 

Water,  distilled 6  pints 

Macerate  kola  and  cochineal  with 
alcohol  for  10  days,  agitate  daily,  add 
arrac,  vanilla,  and  sugar  dissolved  in 
water.  Filter. 

Kiimmel  Cordials. — 

I. — Oil  of  caraway 30  drops 

Oil  of  peppermint 3  drops 

Oil  of  lemon 3  drops 

Acetic  ether 30  drops 

Spirit  of  nitrous  ether  30  drops 

Sugar 72  ounces 

Alcohol 96  ounces 

Water. 96  ounces 

Dissolve  the  oils  and  ethers  in  the  al- 
cohol, and  the  sugar  in  the  water.  Mix 
and  filter. 

II. — Oil  of  caraway 20  drops 

Oil  of  sweet  fennel.  .  .      2  drops 

Oil  of  cinnamon 1  drop 

Sugar 14  ounces 

Alcohol 2  pints 

Water 4  pints 

Prepare  as  in  Formula  I. 

Orange  Cordials. — Many  of  the  prepa- 
rations sold  under  this  name  are  not 
really  orange  cordials,  but  are  varying 
mixtures  of  uncertain  composition,  pos- 
sibly flavored  with  orange.  The  follow- 
ing are  made  by  the  use  of  oranges: 

I. — Sugar 8    avoirdupois  pounds 

Water 2|  gallons 

Oranges..  .  .  15 

Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  water  by  the 
aid  of  a  gentle  heat,  express  the  oranges, 
add  the  juice  and  rinds  to  the  syrup,  put 
the  mixture  into  a  cask,  keep  the  whole 
in  a  warm  place  for  3  or  4  days,  stirring 
frequently,  then  close  the  cask,  set  aside 
in  a  cool  cellar  and  draw  off  the  clear 
liquid. 

II. — Express  the  juice  from  sweet 
oranges,  add  water  equal  to  the  volume 


WINES    AND   LIQUORS 


765 


of  juice  obtained,  and  macerate  the  ex- 
pressed oranges  with  the  juice  and  water 
for  about  12  hours.  For  each  gallon  of 
juice,  add  1  pound  of  granulated  sugar, 
grape  sugar,  or  glucose,  put  the  whole 
into  a  suitable  vessel,  covering  to  exclude 
the  dust,  place  in  a  warm  location  until 
fermentation  is  completed,  draw  off  the 
clear  liquid,  and  preserve  in  well-stop- 
pered stout  bottles  in  a  cool  place. 

III. — Orange  wine  suitable  for  "soda" 
purposes  may  be  prepared  by  mixing  3 
fluidounces  of  orange  essence  with  13 
fluidounces  of  sweet  Catawba  or  other 
mild  wine.  Some  syrup  may  be  added 
to  this  if  desired. 

Rose  Cordial. — 

Oil  of  rose,  very  best. .      3  drops 

Palmarosa  oil 3  drops 

Sugar 28  ounces 

Alcohol 52  ounces 

Distilled  water,  q.  s  .  .      8  pints 
Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  water  and 
the  oils  in  the  alcohol;  mix  the  solutions, 
color  a  rose  tint,  and  filter  clear. 

Spearmint  Cordial. — 

Oil  of  spearmint 30  drops 

Sugar 28  ounces 

Alcohol 52  ounces 

Distilled  water,  q.  s  .  .      8  pints 
Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  water  and  the 
oil  in  the  alcohol;  mix  the  two  solutions, 
color  green,  and  filter  clear. 

Absinthe. — 

I. — Oil  of  wormwood...  96 

Oil  of  star  anise.  .  .  72 

Oil  of  aniseed 48 

Oil  of  coriander.  .  .  48 

Oil  of  fennel,  pure .  48 
Oil    of   angelica 

root 24 

Oil  of  thyme 24 

Alcohol  (pure)  ....  162 

Distilled  water.  .     .  30 


Dissolve  the  oils  in  the 
the  water,  color  green,  and 


drops 
drops 
drops 
drops 
drops 

drops 

drops 

fluidounces 

fluidounces 
alcohol,  add 
filter  clear. 


II. — Oil  of  wormwood.  .  36  drops 
Oil  of  orange  peel.  30  drops 
Oil  of  star  anise.  .  .  12  drops 
Oil  of  neroli  petate.  5  drops 
Fresh  oil  of  lemon.  9  drops 

Acetic  ether 24  drops 

Sugar 30  avoirdupois 

ounces 

Alcohol,  deodorized  90  fluidounces 
Distilled  water ....    78  fluidounces 
Dissolve    the    oils    and    ether    in    the 

alcohol  and  the  sugar  in  the  water;  then 

mix  thoroughly,   color  green,  and  filter 

clear. 


DETANNATING  WINE. 

According  to  Caspari,  the  presence  of 
appreciable  quantities  of  tannin  in  wine 
is  decidedly  objectionable  if  the  wine  is  to 
be  used  in  connection  with  iron  and 
other  metallic  salts;  moreover,  tannin  is 
incompatible  with  alkaloids,  and  hence 
wine  not  deprived  of  its  tannin  should 
never  be  used  as  a  menstruum  for  alka- 
loidal  drugs.  The  process  of  freeing 
wines  from  tannin  is  termed  detannation, 
and  is  a  very  simple  operation.  The 
easiest  plan  is  to  add  £  ounce  of  gelatin 
in  number  40  or  number  60  powder 
to  1  gallon  of  the  wine,  to  agitate  oc- 
casionally during  24  or  48  hours,  and 
then  to  filter.  The  operation  is  prefer- 
ably carried  out  during  cold  weather  or 
in  a  cold  apartment,  as  heat  will  cause 
the  gelatin  to  dissolve,  and  the  macera- 
tion must  be  continued  until  a  small 
portion  of  the  wine  mixed  with  a  few 
drops  of  ferric  chloride  solution  shows 
no  darkening  of  color.  Gelatin  in  large 
pieces  is  not  suitable,  especially  with 
wines  containing  much  tannin,  since  the 
newly  formed  tannate  of  gelatin  will  be 
deposited  on  the  surface  and  prevent 
further  intimate  contact  of  the  gelatin 
with  the  wine.  Formerly  freshly  pre- 
pared ferric  hydroxide  was  much  em- 
ployed for  detannating  wine,  but  the  chief 
objection  to  its  use  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  some  iron  invariably  was  taken  up  by 
the  acid  present  in  the  wine;  moreover, 
the  process  was  more  tedious  than  in  the 
case  of  gelatin.  As  the  removal  of 
tannin  from  wine  in  no  way  interferes 
with  its  qualitv — alcoholic  strength  and 
aroma  remaining  the  same,  and  only 
coloring  matter  being  lost — a  supply  of 
detannated  wine  should  be  kept  on  hand, 
for  it  requires  very  little  more  labor  to 
detannate  a  gallon  than  a  pint. 

If  ferric  hydroxide  is  to  be  used,  it 
must  be  freshly  prepared,  and  a  con- 
venient quantity  then  be  added  to  the 
wine — about  8  ounces  of  the  expressed, 
but  moist,  precipitate  to  a  gallon. 

PREVENTION  OF  FERMENTATION. 

Fermentation  may  be  prevented  in 
either  of  two  ways: 

(1)  By  chemical  methods,  which  con- 
sist in  the  addition  of  germ  poisons  or 
antiseptics,   which  either  kill  the  germs 
or  prevent  their  growth.      Of  these  the 
principal    ones    used    are    salicylic,    sul- 
phurous,   boracic,     and    benzoic    acids, 
formalin,  fluorides,  and  saccharine.     As 
these  substances  are  generally  regarded 
as  adulterants  and  injurious,  their  use  is 
not  recommended. 

(2)  The  germs  are  either  removed  by 


766 


WINES   AND   LIQUORS 


some  mechanical  means  such  as  a  filter- 
ing or  a  centrifugal  apparatus,  or  they 
are  destroyed  by  heat  or  electricity. 
Heat  has  so  far  been  found  the  most 
practical. 

When  a  liquid  is  heated  to  a  sufficiently 
high  temperature  all  organisms  in  it  are 
killed.  The  degree  of  heat  required, 
however,  differs  not  only  with  the  par- 
ticular kind  of  organism,  but  also  with 
the  liquid  in  which  it  is  held.  Time 
is  also  a  factor.  An  organism  may  not  be 
killed  if  heated  to  a  high  temperature 
and  quickly  cooled.  If,  however,  the 
temperature  is  kept  at  the  same  high 
degree  for  some  time,  it  will  be  killed. 
It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  fungi, 
including  yeasts,  exist  in  the  growing  and 
the  resting  states,  the  latter  being  much 
more  resistant  than  the  former.  One 
characteristic  of  the  fungi  and  their 
spores  is  their  great  resistance  to  heat 
when  dry.  In  this  state  they  can  be 
heated  to  212°  F.  without  being  killed. 
The  spores  of  the  common  mold  are  even 
more  resistant.  This  should  be  well  con- 
sidered in  sterilizing  bottles  and  corks, 
which  should  be  steamed  to  240°  F.  for 
at  least  15  min,utes. 

Practical  tests  so  far  made  indicate 
that  grape  juice  can  be  safely  sterilized 
at  from  165°  to  176°  F.  At  this  tem- 
perature the  flavor  is  hardly  changed, 
while  at  a  temperature  much  above 
200°  F.  it  is.  This  is  an  important  point, 
as  the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  product 
depend  on  it. 

Use  only  clean,  sound,  well-ripened, 
but  not  over-ripe  grapes.  If  an  ordinary 
cider  mill  is  at  hand,  it  may  be  used  for 
crushing  and  pressing,  or  the  grapes 
may  be  crushed  and  pressed  with  the 
hands.  If  a  light-colored  juice  is  desired, 
put  the  crushed  grapes  in  a  cleanly 
washed  cloth  sack  and  tie  up.  Then 
either  hang  up  securely  and  twist  it  or 
let  two  persons  take  hold,  one  on  each 
end  of  the  sack  and  twist  until  the  great- 
er part  of  the  juice  is  expressed.  Next 
gradually  heat  the  juice  in  a  double 
boiler  or  a  large  stone  jar  in  a  pan  of  hot 
water,  so  that  the  juice  does  not  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  fire  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  180°  to  200°  F.,  never  above 
200°  F.  It  is  best  to  use  a  thermometer, 
but  if  there  be  none  at  hand  heat  the 
juice  until  it  steams,  but  do  not  allow  it 
to  boil.  Put  it  in  a  glass  or  enameled 
vessel  to  settle  for  24  hours;  carefully 
drain  the  juice  from  the  sediment,  and 
run  it  through  several  thicknesses  of  clean 
flannel,  or  a  conic  filter  made  from 
woolen  cloth  or  felt  may  be  used.  This 
filter  is  fixed  to  a  hoop  of  iron,  which 


can  be  suspended  wherever  necessary. 
After  this  fill  into  clean  bottles.  Dp  not 
fill  entirely,  but  leave  room  for  the  liquid 
to  expand  when  again  heated.  Fit  a 
thin  board  over  the  bottom  of  an  ordinary 
wash  boiler,  set  the  filled  bottles  (ordi- 
nary glass  fruit  jars  are  just  as  good)  in 
it,  fill  in  with  water  around  the  bottles  to 
within  about  an  inch  of  the  tops,  and 
gradually  heat  until  it  is  about  to  simmer. 
Then  take  the  bottles  out  and  cork  or 
seal  immediately.  It  is  a  good  idea  to 
take  the  further  precaution  of  sealing  the 
corks  over  with  sealing  wax  or  paraffine 
to  prevent  mold  germs  from  entering 
through  the  corks.  Should  it  be  de- 
sired to  make  red  juice,  heat  the  crushed 
grapes  to  not  above  200°  F.,  strain 
through  a  clean  cloth  or  drip  bag  (nc 
pressure  should  be  used),  set  away  to 
cool  and  settle,  and  proceed  the  same  as 
with  light-colored  juice.  Many  people 
do  not  even  go  to  the  trouble  of  letting 
the  juice  settle  after  straining  it,  but  re- 
heat and  seal  it  up  immediately,  simply 
setting  the  vessel  away  in  a  cool  place  in 
an  upright  position  where  they  will  be 
undisturbed.  The  juice  is  thus  allowed 
to  settle,  and  when  wanted  for  use  the 
clear  juice  is  simply  taken  off  the  sedi- 
ment. Any  person  familiar  with  the 
process  of  canning  fruit  can  also  preserve 
grape  juice,  for  the  principles  involved 
are  identical. 

One  of  the  leading  defects  so  far  found 
in  unfermented  juice  is  that  much  of  it  is 
not  clear,  a  condition  which  very  much 
detracts  from  its  otherwise  attractive  ap- 
pearance, and  due  to  two  causes  already 
alluded  to.  Either  the  final  sterilization 
in  bottles  has  been  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture than  the  preceding  one,  or  the  juice 
has  not  been  properly  filtered  or  has  not 
been  filtered  at  all.  In  other  cases  the 
juice  has  been  sterilized  at  such  a  high 
temperature  that  it  has  a  disagreeable 
scorched  taste.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  attempts  to  sterilize  at  a  tempera- 
ture above  195°  F.  are  dangerous  so  far 
as  the  flavor  of  the  finished  product  is 
concerned. 

Another  serious  mistake  is  sometimes 
made  by  putting  the  juice  into  bottles  so 
large  that  much  of  it  becomes  spoiled 
before  it  is  used  after  the  bottles  are 
opened.  Unfermented  grape  juice  prop- 
erly made  and  bottled  will  keep  in- 
definitely, if  it  is  not  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  or  mold  germs;  but  when  a 
bottle  is  once  opened  it  should,  like 
canned  goods,  be  used  as  soon  as  possible 
to  keep  from  spoiling. 

Another  method  of  making  unfer- 
mented grape  juice,  which  is  often  re- 


WINES  AND   LIQUORS 


767 


sorted  to  where  a  sufficiently  large 
quantity  is  made  at  one  time,  consists  in 
this: 

Take  a  clean  keg  or  barrel  (one  that 
has  previously  been  made  sweet).  Lay 
this  upon  a  skid  consisting  of  two  scant- 
lings or  pieces  of  timber  of  perhaps  20 
feet  long,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  a 
runway.  Then  take  a  sulphur  match, 
made  by  dipping  strips  of  clean  muslin 
about  1  inch  wide  and  10  inches  long 
into  melted  brimstone,  cool  it  and  attach 
it  to  a  piece  of  wire  fastened  in  the  lower 
end  of  a  bung  and  bent  over  at  the  end, 
so  as  to  form  a  hook.  Light  the  match 
and  by  means  of  the  wire  suspend  it  in 
the  barrel,  bung  the  barrel  up  tight,  and 
allow  it  to  burn  as  long  as  it  will.  Re- 
peat this  until  fresh  sulphur  matches  will 
no  longer  burn  in  the  barrel. 

Then  take  enough  fresh  grape  juice 
to  fill  the  barrel  one-third  full,  bung 
up  tight,  roll  and  agitate  violently  on 
the  skid  for  a  few  minutes.  Next  burn 
more  sulphur  matches  in  it  until  no  more 
will  burn,  fill  in  more  juice  until  the 
barrel  is  about  two-thirds  full;  agitate 
and  roll  again.  Repeat  the  burning 
process  as  before,  after  which  fill  the 
barrel  completely  with  grape  juice  and 
roll.  The  barrehshould  then  be  bunged 
tightly  and  stored  in  a  cool  place  with 
the  bung  up,  and  so  secured  that  the 
package  cannct  be  shaken.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  weeks  the  juice  will  have 
become  clear  and  can  then  be  racked  off 
and  filled  into  bottles  or  jars  direct, 
sterilized,  and  corked  or  sealed  up  ready 
for  use.  By  this  method,  however,  unless 
skillfully  handled,  the  juice  is  apt  to 
have  a  slight  taste  of  the  sulphur. 

The  following  are  the  component  parts 
of  a  California  and  a  Concord  unfer- 
mented  grape  juice: 

Con-  Cali- 

cord  fornia 

Per  Per 

Cent  Cent 

Solid  contents 20.37  20.60 

Total  acids  (as  tartaric) .        .663  .53 

Volatile  acids 023  . 03 

Grape  sugar 18 . 54  19 . 15 

Free  tartaric  acids 025  . 07 

Ash 255  .19 

Phosphoric  acids 027  . 04 

Cream  of  tartar 55  .59 

This  table  is  interesting  in  so  far  that 
the  California  unfermented  grape  juice 
was  made  from  Viniferas  or  foreign 
varieties,  whereas  the  Concord  was  a 
Labruska  or  one  of  the  American  sorts. 
The  difference  in  taste  and  smell  is  even 
more  pronounced  than  the  analysis  would 
indicate. 


Small  quantities  of  grape  juice  may  be 

E reserved  in  bottles.  Fruit  is  likely  to 
e  dusty  and  to  be  soiled  in  other  ways, 
and  grapes,  like  other  fruits',  should  be 
well  washed  before  using.  Leaves  or 
other  extraneous  matter  should  also  be 
removed.  The  juice  is  obtained  by 
moderate  pressure  in  an  ordinary  screw 
press,  and  strained  through  felt.  By 
gently  heating,  the  albuminous  matter  is 
coagulated  and  may  be  skimmed  off,  and 
further  clarification  may  be  effected  by 
filtering  through  paper,  but  such  filtra- 
tion must  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
using  a  number  of  filters  and  excluding 
the  air  as  much  as  possible. 

The  juice  so  obtained  may  be  pre- 
served by  sterilization,  in  the  following 
manner:  Put  the  juice  in  the  bottles  in 
which  it  is  to  be  kept,  filling  them  very 
nearly  full;  place  the  bottles,  unstop- 
pered,  in  a  kettle  filled  with  cold  water, 
so  arranging  them  on  a  wooden  per- 
forated "false  bottom"  or  other  like  con- 
trivance as  to  prevent  their  immediate 
contact  with  the  metal,  this  preventing 
unequal  heating  and  possible  fracture. 
Now  heat  the  water,  gradually  raising 
the  temperature  to  the  boiling  point,  and 
maintain  at  that  until  the  juice  attains  a 
boiling  temperature;  then  close  the 
bottles  with  perfectly  fitting  corks,  which 
have  been  kept  immersed  in  boiling 
water  for  a  short  time  before  use. 

The  corks  should  not  be  fastened  in 
any  way,  for,  if  the  sterilization  is  not 
complete,  fermentation  and  consequent 
explosion  of  the  bottle  may  occur  unless 
the  cork  should  be  forced  out. 

If  the  juice  is  to  be  used  for  syrup,  as 
for  use  at  the  soda  fountain,  the  best 
method  is  to  make  a  concentrated  syrup 
at  once,  using  about  2  pounds  of  refined 
sugar  to  1  pint  of  juice,  dissolving  by  a 
gentle  heat.  This  syrup  may  be  made 
by  simple  agitation  without  heat;  and  a 
finer  flavor  thus  results,  but  its  keeping 
quality  would  be  uncertain. 

The  juices  found  in  the  market  are  fre- 
quently preserved  by  means  of  antiseptics, 
but  so  far  none  have  been  proposed  for 
this  purpose  which  can  be  considered  en- 
tirely wholesome.  Physiological  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  while  bodies  suited 
for  this  purpose  may  be  apparently  with- 
out bad  effect  at  first,  their  repeated  in- 
gestion  is  likely  to  cause  gastric  disturb- 
ance. 

SPARKLING  WINES.. 

An  apparatus  for  converting  still  into 
foaming  wines,  and  doing  this  efficiently, 
simply,  and  rapidly,  consists  of  a  vertical 
steel  tube,  which  turns  on  an  axis,  and 


768 


WINES   AND   LIQUORS 


bears  several  adjustable  glass  globes  that 
are  in  connection  with  each  other  by 
means  of  distributing  valves,  the  latter 
being  of  silver-plated  bronze.  The  glass 
globes  serve  as  containers  for  carbonic 
acid,  and  are  kept  supplied  with  this  gas 
from  a  cylinder  connected  therewith. 

The  wine  to  be  impregnated  with  the 
acid  is  taken  from  a  cask,  through  a 
special  tube,  which  also  produces  a  light 
pressure  of  carbonic  acid  on  the  cask,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  prevent  the  access 
of  atmospheric  air  to  the  wine  within, 
and,  besides,  to  cause  the  liquid  to  pass 
into  the  bottle  without  jar  or  stroke. 
The  bottles  stand  under  the  distributing 
valves,  or  levers,  placed  above  and  below 
them.  Now,  if  the  cock,  by  means  of 
which  the  glass  bulbs  and  the  bottles 
are  brought  into  connection,  is  slightly 
opened,  and  the  desired  lever  is  put  in 
action,  the  carbonic  acid  at  once  forces 
the  air  out  of  the  bottles,  and  sterilizes 
them.  The  upper  bottles  are  now  gradu- 
ally filled.  The  whole  apparatus,  in- 
cluding the  filled  bottles,  is  now  tilted 
over,  and  the  wine,  of  its  own  weight, 
flows  through  collectors  filled  with  car- 
bonic acid,  and  passes,  impregnated  with 
the  gas,  into  other  bottles  placed  below. 
Each  bottle  is  filled  in  course,  the  time 
required  for  each  being  some  45  seconds. 
The  saturation  of  the  liquid  with  car- 
bonic acid  is  so  complete  and  plentiful 
that  there  is  no  need  of  hurry  in  corking. 

By  means  of  this  apparatus  any  desired 
still  wine  is  at  once  converted  into  a 
sparkling  one,  preserving  at  the  same 
time  its  own  peculiarities  of  taste,  bou- 
quet, etc.  The  apparatus  may  be  used 
equally  well  upon  fruit  juices,  milk,  and, 
in  fact,  any  kind  of  liquid,  its  extreme 
simplicity  permitting  of  easy  and  rapid 
cleansing. 

ARTIFICIAL  FRENCH  BRANDY. 

I. — The  following  is  Eugene  Dieterich's 
formula  for  Spiritus  vini  Gallici  arti- 
ficialis: 

Tincture  of  gall- 
apples. 10  parts 

Aromatic  tincture. . .         5  parts 
Purified  wood  vine- 
gar          5  parts 

Spirit  of  nijrous  ether       10  parts 

Acetic  ether 1  part 

Alcohol,  68  per  cent.    570  parts 

Distilled  water 400  parts 

Mix,  adding  the  water  last,  let  stand 
for  several  days,  then  filter. 

II. — The  Miinchener  Apotheker  Verein 
has  adopted  the  following  formula  for  the 
same  thing: 


Acetic    acid,    dilute, 

90  per  cent 4  parts 

Acetic  ether 4  parts 

Tincture  aromatic  . .       40  parts 

Cognac  essence 40  parts 

Spirit   of   nitrous 

ether 20  parts 

Alcohol,  90  per  cent. 5, 000  parts 

Water,  distilled 2,500  parts 

Add  the  acids,  ethers,  etc.,  to  the 
alcohol,  and  finally  add  the  water.  Let 
stand  several  days,  and,  if  necessary, 
filter. 

III. — The  Berlin  Apothecaries  have 
adopted  the  following  as  a  magistral 
formula: 

Aromatic  tincture. . .         4  parts 
Spirit   of  nitrous 

ether 5  parts 

Alcohol,  90  per  cent.1,000  parts 
Distilled    water, 
quantity  sufficient 

to  make 2,000  parts 

Mix  the  tincture  and  ether  with  the 
alcohol,,  add  the  water  and  for  every 
ounce  add  one  drop  of  tincture  of 
rhatany. 

Of  these  formulas  the  first  is  to  be 
preferred  as  a  close  imitation  of  the  taste 
of  the  genuine  article.  To  imitate  the 
color  use  burnt  sugar. 

LIQUEURS. 

Many  are  familiar  with  the  properties  of 
liqueurs  but  believe  them  to  be  very  com- 
plex and  even  mysterious  compounds. 
This  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  formulas  are  of  foreign  origin  and 
many  of  them  have  been  kept  more  or 
less  secret  for  some  time.  Owing  to  the 
peculiar  combination  of  the  bouquet  oils 
and  flavors,  it  is  impossible  to  make  ac- 
curate analyses  of  them.  But  by  the  use 
of  formulas  now  given,  these  products 
seem  to  be  very  nearly  duplicated. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  the  best  sugar 
and  oils  obtainable  in  the  preparation  of 
the  liqueurs.  As  there  are  so  many 
grades  of  essential  oils  on  the  market, 
it  is  difficult  to  obtain  the  best  indirectly. 
The  value  of  the  cordials  is  enhanced  by 
the  richness  and  odor  and  flavor  of  the 
oils,  so  only  the  best  qualities  should  be 
used. 

For  filtering,  flannel  or  felt  is  valuable. 
Flannel  is  cheaper  and  more  easily 
washed.  It  is  necessary  to  return  filtrate 
several  times  with  any  of  the  filtering 
media. 

As  a  clarifying  agent  talcum  allowed  to 
stand  several  days  acts  well.  These  rules 
are  common  to  all. 


WINES   AND   LIQUORS 


769 


grams 

4.500  grams 
120          grams 

2          grams 
2          grams 
.600  grams 
2,000          grams 
c.c. 


The  operations  are  all  simple: 
First:    Heat     all    mixtures.      Second: 
Keep  the  product  in  the  dark.     Third: 
Keep  in  warm  place. 

The  liqueurs  are  heated  to  ripen  the 
bouquet  flavor,  it  having  effect  similar  to 
age.  To  protect  the  ethereal  oils,  air  and 
light  are  excluded ;  hence  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  bottles  be  filled  to  the 
stopper.  The  liqueurs  taste  best  at  a 
temperature  not  exceeding  55°  F.  They 
are  all  improved  with  age,  especially 
many  of  the  bouquet  oils. 

Benedictine . — 
I. — Bitter  almonds..        40 
Powdered     nut- 
meg   .. 

Extract  vanilla.. 
Powdered 

cloves 

Lemons,  sliced.. 
True  saffron. . . . 

Sugar 

Boiling  milk.. . .  1,000 
Alcohol,  95  per 

cent 2,000          c.c. 

Distilled  water..  2,500          c.c. 
Mix.    Let  stand  9  days  with  occasional 
agitation.     Filter  sufficiently. 

II. — Essence     Bene- 
dictine         75          c.c 

Alcohol,  95  per 

cent 1,700          c.c. 

Mix. 

Sugar 1,750          grams 

Water,  distilled.  1,600          c.c. 
Mix  together,  when  clear  solution  of 
sugar  is  obtained.      Color  with  caramel. 
Filter  sufficiently. 

NOTE. — This  liqueur  should  be  at  least 
1  year  old  before  used. 

Essence  Benedictine  for  Benedictine 
No.  II.— 

I. — Myrrh. 1  part 

Decorticated  carda- 
mom   1  part 

Mace 1  part 

Ginger 10  parts 

Galanga  root 10  parts 


Extract  aloe 4 

Alcohol 160 

Water..  .   80 


Orange  peel  (cut). .    10        parts 
parts 
parts 
parts 
Mix,  macerate  10  days  and  filter. 

II. — Extract  licorice.  ...    20        parts 
Sweet  spirits  niter. .200        parts 

Acetic  ether 30        parts 

Spirits  ammonia. . .      1        part 

Coumarin 12  parts 

Vanillin 1        part 


3  drops 

3  drops 
2.5  drops 
2  drops 

1  drop 
15  drops 
15  drops 
12  drops 
10  drops 

7  drops 

6  drops 

4  drops 

2  drops 
2  drops 
1  drop 
1  drop 


III.— Oil  lemon 

Oil  orange  peel. . . 
Oil  wormwood.. . 

Oil  galanga , 

Oil  ginger 

Oil  anise 

Oil  cascarilla 

Oil  bitter  almond 

Oil  milfoil 

Oil  sassafras. .  . . 

Oil  angelica 

Oil  hyssop 

Oil  cardamom. .  . 

Oil  liops 

Oil  juniper 

Oil  rosemary 

Mix  A,  B,  and  C. 

NOTE. — This  essence  should  stand  2 
years  before  being  used  for  liqueurs. 

Chartreuse. — I. — Elixir  vegetal  de  la 
Grande  Chartreuse. 

Fresh     balm     mint 

herbs 64  parts 

Fresh  hyssop  herbs  .  .  64  parts 
Angelica    herbs    and 

root,  fresh,  together  32  parts 

Cinnamon 16  parts 

Saffron 4  parts 

Mace 4  parts 

Subject  the  above  ingredients  to 
maceration  for  a  week  with  alcohol  (96 
per  cent),  1,000  parts,  then  squeeze  off 
and  distill  the  liquid  obtained  over  a 
certain  quantity  of  fresh  herbs  of  balm 
and  hyssop.  After  125  parts  of  sugar 
have  been  added  to  the  resultant  liqueur, 
filter. 

The  genuine  Chartreuse  comes  in 
three  different  colors,  viz.,  green,  white, 
and  yellow.  The  coloration,  however, 
is  not  artificial,  but  is  determined  by  the 
addition  of  varying  quantities  of  fresh 
herbs  in  the  distillation.  But  since  it 
would  require  long  and  tedious  trials  to 
produce  the  right  color  in  a  small  manu- 
facture, the  yellow  shade  is  best  im- 
parted by  a  little  tincture  of  saffron,  and 
the  green  one  by  the  addition  of  a  few 
drops  of  indigo  solution. 

II. — Eau  des  Carmes 3£  ounces 

Alcohol 1     quart 

Distilled  water 1     quart 

Sugar 1^  pounds 

Tincture  of  saffron..  .  1     ounce 

Mix.  Dissolve  sugar  in  warm  water, 
cool,  strain,  add  remainder  of  in- 
gredients, and  filter.  This  is  known  as 
yellow  Chartreuse. 


770 


WINES   AND   LIQUORS 


Curasao  Liqueur. — 

A. — Oil  lemon,  q.  s 10  drops 

Oil  bitter  almond,  q.  s.         5  drops 
Oil  cura£oa  orange. . .       15  parts 

Oil  sweet  orange 1  part 

Oil  bitter  orange 1  part 

Cochineal 1  part 

French  brandy 50  parts 

B.— Alcohol 4,500  parts 

C. — Sugar 3,500  parts 

Water  (distilled) 4,000  parts 

Mix  A,  B,  and  C.     Filter.    Color  with 

caramel. 

May  Bowl  or  May  Wine. — The  prin- 
cipal ingredient  of  May  bowl,  or  that 
which  gives  it  its  flavor  and  bouquet,  is 
fresh  W aldmeisterkraut  (Asperula  odor- 
ata),  the  "woodruff"  or  "sweet  grass," 
"star  grass,"  and  a  dozen  other  aliases, 
of  a  plant  growing  wild  all  over  Europe, 
both  continental  and  insular,  and  cul- 
tivated by  some  gardeners  in  this  country. 
It  is  accredited  with  being  a  diuretic, 
deobstruent  and  hepatic  stimulant,  of 
no  mean  order,  though  it  has  long  been 
banished  from  the  pharmacopoeia. 

In  Baden  and  in  Bavaria  in  preparing 
Maitrank  the  practice  was  formerly  to 
first  make  an  essence — Maitrankessenz, 
for  the  preparation  of  which  every  house- 
wife had  a  formula  of  her  own.  The 
following  was  that  generally  used  in  the 
south  of  Germany: 

I. — Fresh,      budding 

woodruff,  cut  fine    500  parts 
Alcohol,      commer- 
cial (90  per  cent).  1,000  parts 
Digest  together  for  14  days,  then  filter 
and  press  off.      Many  add  to  this  some 
flavoring   oil.       As   coumarin    has   been 
found  to  be  the  principle  to  which  the 
Waldmeister  owes  its  odor,  many  add  to 
the  above  Tonka  bean,  chopped  fine,  1 
part  to  the  thousand.      From  about  12  to 
15  drachms  of  this  essence  is  added  to 
make  a  gallon  of  the  wine,  which  has 
about  the  following  formula: 

French  brandy,  say          4  drachms 
Oil      of     unripe 

oranges 80  drops 

Sugar 4  to  8  ounces 

Essence 12  drachms 

Wine  to  make 1  gallon 

II. — Take  enough  good  woodruff 
(Waldmeister)  of  fine  aroma  and  flavor. 
Remove  all  parts  that  will  not  add  to  the 
excellence  of  the  product,  such  as  wilted, 
dead,  or  imperfect  leaves,  stems,  etc., 
and  wash  the  residue  thoroughly  in  cold 
water,  and  with  as  little  pressure  as  pos- 
sible. Now  choose  a  flask  with  a  neck 


sufficiently  wide  to  receive  the  stems 
without  pressing  or  bruising  them,  and 
let  the  pieces  fall  into  it.  Pour  in 
sufficient  strong  alcohol  (96  per  cent)  to 
cover  the  herbs  completely.  In  from  30 
to  40  minutes  the  entire  aroma  is  taken 
up  by  the  alcohol,  which  takes  on  a 
beautiful  green  color,  which,  unfor- 
tunately, does  not  last,  disappearing  in  a 
few  days,  but  without  affecting  the  aroma 
in  the  least.  The  alcohol  should  now  be 
poured  off,  for  if  left  to  macerate  longer, 
while  it  would  gain  in  aroma,  it  will  also 
take  up  a  certain  bitter  principle  that 
detracts  from  the  delicacy  of  flavor  and 
aroma.  The  extract  is  now  poured  on  a 
fresh  quantity  of  the  herb,  and  continue 
proceeding  in  this  manner  until  a  suffi- 
ciently concentrated  extract  is  obtained 
to  give  aroma  to  100  times  its  weight  of 
wine  or  cider. 

III. — Fresh  woodruff ,  in  bloom  or  flower, 
is  freed  from  the  lower  part  of  its  stem 
and  leaves,  and  also  of  all  foreign  or 
inert  matter.  The  herb  is  then  lightly 
stuck  into  a  wide-mouth  bottle,  and 
covered  with  strong  alcohol.  After  30 
minutes  pour  off  the  liquor  on  fresh 
woodruff.  In  another  half  hour  the 
essence  is  ready,  though  it  should  not  be 
used  immediately.  It  should  be  kept  at 
cellar  heat  (about  60°  F.)  for  a  few  days, 
or  until  the  green  color  vanishes.  Any 
addition  to  the  essence  of  aromatics,  such 
as  orange  peel,  lemons,  spices,  etc.,  is  to 
be  avoided.  To  prepare  the  Maitrank, 
add  the  essence  to  any  good  white  wine, 
tasting  and  testing,  until  the  flavor  suits. 

The  following  are  other  formulas  for 
the  drink: 

IV. — Good  white  wine  or 

cider 65  parts 

Alcohol,  dilute 20  parts 

Sugar 10  parts 

Maitrankessenz 1  part 

Mix. 

Maraschino  Liqueur. — 

'  Oil  bitter  almonds 15  minims 

Essence  vanilla 1  drachm 

Jasmine  extract 2  drops 

Raspberry  essence..  .  .  10  drops 

Oil  neroli 10  drops 

Oil  lemon 15  minims 

Spirits  nitrous  ether  .  .  2  drachms 

Alcohol 6  pints 

Sugar 8  pounds 

Rose  water 10  ounces 

Water  sufficient  to 

make 2  gallons 

Make  a  liquor  in  the  usual  manner. 

To  Clarify  Liqueurs. — For  the  clari- 
fication of  turbid  liqueurs,  burnt  pow« 


WINES   AND   LIQUORS— WIRE   ROPE 


771 


dered  alum  is  frequently  employed. 
Make  a  trial  with  200  parts  of  the  dim 
liqueur,  to  which  1.5  parts  of  burnt 
powdered  alum  is  added;  shake  well  and 
let  stand  until  the  liquid  is  clear.  Then 
decant  and  filter  the  last  portion.  If  the 
trial  is  successful,  the  whole  stock  may 
be  clarified  in  this  manner. 

MEDICINAL  WINES: 

Beef  and  Iron. — The  following  formula 
is  recommended  by  the  American  Phar- 
maceutical Association: 

I. — Extract  of  beef.  ...       35  grams 
Tincture    of    citro- 

chloride  of  iron. .       35  c.c. 
Compound      spirit 

of  orange 1  c.c. 

Hot  water 60  c.c. 

Alcohol 125  c.c. 

Syrup 125  c.c. 

Sherry   wine    suffi- 
cient to  make 1,000  c.c. 

Rub  the  extract  of  beef  with  the  hot 
water,  and  add,  while  stirring,  the 
alcohol.  Allow  to  stand  3  days  or  more, 
then  filter  and  distill  off  the  alcohol. 
Add  to  the  residue  750  cubic  centimeters 
of  the  wine,  to  which  the  compound 
spirit  of  orange  has  been  previously 
added.  Finally  add  the  tincture  of  citro- 
chloride  of  iron,  syrup,  and  enough  wine 
to  make  1,000  cubic  centimeters.  Filter 
if  nece.,sary. 

II. — For  Poultry  and  Stock. — A  good 
formula  for  wine  of  beef  and  iron  is  as 
follows: 

Beef  extract 256  grains 

Tincture     of     iron 

citro-chloride .  ..256  minims 

Hot  water 1  fluidounce 

Sherry  wine  enough 

to  make 1  pint 

Pour  the  hot  water  in  the  beef  extract 
and  triturate  until  a  smooth  mixture  is 
made.  To  •  this  add,  gradually  and 
under  constant  stirring,  12  ounces  of  the 
wine.  Add  now,  under  same  conditions, 
the  iron,  stir  in  well,  and  finally  add  the 
remainder  of  the  wine. 

Cinchona. — I. — Macerate  100  parts  of 
cinchona  succirubra  in  coarse  powder 
for  30  minutes  in  100  parts  of  boiling 
water.  Strain  off  the  liquor  and  set 
aside.  Macerate  the  residuum  in  1,000 
parts  of  California  Malaga  for  24  hours, 
strain  off  the  liquid  and  set  aside. 
Finally  macerate  the  magma  in  500  parts 
of  alcohol,  of  50  per  cent,  for  1  hour, 
strain  off  and  set  aside.  Wash  the 
residue  with  a  little  water  to  recover  all 
the  alcoholic  tincture;  then  unite  all  the 


liquids,  let  stand  for  24  hours,  ana  filter. 
To  the  filtrate  add  800  parts  loaf  sugar 
and  dissolve  by  the  aid  of  gentle  heat 
and  again  filter.  The  product  is  all  that 
could  be  asked  of  a  wine  of  cinchona. 
To  make  a  ferrated  wine  of  this,  dissolve 
1  part  of  citro-ammoniacal  pyrophos- 
phate  of  iron  to  every  1,000  parts  of  wine. 
II. — Yvon  recommends  the  following 
formula: 

Red  cinchona,  coarse 

powder 5  parts 

Alcohol,  60  per  cent. .    10  parts 
Diluted  hydrochloric 

acid 1  part 

Bordeaux  wine 100  parts 

Macerate  the  bark  with  the  acid  and 
alcohol  for  6  days,  shaking  from  time  to 
time,  add  the  wine,  macerate  for  24 
hours,  agitating  frequently,  then  filter. 

Removal  of  Musty  Taste  and  Smell 
from  Wine. — For  the  removal  of  this 
unpleasant  quality,  Kulisch  recommends 
the  use  of  a  piece  of  charcoal  of  about  the 
size  of  a  hazel  nut — 5  to  10  parts  per  1,000 
parts  of  wine.  After  this  has  remained 
in  the  cask  for  6  to  8  weeks,  and  during 
this  time  has  been  treated  once  a  week 
with  a  chain  or  with  a  stirring  rod,  the 
wine  can  be  racked  off.  Obstinate  turbid- 
ness,  as  well  as  stalk  taste  and  pot  flavor, 
can  also  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  the 
remedy. 


WINTERGREEN,  TO  DISTINGUISH 
METHYL  SALICYLATE  FROM  OIL 
OF. 

A  quantity  of  the  sample  is  mixed  in 
a  test  tube  with  an  equal  volume  of 
pure  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  Under 
these  conditions  the  artificial  compound 
shows  no  rise  in  temperature  and  ac- 
quires only  a  slight  yellowish  tint,  while 
with  the  natural  oil  there  is  a  marked  rise 
in  temperature  and  the  mixture  assumes 
a  rose-red  color,  gradually  passing  into 
darker  shades. 

WIRE  ROPE. 

See  also  Steel. 

A  valuable  anti-friction  and  preserva- 
tive compound  for  mine  cables  is  as 
follows:  Seven  parts  soft  tallow  and  3 
parts  plumbago,  mixed  thoroughly;  make 
a  long,  hollow  box  or  trough,  gouge  out 
a  4  by  6  piece  of  scantling  about  2  feet 
long,  sawing  it  down  lengthwise  and 
hollowing  out  the  box  or  trough  enough 
to  hold  several  pounds  of  the  compound, 
making  also  a  hole  lengthwise  of  the 


772 


WIRE   ROPE— WOOD 


trough  for  the  cable  to  run  through;  then 
affix  to  rope  and  clamp  securely,  having 
the  box  or  trough  so  fixed  that  it  cannot 
play,  and  letting  the  cable  pass  through 
it  while  going  up  or  down,  so  that  it  will 
get  a  thorough  coating.  This,  it  is  found, 
will  preserve  a  round  cable  very  well, 
and  can  be  used  at  least  once  a  week. 
For  a  flat  steel  cable  raw  linseed  oil  can 
be  used  instead  of  the  tallow,  in  about  the 
proportion  of  6  parts  oil  and  3  plumbago. 
If  tar  is  used,  linseed  oil  is  to  be  added  to 
keep  the  tar  from  adhering,  both  in- 
gredients to  be  mixed  while  warm. 

To  preserve  wire  rope  laid  under 
ground,  or  under  water,  coat  it  with  a 
mixture  of  mineral  tar  and  fresh  slaked 
lime  in  the  proportion  of  1  bushel  of  lime 
to  1  barrel  of  tar.  The  mixture  is  to  be 
boiled,  and  the  rope  saturated  with  it 
while  hot;  sawdust  is  sometimes  added 
to  give  the  mixture  body.  Wire  rope  ex- 
posed to  the  weather  is  coated  with  raw 
linseed  oil,  or  with  a  paint  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  Spanish  brown  or  lamp- 
black with  linseed  oil. 

WIRE  HARDENING: 

See  Steel. 


WITCH-HAZEL  JELLY: 

See  Cosmetics. 

Wood 

DECORATIVE  WOOD-FINISH. 

Paint  or  stencil  wood  with  white-lime 
paint.  When  it  has  dried  slowly  in  the 
shade,  brush  it  off  and  a  handsome  dark- 
brown  tone  will  be  imparted  to  the  oak- 
wood.  Some  portions  which  may  be 
desired  darker  and  redder  are  stained 
again  with  lime,  whereby  these  places 
become  deeper.  It  is  essential  that  the 
lime  be  applied  in  even  thickness  and 
dried  slowly,  for  only  then  the  staining 
will  be  red  and  uniform. 

After  the  staining  saturate  the  wood 
with  a  mixture  of  varnish,  2  parts;  oil  of 
turpentine,  1  part;  turpentine,  £  part. 
When  the  oil  ground  is  dry  apply  2 
coatings  of  pale  amber  varnish. 

Colored  decorations  on  pinewood  can 
be  produced  as  follows: 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  work  is 
to  remove  the  rosin  accumulations  with- 
out causing  a  spot  to  appear.  Burn  out 
the  places  carefully  with  a  red-hot  iron. 
Great  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  the 
iron  from  setting  the  rosin  on  fire,  thus 
causing  black  smoke  clouds. 


The  resulting  holes  are  filled  up  with 
plaster  to  which  a  little  light  ocher  is 
added  to  imitate  the  shade  of  the  wood 
as  perfectly  as  possible.  Plaster  up  no 
more  than  is  necessary. 

Rub  the  wood  down  with  very  fine 
sandpaper,  taking  especial  care  to  rub 
only  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  since  ali 
cross  scratches  will  remain  permanently 
visible. 

After  this  preliminary  work  cover  the 
wood  with  a  solution  of  white  shellac,  in 
order  not  to  injure  the  handsome  golden 
portions  of  the  wood  and  to  preserve  the 
pure  light  tone  of  the  wood  in  general. 

On  this  shellac  ground  paint  and 
stencil  with  glazing  colors,  ground  with 
isinglass  solution.  The  smaller,  more 
delicate  portions,  such  as  flowers  and 
figures,  are  simply  worked  out  in  wash 
style  with  water  colors,  using  the  tone  of 
the  wood  to  remain  as  high  lights,  sur- 
rounding the  whole  with  a  black  contour. 

After  this  treatment  the  panels  and 
decorated  parts  are  twice  varnished  with 
dammar  varnish.  The  friezes  and  pilaster 
strips  are  glazed  darker  and  set  off  with 
stripes;  to  varnish  them  use  amber  var- 
nish. 

The  style  just  mentioned  does  not  ex- 
clude any  other.  Thus,  for  instance,  a 
very  good  effect  is  produced  by  decorat- 
ing the  panels  only  with  a  black  covering 
color  or  with  black  and  transparent  red 
(burnt  sienna  and  a  little  carmine)  after 
the  fashion  of  boule  work  in  rich  orna- 
ments, in  such  a  way  that  the  natural 
wood  forms  the  main  part  and  yet  quite 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  ornament. 

Intarsia  imitation  is  likewise  well 
adapted,  since  the  use  of  variegated  cov- 
ering colors  is  in  perfect  keeping  with 
the  decoration  of  natural  wood.  How  it 
should  be  applied,  and  how  much  of  it, 
depends  upon  one's  taste,  as  well' as  the 
purpose  and  kind  of  the  object. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  large 
pores  of  oak  always  look  rather  smeary, 
according  to  whether  the  workshop  is 
more  or  less  dusty.  If  this  is  to  be 
avoided,  which  is  essential  for  neat  work, 
take  good  wheat  starch,  pound  it  fine 
with  a  hammer  andllstir  by  means  of  a 
wooden  spatula  good  strong  polish  with 
the  wheat  starch  to  a  paste  and  work  the 
paste  into  the  pores  by  passing  it  cross- 
wise over  the  wood.  After  about  \ 
hour,  rub  down  the  wood  thus  treated  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  pores  are  filled. 
In  case  any  open  pores  remain,  repeat 
the  process  as  before.  After  that,  rub 
down,  polish  or  deaden.  If  this  opera- 
tion is  not  performed,  the  pores  will 
always  look  somewhat  dirty,  despite  all 


WOOD 


773 


care.  Every  cabinetmaker  will  readily 
perceive  that  this  filling  of  the  pores  will 
save  both  time  and  polish  in  the  sub- 
sequent finishing. 

WOOD  FILLERS. 

The  novice  in  coach  painting  is  quite 
as  likeJy  to  get  bewildered  as  to  be  aided 
by  much  of  the  information  given  about 
roughstuff,  the  more  so  as  the  methods 
differ  so  widely.  One  authority  tells  us 
to  use  a  large  proportion  of  lead  ground 
in  oil  with  the  coarser  pigment,  while 
another  says  use  dry  lead  and  but  a 
small  percentage,  and  still  another  in- 
sists that  lead  must  be  tabooed  alto- 
gether. There  are  withal  a  good  many 
moss-grown  superstitions  associated  with 
the  subject.  Not  the  least  of  these  is  the 
remarkably  absorbent  nature  which  the 
surface  that  has  been  roughstuffed  and 
"scoured"  is  supposed  to  possess.  By 
many  this  power  of  absorption  is  be- 
lieved to  be  equal  to  swallowing  up,  not 
only  all  the  color  applied,  but  at  least  3 
coats  of  varnish,  and  none  of  these  would 
think  of  applying  a  coat  of  color  to  a 
roughstuffed  surface  without  first  giving 
it  a  coat  of  liquid  filler  as  a  sort  of 
sacrificial  oblation  in  recognition  of  this 
absorbing  propensity.  Another  authority 
on  the  subject  has  laid  down  the  rule 
that  in  the  process  of  scouring,  the  block 
of  pumice  stone  must  always  be  moved 
in  one  direction,  presumably  for  the 
reason  that  some  trace  of  the  stone  is 
likely  to  be  visible  after  the  surface  is 
finished. 

If  the  block  of  stone  is  scratching,  per- 
haps the  appearance  of  the  finished  panel 
may  be  less  objectionable  with  the  fur- 
rows in  parallel  lines  than  in  what  en- 
gravers call  "cross-hatching,"  but  if  the 
rubbing  is  properly  done  it  is  not  easy 
to  discover  what  difference  it  could  make 
whether  the  stone  is  moved  in  a  straight 
line  or  a  circle.  As  to  absorption,  it  can- 
not be  distinguished  in  the  finished 
panel  between  the  surface  that  was 
coated  with  liquid  filler  and  that  to 
which  the  color  was  applied  directly,  ex- 
cept that  cracking  always  occurs  much 
sooner  in  the  former,  and  this  will  be 
found  to  be  the  case  with  surfaces  that 
have  been  coated  with  liquid  filler  and 
finished  without  roughstuff.  Among  the 
pigments  that  may  be  used  for  rough- 
stuff,  and  there  are  half  a  dozen  or  more, 
any  of  which  may  be  used  with  success, 
there  is  no  doubt  but  that  known  as 
"English  filler"  is  best,  but  it  is  not 
always  to  be  had  without  delay  and  in- 
conveniences. 

Yellow  ocher,  Reno  umber  and  Key- 


stone filler  are  all  suitable  for  roughstuff, 
the  ocher  having  been  used  many  years 
for  the  purpose,  but,  as  already  re- 
marked, the  English  filler  is  best.  This  is 
the  rule  for  mixing  given  by  Nobles  and 
Hoare:  Four  pounds  filler,  1  pound  ground 
white  lead,  1  pint  gold  size,  1  pint  varnish 
and  lj  pints  turpentine,  or  f  pint  good 
size  and  \  pint  boiled  oil  in  lieu  of  the 
varnish.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  white 
lead  ground  in  oil,  it  makes  the  rubbing 
more  laborious,  increases  the  liability  to 
scratching,  and  requires  a  much  longer 
time  to  harden  before  the  scouring  can 
be  done,  without  in  any  appreciable  man- 
ner improving  the  quality  of  the  surface 
when  finished. 

It  may  be  remarked  here  that  the  ad- 
dition of  white  lead,  whether  ground  in 
oil  or  added  dry  to  the  coarser  pigment, 
increases  the  labor  of  scouring  just  in 
proportion  as  it  is  used  until  sufficient 
may  be  used  to  render  the  scouring  proc- 
ess impossible;  hence,  it  follows  that 
the  mixing  should  be  governed  by  the 
character  of  the  job  in  hand.  If  the  job 
is  of  a  cheap  class  the  use  of  very  little 
or  no  lead  at  all  is  advisable,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  Japan  and  turpentine  may  also 
be  increased,  with  the  result  that  a  fairly 
good  surface  may  be  obtained  with  much 
less  labor  than  in  the  formula  given. 

The  number  of  coats  of  filler  required 
to  effect  the  purpose  in  any  given  case 
must  depend  upon  how  well  the  builder 
has  done  his  part  of  the  work.  If  he  has 
left  the  surface  very  uneven  it  follows, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  that  more  coats 
will  be  required  to  make  it  level,  and 
more  of  the  roughstuff  will  remain  after 
the  leveling  process  than  if  the  wood- 
work had  been  more  perfectly  done. 
While  the  merits  of  a  system  or  method 
are  not  to  be  judged  by  its  antiquity,  there 
should  be  a  good  reason  to  justify  the 
substitution  of  a  new  method  for  one 
that  has  given  perfect  satisfaction  for 
generations  and  been  used  by  the  best 
coach  painters  who  ever  handled  a  brush. 

A  well-known  writer  on  paints  says 
that  the  effect  of  a  varnish  is  usually  at- 
tributed to  the  manner  of  its  applica- 
tion and  the  quantity  of  thinners  used 
for  diluting  the  melted  gums,  with  the 
prepared  oils  and  the  oxidizing  agents 
used  in  its  manufacture.  While  this  has 
undoubtedly  much  to  do  with  the  success- 
ful application  of  varnish,  there  are  other 
facts  in  this  connection  that  should  not 
be  overlooked.  For  example,  varnish  is 
sometimes  acted  on  by  the  breaking  up, 
or  the  disintegration  of  the  filling  coats; 
which  in  turn  is  evidently  acted  on  by  the 
wood  itself,  according  to  its  nature. 


774 


WOOD 


With  the  aid  of  the  microscope  in 
examining  the  component  parts  of  wood 
a  cellular  tissue  is  observed  which  va- 
ries in  form  according  to  the  species  and 
the  parts  which  are  inspected.  This 
cellular  tissue  is  made  up  of  small 
cavities  called  pores  or  cells,  which  are 
filled  with  a  widely  diversified  matter 
and  are  covered  with  a  hard  and  usually 
brittle  substance  called  lignin. 

This  diversified  matter  consists  of 
mineral  salts  and  various  organic  sub- 
stances, gelatinous  in  their  nature  and  held 
in  solution  by  a  viscous  liquid  and  con- 
taining nitrogenous  matter  in  different 
combinations,  the  whole  being  designated 
by  the  general  name  of  albuminous  sub- 
stances. The  older  the  wood  the  more 
viscous  is  the  matter;  while  wood  of 
recent  growth  (sapwood)  contains  less 
viscous  matter  holding  these  substances 
in  solution.  This  albumen  in  wood  acts 
on  substances  like  filler  and  varnish  in 
one  way  or  the  other,  good  or  bad.  The 
seasoning  of  wood  does  not  dispose  of 
these  substances.  The  water  evaporates, 
leaving  them  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the 
cells.  The  drier  these  substances  are  the 
less  action  they  exert  on  the  filler  or  what- 
ever substance  is  coated  on  the  surface. 
If  the  filler  disintegrates,  it  affects  the 
varnish. 

All  albuminous  substances,  be  they  dry 
or  in  liquid  form,  are  subject,  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  protein  they  con- 
tain— which  seems,  or  rather  is,  the  es- 
sential principle  of  all  albuminous  matter 
— to  the  influence  of  caustic  potash  and 
soda.  Thus,  the  albumen  of  an  egg  is 
exactly  like  that  contained  in  the  com- 
position of  wood.  As  albumen  in  wood 
becomes  solid  by  drying,  it  is  easily  dis- 
solved again,  and  will  then  be  acted  on 
chemically  by  any  extraneous  substance 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

Some  of  the  shellacs,  substitutes  for 
shellacs,  and  some  of  the  liquid  fillers  are 
manufactured  from  some  of  the  following 
substances:  Old  linseed  oil,  old  varnish, 
old  and  hard  driers,  turpentine,  benzine, 
often  gasoline,  rosin,  whiting,  cornstarch 
flour,  hulls,  paint  skins,  silica,  and  so  on. 
The  list  is  long.  To  these  must  be 
added  a  large  volume  of  potash,  to  bring 
it  to  and  hold  it  in  solution.  There  must 
be  an  excess  of  potash  which  is  not  com- 
bined into  a  chemical  compound,  which 
if  it  did,  might  mitigate  its  influence  on 
the  albumen  of  the  wood.  But  as  there 
is  potash  in  its  pure  state  remaining  in 
the  solution  it  necessarily  attacks  the  al- 
bumen of  the  wood,  causing  disintegra- 
tion, which  releases  it  from  the  wood, 
causing  white,  grayish  flakes,  and  the 


formation  of  a  powder.  This  is  not  a  con- 
clusion drawn  from  an  inference  but  an 
established  scientific  fact  resulting  from 
experiments  with  fillers  the  various  com- 
positions of  which  were  known.  All 
alkalies  act  on  albumen.  No  one  would 
knowingly  varnish  over  a  surface  such 
as  it  would  be  were  the  white  of  an  egg 
applied  to  it  and  then  washed  with  an 
alkali  solution;  but  that  is  just  what  is 
done  when  varnish  is  put  over  a  wood 
surface  filled  with  a  filler  which  contains 
an  alkali. 

Most  of  the  combinations  of  material 
used  in  the  painting  trade  are  mixtures; 
that  is,  each  part  remains  the  same — 
exerting  the  same  chemical  action  on 
another  substance,  or  any  other  sub- 
stance coming  in  contact  with  a  paint 
mixture  will  exert  the  same  chemical 
action  on  any  part,  or  on  any  ingredient 
it  contains,  the  same  as  if  that  part  was 
by  itself. 

We  can  now  account  for  some  of  the 
numerous  peculiarities  of  varnish.  We 
know  that  any  alkali  when  coming  in  con- 
tact with  albumen  forms  a  compound, 
which  on  drying  is  a  white,  brittle  sub- 
stance easily  disintegrated.  This  is  why 
potash,  sal  soda,  and  kindred  substances 
will  remove  paint.  The  alkali  attacks  the 
albumen  in  the  oil,  softening  it,  causing 
easy  removal,  whereas  if  it  were  allowed 
to  dry,  the  albumen  in  the  oil  would  take 
on  a  grayish  color  quite  brittle.  Potash 
or  other  alkalies  in  filler  not  only  attack 
the  albumen  in  the  wood,  but  also  attack 
the  albumen  in  the  oil  by  forming  a  com- 
pound with  it.  Probably  this  compound 
is  very  slight,  only  forming  a  compound 
in  part,  enough,  nevertheless,  to  start  a 
destroying  influence,  which  is  demon- 
strated by  the  following  results  of  experi- 
ments. The  reader  has,  perhaps,  some 
time  in  his  career  applied  a  rosin  varnish 
over  a  potash  filler  and  has  been  sur- 
prised by  the  good  results,  a  more  per- 
manent effect  being  obtained  than  in  other 
instances  where  the  best  of  varnish  was 
used.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  rosin 
of  the  potash.  Again,  the  reader  may 
have  had  occasion  to  remove  varnish 
with  potash  and  found  that  potash  would 
not  touch  it.  This  is  because  of  its  being 
a  rosin  varnish.  Potash  in  filler  may  be 
rendered  somewhat  inert,  by  reason  of 
its  compounding  with  other  parts  of  the 
filler,  but  owing  to  the  quantity  used  in 
some  of  the  commercial  fillers  it  is  not 
possible  that  all  the  alkali  is  rendered 
inert.  Hence  it  will  attack  the  albumen 
wherever  found,  as  all  albumen  is  iden- 
tical in  its  chemical  composition. 

Alkalies  have  but  little  effect  on  the 


WOOD 


775 


higher  classes  of  gums,  because  of  their 
effect  on  the  albumen  in  the  wood  and 
oil.  All  alcohol  varnishes  or  varnishes 
made  by  the  aid  of  heat  stand  well  over 
an  alkali  filler.  Varnishes  which  contain 
little  oil  seem  to  stand  well.  This  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  alcohol  ren- 
ders albumen  insoluble.  Alkalies  of  all 
kinds  readily  attack  shellac  and  several 
other  of  the  cheap  gums,  forming  unstable 
compounds  on  which  oil  has  but  little 
effect. 

Close-grained  wood  contains  less  albu- 
men and  more  lignin  than  open-grained 
varieties,  and  consequently  does  not  take 
so  much  filler,  which  accounts  for  the 
finish  invariably  lasting  longer  than  the 
same  kind  used  on  an  open-grained  wood. 
Open-grained  wood  contains  more  sap 
than  close  grained;  consequently  there  is 
more  albumen  to  adhere  to  the  sides  of 
the  cells.  The  more  albumen,  the  more 
readily  it  is  attacked  by  the  potash,  and 
the  more  readily  decomposed,  or  rather 
destroyed. 

Alcohol  renders  albumen  insoluble 
immediately  on  application.  It  prevents 
it  from  compounding  with  any  other 
substance,  or  any  other  substance  com- 
pounding with  it.  Hence,  we  must  con- 
clude that  an  application  of  alcohol 
to  wood  before  the  filler  is  applied  is 
valuable,  which  is  proven  to  be  a  fact  by 
experiment.  Wash  one  half  of  a  board 
with  alcohol,  then  apply  the  potash  filler 
over  all.  Again,  wash  the  portion  of  the 
board  on  which  is  the  filler  and  apply 
a  heavy-bodied  oil  varnish.  Expose  to 
sunlight  and  air  the  same  as  a  finished 
door  or  the  like,  and  wait  for  the  result. 
At  the  end  of  a  few  months  a  vast  differ- 
ence will  be  found  in  the  two  parts  of  the 
surface.  The  one  on  which  there  is  no 
alcohol  will  show  the  ravages  of  time  and 
the  elements  much  sooner  than  the  one 
on  which  it  is. 

Wood  finishers  demand  a  difference 
in  the  composition  of  fillers,  paste  and 
liquid,  for  open-  and  close-grained  wood, 
respectively;  but  unfortunately  they  do 
not  demand  a  difference  between  either 
kind  in  themselves,  according  to  the  kind 
of  wood.  Paste  fillers  are  used  indis- 
criminately for  open-grained  wood  and 
liquid  for  close-grained  wood. 

To  find  the  fillers  best  adapted  for  a 
certain  wood,  and  to  classify  them  in 
this  respect  will  require  a  large  amount 
of  chemical  work  and  practical  experi- 
ments; but  that  it  should  be  done  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  both  success 
and  failure  result  from  the  use  of  the  same 
filler  on  different  varieties  of  wood.  After 
once  being  classified  (owing  to  the  large 


number  now  on  the  market),  they  will 
not  number  nearly  so  many  in  the  ag- 
gregate as  might  be  supposed;  as  it  will 
be  found  in  many  instances  that  two  en- 
tirely different  varieties  of  wood  resemble 
each  other  more  closely  in  their  vascular 
formation  and  cell  characteristics  than 
do  two  other  specimens  of  the  same  variety. 
It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  paste  fillers 
whose  base  is  starch  or  the  like  work 
better  and  give  better  results  in  certain  in- 
stances, while  those  whose  base  is  mineral 
matter  seem  to  do  better  in  other  cases. 

It  is  noticed  that  rosewood  as  a  finish- 
ing veneer  is  obsolete.  This  is  not  because 
of  its  scarcity,  but  because  it  is  so  hard 
to  finish  without  having  been  seasoned 
for  a  long  time.  In  these  days,  manu- 
facturers cannot  wait.  It  takes  longer 
for  the  sap  of  rosewood  to  become  inac- 
tive, or  in  trade  parlance  to  "die,"  than 
any  other  wood.  This  is  because  it  takes 
so  long  for  the  albumen  in  the  sap  to 
coagulate.  Rosewood  has  always  been  a 
source  of  trouble  to  piano  makers,  on 
account  of  the  action  of  the  sap  on  the 
varnish.  However,  if  this  wood,  previ- 
ously to  filling,  was  washed  with  a  weak 
solution  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  then 
with  wood  spirit,  it  might  be  more  easily 
finished.  The  phosphoric  acid  would 
coagulate  the  albumen  on  the  surface  of 
the  wood  immediately,  while  alcohol 
would  reduce  it  to  an  insoluble  state. 
The  idea  here  is  to  destroy  the  activity 
of  the  sap,  on  the  same  principle  as  sappy 
places  and  knot  sap  are  destroyed  by  alco- 
hol-shellac before  being  painted. 

Oak  is  another  wood  which  gives  the 
painter  trouble  to  finish.  This  may  be 
accounted  for  as  follows:  Oak  contains  a 
sour  acid  principle  called  tannic  acid. 
It  is  a  very  active  property.  Wood  dur- 
ing the  growing  season  contains  more 
albumen;  thus  in  the  circulation  of  the 
sap  a  large  quantity  of  soft  matter  is  de- 
posited on  the  lignin  which  lines  the  cells, 
which  lignin,  if  it  contains  any  acid  matter, 
acts  on  the  material  of  the  filler.  Tannic 
acid  has  a  deleterious  effect  on  some  of 
the  material  of  which  a  number  of  fillers 
are  made.  Starch  and  many  gums  are 
susceptible  to  its  influence,  making  some 
of  them  quite  soft.  Oak,  like  most  other 
timber  cut  at  the  season  when  the  least 
sap  is  in  circulation,  is  the  more  easily 
finished. 

The  vascular  formation  may,  and  no 
doubt  has,  something  to  do  with  wood 
finishing.  Different  species  of  wood 
differ  materially  in  their  vascular  and 
cellular  formation.  Wood  finishers  rec- 
ognize a  difference  in  treatment  of  French 
burl  walnut  and  the  common  American 


776 


WOOD 


variety.  Circassian  and  Italian  walnut, 
although  of  the  same  species,  demand 
widely  different  treatment  in  finishing  to 
get  the  best  results. 

The  only  way  to  find  the  best  ma- 
terials to  use  in  certain  cases  is  to  study 
and  experiment  with  that  end  in  view. 
If,  by  aid  of  a  microscope,  a  certain 
piece  of  wood  shows  the  same  cellular 
formation  that  another  piece  did  which 
was  successfully  finished  by  a  certain 
process,  it  may  be  regarded  as  safe  to 
treat  both  alike.  If  observation  on  this 
line  is  indulged  in,  it  will  not  take  the 
finisher  very  long  to  learn  just  what 
treatment  is  best  for  the  work  in  hand. 
How  often  it  has  been  noticed  in  some- 
thing of  two  parts,  like  a  door,  that  the 
panels  when  finished  will  pit,  run,  or 
sag,  while  the  sides  will  present  a  sur- 
face in  every  way  desirable  and  vice 
versa.  This  is  due  to  the  difference  in 
the  cellular  construction  of  the  wood 
and  to  the  cellulose,  and  cannot  be 
otherwise  for  the  parts  have  been  seasoned 
the  same  time  and  treated  exactly  alike. 
The  physiology  of  wood  is  imperfectly 
understood,  but  enough  is  known  to 
warrant  us  in  saying  with  a  certainty 
that  the  chemicals  in  fillers  do  act  upon 
the  principles  embodied  in  its  formation. 

Some  tried  formulas  follow: 

I. — Make  a  paste  to  fill  the  cracks  as 
follows:  Old  furniture  polish:  Whiting, 
plaster  of  Paris,  pumice  stone,  litharge, 
equal  parts,  Japan  drier,  boiled  linseed 
oil,  turpentine,  coloring  matter,  of  each  a 
sufficient  quantity. 

Rub  the  solids  intimately  with  a  mix- 
ture of  1  part  of  the  Japan,  2  parts  of  the 
linseed  oil,  and  3  parts  of  turpentine, 
coloring  to  suit  with  Vandyke  brown  or 
sienna.  Lay  the  filling  on  with  a  brush, 
let  it  set  for  about  20  minutes,  and  then 
rub  off  clean  except  where  it  is  to  remain. 
In  2  days  it  will  be  hard  enough  to  polish. 
After  the  surface  has  been  thus  prepared, 
the  application  of  a  coat  of  first-class 
copal  varnish  is  in  order.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  the  varnish  be  applied  in  a 
moderately  warm  room,  as  it  is  injured 
by  becoming  chilled  in  drying.  To  get 
the  best  results  in  varnishing,  some  skill 
and  experience  are  required.  The  var- 
nish must  be  kept  in  an  evenly  warm 
temperature,  and  put  on  neither  too 
plentifully  nor  too  gingerly.  After  a 
satisfactorily  smooth  and  regular  surface 
has  been  obtained,  the  polishing  proper 
may  be  done.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  manual  labor  and  dexterity,  or  by  the 
application  of  a  very  thin,  even  coat  of  a 
very  fine,  transparent  varnish. 


If  the  hand-polishing  method  be  pre- 
ferred,  it   may   be   pursued   by   rubbing 
briskly  and  thoroughly  with  the  follow- 
ing finishing  polish: 

Alcohol  ...........   8  ounces 

Shellac  ...........    2  drachms 

Gum  benzoin  ......    2  drachms 

Best  poppy  oil  .....    2  drachms 

Dissolve  the  shellac  and  gum  in  the 
alcohol  in  a  warm  place,  with  frequent 
agitation,  and,  when  cold,  add  the  poppy 
oil.  This  ma  be  applied  on  the  end  of 


a  cylindrical  rubber  made  by  tightly 
rolling  a  piece  of  flannel,  which  has  been 
torn,  not  cut,  into  strips  4  to  6  inches 
wide.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  surface  of  the  cabinet  work  of  a 
piano  is  generally  veneered,  and  this 
being  so,  necessitates  the  exercise  of 
much  skill  and  caution  in  polishing. 

II.  —  Prepare  a  paste  from  fine  starch 
flour  and  a  thick  solution  of  brown 
shellac,  with  the  spatula  upon  a  grinding 
stone,  and  rub  the  wooden  object  with 
this.  After  the  drying,  rub  off  with 
sandpaper  and  polish  lightly  with  a  rag 
moistened  with  a  thin  shellac  solution 
and  a  few  drops  of  oil.  The  ground  thus 
prepared  varnish  once  or  twice  and  a  fine 
luster  will  be  obtained.  This  method 
is  well  adapted  for  any  wood  with  large 
pores,  such  as  oak. 

Removal  of  Heat  Stains  from  Polished 
Wood-  —  Fold  a  sheet  of  blotting  paper  a 
couple  of  times  (making  4  thicknesses  of 
the  paper),  cover  the  place  with  it,  and 
put  a  hot  smoothing  iron  thereon.  Have 
ready  at  hand  some  bits  of  flannel,  also 
folded  and  made  quite  hot.  As  soon  as 
the  iron  has  made  the  surface  of  the 
wood  quite  warm,  remove  the  paper, 
etc,,  and  go  over  the  spot  with  a  piece  of 
paraffine,  rubbing  it  hard  enough  to 
leave  a  coating  of  the  substance.  Now 
with  one  of  the  hot  pieces  of  flannel  rub 
the  injured  surface.  Continue  the  rub- 
bing, using  freshly  warmed  cloths  until 
the  whiteness  leaves  the  varnish  or 
polish.  The  operation  may  have  to  be 
repeated. 

PRESERVATION  OF  WOOD. 

I.  —  An  excellent  way  of  preserving 
wood  is  to  cut  it  between  August  and 
October.  The  branches  are  removed, 
leaving  only  the  leaves  at  the  top.  The 
trunks,  carefully  cut  or  sawn  (so  tnat  their 
pores  remain  open),  are  immediately 
placed  upright,  with  the  lower  part  im- 
mersed in  tanks  three-quarters  filled  with 
water,  into  which  3  or  4  kilograms  of 

Eowdered  cupric  sulphate  per  hectoliter 
ave    been    introduced.     The    mass    of 


WOOD 


777 


leaves  left  at  the  extremity  of  each  trunk 
is  sufficient  to  cause  the  ascent  of  the 
liquid  by  means  of  the  capillary  force 
and  a  reserve  of  energy  in  the  sap. 

II. — Wood  which  can  be  well  pre- 
served may  be  obtained  by  making  a 
circular  incision  in  the  bark  of  the  trees 
a  certain  time  before  cutting  them 
down.  The  woodcutters  employed  in 
the  immense  teak  forests  of  Siam  have 
adopted  in  an  empirical  way  a  similar 
process,  which  has  been  productive  of 
good  results.  The  tree  is  bled,  making 
around  the  trunk,  at  the  height  of  4  feet 
above  ground,  a  circular  incision  8 
inches  wide  and  4  inches  deep,  at  the 
time  when  it  is  in  bloom  and  the  sap 
rising.  Sometimes  the  tree  is  left  stand- 
ing for  3  years  after  this  operation. 
Frequently,  also,  a  deep  incision  reach- 
ing the  heart  is  made  on  two  opposite 
sides,  and  then  it  takes  sometimes  only 
6  months  to  extract  the  sap. 

It  is  probable  that  it  is  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  this  method  that  the  teak- 
wood  acquires  its  exceptional  resistance 
to  various  destructive  agents. 

III. — A  good  preservation  of  piles, 
stakes,  and  palisades  is  obtained  by 
leaving  the  wood  in  a  bath  of  cupric 
sulphate  of  4°  of  the  ordinary  acidimeter 
for  a  time  which  may  vary  from  8  to  15 
days,  according  to  greater  or  less  dry- 
ness  of  the  wood  and  its  size.  After 
they  are  half  dried  they  are  immersed  in 
a  bath  of  lime  water;  this  forms  with  the 
sulphate  an  insoluble  compound,  pre- 
venting the  rain  from  dissolving  the 
sulphate  which  has  penetrated  the  wood. 
This  process  is  particularly  usetul  for  vine 
props  and  the  wood  of  white  poplars. 

A  good  way  to  prevent  the  decay  of 
stakes  would  be  to  plant  them  upside 
down;  that  is,  to  bury  the  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  branch  in  the  ground.  In 
this  way,  the  capillary  tubes  do  not  so 
easily  absorb  the  moisture  which  is  the 
cause  of  decay.  It  frequently  happens 
that  for  one  or  another  reason,  the  im- 
pregnation of  woods  designed  to  be 
planted  in  the  ground,  such  as  masts, 
posts,  and  supports  has  been  neglected. 
It  would  be  impracticable,  after  they  are 
placed,  to  take  up  these  pieces  in  order  to 
coat  them  with  carbolineum  or  tar, 
especially  if  they  are  fixed  in  a  wall, 
masonry,  or  other  structure.  Recourse 
must  be  had  to  other  means.  Near  the 
point  where  the  piece  rises  from  the 
ground,  a  hole  about  one  centimeter  in 
width  is  made  in  a  downward  slanting 
direction,  filled  with  carbolineum,  ana 
dosed  with  a  wooden  plug. 


It  depends  upon  the  consistency  of  the 
wood  whether  the  liquid  will  be  absorbed 
in  1  or  2  days.  The  hole  is  filled  again 
for  a  week.  The  carbolineum  replaces 
by  degrees  the  water  contained  in  the 
wood.  When  it  is  well  impregnated,  the 
hole  is  definitely  closed  with  a  plug  of 
wood,  which  is  sawn  level  with  the  open- 
ing. The  wood  will  thus  be  preserved 
quite  as  well  as  if  it  had  been  previously 
coated  with  carbolineum. 

IV. — Wooden  objects  remaining  in  the 
open  air  may  be  effectually  protected 
against  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  by 
means  of  the  following  coating:  Finely 
powdered  zinc  oxide  is  worked  into  a 
paste  with  water  and  serves  for  white- 
washing walls,  garden  fences,  benches, 
and  other  wooden  objects.  After  dry- 
ing, probably  at  the  end  of  2  or  3  hours, 
the  objects  must  be  whitewashed  again 
with  a  very  dilute  solution  of  zinc 
chloride  in  glue  or  water.  Zinc  oxide 
and  zinc  chloride  form  a  brilliant,  solid 
compound,  which  resists  the  inclemency 
of  the  weather. 

As  a  paint  for  boards,  planks  for  cover- 
ing greenhouses,  garden-frames,  etc., 
Inspector  Lucas,  of  Reutlingen  ( Wiirtem- 
berg),  has  recommended  the  following 
coating:  Take  fresh  cement  of  the  best 
quality,  which  has  been  kept  in  a  cool 
place,  work  it  up  with  milk  on  a  stone 
until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  oil  paint. 
The  wood  designed  to  receive  it  must  not 
be  smooth,  but  left  rough  after  sawing. 
Two  or  3  coats  are  also  a  protection  from 
fire.  Wood  to  be  tnus  treated  must  be 
very  dry. 

V. — Wood  treated  with  creosote  resists 
the  attacks  of  marine  animals,  such  as  the 
teredo.  Elm,  beech,  and  fir  absorb  creo 
sote  very  readily,  provided  the  wood  is 
sound  and  dry.  Beechwood  absorbs  it 
the  best.  In  fir  the  penetration  is  com- 
plete, when  the  wood  is  of  a  species  of 
rapid  growth,  and  of  rather  compact 
grain.  Besides,  with  the  aid  of  pressure 
it  is  always  possible  to  force  the  creosote 
into  the  wood.  Pieces  of  wood  treated 
with  creosote  have  resisted  for  10  or  11 
years  under  conditions  in  which  oak  wood 
not  treated  in  this  way  would  have  been 
completely  destroyed. 

The  prepared  wood  must  remain  in 
store  at  least  6  months  before  use.  The 
creosote  becomes  denser  during  this 
time  and  causes  a  greater  cohesion  in  the 
fibers.  In  certain  woods,  as  pitch  pine, 
the  injection  is  impossible,  even  under 
pressure,  on  account  of  the  presence  of 
rosin  in  the  capillary  vessels. 

VI. — M.  Zironi  advises  heating  the  wood 


778 


WOOD 


in  vacuo.    The  sap  is  eliminated  in  this 


way. 


Then    the    receiver  is    filled  with 


rosin  in  solution  with  a  hydrocarbide. 
The  saturation  takes  place  in  two  hours, 
when  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  run  off,  and 
a  jet  of  vapor  is  introduced,  which  carries 
off  the  solvent,  whole  the  rosin  remains 
in  the  pores  of  the  wood,  increasing  its 
weight  considerably. 

VII. — Wood  can  be  well  preserved  by 
impregnating  it  with  a  solution  of  tannate 
of  ferric  protoxide.  This  method  is  due 
to  Hazfeld. 

VIII. — The  Hasselmann  process  (xyl- 
olized  wood),  which  consists  in  immers- 
ing the  wood  in  a  saline  solution  kept 
boiling  under  moderate  pressure,  the 
liquid  containing  copper  and  iron  sul- 
phates (20  per  cent  of  the  first  and  80 
per  cent  of  the  second),  as  well  as 
aluminum  and  kainit,  a  substance  until 
recently  used  only  as  a  fertilizer,  is  now 
much  employed  on  the  railways  in  Ger- 
many. 

IX. — Recently  the  discovery  has  been 
made  that  wood  may  be  preserved  with 
dissolved  betuline,  a  vegetable  product  of 
the  consistency  of  paste,  called  also 
birchwood  rosin.  Betuline  must  first  be 
dissolved.  It  is  procurable  in  the  crude 
state  at  a  low  price.  The  wood  is  im- 
mersed for  about  12  hours  in  the  solu- 
tion, at  a  temperature  of  from  57°  to 
60°  F. 

After  the  first  bath  the  wood  is 
plunged  into  a  second,  formed  of  a  solu- 
tion of  pectic  acid  of  40°  to  45°  Be., 
and  with  a  certain  percentage  of  an 
alkaline  carbonate — for  instance,  potas- 
sium carbonate  of  commerce — in  the 
proportion  of  1  part  of  carbonate  to 
about  4  parts  of  the  solution.  The  wood 
remains  immersed  in  this  composition 
for  12  hours;  then  it  is  taken  out  and 
drained  from  8  to  15  hours,  the  time 
varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
wood  and  the  temperature.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  second  bath,  the  betulin 
which  was  introduced  through  the  first 
immersion,  is  fixed  in  the  interior  of  the 
mass.  If  it  is  desirable  to  make  the 
wood  more  durable  and  to  give  it  special 
qualities  of  density,  hardness,  and 
elasticity,  it  must  be  submitted  to  strong 
pressure.  In  thus  supplementing  the 
chemical  with  mechanical  treatment,  the 
best  results  are  obtained. 

X. — A  receiver  of  any  form  or  dimen- 
sions is  filled  with  a  fluid  whose  boiling 
point  is  above  212°  F.,  such  as  heavy  tar 
oil,  saline  solutions,  etc.  This  is  kept  at 
an  intermediate  temperature  varying  be- 
tween 212°  F.  and  the  boiling  point;  the 


latter  will  not  be  reached,  but  if  into  this 
liquid  a  piece  of  wood  is  plunged,  an 
agitation  analogous  to  boiling  is  mani- 
fested, produced  by  the  water  and  sap 
contained  in  the  pores  of  the  wood. 
These,  under  the  action  of  a  temperature 
above  212°  F.,  are  dissolved  into  vapor 
and  traverse  the  bath. 

If  the  wood  is  left  immersed  and  a 
constant  temperature  maintained  until 
every  trace  of  agitation  has  disappeared, 
the  water  in  the  pores  of  the  wood  will 
be  expelled,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight 
quantity,  which,  being  in  the  form  of 
vapor,  represents  only  the  seventeen- 
hundredth  part  of  the  original  weight  of 
the  water  contained;  the  air  which  was 
present  in  the  pores  having  been  likewise 
expelled. 

If  the  liquid  is  left  to  cool,  this  vapor  is 
condensed,  forming  a  vacuum,  which  is 
immediately  filled  under  the  action  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure.  In  this  way  the 
wood  is  completely  saturated  by  the 
contents  of  the  bath,  whatever  may  be 
its  form,  proportions  or  condensation. 

To  attain  the  desired  effect  it  is  not 
necessary  to  employ  heavy  oils.  The 
latter  have,  however,  the  advantage  of 
leaving  on  the  surface  of  the  prepared 
pieces  a  kind  of  varnish,  which  con- 
tributes to  protect  them  against  mold, 
worms,  moisture,  and  dry  rot.  The 
same  phenomenon  of  penetration  is 
produced  when,  without  letting  the  wood 
grow  cold  in  the  bath,  it  is  taken  out  and 
plunged  immediately  into  a  cold  bath  of 
the  same  or  of  a  different  fluid.  This 
point  is  important,  because  it  is  possible 
to  employ  as  fluids  to  be  absorbed 
matters  having  a  boiling  point  below 
212°  F.,  and  differing  in  this  respect 
from  the  first  bath,  which  must  be  com- 
posed of  a  liquid  having  a  boiling  point 
above  212°  F. 

If,  instead  of  a  cold  bath  of  a  homo- 
geneous nature,  two  liquids  of  different 
density  separated  in  two  layers,  are  em- 
ployed, the  wood  can,  with  necessary 
precautions,  be  immersed  successively 
in  them,  so  that  it  can  be  penetrated 
with  given  quantities  of  each.  Such 
liquids  are  heavy  tar  oil  and  a  solution  of 
zinc  chloride  of  2°  to  4°  Be.  The  first, 
which  is  denser,  remains  at  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  and  the  second  above.  If 
the  wood  is  first  immersed  in  a  saline 
solution,  it  penetrates  deep  into  the  pores, 
and  when  finally  the  heavy  oil  is  absorbed, 
the  latter  forms  a  superficial  layer,  which 
prevents  the  washing  out  of  the  saline 
solution  in  the  interior,  as  well  as  the 
penetration  of  moisture  from  the  out- 
side. 


WOOD 


779 


XI. — Numerous  experiments  have  been 
made  with  all  kinds  of  wood,  even  with 
hard  oak.  In  the  preparation  of  oak  rail- 
way ties  it  was  discovered  that  pieces 
subjected  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F. 
in  a  bath  of  heavy  tar  oil  for  4  hours 
lost  from  6  to  7  per  cent  of  their  weight, 
represented  by  water  and  albuminous 
substances,  and  that  they  absorbed  in 
heavy  oil  and  zinc  chloride  enough  to 
represent  an  increase  of  from  2  to  3  per 
cent  on  their  natural  original  weight. 
The  oak  wood  in  question  had  been  cut 
for  more  than  a  year  and  was  of  a  density 
of  1.04  to  1.07. 

This  system  offers  the  advantage  of 
allowing  the  absorption  of  antiseptic 
liquids  without  any  deformation  of  the 
constituent  elements  of  the  wood,  the 
more  as  the  operation  is  performed 
altogether  in  open  vessels.  Another 
advantage  is  the  greater  resistance  of  the 
wood  to  warping  and  bending,  and  to  the 
extraction  of  metallic  pieces,  such  as 
nails,  cramp  irons,  etc. 

XII. — In  the  Kyanizing  process  sea- 
soned timber  is  soaked  in  a  solution  of 
bichloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sub- 
limate) which  coagulates  the  albumen. 
The  solution  is  very  poisonous  and  cor- 
rodes iron  and  steel,  hence  is  unsuited 
for  structural  purposes  in  which  metallic 
fastenings  are  used.  The  process  is 
effective,  but  dangerous  to  the  health  of 
the  workers  employed. 

XIII. — The  Wellhouse  process  also 
uses  zinc  chloride,  but  adds  a  small  per- 
centage of  glue.  After  the  timber  has 
been  treated  under  pressure  the  zinc  chlo- 
ride solution  is  drawn  off  and  one  of 
tannin  is  substituted.  The  tannin  com- 
bines  with  the  glue  and  forms  an  insolu- 
'ble  substance  that  effectually  seals  the 
pores. 

XIV. — The  Allardyce  process  makes 
use  of  zinc  chloride  and  dead  oil  of  tar, 
the  latter  being  applied  last,  and  the 
manner  of  application  being  essentially 
the  same  for  both  as  explained  in  the 
other  processes. 

XV. — The  timber  is  boiled  in  a  solu- 
tion of  copper,  iron,  and  aluminum  sul- 
phate, to  which  a  small  quantity  of  kainit 
is  added. 

XVI. — In  the  creo  -  rosinate  process 
the  timber  is  first  subjected  to  a  steam- 
ing process  at  200°  F.  to  evaporate  the 
moisture  in  the  cells;  the  temperature  is 
then  gradually  increased  to  320°  F.  and 
a  pressure  of  80  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  pressure  is  slowly  reduced  to  26 
inches  vacuum,  and  then  a  solution  of 
dead  oil  of  tar,  melted  rosin,  and  formal- 


dehyde is  injected.  After  this  process 
the  timber  is  placed  in  another  cylinder 
where  a  solution  of  milk  of  lime  is  ap- 
plied at  a  temperature  of  150°  F.  and  a 
pressure  of  200  pounds  per  square  inch. 

XVII. — The  vulcanizing  process  of 
treating  timber  consists  essentially  in 
subjecting  it  to  a  baking  process  in  hot 
air  which  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
about  500°  F.  by  passing  over  steam 
coils.  The  heat  coagulates  the  albumen, 
expels  the  water  from  the  cells,  kills  the 
organisms  therein,  and  seals  the  cells  by 
transforming  the  sap  into  a  preservative 
compound.  This  method  is  used  with 
success  by  the  elevated  railway  systems 
of  several  cities. 

XVIII. — A  durable  coating  for  wood 
is  obtained  by  extracting  petroleum 
asphalt,  with  light  petroleum,  benzine, 
or  gasoline.  For  this  purpose  the 
asphalt,  coarsely  powdered,  is  digested 
for  1  to  2  days  with  benzine  in  well- 
closed  vessels,  at  a  moderately  warm 
spot.  Petroleum  asphalt  results  when 
the  distillation  of  petroleum  continued 
until  a  glossy,  firm,  pulverizable  mass 
of  conchoidal  fracture  and  resembling 
colophony  in  consistency  remains.  The 
benzine  dissolves  from  this  asphalt  only 
a  yellowish-brown  dyestuff,  which  deeply 
enters  the  wood  and  protects  it  from  the 
action  of  the  weather,  worms,  dry  rot, 
etc.  The  paint  is  not  opaque,  hence  the 
wood  retains  its  natural  fiber.  It  is  very 
pleasant  to  look  at,  because  the  wood 
treated  with  it  keeps  its  natural  appear- 
ance. The  wood  can  be  washed  off  with 
soap,  and  is  especially  suited  for  country 
and  summer  houses. 

XIX. — A  liquid  to  preserve  wood 
from  mold  and  dry  rot  which  destroys 
the  albuminous  matter  of  the  wood  and 
the  organisms  which  feed  on  it,  so  there 
are  neither  germs  nor  food  for  them  if 
there  were  any,  is  sold  under  the  name  of 
carbolineum.  The  specific  gravity  of  a 
carbolineum  should  exceed  1.105,  and 
should  give  the  wood  a  fine  brown  color. 
It  should,  too,  be  perfectly  waterproof. 
The  three  following  recipes  can  be 
absolutely  relied  on:  a.  Heat  together  and 
mix  thoroughly  95  pounds  of  coal-tar  oil 
and  5  pounds  of  asphalt  from  coal  tar. 
6.  Amalgamate  together  30  pounds  of 
heavy  coal-tar  oil,  60  pounds  of  crude 
wood-tar  oil,  and  25  pounds  of  heavy 
rosin  oil.  c.  Mix  thoroughly  3  pounds  of 
asphalt,  25  pounds  of  heavy  coal-tar  oil, 
and  40  pounds  of  heavy  rosin  oil. 

XX. — Often  the  wooden  portions  of 
machines  are  so  damaged  by  dampness 
prevailing  in  the  shops  that  the  follow- 


780 


WOOD 


ing  compound  will  be  found  useful  for 
their  protection:  Melt  375  parts  of  colo- 
phony in  an  iron  vessel,  and  add  10,000 
parts  of  tar,  and  500  parts  of  sulphur. 
Color  with  brown  ocher  or  any  other 
coloring  matter  diluted  with  linseed  oil. 
Make  a  first  light  application  of  this  mix- 
ture while  warm,  and  after  drying  apply 
a  second  coat. 

XXI. — For  enameling  vats,  etc.,  1,000 
parts  of  brown  shellac  and  125  parts  of 
colophony  are  melted  in  a  spacious  kettle. 
After  the  mass  has  cooled  somewhat,  but 
is  still  thinly  liquid,  6.1  parts  of  alcohol 
(90  per  cent)  is  gradually  added.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  ignition  of  the  spirit 
vapor,  the  admixture  of  spirit  is  made  at 
a  distance  from  the  stove..  By  this  ad- 
dition the  shellac  swells  up  into  a  semi- 
liquid  mass,  and  a  larger  amount  of  en- 
amel is  obtained  than  by  dissolving  it 
cold.  The  enamel  may  be  used  for 
wood  or  iron. 

The  wood  must  be  well  dried;  only 
then  will  the  enamel  penetrate  into  the 
pores.  Two  or  three  coats  suffice  to  close 
up  the  pores  of  the  wood  thoroughly  and 
to  render  the  surface  smooth  and  glossy. 
Each  coating  will  harden  perfectly  in 
several  hours.  The  covering  endures  a 
heat  of  140°  to  150°  F.  without  injury. 
This  glaze  can  also  be  mixed  with  earth 
colors.  Drying  quickly  and  being  taste- 
less, its  applications"  are  manifold. 
Mixed  with  ocher,  for  instance,  it  gives 
an  elegant  and  durable  floor  varnish, 
which  may  safely  be  washed  off  with 
weak  soda  solution.  If  it  is  not  essen- 
tial that  the  objects  be  provided  with  a 
smooth  and  glossy  coating,  only  a 
preservation  being  aimed  at  the  follow- 
ing coat  is  recommended  by  the  same 
source:  Thin,  soluble  glass  (water  glass) 
as  it  is  found  in  commerce,  with  about 
24  per  cent  of  water,  and  paint  the  dry 
vessel  rather  hot  with  this  solution. 
When  this  has  been  absorbed,  repeat  the 
application,  allow  to  dry,  and  coat  with  a 
solution  of  about  1  part  of  sodium  bi- 
carbonate in  8  parts  of  water.  In  this 
coating  silicic  acid  is  separated  by  the 
carbonic  acid  of  the  bicarbonate;  from 
the  water  glass  (sodium  silicate)  ab- 
sorbed by  the  pores  of  the  wood,  which, 
as  it  were,  silicifies  the  wooden  surfaces, 
rendering  them  resistive  against  the 
penetration  of  liquids.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  both  processes  are  increased 
durability  and  facilitated  cleaning. 

XXII. — Tar  paints,  called  also  mineral 
or  metallic  paints,  are  sold  in  barrels  or 
boxes,  at  varying  prices.  Some  dealers 
color  them — yellow  ocher,  red  ocher, 


brown,  gray,  etc.  They  are  prepared  by 
mixing  equal  parts  of  coal  tar  and  oil  of 
turpentine  or  mineral  essence  (gasoline). 
The  product,  if  it  is  not  colored  arti- 
ficially, is  of  a  brilliant  black,  even  when 
cold.  It  dries  in  a  few  hours,  especially 
when  prepared  with  oil  of  turpentine. 
The  paints  with  mineral  essence  are, 
however,  generally  preferred,  on  account 
of  their  lower  cost.  Either  should  be 
spread  on  with  a  hard  brush,  in  coats  as 
thin  as  possible.  They  penetrate  soft 
woods,  and  even  semi-hard  woods 
sufficiently  deep,  and  preserve  them 
completely.  They  adhere  perfectly  to 
metals.  Their  employment  can,  there- 
fore, be  confidently  advised,  so  far  as 
concerns  the  preservation  directly  of  iron 
cables,  reservoirs,  the  interior  surface  of 
generators,  etc.  However,  it  has  been 
shown  that  atmospheric  influence  or 
variations  of  temperature  cause  _  the 
formation  of  ammoniacal  solutions, 
which  corrode  the  metals.  Several  com- 
panies for  the  care  and  insurance  of 
steam  engines  have  for  some  time 
recommended  the  abandonment  of  tar 
products  for  applications  of  this  kind 
and  the  substitution  of  hot  linseed  oil. 

XXIII. — Coal-tar  paints  are  prepared 
according  to  various  formulas.  One  in 
current  use  has  coal  tar  for  a  base,  with 
the  addition  of  gum  rosin.  It  is  very 
black.  Two  thin  coats  give  a  fine 
brilliancy.  It  is  employed  on  metals, 
iron,  sheet  iron,  etc.,  as  well  as  on  wood. 
It  dries  much  quicker  than  the  tars 
used  separately.  Its  preserving  influence 
against  rust  is  very  strong. 

The  following  Tissandier  formula  has 
afforded  excellent  results.  Its  facility  of 
preparation  and  its  low  cost  are  among 
its  advantages.  Mix  10  parts  of  coal  tar, 
1  to  1.6  parts  of  slaked  lime,  4,000  parts  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  400  parts  of  strong 
vinegar,  in  which  i  part  of  cupric  sul- 
phate has  been  previously  boiled.  The 
addition  of  2  or  3  cloves  of  garlic  in  the 
solution  of  cupric  sulphate  aids  in  pro- 
ducing a  varnish,  brilliant  as  well  as 
permanent.  The  compound  can  be  col- 
ored like  ordinary  paints. 

XXIV.  —  Rectified  rosinous  oil  for 
painting  must  not  be  confounded  with 
oils  used  in  the  preparation  of  lubricants 
for  metallic  surfaces  exposed  to  friction. 
It  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  rosin  in 
solution,  which,  on  drying,  fills  the  pores 
of  the  wood  completely,  and  prevents  de- 
composition from  the  action  of  various 
saprophytic  fungi.  It  is  well  adapted  to 
the  preservation  of  pieces  to  be  buried  in 
the  ground  or  exposed  to  the  inclemency 


WOOD 


781 


of  the  weather.  Paints  can  also  be  pre- 
pared with  it  by  the  addition  of  coloring 
powders,  yellow,  brown,  red,  green,  blue, 
etc.,  in  the  proportion  of  1  kilo  to  5 
liters  of  oil.  The  addition  ought  to  take 
place  slowly,  while  shaking,  in  order  to 
obtain  quite  a  homogeneous  mixture. 
Paints  of  this  kind  are  economical,  in 
consequence  of  the  low  price  of  rosin, 
but  they  cannot  be  used  in  the  interior  of 
dwellings  by  reason  of  the  strong  and 
disagreeable  odor  disengaged,  even  a 
long  time  after  their  application.  As  an 
offset,  they  can  be  used  like  tar  and 
carbonyl,  for  stalls,  stables,  etc. 

To  Prevent  Warping. — Immerse  the 
wood  to  be  worked  upon  in  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  sea  salt  for  a  week 
or  so.  The  wood  thus  prepared,  after 
having  been  worked  upon,  will  resist  all 
changes  of  temperature. 

STAINS  FOR  WOOD. 

In  the  staining  of  wood  it  is  not  enough 
to  know  merely  how  to  prepare  and  how 
to  apply  the  various  staining  solutions;  a 
rational  exercise  of  the  art  of  wood  stain- 
ing demands  rather  a  certain  acquaint- 
ance with  the  varieties  of  wood  to  be 
operated  upon,  a  knowledge  of  their 
separate  relations  to  the  individual  stains 
themselves;  for  with  one  and  the  same 
stain  very  different  effects  are  obtained 
when  applied  to  the  varying  species  of 
wood. 

Such  a  diversity  of  effects  arises  from 
the  varying  chemical  composition  of 
wood.  No  unimportant  role  is  played  by 
the  presence  in  greater  or  lesser  quan- 
tities of  tannin,  which  acts  chemically 
upon  many  of  the  stains  and  forms  with 
them  various  colored  varnishes  in  the 
fibers.  Two  examples  will  suffice  to 
make  this  clear.  (1)  Let  us  take  pine  or 
fir,  in  which  but  little  of  the  tanning 
principle  is  found,  and  stain  it  with  a 
solution  of  50  parts  of  potassium  chro- 
mate  in  1,000  parts  of  pure  water;  the 
result  will  be  a  plain  pale  yellow  color, 
corresponding  with  the  potassium  chro- 
mate,  which  is  not  fast  and  as  a  con- 
sequence is  of  no  value.  If,  with  the 
same  solution,  on  the  contrary,  we  stain 
oak,  in  which  the  tanning  principle  is 
very  abundant,  we  obtain  a  beautiful 
yellowish-brown  color  which  is  capable 
of  withstanding  the  effects  of  both  light 
and  air  for  some  time;  for  the  tannin  of 
the  oak  combines  with  the  penetrating 
potassium  chromate  to  form  a  brown 
dyestuff  which  deposits  in  the  woody 
cells.  A  similar  procedure  occurs  in  the 
staining  of  mahogany  and  walnut  with 


the  chromate  because  these  varieties  of 
wood  are  very  rich  in  tannin. 

(2)  Take  some  of  the  same  pine  or  fir 
and  stain  it  with  a  solution  of  20  parts  of 
sulphate  of  iron  in  1,000  parts  of  water 
and  there  will  be  no  perceptible  color. 
Apply  this  stain,  however,  to  the  oak  and 
we  get  a  beautiful  light  gray,  and  if  the 
stain  be  painted  with  a  brush  on  the 
smoother  oaken  board,  in  a  short  time  a 
strong  bluish-gray  tint  will  appear.  This 
effect  of  the  stain  is  the  result  of  the 
combination  of  the  green  vitriol  with  the 
tannin;  the  more  tannin  present,  the 
darker  the  stain  becomes.  The  hard- 
ness or  density  of  the  wood,  too,  exerts  a 
marked  influence  upon  the  resulting 
stain.  In  a  soft  wood,  having  large 

Eores,  the  stain  not  only  sinks  further  in, 
ut  much  more  of  it  is  required  than  in  a 
hard  dense  wood;  hence  in  the  first  place 
a  stronger,  greasier  stain  will  be  obtained 
with  the  same  solution  than  in  the  latter. 

From  this  we  learn  that  in  soft  woods 
it  is  more  advisable  to  use  a  thinner  stain 
to  arrive  at  a  certain  tone;  while  the 
solution  may  be  made  thicker  or  stronger 
for  hard  woods. 

The  same  formula  or  the  same  stain- 
ing solution  cannot  be  relied  upon  to 
give  the  same  results  at  all  times  even 
when  applied  to  the  same  kinds  of  wood. 
A  greater  or  lesser  amount  of  rosin  or 
sap  in  the  wood  at  the  time  the  tree  is 
felled,  will  offer  more  or  less  resistance  to 
the  permeating  tendencies  of  the  stain, 
so  that  the  color  may  be  at  one  time 
much  lighter,  at  another  darker.  Much 
after  the  same  manner  we  find  that  the 
amount  of  the  tanning  principle  is  not 
always  equal  in  the  same  species  of  wood. 

Here  much  depends  upon  the  age  of 
the  tree  as  well  as  upon  the  climatic 
conditions  surrounding  the  place  where 
it  grew.  Moreover,  the  fundamental 
color  of  the  wood  itself  may  vary  greatly 
in  examples  of  the  same  species  and  thus, 
particularly  in  light,  delicate  shades, 
cause  an  important  delay  in  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  final  color  tone.  Because  of 
this  diversification,  not  only  in  the 
different  species  of  wood,  but  even  in 
separate  specimens  of  the  same  species, 
it  is  almost  impossible  always,  and  at  the 
first  attempt,  to  match  a  certain  pre- 
determined color. 

It  is  desirable  that  trials  at  staining 
should  first  be  made  upon  pieces  of 
board  from  the  same  wood  as  the  object 
to  be  stained;  the  results  of  such  ex- 
periments furnishing  exact  data  con- 
cerning the  strength  and  composition  of 
the  stain  to  be  employed  for  the  exact 
reproduction  of  a  prescribed  color. 


782 


WOOD 


Many  cases  occur  in  which  the  color  tone 
obtained  by  staining  cannot  always  be 
judged  directly  after  applying  the  stain. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  when  stain  is 
employed  which  slowly  develops  under 
the  action  of  the  air  or  when  the  dye- 
stuff  penetrates  only  slowly  into  the 
pores  of  the  wood.  In  such  cases  the 
effect  of  the  staining  may  only  be  fully 
and  completely  appreciated  after  the 
lapse  of  24  or  48  hours. 

Wood  that  has  been  stained  should 
always  be  allowed  24  or  48  hours  to  dry 
in  ordinary  temperatures,  before  a  coat 
of  varnish,  polish,  or  wax  is  applied.  If 
any  dampness  be  left  in  the  wood  this 
will  make  itself  apparent  upon  the 
varnish  or  polish.  It  will  become  dull, 
lose  its  glossy  appearance,  and  exhibit 
white  spots  which  can  only  be  removed 
with  difficulty.  If  a  certain  effect  de- 
mand the  application  of  two  or  more 
stains  one  upon  the  other,  this  may  only 
be  done  by  affording  each  distinct  coat 
time  to  dry,  which  requires  at  least  24 
hours. 

Not  all  the  dyes,  which  are  applicable 
to  wood  staining,  can  be  profitably  used 
together,  either  when  separately  applied 
or  mixed.  This  injunction  is  to  be  care- 
fully noted  in  the  application  of  coal  tar 
or  aniline  colors. 

Among  the  aniline  dyes  suitable  for 
staining  woods  are  two  groups — the  so- 
called  acid  dyes  and  the  basic  dyes.  If 
a  solution  of  an  acid  dye  be  mixed  with  a 
basic  dye  the  effect  of  their  antagonistic 
dispositions  is  shown  in  the  clouding  up 
of  the  stain,  a  fine  precipitate  is  visible 
and  often  a  rosin-like  separation  is 
noticeable. 

It  is  needless  to  say  tha^t  such  a  stain- 
ing solution  is  useless  for  any  practical 
purpose.  It  cannot  penetrate  tne  wood 
fibers  and  would  present  but  an  un- 
seemly and  for  the  most  part  a  flaky 
appearance.  In  preparing  the  stains  it 
is  therefore  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  they  remain  lastingly  clear.  It 
would  be  considerably  of  advantage, 
before  mixing  aniline  solutions  of  which 
the  acid  or  basic  characteristics  are  un- 
known, to  make  a  test  on  a  small  scale  in 
a  champagne  glass  and  after  standing  a 
short  time  carefully  examine  the  solu- 
tion. If  it  has  become  cloudy  or  want- 
ing in  transparency  it  is  a  sign  that  a 
separation  of  the  coloring  matter  has 
taken  place. 

The  mixing  of  acid  or  basic  dyestuffs 
even  in  dry  powdered  form  is  attended 
with  the  same  disadvantages  as  in  the 
state  of  solubility,  for  just  as  soon  as 
they  are  dissolved  in  water  the  reactions 


commence  and  the  natural  process  of 
precipitation  takes  place  with  all  its 
attending  disagreeable  consequences. 

COLOR  STAINS: 

Bronze. — I. — Prepare  first  a  thin  glue 
size  by  soaking  good  animal  glue  over 
night  in  cold  water  and  melting  it  next 
morning  in  the  usual  water  bath.  Strain 
it,  before  using,  through  old  linen  or 
cheese  cloth  into  a  clean  vessel.  Sand- 
paper smooth  and  dust  the  articles,  then 
apply  with  a  soft  bristle  brush  2  or  3 
coats  of  the  size,  allowing  sufficient  time 
for  each  coat  to  harden  before  applying 
the  next.  Now,  a  ground  coat  made  by 
thoroughly  mixing  finely  bolted  gilders' 
whiting  and  glue  size  is  applied,  and 
when  this  has  become  hard  it  is  rubbed 
to  a  smooth,  even  surface  with  selected 
fine  pumice,  and  then  given  1  coat  of 
thin  copal  varnish.  When  this  is  nearly 
but  not  quite  dry,  the  bronze  powder  is 
applied  with  a  suitable  brush  or  wad  of 
cotton,  and  when  dry  the  surplus  bronze 
is  removed  with  the  same  tool.  If  col- 
lected on  clean  paper,  the  dusted-off 
bronze  powder  may  be  used  again. 

II.  —  Diluted  water  -  glass  solution 
makes  a  good  ground  for  bronze. 
Bronze  powder  is  sprinkled  on  from  a 
wide-necked  glass  tied  up  with  gauze, 
and  the  excess  removed  by  gently  knock- 
ing. The  bronze  powder  adheres  so 
firmly  after  drying  that  a  polish  may  be 
put  on  by  means  of  an  agate.  The 
process  is  especially  useful  for  lepairing 
worn-off  picture  frames,  book  ornamen- 
tations, etc.  The  following  bronze  ground 
also  yields  good  results:  Boil  11,000 
parts  of  linseed  oil  with  25  parts  of  im- 

Eure  zinc  carbonate,  100  parts  of  red 
;ad,  25  parts  of  litharge,  and  0.3  parts  of 
mercuric  chloride,  until  a  drop  taken  out 
will  stand  like  a  pea  upon  a  glass  surface. 
Before  complete  cooling,  the  mass  is 
diluted  with  oil  of  turpentine  to  a  thick 
syrup. 

Ebony  Stains. — I. — To  1  pint  of  boil- 
ing water  add  f  ounce  of  copperas  and 
1  ounce  logwood  chips.  Apply  this  to 
the  wood  hot.  When  the  surface  has 
dried  thoroughly  wet  it  with  a  solution 
composed  of  7  ounces  steel  filings  dis- 
solved in  |  pint  of  vinegar. 

II. — Give  the  wood  several  applica- 
tions of  a  stout  decoction  of  logwood 
chips,  finishing  off  with  a  free  smear  of 
vinegar  in  which  rusty  nails  have  been 
for  some  time  submerged. 

III. — In  1  quart  of  water  boil  £  pound 
of  logwood  cnips,  subsequently  adding 
\  ounce  pearl  ash,  applying  the  mixture 


WOOD 


783 


hot.  Then  again  boil  the  same  quantity 
of  logwood  in  the  same  quantity  of  water, 
adding  £  ounce  of  verdigris  and  f  ounce 
of  copperas,  after  which  strain  and  put 
in  £  pound  of  rusty  steel  filings.  With 
this  latter  mixture  coat  the  work,  and, 
should  the  wood  not  be  sufficiently  black, 
repeat  the  application. 

Metallic  Luster. — A  valuable  process 
to  impart  the  luster  of  metal  to  ordinary 
wood,  without  injuring  its  natural  quali- 
ties, is  as  follows:  The  wood  is  laid,  ac- 
cording to  its  weight,  for  3  or  4  days  in  a 
caustic  alkaline  solution,  such  as,  for 
instance,  of  calcined  soda,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  170°  F.  Then  it  is  at  once  placed 
in  a  bath  of  calcium  hydrosulphite,  to 
which,  after  24  to  36  hours,  a  saturated 
solution  of  sulphur  in  caustic  potash  is 
added.  In  this  mixture  the  wood  is  left 
for  48  hours  at  100°  to  120°  F.  The 
wood  thus  prepared,  after  having  been 
dried  at  a  moderate  temperature,  is 
polished  by  means  of  a  smoothing  iron, 
and  the  surface  assumes  a  very  hand- 
some metallic  luster.  The  effect  of  this 
metallic  gloss  is  still  more  pleasing  if  the 
wood  is  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  lead,  zinc, 
or  tin.  If  it  is  subsequently  polished 
with  a  burnisher  of  glass  of  porcelain, 
the  wood  gains  the  brilliancy  of  a 
metallic  mirror. 

Nutwood. — One  part  permanganate  of 
potassium  is  dissolved  in  30  parts  clear 
water;  with  this  the  wood  to  be  stained  is 
coated  twice.  After  an  action  of  5 
minutes,  rinse  off  with  water,  dry,  oil, 
and  polish.  It  is  best  to  prepare  a  fresh 
solution  each  time. 

Oak. — I. — Water-color  stains  do  not 
penetrate  deep  enough  into  wood  to 
make  the  effect  strong  enough,  hence 
solutions  of  other  material  than  color  are 
being  employed  for  the  purpose.  Aqua 
ammonia  alone,  applied  with  a  rag  or 
brush  repeatedly,  will  darken  the  color 
of  oak  to  a  weathered  effect,  but  it  is  not 
very  desirable,  because  of  its  tendency 
to  raise  the  grain.  Bichromate  of  potash, 
dissolved  in  cold  water,  applied  in  a  like 
manner,  until  the  desired  depth  is  ob- 
tained, will  serve  the  purpose.  These 
washes  or  solutions,  however,  do  not  give 
the  dark,  almost  black,  effect  that  is  at 
the  present  time  expected  for  weathered 
oak,  and  in  order  to  produce  this,  4 
ounces  of  logwood  chips  and  3  ounces  of 
green  copperas  should  be  boiled  together 
in  2  quarts  of  water  for  40  minutes  and 
the  solution  applied  hot.  When  this  has 
dried  it  should  be  gone  over  with  a  wash 
made  from  4  ounces  steel  filings  and  1 
pint  of  strong  vinegar.  The  steel  filings 


are  previously  put  into  the  vinegar  and 
allowed  to  stand  for  several  days.  This 
will  penetrate  into  the  wood  deeply,  and 
the  stain  will  be  permanent.  ^  JPicture- 
frame  manufacturers  use  a  quick-drying 
stain,  made  from  aniline  blacks. 

II. — Dissolve  \  part  of  permanganate 
of  potassium  in  1,000  parts  of  cold  water 
and  paint  the  wood  with  the  violet  solu- 
tion obtained.  As  soon  as  the  solution 
comes  in  contact  with  the  wood  it  de- 
composes in  consequence'  of  chemical 
action,  and  a  handsome^  light -brown 
precipitate  is  produced  in  the  wood. 
The  brushes  used  must  be  washed  out 
immediately,  as  the  permanganate  of 
potassium  destroys  animal  bristles,  but 
it  is  preferable  to  use  sponges  or  brushes 
of  glass  threads  for  staining.  Boil  2 

Earts  of  cutch  in  6  parts  of  water  for  1 
our,  stir  while  boiling,  so  that  the 
rosiniferous  catechu  cannot  burn  on  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel;  strain  the  liquid  as 
soon  as  the  cutch  is  dissolved,  through 
linen,  and  bring  again  to  a  boil.  Now 
dissolve  therein  £  part  of  alum,  free  from 
iron;  apply  the  stain  while  hot,  and  cover 
after  the  drying,  with  a  solution  of  1 
part  of  bichromate  of  potassium  in  25 
parts  of  water. 

Rosewoood. — First  procure  |  pound 
logwood,  boiling  it  in  3  pints  water. 
Continue  the  boiling  until  the  liquid 
assumes  a  very  dark  color,  at  which 
point  add  1  ounce  salt  of  tartar.  When 
at  the  boiling  point  stain  your  wood  with 
2  or  3  coats,  but  not  in  quick  succession, 
as  the  latest  coat  must  be  nearly  dry 
before  the  succeeding  one  is  applied. 
The  use  of  a  fiat  graining  brush,  deftly 
handled,  will  produce  a  very  excellent 
imitation  of  dark  rosewood. 

Silver  Gray. — This  stain  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  1  part  of  pyrogallic  acid  in  25 
parts  of  warm  water  and  the  wood  is 
coated  with  this.  Allow  this  coating  to 
dry  and  prepare,  meanwhile,  a  solution 
of  2  parts  of  green  vitriol  in  50  parts  of 
boiling  water,  with  which  the  first  coat- 
ing is  covered  again  to  obtain  the  silver- 
gray  shade. 

Walnut. — I. — Prepare  a  solution  of  6 
ounces  of  a  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potassium,  and  6  ounces  of  sulphate  of 
magnesia  in  2  quarts  of  hot  water.  The 
solution  is  applied  on  the  wood  with  a 
brush  and  the  application  should  be  re- 
peated once.  In  contact  with  the  wood 
the  permanganate  decomposes,  and  a 
handsome,  lasting  walnut  color  results. 
If  small  pieces  of  wood  are  to  be  thus 
stained,  a  very  dilute  bath  is  prepared 


784 


WOOD 


according  to  the  above  description,  then 
the  wooden  pieces  are  immersed  and  left 
therein  from  1  to  5  minutes,  according  to 
whether  a  lighter  or  darker  coloring  is 
desired. 

II. — One  hundredweight  Vandyke 
brown,  ground  fine  in  water,  and  28 
pounds  of  soda,  dissolved  in  hot  water, 
are  mixed  while  the  solutions  are  hot  in  a 
revolving  mixer.  The  mixture  is  then 
dried  in  sheet-iron  trays. 

Yellow. — The  wood  is  coated  with  a 
hot  concentrated  solution  of  picric  acid, 
dried,  and  polished.  (Picric  acid  is  poi- 
sonous.) 

IMITATION  STAINS. 

Yellow,  green,  blue,  or  gray  staining 
on  wood  can  be  easily  imitated  with  a 
little  glazing  color  in  oil  or  vinegar, 
which  will  prove  better  and  more 
permanent  than  the  staining.  If  the 
pores  of  the  wood  are  opened  by  a  lye 
or  a  salt,  almost  any  diluted  color  can  be 
worked  into  it.  With  most  stains  the 
surface  is  thus  prepared  previously. 

Light-Fast  Stains. — Stains  fast  to 
light  are  obtained  by  saturating  wood  in 
a  vacuum  chamber,  first  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  then  with  dilute  alkali  to 
neutralize  the  acid,  and  finally  with  a 
solution  with  or  without  the  addition  of 
a  mordant.  The  action  of  the  acid  is 
to  increase  the  affinity  of  the  wood  for 
dye  very  materially.  As  wood  consists 
largely  of  cellulose,  mercerization,  which 
always  increases  the  affinity  of  that  sub- 
stance for  dyes,  may  be  caused  to  some 
extent  by  the  acid. 

SPIRIT  STAINS: 
Black.— 

I. —  White  shellac 12  ounces 

Vegetable  black 6  ounces 

Methylated  spirit. ...      3  pints 

II. — Lampblack 1  pound 

Ground  iron  scale.. ..     5  pounds 
Vinegar 1  gallon 

Mahogany  Brown. — Put  into  a  vessel, 
say  4  pounds  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
and  as  many  ounces  of  burnt  umber,  let 
it  stand  a  day  or  two,  then  strain  or  lawn 
for  use. 

Vandyke  Brown. — 

Spirit  of  wine 2    pints 

Burnt  umber 3    ounces 

Vandyke  brown  color  1  ounce 
Carbonate  of  soda.  ..  1  ounce 
Potash J  ounce 


Mahogany. — Rub  the  wood  with  a 
solution  of  nitrous  acid,  and  then  apply 
with  a  brush  the  following: 

I. — Dragon's  blood 1  ounce 

Sodium  carbonate.  ..      6  drachms 

Alcohol 20  ounces 

Filter  just  before  use. 
II. — Rub  the  wood  with  a  solution  of 
potassium  carbonate,  1  drachm  to  a  pint 
of  water,  and  then  apply  a  dye  made  by 
boiling  together: 

Madder 2    ounces 

Logwood  chips £  ounce 

Water 1     quart 

Maple.— 

I. — Pale  button  lac 3     pounds 

Bismarck  brown.. . .      |  ounce 
Vandyke  brown. ...      |  ounce 

Gamboge 4-  ounces 

Methylated  spirit.  ..    1     gallon 
II. — Use  1  gallon  of  methylated  spirit, 
4  ounces  gamboge  (powdered),  £  ounce 
Vandyke    brown,    1    drachm    Bismarck 
brown,  3'  pounds  shellac. 

Maroon. — To  produce  a  rich  maroon 
or  ruby,  steep  red  Janders  wood  in 
rectified  naphtha  and  stir  into  the  solu- 
tion a  little  cochineal;  strain  or  lawn 
for  use. 

Turpentine  Stains. — Turpentine  stains 
are  chiefly  solutions  of  oil-soluble  coal- 
tar  dyes  in  turpentine  oil,  with  small 
quantities  of  wax  also  in  solution.  They 
do  not  roughen  the  wood,  making  a  final 
polishing  unnecessary.  They  enter  the 
wood  slowly,  so  that  an  even  stain, 
especially  on  large  surfaces,  is  secured. 
The  disadvantages  of  turpentine  stains 
are  the  lack  of  permanence  of  the  color- 
ing, when  exposed  to  light  and  air,  and 
their  high  price. 

Varnish  Stains.— Shellac  is  the  chief 
article  forming  the  basis  of  varnish  stains 
the  coloring  matter  being  usually  coal 
tar  or  aniline  dyes,  as  they  give  better 
results  than  dye  wood  tincture.  To 

Erevent  the  varnish  stain  being  too 
rittle,  the  addition  of  elemi  rosin  is  a 
much  better  one  than  common  rosin,  as 
the  latter  retards  the  drying  quality,  and 
if  too  much  be  used,  renders  the  stain 
sticky. 

Water  Stains. — Water  stains  are  solu- 
tions of  chemicals,  dye  extracts,  astrin- 
gent substances,  and  coal-tar  dyes  in 
water.  They  roughen  the  wood,  a  dis- 
advantage, however,  which  can  be  rem- 
edied to  a  large  extent  by  previous 
treatment,  as  follows:  The  wood  is  mois- 
tened with  a  wet  sponge,  allowed  to  dry, 


WOOD 


785 


and  then  rubbed  with  sandpaper,  or 
made  smooth  by  other  agencies.  This 
almost  entirely  prevents  roughening  of 
the  surface  by  the  stain.  Another  dis- 
advantage of  these  stains  is  that  they  are 
rapidly  absorbed  by  the  wood,  which 
makes  an  even  staining  of  large  surfaces 
difficult.  For  this  too  there  is  a  remedy. 
The  surface  of  the  wood  is  rubbed  all 
over  evenly  with  raw  linseed  oil,  applied 
with  a  woolen  cloth,  allowed  to  dry,  and 
then  thoroughly  smoothed  with  sand- 
paper. The  water  stain,  applied  with  a 
sponge,  now  spreads  evenly,  and  is  but 
slightly  absorbed  by  the  wood. 

Among  good  water  stains  are  the  long- 
known  Cassel  brown  and  nut  brown, 
in  granules.  Catechine  is  recommended 
for  brown  shades,  with  tannin  or  pyro- 
gallic  acid  and  green  vitriol  for  gray. 
For  bright-colored  stains  the  tar-dyes 
azine  green,  croceine  scarlet,  Parisian 
red,  tartrazine,  water-soluble  nigrosin, 
walnut,  and  oak  brown  are  very  suitable. 
With  proper  mixing  of  these  dyes,  all 
colors  except  blue  and  violet  can  be 
produced,  and  prove  very  fast  to  light 
and  air,  and  superior  to  turpentine  stains. 
Only  the  blue  and  violet  dyes,  methyl 
blue,  naphthol  blue,  and  pure  violet,  do 
not  come  up  to  the  standard,  and  require 
a  second  staining  with  tannin. 

A  very  simple  method  of  preparing 
water  stains  is  as  follows:  Solutions  are 
made  of  the  dyes  most  used,  by  dissolving 
500  parts  of  the  dye  in  10,000  parts  of 
hot  water,  and  these  are  kept  in  bottles 
or  casks.  Any  desired  stain  can  be 
prepared  by  mixing  proper  quantities  of 
the  solutions,  which  can  be  diluted  with 
water  to  make  lighter  stains. 

Stains  for  Wood  Attacked  by  Alkalies 
or  Acids. — 

Solution  A 

Copper  sulphate. . .       125  grams 
Potassium  chlorate.       125  grams 

Water 1,000  cu.  cm. 

Boil  until  all  is  dissolved. 

Solution  B 
Aniline     hydro- 

chloride 150  grams 

Water 1,000  cu.  cm. 

Apply  Solution  A  twice  by  means  of  a 
brush,  allowing  time  to  dry  after  each 
coat;  next,  put  on  Solution  B  and  let  dry 
again.  On  the  day  following,  rub  on  a 
little  oil  with  a  cloth  and  repeat  this  once 
a  month. 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR  WOOD. 

I. — Acetic  paraldehyde  or  acetic  alde- 
hyde respectively,  or  polymerized  formal- 


dehyde is  mixed  with  methylic  alcohol 
and  carbolic  acid,  as  well  as  fusel  oil 
saturated  with  hydrochloric  acid  gas  or 
sulphuric  acid  gas  or  methylic  alcohol, 
respectively,  are  added  to  the  mixture. 
The  mass  thus  obtained  is  treated  with 
paraffine.  The  final  product  is  useful 
as  a  substitute  for  ebonite  and  wood  as 
well  as  for  insulating  purposes. 

II. — "Carton  Pierre"  is  the  name  of  a 
mass  which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
carved  wood.  It  is  prepared  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Glue  is  dissolved  and 
boiled;  to  this,  tissue  paper  in  suitable 
quantity  is  added,  which  will  readily  go 
to  pieces.  Then  linseed  oil  is  added, 
and  finally  chalk  is  stirred  in.  The  hot 
mass  forms  a  thick  dough  which  crumbles 
in  the  cold,  but  softens  between  the 
fingers  and  becomes  kneadable,  so  that 
it  can  be  pressed  into  molds  (of  glue, 
gypsum,  and  sulphur).  After  a  few  days 
the  mass  will  become  dry  and  almost  as 
hard  as  stone.  The  paper  imparts  to  it 
a  high  degree  of  firmness,  and  it  is  less 
apt  to  be  injured  than  wood.  It  binds 
well  and  readily  adheres  to  wood. 

III.— Wood  Pulp.— The  boards  for 
painters'  utensils  are  manufactured  in 
the  following  manner:  The  ordinary 
wood  fiber  (not  the  chemical  wood  cellu- 
lose) is  well  mixed  with  soluble  glass  of 
33°  Be.,  then  spread  like  cake  upon  an 
even  surface,  and  beaten  or  rolled  until 
smooth.  Before  completely  dry,  the  cake 
is  removed,  faintly  satined  (for  various 
other  purposes  it  is  embossed)  and  finally 
dried  thoroughly  at  a  temperature  of 
about  133°  F.,  whereupon  the  mass  may 
be  sawed,  carved,  polished,  etc.,  like  wood. 

Any  desired  wood  color  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  admixture  of  the  cor- 
responding, pulverized  pigment  to  the 
mass.  The  wood  veining  is  produced 
by  placing  a  board  of  the  species  of 
timber  to  be  imitated,  in  vinegar,  which 
causes  the  soft  parts  of  the  wood  to 
deepen,  and  making  an  impression  with 
the  original  board  thus  treated  upon  the 
wood  pulp  when  the  latter  is  not  quite 
hard.  By  means  of  one  of  these  original 
boards  (with  the  veins  embossed),  im- 
pressions can  be  made  upon  a  large 
number  of  artificial  wood  plates.  The 
veins  will  show  to  a  greater  advantage 
if  the  artificial  wood  is  subsequently 
saturated  and  treated  with  colored  oil, 
colored  stain  and  colored  polish,  as  is 
done  with  palettes. 

WOOD,  ACID-PROOF: 

See  Acid-Proofing. 
WOOD  CEMENTS: 
See  Adhesives, 


786 


WRITING— YEAST 


WOOD,  CHLORINE -PROOFING: 

See  Acid-Proofing. 

WOOD,  FIREPROOFING : 

See  Fireproofing. 

WOOD  GILDING: 

See  Plating. 

WOOD,  IMITATION: 

See  Plaster. 

WOOD  PpLISHES: 

See  Polishes. 

WOOD  RENOVATORS: 

See  Cleaning  Preparations  and  Meth- 
ods under  Paint,  Varnish,  and  Enamel 
Removers. 

WOOD,  SECURING  METALS  TO: 
See  Adhesives. 

WOOD,  WATERPROOFING: 

See  Waterproofing. 

WOOD'S  METAL: 

See  Alloys. 

WOOL  FAT: 

See  Fats. 

WORM  POWDER  FOR  STOCK: 

See  Veterinary  Formulas. 

WRITING,  RESTORING  FADED: 

Writing  on  old  manuscripts,  parch- 
ments, and  old  letters  that  has  faded  into 
nearly  or  complete  invisibility  can  be 
restored  by  rubbing  over  it  a  solution  of 
ammonium  sulphide,  hydrogen  sulphide 
or  of  "liver  of  sulphur."  On  parchment 
the  restored  color  is  fairly  permanent  but 
on  paper  it  does  not  last  long.  The  let- 
ters however  could  be  easily  retraced, 
after  such  treatment,  by  the  use  of  India 
ink  and  thus  made  permanent.  This 
treatment  will  not  restore  faded  aniline 
ink.  It  only  works  with  ink  containing  a 
metal-like  iron  that  forms  a  black  sul- 
phide. 

WRINKLES,  REMOVAL  OF: 

See  Cosmetics. 

Yeast 

DRY  YEAST. 

Boil  together  for  £  hour,  95  parts  of 
the  finest,  grated  hops  and  4,000  parts  of 
water.  Strain.  Add  to  the  warm  liquor 
1,750  parts  of  rye  meal  or  flour.  When 
the  temperature  has  fallen  to  that  of  the 
room  add  167  parts  of  good  yeast.  On 
the  following  day  the  mass  will  be  in  a 
state  of  fermentation.  While  it  is  in  this 
condition  add  4,000  parts  of  barlev 
flour,  so  as  to  form  a  dough.  This  dough 
is  cut  up  into  thin  disks,  which  are  dried 


as  rapidly  as  possible  in  the  open  air  or 
sun.  For  use,  the  disks  are  broken  into 
small  pieces  and  soaked  overnight  in  warm 
water.  The  yeast  can  be  used  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  as  if  it  were  ordinary  brewers' 
yeast. 

PRESERVATION  OF  YEAST. 

I. — The  yeast  is  laid  in  a  vessel  of  cold 
water  which  is  thereupon  placed  in  a 
well-ventilated,  cool  spot.  In  this  man- 
ner the  yeast  can  be  preserved  for  several 
weeks.  In  order  to  preserve  the  yeast 
for  several  months  a  different  process 
must  be  followed.  The  yeast,  after 
having  been  pressed,  is  thoroughly  dried. 
For  this  purpose  the  yeast  is  cut  up  into 
small  pieces  which  are  rolled  out,  placed 
on  blotting  paper,  and  allowed  to  dry  in 
a  place  which  is  not  reached  by  the  sun. 
These  rolls  are  then  grated,  again  dried, 
and  finally  placed  in  glass  bottles.  For 
use,  the  yeast  is  dissolved,  whereupon  it 
immediately  regains  its  freshness.  This 
process  is  particularly  to  be  recommend- 
ed because  it  preserves  the  yeast  for  a 
long  period. 

II. — For  liquid  yeast  add  one-eighth 
of  its  volume  in  glycerine.  In  the  case  of 
compressed  yeast,  the  cakes  are  to  be 
covered  with  glycerine  and  kept  in 
closed  vessels.  Another  method  of  pre- 
serving compressed  yeast  is  to  mix  it 
intimately  with  animal  charcoal  to  a 
dough,  which  is  to  be  dried  by  exposure 
to  sunlight.  When  it  is  to  be  used,  it  is 
treated  with  water,  which  will  take  up 
the  ferment  matter,  while  the  charcoal 
will  be  deposited.  Liquid  and  com- 
pressed yeast  have  been  kept  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  without  alteration,  by 
saturating  the  former  with  chloroform 
and  keeping  the  latter  under  chloroform 
water. 

YEAST  TESTS. 

I. — Pour  a  few  drops  of  yeast  into 
boiling  water.  If  the  yeast  sinks,  it  is 
spoiled;  if  it  floats,  it  is  good. 

II. — To  1  pound  yeast  add  £  tablespoon- 
ful  of  corn  whisky  or  brandy,  a  pinch  of 
sugar,  and  2  tablespoonfuls  of  wheat 
flour.  Mix  thoroughly  and  allow  the  re- 
sultant compound  to  stand  in  a  warm 
place.  If  the  yeast  is  good  it  will  rise  in 
about  an  hour. 

YEAST  AND  FERTILIZERS: 

See  Fertilizers. 

YELLOW  (CHROME),  TEST  FOR: 

See  Pigments. 


INDEX 


Absinthe,  765 
Absolute  Alcohol,  45 
Abrasion  Remedy,  225,  486 
Acacia,  Mucilage  of,  43 
Acid-free  Soldering  Fluid,  659 
Acid-proof  Alloy,  62 

Cement,  26 

Corks,  10 

Glass,  374 
Acid-proofing,  9 
Acid-proof  Pastes,  38 

Putty,  607 

Table  Top,  9 

Acid  Receptacles,  Lining  for,  10 
Acid-resisting  Paint,  499 
Acids,  Soldering,  656 
Acid  Stains  Removed,  184 

Test  for  Gold,  432 
for  Vinegar,  358 
Aconite-Monkshood  Poison,  93 
Adhesion,  105 

Belt  Pastes  for  Increasing,  105 
Adhesive  Paste,  37,  39 
Adhesives,  10 

Advertising  Matter,  to  Scent,  510 
Adulterants  in  Foods,  348 
Adulteration  of  Linseed  Oil,  460 

of  Wax,  753 
Adurol  Developer,  527 
Affixing  Labels  to  Glass,  42 
Agar  Agar  Paste,  37 
Agate,  Buttons  of  Artificial,  44 
Agate  (Imitation),  370 
Age  of  Eggs,  283 
Aging  of  Silk,  639 
Agricultural  Sources  of  Industrial 

Alcohol,  668 
Air  Bath,  44 

Bubbles  in  Gelatine,  370 

Exclusion  of,  553 
Air-purifying,  44 
Albata  Metal,  63 
Albumen,  34 

in  Urine,  Detection  of,  44 

Paste,  37 
Alcohol,  44 

Absolute,  45 

Defined,  667 

Deodorized,  45,  514 

Dilution  of,  45,  703 

in  Beer,  45 

Manufacture,  667,  674 

Solid,  45 

Tests  for  Absolute,  45 
Ale,  46 

Ginger,  107 
Alfenide  Metal,  63 
Alkali  Blue  and  Nicholson's  Blue 

Dye,  267 
Alkalis  and  Their  Salts  Poison, 

93 
Alkaline    Glycerine    of    Thymol, 

100 

Alkaloids,  Antidotes  to,  102 
Alkermes  Cordial,  763 
Alloy,  Acid-proof,  62 

for  Caliper  and  Gage-rod  Cast- 
ings, 80 

for  Watch  Pinion  Sockets,   736 

Lipowitz's,  61 

Moussets',  76 


Alloys,  47 

Copper,  Silver,  Cadmium,  76 
for  Casting  Coins,  etc.,  62 
for  Cementing  Glass,  52 
for  Drawing  Colors  on  Steel,  80 
for  Metal  Foil,  474 
for  Small  Casting  Molds,  80 
having  a  Density,  48 
Silver,  Nickel,  Zinc,  76 
Tin,  77 

Unclassified,  80 

Almond  Blossom  Perfumery,  518 
Cold  Cream,  235 
Extracts,  312 

Powders  for  the  Toilet,  242 
Altars,  to  Clean,  185 
Alum,  80 

Baking  Powder,  102 

Bath,  535 

Process  of  Water  Purification, 

340 
Aluminum  Alloys,  48 

Electrical  Conductivity  of,  50 
Aluminum-brass,  50 
Aluminum  Bronze,  56,  657 

Castings,  150 
Aluminum-Copper,  50 
Aluminum  Gilding,  576 
Gold,  68 

Etching  Fluid  for,  324 
How  to  Color,  80 
Lacquer  for,  438 
Paper,  507 
Plating,  572,  581 
Polishes,  590 
Aluminum-Silver,  50,  75 
Aluminum  Solders,  657 
Aluminum-Tin,  50 
Aluminum,  to  Clean,  204 

Toughness,  Density    and    Te- 
nacity, 83 

Aluminum-Tungsten,  50 
Aluminum  Varnish,  725 
Working  of  Sheet,  83 
Aluminum-Zinc,  50 
Amalgam   for   Cementing    Glass, 

etc.,  90 
for  Plaster,  65 

for  Silvering  Glass  Balls,  90 
for    the    Rubber    of    Electric 

Machines,  90 
Gold  Plating,  576 
Amalgams,  64,  85 
for  Mirrors,  72 
Amber,  90 
Cements,  26 
Varnish,  718 
Ambrosia  Powder,  628 
American  Champagne,  118 
Factory  Cheese,  176 
Lemonade,  110 
Soda      Fountain      Company's 

Whipped  Cream,  248 
Amethyst  (Imitation),  370 
Amidol  Developer,  528 
Ammon-carbonite,  331 
Ammonia,  91 

for  Fixing  Prints,  536 
Household,  91 
Poison,  93 
Violet  Color  for,  91 
Water,  245,  519 
Perfumed,  91 
Anchovies,  Essence  of,  98 

787 


Anchovy  Paste,  98 

Preparations,  98 

Sauce,  Extemporaneous,  98 
Angostura  Bitters,  762 
Anise  Cordial,  763 
Aniline,  266 

Black  Dye,  266,  279 
Substitutes,  279 

Black  Lake  Dye,  278 

Blue  Dye,  268 

Green  Dye  for  Wool,  269 
for  Silk,  269 

in  Pigments,  Tests  for,  560 

Scarlet  Dye,  271 

Stains,  to  Remove,  185 

Yellow  Dye,  271 
Animals,  Fly  Protection  for,  419 
Ankara,  142 
Annealing  Bronze,  56 

Copper,  219 
Annealing   of    Steel,   Wire,    etc., 

681 

Anodynes,  486 
Ansco  Platinum  Paper,  529 
Ant  Destroyers,  420 
Anti-corrosive  or  Asiatic  Ink,  414 
Antidotes  for  Belladonna,  93 

for  Poisons,  92 
Anti-ferments,  97 
Anti-fouling  Compositions,  498 
Anti-freezing  Solution,  362,  363 

for  Automobilists,  363 
Anti-friction  Bearing  or  Babbitt 
Metals,  50 

Metal,  58 

Anti-frost  Solution,  363 
Anti-leak  Rubber  Tire,  708 
Antimony  Poison,  93 

Baths,  581 
Antique  Bronzes,  566 

Silver,  587,  639 

Imitation  of,  640 
Antiques,  to  Preserve,  98 
Anti-rust  Compositions,  625 

Paper  for  Needles,  625 

Pastes,  625 
Antiseptic  Bromine  Solution,  100 

Enamel,  720 

Nervine  Ointment,  487 

Oil  of  Cinnamon,  100 

Paste  (Poison),  99 

Pencils,  99 

Powders,  98 

Soap,  644 

Solution,  Coloring  for,  100 

Tooth  Powder,  253 
Antiseptics,  98 

for  Caged  Birds,  729 

Mouth,  99 
Aphtite,  70 
Apollinaris  Lemonade,  110 

Water,  740 
Apple  Extract,  312 

Syrup,  312 
Applications  for  Prickly  Heat,  398 

of  Barium  Amalgams,  86 

of  Bismuth  Amalgams,  88 

of  Cadmium  Amalgams,  87 

of  Copper  Amalgams,  87 

of  Gold  Amalgams,  89 

of  Lead  Amalgams,  88 

of  Manganese  Amalgams,  87 


788 


INDEX 


Applications  of  Potassium  Amal- 
gams, 86 

of  Silver  Amalgams,  88 
of  Sodium  Amalgams,  86 
.  of  Strontium  Amalgams,  86 
of  Tin  Amalgams,  87 
of  Zinc  Amalgams,  87 
Applying  Decalcomania  Pictures, 

Apricot  Extract,  312 
Aquarium  Putty,  608 
Argentan,  69 
Arguzoid,  70 
Armenian  Cement,  20 
Arms,  Oil  for,  460 
Arnica  Salve,  486 
Aromatic  Cod-Liver  Oil,  482 

Cotton,  246 

Rhubarb  Remedy,  180 

Vinegar,  735 
Arsenic  Alloys,  63,  75 
Arsenic  Poison,  93,  614 
Art  Bronzes,  57,  556 

of  Lacquering,  437 
Artificial  Aging  of  Fabrics,  639 

Beeswax,  754 

Butter,  142 

Ciders,  181 

Coloring  of  Flowers,  346 

Egg  Oil,  284 

Fertilizers  for  Pot  Plants,  336 

Flowers,  Dyes  for,  272 

Flower  Fertilizer,  337 

Horn,  396 

Leather,  447 

Marbles,  699 

Rubber,  618 

"Rubbered"  Silk,  639 

Slate,  643 

Violet  Perfumery,  518 

Water,  739 
Asbestos  Cement,  30 
.    Fabric,  342 
Asphalt  and  Pitch,  33 

as  Ingredient  of  Rubber,  619 

in  Painting,  718 

Varnishes,  718 
Assaying  of  Gold,  381 
Asthma  Cures,  101 

Fumigating  Powders,  101 

in  Canaries,  728 

Papers,  101 
Astringent  for  Horses,  730 

Wash  for  Flabby  Skin,  234 
Atomic  Weights,  758 
Atomizer  Liquid  for  Sick  Rooms, 

264 

Attaching     Enamel     Letters     to 
Glass,  19 

by  Cement,  17 
Atropine,  Antidote  to,  102 
Aqua  Aromatica,  102 

Fortis  for  the  Touchstone,  383 
Poison,  92 

Regia,  102 

Aquarium  Cements,  31 
Automobile  Engines,  Cooling,  363 
Automobiles,  Anti-freezing  Solu- 
tion, 363 
Axle  Grease,  462 


Babbitt-Metals,  50 
Baking  Powders,  102 
Balance  Spring,  738 
Baldness,  392 
Balkan  Paste,  38 
Ball  Blue,  281,  444 
Ball-Room  Floor  Powder,  345 
Balsam,  Birch,  103 

of  Sulphur,  380 

Spray  Solution,  103 


Balsam,  Stains,  to  Remove,  194 

Wild-cherry,  103 
Balsams,  102 

Balsamic  Cough  Syrup,  211 
Banana  Bronzing  Solution,  489 

Cream,  115 

Trick,  the  Burning,  611 

Syrup,  312 
Banjo  Sour,  110 
Barbers'  Itch,  486 

Powder,  243 
Barium  Amalgams,  86 

Poison,  615 

Barometers  (Paper),  402 
Bath,  Air,  44 

Metal,  63 

Powder,  242 

Tablets,  Effervescent,  103 
Bath-tub  Enamel,  721 

Paint,  501 

Batteries,  Solution  for,  104 
Basis  for  Effervescent  Salts,  627 
Baudoin  Metal,  63 
Bavaroise  au  Cognac,  118 
Bay  Rum,  104,  513 
Bear  Fat,  333 
Bearing  Lubricant,  461 

Metal,  50 
Beauty  Cream,  231 

Water,  244 

Bedbug  Destroyers,  420 
Beechwood  Furniture  Polish,  593 
Beef  and  Iron,  771 

Iron,  and  Wine,  104 
Beef-marrow  Pomade,  227 
Beef  Peptomoids,  509 

Preservatives,  360 

Tea,  112 
Beer,  118 

Ginger,  108 

Lemon,  108 

Restoration  of  Spoiled,  105 

Spruce,  119 

Treacle,  119 

Weiss,  119 
Beers,  Alcohol  in,  45 
Beetle  Powder,  425 
Bees,  Foul  Brood  in,  105 
Beeswax,  Artificial,  754 
Belladonna,  Antidotes  to,  93 
Bell  Metal,  51 
Belt  Cement,  31 

Glue,  15 

Lubricant,  462 

Pastes  for  Increasing  Adhesion, 

105 

Benedictine,  769 
Bengal  Lights,  609 
Bent  Glass,  371 
Benzine,  106 

Cleaning  with,  209 

Purification  of,  106 

to  Color  Green,  106 
Benzoic  Acid,  Detection  of,  350 

in  Food,  350 

Benzoic-acid  Pastilles,  211 
Benzoin-Glycerine  Soap,  652 
Benzoparal,  107 
Berge's  Blasting  Powder,  330 
Beverages,  107 

Yellow  Coloring  for,  119 
Bibra  Alloy,  71 
Bicycle  Dipping  Varnish,  719 
Bicycle-tire  Cement,  23 
Bicycle  Varnishes,  719 
Bicycles,  Black  Paint  for,  495 
Bidery  Metal,  80 
Billiard  Balls,  148,  428 
Birch  Balsam,  103 
Birch-Bud  Water,  519 
Birch  Water,  244,  389 
Bird  Diseases,   Remedies,  728 

Foods,  120,  729 


Bird  Lime,  458    k 

Paste,  145 

Tonic,  729 
Birds,  Antiseptic  Wash  for,  729 

C9nstipation  in,  729 

Diarrhoea  in,  729 
Biscuit,  Dog,  265 
Bismarck  Brown  Dye,  267 
Bismuth,  49 

Alloys,  52 

Amalgams,  Applications  of,  88 

Bronze,  70 

Purification  of,  380 

to  Purify,  380 

Biting  Off  Red-hot  Iron,  612 
Bitter  Almond  Oil  Poison,  93 
Bitters,  762 
Blackberry  Cholera  Mixture,  180 

Cordial,  763 

Blackboard   Paint   and   Varnish, 
489 

Varnish,  720 
Black  Color  on  Brass,  129 

Dye  for  Tanned  Leather,  447 
on  Cotton,  266 
on  Wool,  for  Mixtures,  267 
Blackening  Iron,  495 
"Black  Eye"  Lotion,  333 
Black  Finish  for  Brass,  129 

Grease  Paints,  229 

Hair  Dye  without  Silver,  390 
Blackhead  Remedies,  232 
Blacking  Copper,  221 

for  Harness,  450 

for  Shoes,  631 

Stove,  700 
Black  Japanese  Varnish,  719 

Lake  Dyes  for  Wall-paper,  278 

Marble,  Imitation,  699 

Marking  Inks,  407 

Paint  for  Polished  Iron,  495 

Patina,  585 

Putty,  607 

Ruling  Ink,  403 

Sheet  Rust  Preventive,  624 

Starch,  680 

Straw  Hat  Varnish,  266 

Varnish,  543,  544,  719 

Wash  for  Casting  Molds,  150 
Blanching  Silver,  640 
Blanket  Washing,  399 
Blasting  Powder,  330 
Blazing  Sponge  Trick,  611 
Bleach  for  Hands,  233 
Bleaches,  Bone,  430 
Bleaching,  120 

and  Coloring  Feathers,  335 

Bone  Fat,  333 

•Cotton  by  Steaming,  245 

Cotton,  245 

Feathers,  121,  335 

Linen,  120 

of  Linseed  Oil,  459 

of  Vegetable  Fibers  with  Hy- 
drogen Peroxide,  245 

Oils,  484 

Photographic  Prints  White,  553 

Silk,  120,  639 

Skin  Salves,  234 

Solution,  121 

for  Photographs,  553 

Solutions  for  the  Laundry,  446 

Sponges,  678 

Straw,  120 

Tallows  and  Fats,  334 

Wool,  120 

Bleeding,  Local,  701 
Blight  Remedies,  121 
Blisters,  for  Horses,  729 
Block  for  Soldering,  667 

Hollow  Concrete  Building,  691 

Machines,  694 

Blocks   Poured   from   Wet   Con- 
crete, 694 
Bood-red  Brick  Stain,  166 


INDEX 


789 


Blotting  Paper,  503 
Blue,  Ball,  281 
Blue-black  Ink,  414 

Patina,  585 
Blue  Bronze,  138 

Dye  for  Hosiery,  268 

from  Green  at  Night,   121 

Indelible  Ink,  406 

Paving  Bricks,  166 
Blueprint  Inks,  403 

Paper  Making,  536 
Blueprints,  to  Change,  121 

to  Turn  Brown,  542 

Waterproofing,  741 
Blue  Ruling  Ink,  403 

Sanitary  Powder,  263 

Vitriol  Poison,  94 
Bluing,  443 

Compounds,  443 

of  Steel,  682 

Bluish-black  Lake  Dye,  278 
Blush  Pink  Dye  on  Cotton  Tex- 
tile, 279 

Board-sizing,  38 
Boiled  Oil,  484 
Boiler  Compounds,  121 

Plates,  Protecting  from  Scales, 
122 

Pressure,  123 

Scales,  Prevention  of,  122 
Boiling  the  Linseed  Oil,  409 
Boil  Remedy,  121 
Bone  Black,  123 

Bleaches,  430 

Fat,  333 

Fertilizers,  338 

or  Ivory  Black,  123 

Polishes,  395 

Uniting  Glass  With,  17 
Bones,  A  Test  for  Broken,  124 

Treatment  of,  in  Manufactur- 
ing Glue,  10 

Bookbinders'  Varnish,  720 
Book  Disinfectant,  263 

How  to  Open,  125 
Bookworms,  425 
Books,  their  Preservation,  124 

to  Remove  Marks  from,  186 
Boot  Dressings,  631 

Lubricant,  460 
Boot-top  Liquid,  632 
Boots,  Waterproofing,  750 
Borated  Apple  Blossom  Powder, 
243 

Talcum,  510 
Borax  in  Food,  350 

for  Sprinkling,  125 

Soap  Powder,  650 
Boric  Acid,  Detection  of,  350 
Borotonic,  258 
Bottling  Sweet  Cider,  181 
Bottle-cap  Lacquer,  440 
Bottle-Capping  Mixtures,  126 
Bottle  Cleaners,  210 

Deodorizer,  127 

Stoppers,  700 

Varnish,  720 

Wax,  553 
Bottles,  126 

White  Glass  for,  373 
Bouillon,  113 

Chicken,  112 

Clam,  113 

Hot  Egg,  112 

Tomato  Extract,  212 
Bowls  of  Fire  Trick,  611 
Box  Glue,  15 

Bradley  Platinum  Paper,  529 
"Braga,"  117 
Bran,  Sawdust  in,  126 
Brandy,  Artificial  French,  768 

and  Brandy  Bitters,  762 
Brass,  127,  435 

A  Bronze  for,  136 


Brass     and     Bronze    Protective 
Paint,  495 

Articles,  Restoration  of,  132 

Black  Color  on,  129 

Black  Finish  for,  129 

Bronzing,  566 

Brown  Color  to,  130 

Cleaners,  202,  203 

Coloring,  129,  473 

Colors  for  Polished,  127 

Etching  Bath  for,  324 
Fluid  for,  323 

Fastening  Porcelain  to,  17 

Gilding,  576 

Graining  of,  130 
Brass-Iron  (Aich's  Metal),  53 
Brass  Parts,  Improved,  132 

Pickle  for,  132 

Platinizing,  566 

Polishes,  590 

Sand  Holes  in,  150 

Solders,  657 

to  Cast  Yellow,  54 

Tombac  Color  on,  130 

Unpolished  Coloring,  128 

Varnishes  Imitating  Gold,  725 
Brassing,  572,  581 

Zinc,  Steel,  Cast  Iron,  581 
Brassware,  Gold  Lacquers  for.  440 
Bread,  Dog,  265 
Breath,  Fetid,  Remedies  for,  133 

Perfumes,  258 
Brewers'  Yeast,  339 
Brick    and    Tilemakers'    Glazed 
Bricks,  164 

Arches,  Waterproofing,  741 
Brickbat,  Cheese,  176 
Brick,  Blood-red  Stain,  166 

Colors,  165 

Brickmakers'  Notes,  167 
Brick  Polishes,  600 

Stain,  133,  166 

Walls,  to  Clean,  197 
to  Renovate,  190 

Waterproofing,  134 
Bricks,  164 

Glaze  for,  377 

of  Sand-lime,  689 

Polish  for,  600 
Brie,  Cheese,  176 
Brightening  Pickle,  469 
Bright  Red  Rouge,  229 
Brilliantine,  390 

Florician,  483 
Brimstone  (Burning),  611 
Bristol  Brass  (Prince's  Metal),  53 
Britannia  Metal,  55 
to  Clean,  201 

Silver-plating,  587 
British  Champagne,  118 

Oil,  484 

Brocchieri's  Styptic,  701 
Brocq's  Pomade  for  Itching,  228 
Broken  Bones,  A  Test  for,  124 
Bromine,  Antiseptic,  100 
Bromoform,  134 

Rum,  134 
Bronze,  Aluminum,  56 

Annealing,  56 

Articles,  Polish  for,  591 

Casting,  150 

Cleaning,  202,  205 

Coloring,  138 

Dye,  272 

for  Brass,  136 

Gilding,  137 

Leather,  447 

Lettering,  456 

Machine,  58 

Phosphor,  58 

Polishes,  591 

Powder,  Liquid  for,  567 
Bronze  Powders,  134,  139 

Preparations,  135 


I   Bronze,  Renovation  of,  205 
Silicon,  61 
Steel,  61 
1       Substitutes,  137 

Tincture,  135,  137 

to  Renovate,  201 

Varnishes,  726 
Bronzes,  55 

Art,  57 

Pickle  for,  138 

Statuary,  57 
Bronzing,  566 

and  Patinizing  of  Articles,  136 

Engraved  Ornaments,  137 

General  Directions  for,  135 

Liquid,  136 

Metals,  567 

of  Brass,  571 

of  Gas  Fixtures,  566 

of  Wood,  782 

of  Zinc,  137 

Solutions  for  Paints,  489 

with  Soluble  Glass,  139 
Brooches,  Photographing  on,  551 
Brown  Dye  for  Cotton,  267 

for  Silk,  267 

for  Wool,  267 
and  Silk,  267 

Hair  Dye,  390 
Browning  of  Steel,  583 
Brown  Ink,  414 

Ointment,  486 

Oxidation  on  Bronze,  139 

Shoe  Dressing,  632 
Brownstone,  Imitation,  133 
Brown  Tints,  559 

Varnish,  726 
Brunette    or    Rachelle    Powder, 

242 

Brushes,  140 

Bubble  (Soap),  Liquid,  655 
Bubbles,  141 

in  Gelatine,  370 
Buff  Terra-Cotta  Slip,  166 

Wheels,  Rouge  for,  618 
Bug  Killers,  420 
Building  Blocks,  Concrete,  691 
Bunions,  224 
Burning  Banana  Trick,  103 

Brimstone,  611 

Sealing  Wax,  611 
Burns,  486 

Carbolic  Acid,  147 

Mixture  for,  142 
Burnt  Alum,  80 

Steel,  to  Restore,  686 
Butter,  142,  354 

Artificial,  Tests  for,  354 

Color,  142,  359 
Buttermilk,  Artificial,  143 
Buttons  of  Artificial  Agate,  44 

Platine  for,  80 


Cadmium  Alloy,  about  the  Hard- 
ness of  Zinc,  77 
Alloys,  61,  64 

with  Gold,  Silver,  and  Cop- 

Er,  62 
_  ims,  Applications  of,  87 
Calcium  Carbide,  144 

Sulphide  (Luminous),  494 
Camera,  Renovating  a,  553 
Campchello,  117 
Camphor  for  Cholera,  180 
Camphorated     and     Carbolated 

Powders,  252 
Cold  Cream,  226 
Ice,  145 
Pomade,  145 
Preparations,  144 


790 


INDEX 


Camphorated  Substitutes  in  the 
Preparation  of  Celluloid,  157 
Canary-Bird  Food,  729 

Paste,  145 

Canary  Birds,  Their  Diseases,  729 
Concrete,  689 
Candles,  145 

Coloring,  145,  146 

Fumigating,  365 

Transparent,  145 
Candy,  216 

Colors  and  Flavors,  218 

Orange  Drops,  216 
Canned  Vegetables,  352 
Canning,  602 

without  Sugar,  603 
Cantharides  and  Modern  Potato 
Bug  Poison,  94 

Pomade,  392 
Can  Varnish,  720 
Canvas  Waterproofing,  742 
Caoutchouc,  618 

Solution  for  Paints,  719 
Capacities  of  Utensils,   703 
Capsule  Varnish,  720 
Capping  Mixtures  for  Bottles,  126 
Caramels,  146,  216 
Caramel  in  Food,  352 
12-Carat,  433 
4-Carat  Gold,  433 
18-Carat  Gold  for  Rings,  433 
22-Carat  Solder,  433 
Carats,  to  Find  the  Number  of, 

432 

Carbolic  Acid,  147 
Carbolic-acid  Burns,  147 

Decolorization  of,  147 

Disguising  Odor  of,  147 
Carbolic  Powder,  263 

Soap,  647 
Carbolineum,  497 
Carbonated     Pineapple     Cham- 
pagne, 118 
Carbon  Ink,  403 

Paper,  503 

Printing,  531 

Process  in  Photography,  531 
Carbuncle  Remedies,  121 
Cardboard  or  Leather  Glue,  15 

Waterproofing,  751 
Cards  (Playing),  to  Clean,  209 
Care  of  Refrigerators,  401 
Carmelite  Balm  Water,  519 
Carmine,  403 

Lake  Dye  for  Wall  Paper,  278 
Carnation  Lake  Dye,  277 
Carpet  Preservation,  399 

Soap,  644 

Carpets,  How  to  Preserve,  399 
Carriage-top  Dressing,  448 
Carron  Oil,  242 
Case  Hardening,  648 
Casein,  34,  148 

Albumen,  and  Glue,  34 

Cements,  20 

Massage  Cream,  233 

Paste,  38 

Varnish,  34 

Cashmere  Perfumery,  516 
Casket  Trimmings,  150 
Casks,  149 

Watertight,  149 
Cassius,  Purple  of,  383 
Cast  Brass,  53 
Cast-brass  Work,  Sand  Holes  in, 

150 

Castile  Soap,  to  Cut,  644 
Casting,  149 

Copper,  63 

in  Wax,  755 

Molds,  Alloys  for,  80 

of  Soft  Metal  Castings,  151 
Castings,  Making  in  Aluminum, 
81 


Castings  Out  of  Various  Metals, 
149 

to  Soften  Iron,  427 
Cast-iron  Soldering,  666 
Castor  Oil,  153 
Castor-oil    Chocolate    Lozenges, 

154 
Castor  Oil,  How  to  Take,  154 

Tasteless,  153 
Casts  from  Wax  Models,  755 

(Plaster),  Preservation  of,  565 

Repairing  of  Broken,  26 

Waterproofing,  565 
Catatypy,  154 

Cat  Diseases  and  Remedies,  732 
Caterpillar  Destroyers,  423 
Catgut,  155 

Sutures,  Preparation  of,  155 
Catsup,  Adulterated,  353 
Cattle  Dips  and  Applications,  264 
Caustic  Potash  Poison,  93,  94 
Ceiling  Cleaners,  400 
Celery  Clam  Punch,  112 

Compound,  155 
Cellars,  Waterproof,  400 
Celloidin  Paper,  504 
Cells,    Solutions   and   Fillers   for 

Battery,  104 
Celluloid,  155 

Cements  and  Glues,  17 

Glue  for,  12 

Lacquer,  439 

of  Reduced  Inflammability,  159 

Putty,  161 
Cement,  692 

Armenian,  20 

Asbestos,  30 

Cheap  and  Excellent,  30 

C9lors,  688 

Diamond  Glass,  29 

for  Belts,  31 

for  Chemical  Apparatus,  31 

for  Cracks  in  Stoves,    162 

for  Enameled  Dials,  20 

for  General  Use,  31 

for  Glass,  21,  25,  28 

for  Iron  and  Marble,  17 

for  Ivory,  31 

for  Leather  and  Iron,  25 

for  Metals,  21,  25 

for  Metal  on  Hard  Rubber,  22 

for  Pallet  Stones,  162 

for  Pasteboard  and  Paper,  21 

for  Patching  Boots,  23 

for  Pipe  Joints,  162 

for  Porcelain  Letters,  19 

for  Sandstones,  17 

for  Steam  and  Water  Pipes,  161 

for  Watch-lid,  20 

for  Waterpipe,  162 

Hydraulic,  33 

Cementing  Celluloid  and  Hard- 
rubber  Articles,  18 
Cement  Jewelers,  20 

Mordant  for,  479 

on  Marble  Slabs,  16 

Paints  for,  499 

Parisian,  30 

Protection  of,  Against  Acid,  9 

Rubber  for  Cloth,  24 

to  Paint  Over  Fresh,  499 

Transparent  for  Glass,  29 

Strong,  30,  32 

Universal,  31 

Work,  Protection  for,  162 
Cements,  16,  161 

Amber,  26 

Aquarium,  31 

Casein,  20 

Celluloid,  17 

for  Attaching  Letters  on  Glass, 
19 

for     Fastening     Porcelain     to 
Metal,  25 


Cements,  for  Iron,  24 

for  Leather,  22,  23 

for  Metals,  24 

for  Rubber,  22 

for  Stone,  16 

for  Tires,  23 

for  Water-glass,  19 

Meerschaum,  30 

Sign-letters,  18 

Silicate  of  Oxychloride,  35 
Ceramics,  164 
Chain  of  Fire,  612 
Chains  (Watch),  to  Clean,  206 
Chalk  for  Tailors,  164 
Chamois  Skin,  to  Clean,  186 
Champagne,  118 

Cider,  181 
Chapped  Skin,  232 
Chappine  Cream,  237 
Charta  Sinapis,  480 
Chartreuse,  769 
Cheddar  Cheese,  176 
Cheese,  174 

Color,  359 

Wrapping,  Tin  Foil  for,  474 
Chemical  Apparatus,  Cement  for, 
31 

Gardens,  368 

Reagents,  349 
Cherry  Balsam,  103 

Cordial,  764 

Phosphate,  112 

Tooth  Paste,  257 
Chewing  Candy,  217 

Gums,  178 
Cheshire  Cheese,  176 
Chestnut  Brown  Dye  for  Straw 
Bonnets,  267 

Hair  Dye,  391 
Chicken  Bouillon,  112 
Chicken-coop  Application,  419 
Chicken  Diseases,  734 
Chicory,  Tests  for,  353 
Chilblains,  486 
Children,  Doses  for,  265 
Children's  Tooth  Powder,  255 
China,  173 

Pomade,  227 

Repairing,  601 

Riveting,  179 

Silver  Alloy,  75 

to  Toughen,  173 
Chinese  Tooth  Paste,  257 
Chlorides,  Platt's,  264 
Chloriding    Mineral    Lubricating 

Oils,  462 

Chlorine-proofing,  9 
Chocolate,  179 

and  Milk,  114 

Castor-oil  Lozenges,  154 

Extracts,  312 

Frappe,  114 

Hot,  111 

Soda  Water,  111 
Cholera  Remedies,  179 
Chowchow,  212 

Chrome  Black  Dye  for  Wool,  267 
Chromium  Glue,  15 
Chromo  Making,  180 
Cider,  180 

Preservative,  181 

Vinegar,  735 
Cigarettes,  Asthma,  101 
Cigar  Flavoring,  183 

Sizes  and  Colors,  182 

Spots,  183 
Cigars,  182 
Cinnamon  Essence,  312 

Oil  as  an  Antiseptic,  100 

or  Brown  Dye  for  Cotton  and 

Silk,  267 
Cinchona,  771 

Pomade,  392 

Citrate  of  Magnesium,  464 
Clam  Bouillon,  113 


INDEX 


791 


Claret  Lemonade,  110 

Punch,  110,  112 
Clarification  of  Gelatin  and  Glue, 

370 
Clarifying,  184 

Muddy  Water,  741 
Clay,  33,  184 

Claying  Mixture  for  Forges,  184 
Clean  Bronze,  202 
Cleaner,  Universal,  209 
Cleaning  Linoleum,  398 

Marble,  196 

Polished  Woodwork,  194 

Brass  on  Clock,  206 

Bronze  Objects,  205 

Clocks,  207 

Copper,  200 

Copper  Sinks,  202 

Electro-plate  Goods,  205 

Funnels  and  Measures,  204 

Gilded  Work  on  Altars,  185 

Gilded  Articles,  185 

Gilded  Bronzes,  205 

Gilt  Bronze  Ware,  201 

Glass,  Paste  for,  208 

Inferior  Gold  Articles,  207 

Lamp  Globes,  209 

Marble,  Furniture,  etc.,  197 

Methods  and  Processes,  209 

of  Copperplate  Engravings,  309 

of  Statuettes  and  Plaster  Ob- 
jects, 564 

of  Walls,  Ceilings,  and  Paper, 
190,  397 

Oil  Stains  on  Wall  Paper,  190 

Optical  Lenses,  208 

Paint  Brushes,  140 

Painted    and    Varnished    Sur- 
faces, 194 

Painted  Doors,  Walls,  etc.,  190 

Pearls,  208 

Preparations,  184,  397,  590,  644 

Preparation     for     Glass     with 
Metal  Decorations,  208 

Pewter  Articles,  205 

Powder,  194 

Skins  and  Leather,  186 

Silver-plated  Ware,  200 

Terra  Cotta,  197 

Tracings,  194 

Varnish  Brushes,  141 

Wall  Paper,  191 

Whitewashed  Walls,  190 

Window  Panes,  208 
Cleansing  Fluids,  185 
Clearing  Baths,  535 
Cleary's      Asthma      Fumigating 

Powder,  101 
Cliche  Metal,  52 
Clock-bell  Repairing,  737 
Clock  Cleaning,  207 
Clock-dial  Lettering,  737 
Clock  Hands,  to  Reblack,  738 
Clockmakers'  Cleaning  Processes, 

206 
Clock  Oil,  482 

Repairing,  738 
Clothes  and  Fabric  Cleaners,  191 

Cleaners,  191 

Clothes-Cleaning  Fluids,  192 
Cloth  Paper,  504 

Strips  Attached  to  Iron,  14 

to  Iron,  Gluing,  37 

Waterproofing,  748 
Cloths  for  Polishing,  599 
Clouding  of  Mouth  Mirrors,  477 
Cloudless  Caramel  Coloring,  146 
Clove  Pink  Perfumery,  516 
Coal  Oil,  484 

Coals,  to  Eat  Burning,  612 
Coating  for  Bathrooma,  498 

for  Damp  Walls,  499 

for  Name  Plates,  501 

Metallic  Surfaces  with  Glass,  377 

Tablets  with  Chocolate,  179 


Cobaltizing  of  Metals,  573 
Cobalt,  or  Fly  Powder  Poison,  94 
Cochineal  Insect  Remedy,  422 
Cocoa  Mint,  115 

Syrup,  112 
Cocoas,  112 
Cod  Liver  Oil  and  Its  Emulsion, 

482 
Coffee,  353 

Cocktail,  114 

Cordial,  763 

Cream  Soda,  113 

Essence,  314 

Extracts,  313 

for  the  Soda  Fountain,  111 

Frappe,  114 

Hot,  111 

Iced,  114 

Nogg,  114,  115 

Substitutes  for,  210 

Syrups,  313 
Coil  Spring,  683 

Springs,  to  Temper,  683 
Coin  Cleaning,  200 

Metal,  62 
Coins,  Impressions  of,  467 

Matrix  for,  467 
Colas,  728 
Cold  and  Cough  Mixtures,  211 

Chemical  Gilding,  577 

Cream,  225 

Enameling,  721 

Soldering,  666 

Varnish,  543 
Colic  in  Cattle,  729 
Collapsible  Tubes,   Skin  Cream, 
239 

Tooth  Paste  for,  257 
Collodion,  212 
Cologne,  514 

for  Headaches,  394 

Spirits  or  Deodorized  Alcohol, 

514 
Coloration  of  Copper  and  Brass 

with  Cupric  Selenite,  568 
Colored  Alloys  for  Aluminum,  50 

Celluloid,  161 

Fireproofing,  344 

Fires,  609 

Floor  Polishes,  591 

Gilding,  577 

Glass,  165,  371 

Gold  Alloys,  66 

Hygroscopes,  402 

Inks,  414 

Lacquer,  439 

Marking  Inks,  407 

Rings  on  Metal,  582 

Sand,  628 
Coloring  Benedine  Green,  106 

Brass,  473 

Ceresine  Candles  for  the  Christ- 
mas Tree,  1*45 

Common  Gold,  431 

Copper,  473 

Electric-light'Bulbs  and  Globes, 
371 

Fluid  for  Brass,  129 

Gold  Jewelry,  430 

Incandescent  Lamps,  442 

Matter  in  Fats,  334 

Metals,  471,  568 

of  Brass,  128,  570 

of  Modeling  Plaster,  563 

Perfumes,  511 

Silver,  640 

Soap,  644 

"Spirit"  Varnishes,  715 

Steel,  682 

Unpolished  Brass,  128 
Colorings  for  Jewelers'  Work,  433 
Color  Enamel,  721 

Photography,  548 

Stains,  for  Wood,  782 


Color  Stamps  for  Rough  Paper, 

Testing,  559 
Colors,  266 

and  Sizes  of  Cigars,  182 
for  Confectionery,  218 
for  Paints,  555 
for  Polished  Brass,  127 
for  Pomade,  228 
for  Syrups,  702 
Fusible  Enamel,  306 
Combined  Alum  and  Hypo  Bath, 

535 

Toning  and  Fixing  Baths,  542 
Comfortable,  Washing,  399 
Commercial  Enameling,  290 
Formaldehyde,  362 
Mucilage,  43 
Common  Silver  for  Chains,  434 

Silver  Solder,  434 
Composition  Files,  339 

for   Cleaning    Copper,    Nickel, 

and  other  Metals,  203 
for  Linoleum,  Oilcloth,  etc.,  459 
for  Writing  on  Glass,  376 
of  Various  Hard  Spiders,  663 
Compositions  for  Ships'  Bottoms, 

498 

Compost  for  Indoor  Plants,  337 
Compound    for    Cleaning    Brass, 

203 
Salicylated      Collodion      Corn 

Cure,  224 

Solution  of  Thymol,  100 
Concentrated  Lye  Poison,  93 
Concrete,  689 

Blocks,  Properties  of,  695 
Tamping  of,  695 
Concrete  Block  Systems,  694 
Building  Block,  691 
Mixers,  693 

Condimental  Sauces,  353 
Condiments,  212 

Tests  for  Adulterated,  349 
Condition  Powders,  729 

for  Cattle,  729 

Conductivity    of   Aluminum   Al- 
loys, 48 
Confectionery,  216 

Colors,  218 

Constipation  in  Birds,  729 
Contracted  Hoof  or  Sore  Feet  in 

Cattle,  730 

Conversion  of  Metric  into  Eng- 
lish Measure,  760 
Cooling  Screen,  616 
Cooking  Vessels,  Glazes  for,  377 
Cook's  Table,  703 
Cooper's  Pen  Metal,  74 
Copal  Varnish,  720 
Copper,  219 
Alloys,  51,  76 
Amalgam,  90 

Amalgams,  Applications  of,  87 
and  Brass  Gilding,  577 

Platinizing,  586 
A  Permanent  Patina  for,  585 
Arsenic,  63 

Articles,  Polish  for,  591 
Bronzing,  566 
Cleaning,  200 
Coloring,  221,  473 
Enameling,  294 
Etching,  324 
in  Food,  351 
Iron,  63 
Lacquers,  439 
Nickel,  63 
Paint  for,  495 
Paper,  507 

Patinizing  and  Plating,  586 
Polishes,  590 

Separation  of  Gold  from,  382 
Copper-Silver  Alloy,  75 


792 


INDEX 


Copper,  Silver,  and  Cadmium  Al- 
loys, 76 

Solder  for  Plating,  434 

Solders,  659 

to  Bronze,  136 

Varnishes,  726 
Coppering,  572 

Glass,  572 

Plaster  Models,  etc.,  573 

Zinc  Plate,  573 
Copying  Ink,  415 

Printed  Pictures,  222 

Process  on  Wood,  222 
Cordage,  223 

Lubricant,  463 

Waterproofing,  753 
Cordials,  763 
Cork  as  a  Preservative,  606 

Cleaner,  210 

to  Metal,  Fastening,  36 
Corks,  223 

Impermeable    and   Acid-proof, 
10 

to  Clean,  210 

Waterproofing,  742 
Corn  Plaster,  224 

Cures,  224 

Corrosive  Sublimate  Poison,  94 
Cosmetic  Jelly,  232 
Cosmetics,  225 
Cottenham  Cheese,  176 
Cotton,  245 

Belts,  Lubrication,  462 

Degreasing,  246 
Cottonseed,  Extracting  Oil,  482 

Hulls  as  Stock  Food,  246 

Oil,  482 

Compress    Cough    Balsam    with 
Iceland  Moss,  211 

Drops,  217 

Mixtures  and  Remedies,  211 
for  Cattle,  730 

Syrup,  211 

Counter  Polishes,  590 
Court  Plasters,  247,  563 
Cow  Diseases  —  Remedies,  730 

Powder,  730 

Cow's  Milk,  Powder  for,  732 
Cracked  Leather,  448 
Cracks  in  Tools,  to  Render  Visi- 
ble, 686 
Crayons,  374 

for  Graining  and  Marbling,  247 

for  Writing  on  Glass,  374 
Cream,  247 

Beef  Tea,  112 

Bonbons  for  Hoarseness,  216 

Cheese,  176 

How  to  Determine,  474 

Soda  Powder,  628 
Creams  for  the  Face  and  Skin,  225 
Creosote-carbolic  Acid  Poison,  94 
Cresol  Emulsion,  248 
Crimson  Dye  for  Silk,  271 

Indelible  Ink,  406 
Crystal  Cements,  248 
Crystalline    Coatings    or    Frost- 
work on  Glass  or  Paper,  376 

Honey  Pomade,  227 
Crystallization,  Ornamental,  368 
Crockery,  167 

Plaster   and   Meerschaum   Re- 
pairing, 27 
Crocus,  248 

Crude  Petroleum,  Emulsion  of,  521 
Crushed  Apricot,  365,  604 

Cherries,  365,  604 

Fruit  Preserving,  604 

Orange,  365,  604 

Peach,  365,  604 

Pineapples,  364,  604 

Raspberry,  364 

Strawberry,  364 
Cucumber  Creams,  237 


Cucumber  Essence,  314 

Jelly,  Juice,  and  Milk,  228 

Juice,  239 

Milk,  239 

Pomade,  228 

Cummins's  Whipped  Cream,  248 
Curagoa  Cordial,  764 

Liqueur,  770 
Cure  for  Barber's  Itch,  486 

for  Snake  Bites,  96 

for  Tan,  242 

for  Warts,  736 
Currant  Cream,  115 
Curry  Powder,  213 
Curtains,  Coloring  of,  446 
Cutlers'  Cements  for  Fixing  Knife 

Blades  into  Handles,  16 
Cutlery  Cements,  16 
Cutting,  Drilling,  Grinding,  and 

Shaping  Glass,  371 
Cuspidor  Powder,  263 
Custard  Powder,  249 
Cyanide  of  Potassium  Poison,  93 
Cylinder  Oil,  464 
Cymbal  Metal,  64 
Cypress  Water,  519 


Dairy  Products,  354 
Damaskeening,  249 

by  Electrolysis,  249 

on  Enamel  Dials,  250 
Damp  Walls,   Coating  for,   400, 

499 

Damson  Cheese,  176 
Dandruff  Cures,  388 
Darcet  Alloy,  64 
Dark-blue  Dye,  268 
Dark  Gold  Purple,  383 
Dark-Green     Blackboard    Paint, 

489 
Dark  Red  Grease  Paint,  229 

Snuff -Brown  Dye  for  Wool,  267 

Steel  Dye,  269 
Deadening  Paint,  491 
Dead-gilding  of  an  Alloy  of  Cop- 
per and  Zinc,  579 
Dead,  or  Matt,  Dip  for  Brass,  131 
Deadly  Nightshade  Poison,  94 
Decalcomania  Processes,  250 
Decolorization  of  Carbolic  Acid, 

147 

Decolorizing     and     Deodorizing 
Oils,  484 

or  Bleaching  Linseed  Oil,  483 
Decomposition  of  Oils,  Fats,  484 
Decorating  Aluminum,  81 
Decorative  Metal  Varnishes,  726 

Wood-finish,  772 
Deep  Red  Grease  Paint,  229 

Red  Raspberry  Syrup,  318 
Dehorners   or   Horn   Destroyers, 

397 

Delta  Metal,  63 
Demon  Bowls  of  Fire,  611 
Denaturized  Alcohol,  45,  678 
Dental  Cements,  163 

Platinum,  74 
Dentrifices,  251 

Deodorants  for  Water-closets,  263 
Deodorization    of    Calcium    Car- 
bide, 144 
Deodorized  Alcohol,  514 

Cod  Liver  Oil,  482 

Petroleum,  522 
Deodorizing  Benzine,  106 
Depilatory  Cream,  259 
Depthings,  Verification  of,  737 
Derbyshire  Cheese,  176 
Desilvering,  587 
Detannating  Wine,  765 
Detecting  Dyed  Honey,  396 


Detection  of  Albumen  in  Urine, 
44 

of  Formaldehyde  in  Food,  351 
in  Milk,  474 

of  Copper  in  Food,  351 

of  Cottonseed  Oil  in  Lard,  442 

of  Glucose  in  Food,  357 

of  Saccharine  in  Food,  351 

of  Salicylic  Acid  in  Food,  349 

of  Starch  in  Food,  357 
Detergent  for  Skin  Stains,  235 
Detergents,  186 

Determination  of  Artificial  Colors 
in  Food,  351 

of  Preservatives,  349 
Determining  Cream,  474 
Developers  for  Photographic  Pur- 
poses, 523 
Development  of  Platinum  Prints, 

531 

Dextrine  Pastes,  35 
Diabetics,  Lemonade  for,  109 
Dial  Cements,  20 

Cleaners,  207 

Repairing,  737 
Diamalt,  475 
Diamantine,  432 
Diamond  Cement,  20 

Glass  Cement,  29 

Tests,  260 
Diarrhoea  in  Birds,  729 

Remedies,  179 
Die  Venting,  261 
Digestive  Powders,  261 

Relish,  213 

Diogen  Developer,  527 
Dip  for  Brass,  131 
Dipping  Metals,  Danger  of,  470 
Dips,  469 

for  Cattle,  264 

Direct    Coloration    of    Iron    and 
Steel  by  Cupric  Selenite,  568 
Directions  for  Bronzing,  135 

for  Making  Perfumes,  512 

Disinfectants,  264 
Disguising  Odor  of  Carbolic  Acid, 

147 

Dish  Washing,  399 
Disinfectant  for  Books,  125 
Disinfectants,  262 

for  Sick  Room,  264 
Disinfecting  Coating,  265 

Fluids,  262 

or  Weed-killers,  262 

Powders,  262 

Dissolving  Old  Rubber,  622 
Distemper  in  Cattle,  729 
Distinguishing  Blue  from  Green, 

121 

Diuretic  Ball,  731 
Dog  Applications,  419 

Biscuit,  265 

Soap,  654 
Domestic  Ointments,  486 

Pets,  732 
Donarite,  330 
Doors,  to  Clean,  190 
Doses  for  Adults  and  Children, 

265 

Dose  Table  for  Veterinary  Pur- 
poses, 729 

Double  Extract  Perfumery,  518 
Drawing  Inks,  403 

Paper,  504 

Temper  from  Brass,  133 
Drawings,  Preservation  of,  266 

to  Clean,  206 

Draw-tempering  Cast  Steel,  687 
Dressing  for  Carriage  Tops,  448 

for  Sewing  Thread,  706 
Dressings  for  Harness,  451 

for  Leather,  448 

for  Linoleum,  459 

for  the  Hair,  389 


INDEX 


793 


Dried  Casein,  its  Mfg.,  148 

Yolk  of  Egg,  284 
Driers,  636 
Driffield  Oils,  485 
Drill  Chips,  to  Utilize,  686 
Drilling  Hard  Steel,  687 
Lubricant  for,  463 
Shaping,  and  Filing  Glass,  372 
Drinking  Water,  Removal  of  Iron 

from,  741 
Drinks  for  Summer  and  Winter 

107 

Soda  Water,  111 
Drops  of  Lime  in  the  Eye,  333 

Table  of,  704 
Drosses,  151 

Dry  Bases  for  Paints,  489 
Perfumes,  509 

Powder  Fire  Extinguishers,  341 
Rot,  Remedies  for,  618 
Sugar  Preserving,  604 
Yeast,  786 
Drying  Oils,  485 
Druggists'  Label  Paste,  41 
Dubbing  for  Leather,  460 
Duesseldorff  Mustard,  215 
Dunlop  Cheese,  176 
Durable  Bronze  on  Banners,  137 

Putty,  607 
Dust-laying,  485 
Dust  Preventers  and  Cloths,  401 
Dutch  (HoUand)  Cheese,  176 

Pink  Dye,  278 
Dyeing  Feathers,  335 
Leather,  450 

Silk  or  Cotton  Fabrics,  280 
Straw  Hats,  394 
Dyes,  266 

and  Dyestuffs,  274 

Colors,  etc.,  for  Textile  Goods, 

279 

for  Artificial  Flowers,  272 
for  Feathers,  272 
for  Food,  359 
for  Furs,  272 
for  Hats,  273 
for  Leather,  450 
Dye  Stains,  Removal  from  Skin, 

184 
Dynamite,  329 


Earthenware,  168 
Easily  Fusible  Alloys,  64 
Eastman's  Sepia  Paper,  531 
Eaton's  Styptic,  701 
Eau  de  Botot  Water,  519 

de  Lais  Water,  519 

de  Merveilleuse  Water,  519 

de  Quinine,  392 
Eberle's  Whipped  Cream,  248 
Ebony,  783 

Lacquer,  439 

Stains,  782 

Eczema  Dusting  Powder,  282 
Edible  Oils,  355 
Effervescent  Bath  Tablets,  103 

Powders,  627 
Eggs,  282,  355 
Egg  Chocolate,  114 

Claret,  115 

Coffee,  115 

Creme  de  Menthe,  115 

Dyes,  275 

Lemonade,  111,  115 

Malted  Milk  Coffee,  114 

Oil,  284 

Orgeat,  115 

Phosphate,  113 

Powder,  284 

Shampoo,  393 

Sherbet,  115 

Sour,  115 

Wine,  118 


Egg-stain  Remover,  201 
Eikonogen  Developer,  524 
Ektogan,  98 
Elaine  Substitute,  286 
Elastic  Glue,  14 

Limpid  Gum  Varnishes,  720 

or  Pliable  Paste,  39 
Substitute  for  Celluloid,  158 
Electrical  Conductivity  of  Alumi- 
num Alloys,  50 

Electric  Installations,  Fusible  Al- 
loys for,  64 

Insulation,  425 

Light  Bulbs,  Coloring,  371 
Electrodeposition  Processes,  571 
Electro-etching,  324 
Electrolysis  in  Boilers,  123 
Electroplating    and    Electrotyp- 

ing,  286 
Elm  Tea,  288 
Embalming  Fluids,  288 
Embroideries,  Stamping  Powder 

for,  680 

Embroidery,  Ink  for,  411 
Emerald,  Imitation,  370 
Emery,  289 

Grinder,  289 

Substitute,  289 
Emmenthaler  Cheese,  176 
Emollient  Skin  Balm,  234 
Emulgen,  290 
Emulsifiers,  289 
Emulsion,  Cresol,  248 

of  Bromoform,  134 
Emulsions  of  Petroleum,  521 
Enamel  Colors,  727 

for  Copper  Cooking  Vessels,  305 

for  Vats,  721 

How  to  Remove,  189 

Letters  Attaching  to  Glass,  19 

Mixing,  302 

Removers,  187 

Solder,  434 

Varnishes,  720 
Enameled  Dials,  Cement  for,  20 

Iron  Recipes,  305 
Enameling,  290 

Alloys,  67 
Enamels,  Metallic  Glazes  on,  173 

Unaffected  by  Hot  Water,  721 
Engines  (Gasoline),  Anti-freezing 

Solution  for,  363 
English  Margarine,  143 

Pink  Dye,  278 

Weights  and  Measures,  758 
Engravers'  Varnishes,  723 
Engraving,   Matting,  and  Frost- 
ing Glass,  375 

on  Steel,  687 

or  Etching  on  Steel,  687 

Spoon  Handles,  309 
Engravings,    their    Preservation, 
309 

to  Reduce,  310 

to  Transfer,  710 
Enlargements,  542 
Envelope  Gum,  43 
Epicure's  Sauce,  213 
Epizooty,  731 
Eradicators,  205 
Erasing  Powder  or  Pounce,  189 
Essence  Benedictine,  769 

of  Anchovies,  98 

of  Cinnamon,  312 

of  Extract  of  Soup  Herbs,  212 

of  Savory  Spices,  214 
Essences  and  Extracts  of  Fruits, 

310,  312 
Etching,  322 

Bath  for  Brass,  324 
for  Tin,  706 

Copper,    Brass,    and    Tombac, 

Fluids,  322 

Fluid  for  Aluminum,  324 


Etching,  Fluid,  for  Brass,  323 
to  Make  Stencils,  323 
for  Copper,  Zinc,  and  Steel, 

324 

for  Gold,  324 
for  Lead,  Antimony,  and  Bri- 

tannica  Metal,  324 
for  Tin  or  Pewter,  324 
for  Zinc,  323 
Fluids  for  Copper,  325 
for  Iron  and  Steel,  322 
for  Silver,  324 

Glass  by  Means  of  Glue,  326 
-ground    for    Copper   Engrav- 
ing, 322 
on  Copper,  324 
on  Glass,  325 
on  Ivory,  327,  428 
on  Marble,  327 
on  Steel,  687 
Powder  for  Iron  and  Steel,  323 

for  Metals,  324 
Steel,  Liquids  for,  327 
with  Wax,  326 
Eucalyptus  Bonbons,  212 

Paste,  257 

Examination  of  Foods,  352 
Expectorant  Mixtures,  212 
Explosives,  328,  330 
Exposures  in  Photographing,  528 
Extemporaneous  Anchovy  Sauce, 

98 
Extract,  Ginger-ale,  107 

of  Meat  Containing  Albumen, 

361 

of  Milk,  474 
Extracting  Oil  from  Cottonseed. 

482 

Extracts,  312 
Coffee,  313 

Eye,  Foreign  Matter  in,  333 
Eyeglasses,  376 
Eye  Lotions,  333 


Fabric  Cleaners,  191 

Fabrics,  Waterproofing  of,  742 

Facade  Paint,  499 

Face  Black  and  Face  Powder,  230 

Bleach  or  Beautifier,  231 

Cream  without  Grease,  239 

Powder,  Fatty,  230 
Faded  Photographs,  544 
Fairthorne's  Dental  Cement,  163 
Falling  Hair.  392 
Fa*icy  Soda  Drinks,  113 
Fastening  Cork  to  Metal,  36 
Fats,  333,  334,  335 

Decomposition  of,  484 

for  Soldering,  659 
Fatty  Acid  Fermentation  Process, 
334 

Face  Powders,  230 
Feather  Bleaching  and  Coloring, 
121,  335 

Dyes,  272,  335 
Felt  Waterproofing,  749 
Fermentation,  Prevention  of,  765 

Process,  Fatty  Acid,  334 
Ferro-argentan,  71 
Ferro-prussiate  Paper,  539 
Ferrpus-oxalate  Developer,  525 
Fertilizer   with   Organic    Matter, 

for  Pot  Flowers,  337 
Fertilizers,  336 

Bone,  338 

Fever  in  Cattle,  731 
Fig  Squares,  216 
File  Alloys,  64 

Metal,  64 
Files,  339 

Geneva  Composition,  64 

to  Clean,  205,  339 

Vogel's  Composition,  64 


794 


INDEX 


Filigree  Gilding,  576 
Fillers  for  Letters,  457 

for  Wood,  773 
Film-stripping,  553 
Filter  Paper,  504 
Filters  for  Water,  339 
Finger-marks,  to  Remove,  125 
Fingers,  Pyrogallic-acid  Stains  on, 

185 

Finger-tips,  Sparks  from,  611 
Finishing  Enamel  for  White  Fur- 
niture, 722 

Firearm  Lubricants,  460 
Firearms,  Oil  for,  460 
Fire,  Chain  of,  612 

Colored,  609 
.    Grenades,  Substitutes  for,  341 

Trick,  611 

Extinguishers,  340 
Fireproof  and  Waterproof  Paints, 
491 

Coating,  344 

Compositions,  344 

Glue,  16 

Paints,  490 

Papers,  344,  504 
Fireproofing,  341,  344 

Celluloid,  159 

Clothing,  342 

for  Wood,  Straw,  Textiles,  343 

Light  Woven  Fabrics,  342 

Mosquito  Netting,  342 

Rope  and  Straw  Matting,  342 

Stage  Decorations,  342 

Tents,  342 
Fireworks,  608 
Fish  Bait,  344 
Fishing     Net,    Preservation    of, 

223 
Fixing  and  Clearing  Baths,  535 

Agents  in  Perfumes,  512 

Baths  for  Paper,  542 
Fixatives  for  Crayon  Drawings, 

etc.,  344 

Flabby  Skin,  Wash  for,  234 
Flashlight  Apparatus,  552 

Apparatus  with  Smoke  Trap, 

552 

Flannels,  Whitening  of,  446 
Flavoring  Cigars,  183 

Extracts,  355 

Peppermint  as  a,  252 

Sarsaparilla,  629 
Flavorings,  213 

for  Dentifrice,  255 

Spices,  213 
Flea  Destroyers,  423 
Flesh  Face  Powder,  243 
Flexible  Ivory,  428 
Flies  and  Paint,  501 

in  the  House,  399 
Floor  Coating,  500 

Dressings,  344 

Oils,  485 

Paper,  506 

Polish,  591 

Varnishes,  724 

Waterproofing,  753 

Wax,  754 
Floral  Hair  Oil,  483 

Hair  Pomade,  483 
Florentine  Bronzes,  136 
Floricin  Brilliantine,  483 

Oil,  483 

Florida  Waters,  514 
Flower  Preservatives,  345 
Flowers,  Coloring  for,  346 
Flour  and  Starch  Compositions, 
35 

Paste,  39 

Fluid  Measure,  U.  S.  Standard, 
704 


Fluid  Measures,  758 
Fluids,  Clothes-cleaning,  192 

Disinfecting,  262 

for  Embalming,  288 

for  Soldering,  659 
Fluorescent  Liquids,  347 
Fluxes  for  Soldering,  660 

Used  in  Enameling,  305 
Flux  for  Enameled  Iron,  305 
Fly  Essences,  421 
Fly-papers  and  Fly-poisons,  347 
Fly-killers,  421 

Fly  Protectives  for  Animals,  419 
Foam  Preparations,  348 
Foamy  Scalp  Wash,  389 
Foreign  Matter  in  the  Eye,  333 
Food  Adulterants,  Tests  for,  348 

Benzoic  Acid  in,  107 

Colorants,  358 

Cooked  in  Copper  Vessels,  94 
Foods,  Bird,  120,  729 

for  Pets,  733 

for  Red  Birds,  729 
Foot  Itch,  733 

Foot-powders  and  Solutions,  361 
Footsores  on  Cattle,  730 
Formaldehyde,  362 

for  Disinfecting  Books,  263 

in  Milk,  Detection  of,  474 
Formalin  for  Grain  Smut,  384 

Treatment  of  Seed  Grain  for 

Smut,  384 
Formol  Albumen  for  Preparation 

of  Celluloid,  156 

Formulas  for  Bronzing  Prepara- 
tions, 135 

for  Cements  for  Repairing  Por- 
celain, Glassware,  Crockery, 
Plaster,  and  Meerschaum, 
27 

to  Drive  Ants  Away,  420 
Foul  Brood  in  Bees,  105 
Fowler's  Solution  Poison,  93 
Foxglove,  or  Digitalis  Poison,  94 
Foy's  Whipped  Cream,  248 
Fragrant  Naphthalene  Camphor, 

14 
Frames,    Protection   from    Flies, 

363 
Frame  Cleaning,  185 

Polishes,  600 

Framing,  Passe-partout,  508 
Frangipanni  Perfumery,  516 
Frankfort  Black,  561 
Freckle  Lotions,  240 
Freckles  and  Liver  Spots,  241 
Freezing  Mixtures,  615,  616 

Preventives,  363 
French  Brandy,  768 

Bronze,  Preparation  of,  136 

Dentrince,  256 

Floor  Polish,  591 

Gelatin,  369 

Hide  Tanning  Process,  453 

Solders  for  Silver,  664 

Varnish,  724 

Fresh  Crushed  Fruits,  365 
Frost  Bite,  363 

Preventive,  363 

Removers,  376 
Frosted  Glass,  374 

Mirrors,  375 

Frosting  Polished  Silver,  640 
Fruit    Essences     and    Extracts, 
310 

Frappe,  116 

Jelly  Extract,  314 

Preserving,  364,  604 

Products,  357 

Syrups,  701 

Vinegar,  735         i 
Fuel,  152 
Fuller's  Purifier  for  Cloths,  274 


Fulminates,  332 
Fulminating  Antimony,  332 

Bismuth,  332 

Copper,  332 

Mercury,  333 

Powder,  333 

Silver,  640 
Fumigants,  365 
Fumigating  Candles,  365 
Funnels,  to  Clean,  204 
Furnace  Jacket,  368 
Furniture  Cleaners,  206 

Enamel,  722 

Its  Decoration,  772 

Polishes,  592 

Wax,  754 

uses,  610 

for  Electrical  Circuits,  64 
Fusible  Alloys  for  Electric  Instal- 
lations, 64 

Enamel  Colors,  306 

Safety  Alloys  for  Steam  Boilers, 

65 
Fusion  Point  of  Metals,  473 


Galvanized  Iron,  496 
Roofing,  397 

Paper,  507 
Gamboge  Stain,  439 
Gapes  in  Poultry,  734 
Garancine  Process,  277 
Gardens,  Chemical,  368 
Garment-cleaning  Soap,  645 
Gas  Fixtures,  130 

Bronzing  of,  566 

Gasoline  Pumps,  Packing  for,  488 
Gas  Soldering,  660 

Stove,  to  Clean,  202 

Trick,  610 
Gear  Lubricant,  463 
Gelatin,  369 

Air  Bubbles  in,  370 
Gems,  Artificial,  370 
Gem  Cements,  20 
Geneva  Composition  Files,  64 
Genuine  Silver  Bronze,  140 
German  Matches,  467 

Method    of    Preserving    Meat, 
361 

Silver  or  Argentan,  69 
German-silver  Solders,  661 
German  Table  Mustard,  215 
Gilders'  Sheet  Brass,  55 

Wax,  755 
Gilding,  493 

and  Gold  Plating,  575 

German  Silver,  578 

Glass,  373,  578 

in  Size,  493 

Metals,  Powder  for,  579 

Pastes,  580 

Plating  and  Electrotyping,  288 

Renovation  of,  185 

Steel,  580 

Substitute,  575 

to  Clean,  185 

Watch  Movements,  738 
Gilt  Frames,  Polish  for,  600 

Test  for,  383 

Work,  to  Burnish,  384 
Ginger,  112 

Ginger-Ale  Extract,  107 
Ginger  Ale,  Flavoring  for,  108 
Soluble  Extract,  108 

Beer,  107,  108 

Extracts,  314 
Gold-leaf  Alloys,  67 

Striping,  383 

Gold  Varnish  for  Tin,  727 
Glass,  371 

Acid-proof,  374 


INDEX 


795 


Glass  and  Porcelain  Cement,  28 

and  Glassware  Cement,  25 

Balls,  Amalgam  for,  90 
Silvering,  587 

Celluloid,  and  Metal  Inks,  403 

Cement  for,  21 

Cleaning,  208 

Coppering,  Gilding,  and  Plat- 
ing, 572 

Etching,  325 

Fastening  Metals  on,  25 

Gilding,  373,  578 

Globe,  Silvering,  641 

How  to  Affix   Sign-letters  on, 
18 

Lettering,  457 

Lubricants,  372 

Manufacturing,  373 

Polishes  for,  593 

Porcelain  Repairing,  26 

Refractory  to  Heat,  373 

Stop  Cock  Lubricant,  462 

Stopper,  to  Loosen,  700 

Silvering  of,  476 

Solders  for,  662 

Soluble,  as  a  Cement,  28 

to  Affix  Paper  on,  19 

to  Cut,  371 

to  Fasten  Brass  Upon,  17 

to  Fix  Gold  Letters  to,  18 

to  Remove  Glue  from,  208 

to  Silver,  641 

Waterproof  Cements  for,  21 
Globes,  How  to  Color,  371 

Silvering,  476 

Glossy  Paint  for  Bicycles,  495 
Gloucester  Cheese,  176 
Glove  Cleaners,  195 
Gloves,    Substitute    for    Rubber, 
100 

Testing,  622 
Glaziers'  Putty,  607 
Glazing  on  Size  Colors,  377 
Glaze  for  Bricks,  377 
Glazes,  377 

and  Pottery  Bodies,  167 

for  Cooking  Vessels,  377 

for  Laundry,  444 
Glucose  in  Jelly,  357 
Glue,  Box,  15 

Chromium    for    Wood,    Paper 
and  Cloth,  15 

Clarifier,  370 

Elastic,  14 

Fireproof,  16 

for   Articles   of   a   Metallic   or 
Mineral  Character,  15  m 

for  Attaching  Cloth  Strips  to 
Iron,  14 

for  Attaching  Gloss  to  Precious 
Metals,  14 

for  Belts,  15 

for  Cardboard,  15 

for  Celluloid,  12 

for  Glass,  15 

for  Leather  or  Cardboard,  15 

for  Paper  and  Metal,  14 

for  Tablets,  13 

for  Uniting  Metals  with  Fab- 
rics, 15 

for  Wood,  15 

Manufacture,  10 

Marine,  13 

or    Paste    for    Making    Paper 
Boxes.  15 

Prevented  from  Cracking,  10 

Test,  10 

to   Fasten    Linoleum    on    Iron 
Stairs.  14 

to  Form  Paper  Pads,  12 
Glues.  10.  34,  378 

Liquid.  11 

Waterproof,  13 


Glycerine,  378 

and  Cucumber  Jelly,  228 

Applications,  228,  236,  237,  239 

as  a  Detergent,  186 

Creams,  237 

Developer,  530 

Lotion,  379 

Milk,  239 

Process,  531 

Soap,  646,  652 
Goats'  Milk  Cheese,  178 
Gold,  379 

Acid  Test  for,  432 

Alloys,  66,  435 

Amalgams,  89 

and  Silver  Bronze  Powders,  139 

Assaying  of,  381 

Enameling  Alloys,  67 

Enamel  Paints,  493 

Etching  Fluid  for,  324 

Extraction  of,  by  Amalgama- 
tion, 89 

Foil  Substitutes  and  Gold  Leaf, 
747 

from  Acid  Coloring  Baths,  381 

Imitations  of,  433 

Indelible  Ink,  406 

Ink,  405,415 

Jewelry,  to  Give  a  Green  Color 
to,  582 

Lacquers,  440 

Leaf  and  its  Applications,  492 
Gold-leaf  Alloys,  67 
Gold-leaf  Waste,  to  Recover,  381 
Gold  Lettering,  456 

Letters  on  Glass,  Cements  for 
Affixing,  18 

Oil  Suitable  for  Use,  485 

Paints,  492 
Gold-plate  Alloys,  67 
Gold  Plating,  575 

Printing  on  Oilcloth,  379 

Purple,  383 

Recovery  of  Waste,  381 

Reduction  of  Old  Photographic, 
535 

Renovator,  199 

Solders,  434,  661 

Testing,  432 

Varnish,  726,  727 

Ware  Cleaner,  200 

Welding,  381 
Goldenade,  114 
Golden  Fizz,  115 

Varnishes,  724 
"Golf  Goblet,"  114 
Gong  Metal,  64 
Grafting  Wax,  755 
Grain,  384 
Graining  and  Marbling,  247 

Colors,  556 

Crayons,  247 

of  Brass,  130 

with  Paint,  494 
Granola,  110 
Grape  Glace,  114 

Juice,  Preservation  of,  767 
Graphite  Lubricating  Compound, 

463 

Gravel  Walks,  385 
Gravers,  385 
Gray  Dyes,  269 

Tints,  559 
Grease  Eradicators,  205 

for  Locomotive  Axles,  462 
Greasless  Face  Cream,  239 
Grease  Paints,  228 
Greases,  462 

Wagon  and  Axle,  462 
Green  Bronze  on  Iron,  138 

Coloring   for   Antiseptic   Solu- 
tions, 100 

Dyes,  269 


Green  Dye  for  Cotton,  269 
for  Silk,  269 
for  Wool  and  Silk,  269 

Fustic  Dye,  269 

Gilding,  578 

Ginger  Extract,  315 

Ink, 415 

or  Gold  Color  for  Brass,  582 

or  Sage  Cheese,  176 

Patina  Upon  Copper,  585 

Salve,  486 

to  Distinguish  Blue  from,  121 
Grenades,  341 
Grinder  Disk  Cement,  Substitute 

for,  31 
Grinding,  708 

Glass,  372 
Grindstone  Oil,  386 
Grindstones,  386 
Ground  Ceramics,  Laying  Oil  for, 
485 

for  Relief  Etching,  322 
Grounds  for  Graining  Colors,  556 
Grosser's  Washing  Brick,  445 
Gruyere  Cheese,  176 
Gum  Arabic,  Substitute,  43,  386 

Bichromate  Process,  546 

Drops,  216 

for  Envelopes,  43 
Gums,  386 

their  Solubility  in  Alcohol,  386 

Used  in  Making  Varnish,  715 
Gun  Barrels,  to  Blue,  682 

Bronze,  59 

Cotton,  331 

Lubricants,  460 
Gunpowder,  328 

Stains,  387 
Gutta-percha,  387 
Gutter  Cement,  162 
Gypsum,  387 

Flowers,  346 

Paint  for,  293 


H 


Haenkel's  Bleaching  Solution,  445 

Hair-curling  Liquids,  389 

Hair  Dressings  and  Washes,  389 

Dyes,  390 

Embrocation,  389 

for  Mounting,  388 

Oil,  390 

Oils,  Perfumes  for,  520 

Preparations,  388 

Removers,  259 

Restorers  and  Tonics,  389,  391 

Shampoo,  392 
Hammer,  to  Harden,  684 
Hand  Bleach,  233 

Creams  and  Lotions,  232 
Hand-cleaning  Paste,  232 
Handkerchief  Perfumes,  516 
Hand  Stamps,  Ink  for,  411 
Hands,     Remove     Stains      from, 
184,  185 

Perspiring,  233 
Hard-finished  Walls,  499 
Hard  German-silver  or  Steel  Sol- 
der, 661 

Glaze  Bricks,  164 

Lead,  71 

Metal  Drilling  Lubricant,  463 

Putty,  607 

Solders,  662,  664 

Solder  for  Gold,  661 

Wood  Polish,  598 
Hardened  Ivory,  429 

Steel,  to  Solder,  665 
Hardening  Plaster  of  Paris,  564 

of  Springs,  685 

Steel  without  Scaling,  685 

Steel  Wire,  684 


796 


INDEX 


Hare-lip  Operation,  99 
Harmless  Butter  Color,  143 

Colors  for  Use  in   Syrups,  321 
Harness  Dressings,  450 

Grease,  451 

Oils,  451 

Preparations,  450 

Pastes,  451 

Wax,  755 

Hartshorn  Poison,  93 
Hat-cleaning  Compounds,  187 
Hat  Waterproofing,  748 
Hats,  394 

to  Dye,  273 
Headache  Cologne,  394 

Remedies,  394 
Head  Lice  in  Children,  422 
Heat-indicating  Paint,  501 
Heat  Insulation,  426 

Prickly,  398 

Heat-resistant  Lacquers,  441 
Heaves,  731 

Hectograph  Pads  and  Inks,395,416 
Hedge  Mustard,  394 
Heel  Polish,  632 
Hellebore  Poison,  94 
Helvetius's  Styptic,  701 
Hemlock  Poison,  94 
Hemorrhoids,  561 
Henbane  Poison,  94 
Herbarium  Specimens,  Mounting, 
394 

Pomade,  227 
Herb  Vinegar,  735 
Hide  Bound,  731 
Hide-cleaning  Processes,  186 
Hides,  454 
Hoarfrost  Glass,  375 
Hoarseness,  Bonbons  for,  216 

Remedy  for,  211 
Holland  Cheese,  176 
Hollow  Concrete  Blocks,  691 

Silverware,  640 

Home-made  Outfit  for  Grinding 
Glass,  372 

Refrigerators,  616 
Honey,  396 

Clarifier,  396 

Water,  519 

Wine,  468 

Honeysuckle  Perfumery,  516 
Honing,  761 
Hoof  Sores,  730 
Hop  Beer,  108 

Bitter  Beer,  118 

Syrup,  315 

Horehound  Candy,  217 
Horn,  396 

Bleaches,  430 

Uniting  Glass  with,  17 
Horns,  Staining,  397 
Horse  Blistering,  729 
Horse-colic  Remedy,  729 
Horse    Embrocations    and    Lini- 
ments, 731 
Horses  and  Cattle,  729 

Treatment  of  Diseases,  729 
Horticultural  Ink,  405 
Hosiery,  Dye  for,  268 
Hostetter's  Bitters,  762 
Hot  Beef  Tea,  112 

Bouillon,  113 

Celery  Punch,  112 

Chocolate  and  Milk,  111 

Egg  Bouillon,  112 
Chocolate,  111,  113 
Coffee,  113 
Drinks,  113 
Lemonade,  113 
Milk,  113 
Nogg,  113 
Orangeade,  111 
Phosphate,  113 

Lemonades,  110,  111 

Malt,  112 


Hot     Malted    Milk     Coffee     (or 

Chocolate),  112 
Orange  Phosphate,  112 
Soda  Toddy,  112 
Soda-water  Drinks,  111 
Tea,  113 
Household  Ammonia,  91 

Formulas,  397 
House  Paint,  500 
How  to  Bronze  Metals,  136 
to  Clean  a  Panama  Hat,  187 
Brass  and  Steel,  202 
Tarnished  Silver,  204 
to  Color  Aluminum,  80 
to  Keep  Cigars,  187 
Fruit,  364 

Lamp  Burners  in  Order,  399 
to    Lay    Galvanized     Roofing, 

397 
to  Make   Castings  of  Insects, 

151 

a  Cellar  Waterproof,  400 
a  Plaster  Cast  of  a  Coin  or 
Medal,  150 

Picture  Postal  Cards  and 
Photographic  Letter  Head, 
537 

Simple  Syrups;  Hot  Process, 
702 

to  Open  a  Book,  125 
to  Paste  Labels  on  Tin,  40 
to  Pour  Out  Castor  Oil,  153 
to  Renovate  Bronzes,  201 
to  Reproduce  Old  Prints,  223 
to       Sensitize        Photographic 

Printing  Papers,   539 
to  Take  Care  of  Paint  Brushes, 

140 

Castor  Oil,  154 
to  Tell  Pottery,  173 
to  Unite  Rubber  and  Leather, 

22 
to  Tell  the  Character  of  Enamel 

304 

Huebner's  Dental  Cement,  163 
Hunyadi  Water,  740 
Huyler's  Lemonade,  110 
Hydraulic  Cement,  33 
Hydrochinon  Developer,  525 
Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas  for  Exter- 
minating Household  Insects, 
418 

Hydrofluoric  Formulas,  326 
Hydrographic  Paper,  504 
Hydrogen  Peroxide  as  a  Preserva- 
tive, 605 

Hygrometer  and  Its  Use,  401 
Hydrometers    and    Hygroscopes, 

402 
Hyoscyamus,  Antidote  to,  102 


I 
Ice,  402 

Flowers,  402 
Iced  Coffee,  114 

Iceland  Moss,  Cough  Mixture,  211 
Ideal  Cosmetic  Powder,  243 
Igniting  Composition,  403 
Imitation  Black  Marble,  699 

Cider,  182 

Diamonds,  432 

Egg  Shampoos,  393 

Gold,  67,  433 
Foils,  474 

Japanese  Bronze,  138 

of  Antique  Silver,  640 

Ivory,  429 

Platinum,  74 

Silver  Alloys,  77 
Bronze,  140 
Foil,  474 

Stains  for  Wood,  784 
Imogen  Developer,  527 


Impervious  Corks,  223 
Impregnation     of     Papers     with 

Zapon  Varnish,  506 
Improved  Celluloid,  156 
Incandescent    Lamps,    442 
Incense,  366 
Incombustible    Bronze   Tincture, 

135,  137 

Increasing  the  Toughness,  Den- 
sity and  Tenacity  of  Alumi- 
num, 83 

Incrustation,  Prevention  of,  122 
Indelible  Hand-stamp  Ink,  411 

Inks,  405 

for  Glass  or  Metal,  404 

Labels  on  Bottles,  327 

Stencil  Inks,  412 
India,  China  or  Japan  Ink,  406 
India-rubber  Varnishes,  724 
Indigo,  268,  281 

Indoor  Plants,  Compost  for,  337 
Industrial   and  Potable  Alcohol: 

Sources    and    Mfg.,  667 
Infant  Foods,  359 
Infants,  Milk  for,  475 
Inflammable       Explosive       with 

Chlorate  of  Potash,  331 
Inflammability   of   Celluloid   Re- 
duced, 159 

Inflammation  of  the  Udder,  731 
Influenza  in  Cattle,  731 

in  Horses,  731 
Ink  Eradicators,  189 

Erasers,  189 

for  Laundry,  446 

for  Leather  Finishers,  453 

for  Steel  Tools,  404 

for  Writing  on  Glass,  325,  376 
on  Glazed  Cardboard,  404 

on  Marble,  404 

Powders  and  Lozenges,  407 

Stains,  Removing,  189 
Inks,  403 

for  Hand  Stamps,  411 

for  Shading  Pen,  416 

for  Stamp  Pads,  410 

for  Typewriters,  711 

Hectograph,  395 
Inlay  Varnish,  724 
Inlaying  by  Electrolysis,  324 
Insect  Bites,  417 

Casting,  151 

Powders,  419,  424 

Trap,  425 
Insecticides,  418 

for  Animals,  419 

for  Plants,  422 
Instructions  for  Etching,  322 
Instrument  Alloys,  71 

Cleaning,  199 

Lacquer,  440 

Soap,  653 
Instruments,    to    Remove   Rust, 

199 

Insulating  Varnishes,  425 
Insulation,  425 

Against  Heat,  426 

Moisture,  Weather,  etc.,  426 
Intensifies  and  Reducers,  552 
International    Atomic     Weights, 

757 
Iodine  Poison,  94 

Soap,  646 

Solvent,  427 

lodoform  Deodorizer,  427 
Iridescent  Paper,  504 
Iridia  Perfumery,  516 
Iron,  427 

and  Marble,  Cement  for,  17 

and  Steel,  Etching  Fluids  for. 
322 

Polishes,  597 

Powder  for  Hardening,  427 

Biting  Off  Red  Hot,  612 

Black  Paint  for,  495 


INDEX 


797 


Iron,  Bronzing,  567 

Castings,  to  Soften,  427 

Cements  for,  17,  25 

How  to  Attach  Rubber  to,  22 

Pipes,  Rust  Prevention  for,  625 

Silver-plating,  587 

Solders,  665 

to  Cement  Glass  to,  17 

to  Clean,  204 

to  Cloth,  Gluing,  14 

to  Color  Blue,  427 

to  Whiten,  427 

Varnishes,  727 
Ironing  Wax,  444 
Irritating  Plaster,  486 
Itch,  Barbers',  486 
Ivory,  428 

and  Bone  Bleaches,  430 

Black,  123 

Cement,  31 

Coating  for  Wood,  500 

Etching  on,  428 

Gilding,  579 

Polishes,  593 

Tests,  430 


Jaborandi  Scalp  Waters,  392 
Jackson's  Mouth  Wash,  259 
Jandrier's  Test  for  Cotton,  246 
Japan  Black,  495 

Paint,  495 
Japanese  Alloys,  69 

Bronze,  138 

(Gray),  Silver,  76 
Japanning  and  Japan  Tinning,  724 
Jasmine  Milk,  240 
Jelly  (Fruit)  Extract,  314 
Jet  Jewelry,  to  Clean,  431 
Jewelers'  Alloys,  433 

Cements,  20 

Cleaning  Processes,  206 

Enamels,  308 

Formulas,  430 

Glue  Cement,  20 
Jewelry,  to  Clean,  206 


Kalsomine,  436 

Karats,  to  Find  Number  of,  432 

Keeping  Flies  Out  of  a  House,  399 

Keramics,  164 

Kerit,  619 

Kerosene-cleaning      Compounds, 

193 
Kerosene  Deodorizer,  484 

Emulsions,  521 
Ketchup  (Adulterated),  353 
Khaki  Color  Dyeing,  276 
Kid,  449 

Leather  Dressings,  449 

Reviver,  453 

Kirschner  Wine  Mustard,  214 
Kissingen  Salts,  628 
Knife-blade  Cement,  16 
Knife-sharpening  Pastes,  615 
Knockenplombe,  31 
Kola  Cordial,  764 

Tincture,  321 
Koumiss,  116 

Substitute,  437 
Krems  Mustard,  Sour,  215 
Krems  Mustard,  Sweet,  215 
Kiimmel,  764 
Kwass,    117 


Label  Pastes,  39 
Varnishes,  725 


Labels  on  Tin,  How  to  Paste,  4o 
Lac  and  the  Art  of  Lacquering, 

437 
Lace  Leather,  454 

to  Clean  Gold  and  Silver,  193 
Laces,  Washing  and  Coloring  of, 

446 
Lacquer  for  Aluminum,  438 

for  Brass,  438 

for  Bronze,  438 

for  Copper,  439 

for  Oif  Paintings,  440 

for  Microscopes,  etc.,  440 

for  Stoves  and  other  Articles, 

441 

Lacquered  Ware,  to  Clean,  195 
Lacquers,  437 

for  Papers,  441 
Lakes,  277 
Lampblack,  441 

Lamp  Burners,  to  Clean,  200,  399 
Lamps,  442 
Lanoline  Creams,  238 

Hair  Wash,  389 

Soap,  647 

Toilet  Milk,  239 
Lantern  Slides,  532 
Lard,  442 

Lathe  Lubricant,  461 
Laudanum  Poison,  95 
Laundry  Blue,  443 
Tablets,  444 

Gloss  Dressing,  444 

Inks,  399 

Preparations,  443 

Soap,  654 

Laundrying  Laces,  446 
Laurel  Water,  Poison,  93 
Lavatory  Deodorant,  398 
Lavender  Sachets,  510 

Water,  514 
Lawn  Sand,  629 
Laxatives  for  Cattle,  etc.,  732 
Lead,  48,  446 

Alloys,  48,  71 

Amalgams,  Application  of,  88 

Paper,  507 

Plate,  Tinned,  589 

Poison,  95 

to  Take  Boiling,  in  the  Mouth, 

612 

Leaf  Brass,  54 
Leaks,  446 

in  Boilers,  Stopping,  608 
Leather,  447 

and  Rubber  Cements,  22 

as  an  Insulator,  426 

Cements  for,  23 

Leather-cleaning  Processes,  186 
Leather  Dyeing,  450 

Lac,  441 

Lubricants,  460 

or  Cardboard  Glue,  15 

Painting  on,  455 

Polish  Lac,  441 

Removing  Spots  from,  206 

Russian,  454 

Varnish,  725 

Waste  Insulation,  426 

Waterproofing,  750 
Leguminous  Cheese,  176 
Lemon  Beer,  108 

Essences,  315 

Extract  (Adulterated),  356 

Juice,  Plain,  112 

Sherbet,  628 

Sour,  116 
Lemons,  456 
Lemonade,  109,  112 

for  Diabetics,  109 

Powder,  627 

Preparations  for  the  Sick,  109 
Lemonades  and  Sour  Drinks,  110 
Lenses  and  their  Care,  456 


Letter-head  Sensitizers,  537 
Lettering,  456 

a  Clock  Dial,  737 

on  Glass,  457 

on  Mirrors,  457 
Ley  Pewter,  75 
Lice  Killers,  422 

Powders,  734 
Lichen  Removers,  4 
Licorice,  458 

Syrup,  321 

Liebermann's  Bleaching  Test,  246 
Light,  Inactinic,  154 
Lilac  Dye  for  Silk,  270 

Water  Perfumery,  520 
Limburger  Cheese,  176 
Lime,  33,  692 
Limeade,  110 
Lime  as  a  Fertilizer,  339 

Bird,  458 

Juice,  112,  316 
Lime-juice  Cordial,  118 
Limewater  for  Dyers'  Use,  274 
Lincoln  Cheese,  176 
Lincolnshire  Relish,  213 
Linen  Bleaching,  120 

Dressing,  444 

to  Distinguish  Cotton  from,  246 
Linoleum,  459 

Cleaning    and   Polishing,    206, 
398 

Glue  to  Fasten,  14 
Liniments,  459 

for  Horses,  731 

Lining  for  Acid  Receptacles,  10 
Linseed  Oil,  34,  459 

Adulteration  of,  460 

Bleaching  of,  459 

for  Varnish  Making,  483 

or  Poppy  Oil,  484 

Refining,  484 

Solid,  483 
Lipol,  226 

Lipowitz  Metal,  61,  65 
Lip,  Pomades,  226 

Salves  and  Lipol,  226 
Liqueurs,  768 

to  Clarify,  770 
Liquid  Bedbug  Preparations,  421 

Bottle  Lac,  440 

Bronzes,  135 

Cloth  and  Glove  Cleaner,  195 

Court  Plaster,  247 

Dentifrices,  256 

Dye  Colors,  273 

for  Bronze  Powder,  567 

for    Cooling    Automobile    En- 
gines, 363 

Liquids  for  Etching  Steel,  327 
Liquid  Gold,  380 

Glues,  11 

Headache  Remedies,  394 

Indelible  Drawing  Ink,  403 

Laundry  Blue,  444 

Metal    Polish,    Non-explosive, 
595 

Perfumes,  511,  515 

Polishes,  594 

Porcelain  Cement,  28 

Rouge,  230 

Shampoos,  393 

Shoe  Blackings,  633 

Soaps,  646 

Styrax  Soap,  647 

Tar  Soap,  647,  654 
Liquor  Ammonii  Anisatus,  91 
Liquors,  762 
Lithia  Water,  740 
Lithographic  Inks,  407 

Lacquer,  440 

Paper,  505 

Liver-spot  Remedies,  241,  242 
Lobelia-Indian  Poke  Poison,  95 


INDEX 


Locomotive  Axles,  Grease  for,  462 
Lubricants,  462 

Locust  Killer,  422 

Logwood  and  Indigo  Blue  Dye, 
268 

London  Soap  Powder,  650 

Lotion  for  the  Hands,  232 

Louse  Wash,  423 

Lozenges,  Voice  and  Throat,  219 

Lubricants,  460,  462 
for  Cutting  Tools,  461 
for  Heavy  Bearings,  461 
for  Highspeed  Bearings,  461 
for  Lathe  Centers,  461 
for  Redrawing  Shells,  463 
for  Watchmakers,  738 

Luhn's  Washing  Extract,  445 

Luminous  Paints,  494 

Lunar  Blend,  114 

Lustrous  Oxide  on  Silver,  641 

Luster  Paste,  464 

Lutes,  32 

M 

Machine  Bronze,  58 

Oil,  460 

Machinery,   to  Clean,   200,   201, 
203 

to  Keep  it  Bright,  624 
Macht's  Yellow  Metal,  63 
Madder  Lake  Dye,  277 
Magic,  610 

Bottles,  126 

Mirrors,  478 

Magnesian     Lemonade    Powder, 
627 

Orgeat  Powder,  627 
Magnesium,  49 

Citrate,  464 

Flash-light  Powders,  552 
Magnetic  Alloys,  71 

Curves   of    Iron   Filings,   their 
Fixation,  464 

Oxide,  625 
Magnolia  Metal,  51 
Mahogany,  784 
Make  Extract  of  Indigo  Blue  Dye, 

268 

Making  Castings  in  Aluminum,  81 
Malleable  Brass,  54 
Malt,  Hot,  112 
Malted  Food,  359 

Milk,  112,  474 
Manganese  Alloys,  72 

Amalgams,  Applications  of,  87 

Argentan,  70 

Copper,  72 
Manganin,  72 
Mange  Cures,  731 
Manicure  Preparations,  226 
Mannheim  Gold  or  Similor,  68 
Mantles,  465 
Manufacture  of  Alcohol,  674 

of  Cheese,  174 

of  Chewing  Gum,  178 

of  Compounds  Imitating  Ivory, 
Shell,  etc.,  429 

of    Composite    Paraffine    Can- 
dles, 145 

of  Glue,  10 

of  Matches,  465 

of  Pigments,  555 
Manufacturing     Varnish     Hints, 

715 

Manures,  337 
Manuscript  Copying,  223 
Maple,  784 

Maraschino  Liqueur,  770 
Marble,  Artificial,  699 

Cements,  16 

Cleaning,  196 

Colors,  699 

Etching,  327 

Painting  on,  488 


Marble,  Polishing,  593 

Slabs,  Cement  for,  16 
Marbling  Crayons,  247 

Paper  for  Books,  505 
Margerine,  143 
Marine  Glue,  13 

Paint  to  Resist  Sea  Water,  498 
Marking  Fluid,  465 

or  Labeling  Inks,  407 
Maroon  Dye  for  Woolens,  280 

Lake  Dye,  277 
Massage  Application,  233 

Balls,  233 

Creams,  233 

Skin  Foods,  233 

Soaps,  647 
Mastic  Lac,  441 
Mat  Aluminum,  81 

Gilding,  579 
Mats  for  Metals,  470 
Matches,  465 
Match  Marks  on  Paint,  195 

Phosphorus,  Substitute  for,  523 
Materials,  172 

for  Concrete  Building  Blocks, 

691 
Matrix  for  Medals,   Coins,   etc., 

467 

Matt  Etching  of  Copper,  323 
Matzoon,  468 

May  Bowl  or  May  Wine,  770 
Mead,  468 

Meadow  Saffron  Poison,  95 
Measures,  760 

to  Clean,  204 

Measuring  the  Weight  of  Ice,  402 
Meat  Extract  Containing  Albu- 
men, 361 

Preservatives,  359,  360 

Products  (Adulterated),  357 
Medallion  Metal,  62 
Medal  Impressions,  467 
Medals,  to  Clean,  199 
Medical  Paste,  37 
Medicated  Cough  Drops,  217 

Massage  Balls,  233 

Soaps,  647 

Medicinal  Wines,  771 
Medicine  Doses,  265 
Meerschaum,  469 

Cements,  30 

Repairing,  27 
Mending  Celluloid,  161 

Porcelain  by  Riveting,  601 
Menthol  Cough  Drops,  217 

Tooth  Powder,  253 
Mercury,  Poison,  95 

Salves,  487 

Stains,  to  Remove,  186 
Metacarbol  Developer,  527 
Metal  and  Paper  Glue,  14 

Browning  by  Oxidation,  583 

Cements,  25 

Cleaning,  199 

Foil,  474 

Glass  and  Porcelain  Cement,  25 

Inlaying,  249 

Lipowitz,  65 

Polishes,  595 

Protectives,  624 

Temperature  of,  152 

Type,  78 

Varnishes,  725,  727 

Waterproof  Cements  for,  21 
Metallic    Articles,    Soldering    of, 
656 

Cement,  163 

Coffins,  71 

Glazes  on  Enamels,  173 

Luster  on  Pottery,  173 
Stain,  783 

Paper,  507 

Soaps,  648 


Metals  and  Their  Treatment,  469 

Brightening  and  Deadening,  by 
Dipping,  469 

Bronzing,  567 

Cements  for,  21,  24 

Coloring,  471 

Etching  Powder  for,  324 

Fusion  Point  of,  473 

How  to  Attach  to  Rubber,  22 

How  to  Bronze,  136 

Securing  Wood  to,  37 

Solution  for  Cleaning,  200 

to  Silver-plate,  588 
Metric   System   of  Weights   and 
Measures,  759 

Weights,  759 
Meth,  468 
Metheglin,  468 

Method  of  Hardening  Gypsum 
and  Rendering  it  Weather- 
proof, 387 

of  Purifying  Glue,  378 
Methods    of    Preparing    Rubber 

Plasters,  562 

Methyl  Salicylate,  to  Distinguish 
from  Oil  of  Wintergreen,  771 
Metol  and  Hydrochinon  Devel- 
oper, 525 

Metol-bicarbonate  Developer,  525 
Metol  Developer,  524,  525 
Mice  Poison,  613 
Microphotographs,  550 
Milk,  354,  474 

Milk  as  a  Substitute  for  Celluloid, 
Bone,  and  Ivory,  148 

Cucumber,  239 

Extracts,  474 

Powder  for  Cows,  732 

Substitute,  475 

to  Preserve,  475,  606 
Minargent,  64 
Mineral  Acids,  Poison,  92 

Oil,  484 

Waters,  739 
Minofor  Metal,  64 
Mint  Cordial,  765 

Julep,  114 
Mirror  Alloys,  72 
Mirror-lettering,  457 
Mirror  Polishes,  593 

Silvering,  476 
Mirrors,  476 

Frosted,  375 

to  Clean,  209 

to  Prevent  Dimming  of,  374 
Miscellaneous  Tin  Alloys,  78 
Mite  Killer,  422 
Mixed  Birdseed,  120,  729 
Mixers,  Concrete,  693 
Mixing  Castor  Oil  with  Mineral 

Oils,  484 

Mixture  for  Burns,  142 
Mocking-bird  Food,  120,  729 
Mock  Turtle  Extract,  212 
Modeling  Wax,  755 
Modification  of  Milk  for  Infants, 

473 

Moisture,  426 
Molding  Sand,  478 
Molds,  152 

of  Plaster,  564 
Moles,  479 

Montpelier  Cough  Drops,  217 
Mordant    for    Cement    Surfaces, 
479 

for  Gold  Size,  479 
Morphine  Poison,  95 
Mortar,  Asbestos,  479 
Mosaic  Gold,  68,  140 

Silver,  140,  588 
Mosquitoes,  Remedies,  425 
Moss  Removers,  209 
Moth  Exterminators,  425 

Paper,  507 
Moths  and  Caterpillars,  423 


INDEX 


799 


Motors,     Anti-freezing    Solution 

for,  363 

Mottled  Soap,  654 
Mountants,  479,  544 
Mounting  Drawings,  etc.,  479 

Prints  on  Glass,  480 
Mousset's  Alloy,  76 
Moutarde  aux  Epices,  215 

des  Jesuittes,  214 
Mouth  Antiseptics,  99 

Washes,  258 

Wash-tablets,  259 
Moving  Objects,  How  to  Photo- 
graph Them,  548 
Mucilage,  42 

Commercial,  43 

Creams,  238 

of  Acacia,  43 

to  Make  Wood  and  Pasteboard 

Adhere  to  Metals,  43 
Mulberry  Dye  for  Silk,  272 
Muriatic  Acid  Poison,  92 
Mushroom  Poison,  96 
Music  Boxes,  480 
Muslin,  Painting  on,  488 
Mustache  Fixing  Fluid,  480 
Mustard,  214 

Cakes,  214 

Paper,  480 

Vinegar,  215 
Myrrh  Mouth  Wash,  258 

Tooth  Paste,  257 


N 

Nadjy,  115 

Nail-cleaning  Washes,  227 
Nail,  Ingrowing,  481 

Polishes,  226 

Varnish,  227 

Name  Plates,  Coating  for,  501 
Natural  Glue  for  Cementing  Por- 
celain, Crystal  Glass,  etc.,  15 

Lemon  Juice,  316 

Water,  739 
Nature,  Source  and  Manufacture 

of  Pigments,  555 
Neatsfoot  Oil,  481 
Needles,  Anti-rust  Paper  for,  625 
Negatives,  How  to  Use  Spoiled, 

534 

Nervine  Ointment,  487 
Nerve  Paste,  481 
Nets,  223 

Neufchatel  Cheese,  177 
Neutral  Tooth  Powder,  255 
New  Celluloid,  155 

Mordant  for  Aniline  Colors,  273 

Production  of  Indigo,  281 
Nickel  Alloys,  76 

Bronze,  70 
Nickel-plating,  573 

with  the  Battery,  573 
Nickel-testing,  481 
Nickel,  to  Clean,  200 

to  Remove  Rust  from,  199 
Nickeled  Surface,  589 
Nickeling  by  Oxidation,  587 

Test  for,  589 
Niello,  683 
Nitrate  of  Silver  Poison,  95 

Spots,  198 
Nitric  Acid  Poison,  92 

Stains  to  Remove,  185 
Nitroglycerine,  329 
Non-explosive  Liquid  Metal  Pol- 
ish, 595 

Non-masticating  Insects,  423 
Non-Poisonous  Textile  and  Egg 
Dyes  for  Household  Use,  275 

Fly-papers,  347 
Non-porous  Corks,  224 
Norfolk  Cheese,  177 


Normona,  115 

Nose  Putty,  230 

Notes    for    Potters,    Glass-,    and 

Brick-makers,  164 
Noyeau  Powder,  628 
Nut  Candy  Sticks,  216 
Nutmeg  Essence,  316 
Nutwood  Stain,  783 
Nux  Vomica  Poison,  615 


Oak,  775,  783 

Graining,  494 

Leather,  Stains  for,  455 

Stain,  783 

Wood  Polish,  598 
Odorless  Disinfectants,  264 
Odonter,  259 
(Enanthic  Ether  as  a  Flavoring 

for  Ginger  Ale,  108 
Oil,  Carron,  242 

Castor,  153 

Clock,  482 
Oilcloth,  459 

Adhesives,  36 
Oil  Extinguisher,  341 

for  Firearms,  460 

Grease-,    Paint-spot    Eradica- 
tors,  205 

How  to  Pour  Out,  153 

Lubricating,  460 

Neatsfoot,  481 

of  Cinnamon  as  an  Antiseptic, 
100 

of  Vitriol  Poison,  92 

Paintings,  Lacquer  for,  440 
Protection  for,  488 

Prints,  Reproduced,  223 

Removers,  205 

Solidified,  461 

Stains  for  Hard  Floors,  344 

Suitable  for  Use  with  Gold,  485 
Oils,  482 

(Edible),  Tests  for,  355 

for  Harness,  451 

Purification  of,  335 
Oilskins,  750 

Oily  Bottles,  to  Clean,  210 
Ointments,  486 

for  Veterinary  Purposes,  731 
Oleaginous  Stamping  Colors,  679 
Olein  Soap,  654 
Oleomargarine,  142 
Old-fashioned  Ginger  Beer,  107 

Lemonade,  110 
Olive-oil  Paste,  143 
Onyx  Cements,  16 
Opium  and  All  Its  Compounds, 

Poison,  95 

Optical  Lenses,  Cleaning,  208 
Orangeade,  110 

Orange  Bitters  and  Cordial,  762, 
764 

Drops,  216 

Dye,  271 

Extract,  316 

Flower  Water,  520 

Frappe,  110 

Peel,  Soluble  Extract,  316 

Phosphate,  112 
Ordinary  Drab  Dye,  281 

Green    Glass    for    Dispensing 
Bottles,  373 

Negative  Varnish,  544 
Oreide  (French  Gold),  68 
Orgeat  Punch,  110 
Ornamental    Designs    on    Silver, 

641 
Ornaments  of  Iron,  Blackening, 

495 

Orris  and  Rose  Mouth  Wash,  258 
Ortol  Developer,  527 
Ox-gall  Soap  for  Cleansing  Silk, 
654 


Oxide,  Magnetic,  625 

of  Chrome,  172 

of  Tin,  172 

of  Zinc  Poison,  97 
Oxidized  Steel,  584 
Oxidizing,  139 

Processes,  581 
Ozonatine,  44 


Package  Pop,  107 

Wax,  755 
Packing  for  Gasoline  Pumps,  488 

for  Stuffing  Boxes,  488 
Packings,  488 
Pads  of  Paper,  488,  502 
Pain-subduing  Ointment,  487 
Paint,  Acid-resisting,  10 


Brushes,  490 
at  Rest,  141 
Cleaning,  140 

Deadening,  491 

Dryers,  492 

for  Bathtubs,  501 

for  Blackboards,  489 

for  Copper,  495 

for  Iron,  496 

for  Protecting  Cement  Against 
Acid,  9 

Grease,  229 

Peeling  of,  501 

Removed  from  Clothes,  192 

Removers,  187 

to  Prevent  Crawling  of,  490 

Varnish,  and  Enamel  Remov- 
ers, 187 

Painters'  Putty,  607 
Painting  on  Leather,  455 

on  Marble,  488 

on  Muslin,  488 

Ornaments  or  Letters  on  Cloth 
and  Paper,  488 

Over  Fresh  Cement,  499 

Processes,  488 
Paintings,  488 

to  Clean,  195 
Paints,  489 

Dry  Base  for,  489 

for  Gold  and  Gilding,  492 

for  Metal  Surfaces,  495 

for  Roofs  and  Roof  Paper,  497 

for  Walls  of  Cement,  Plaster, 
Hard  Finish,  etc.,  498 

for  Wood,  500 

Stains,  etc.,  for  Ships,  498 

Waterproof  and  Weatherproof, 

499 

Pale  Purple  Gold,  383 
Pale-yellow  Soap,  652 
Palladium  Alloys,  73 

Bearing  Metal,  73 

Gold,  69 

Silver  Alloy,  73 
Palladiumizing,  583 
Palms,  their  Care,  502 
Panama  Hat,  How  to  Clean,  187 
Paper,  502 

and  Metal  Glue,  14 

(Anti-rust)  for  Needles,  625 

as  Protection  for  Iron,  625 

Blotting,  503 

Box  Glue,  15 

Celloidin,  504 

Cements,  21 

Disinfectant,  263 

Fireproof,  344 

Floor  Covering,  506 

Frosted,  374 

Paperhangers'  Pastes,  39 
Paper  Hygrometers,  402 

Making,  Blue  Print,  536 

on  Glass,  to  Affix,  19 

Pads,  502 


800 


INDEX 


Paper  Pads,  Glue  for,  12 

Photographic,  527 

-sensitizing  Processes,  536 

Tickets  Fastening  to  Glass,  19 

Varnishes,  725 

Waterproofing,  505,  751 
Papers,  Igniting,  611 
Papier-mache,  502 
Paraffine,  507 

Scented  Cakes,  508 
Paraffining  of  Floors,  345 
Parchment  and  Paper,  502 

Cement,  21 

Paste,  37 
Paris  Green,  561 

Red,  600 

Salts,  264 

Parisian  Cement,  30 
Parmesan  Cheese,  177 
Parquet  Floors,  Renovating,  345 

Polishes,  591 

Passe-partout  Framing,  508 
Paste,  Agar-agar,  37 

Albumen,  37 

Antiseptic,  99 

Balkan,  38 
Pasteboard  Cement,  21 

Deodorizers,  399 
Paste,  Elastic  or  Pliable,  39 

for  Affixing  Cloth  to  Metal,  37- 

for  Cleaning  Glass,  208 

for      Fastening      Leather      to 
Desk  Tops,  etc.,  36 

for  Making  Paper  Boxes,  15 

for  Paper,  37 

for  Parchment  Paper,  37 

for    Removing    Old    Paint    or 
Varnish  Coats,  188 

for  Tissue  Paper,  37 

for  Wall  Paper,  39 

Flour,  39 

Ink  to  Write  with  Water,  416 

Permanent,  38 

that  will  not  Mold,  37 

Venetian,  39 
Pastes,  35 

for  Paperhangers,  39 

for  Polishing  Metals,  595 

for  Silvering,  588 

to  Affix  Labels  to  Tin,  39 
Pastilles,  Fumigating,  367 
Pasting  Celluloid  on  Wood,  36 

Paper  Signs  on  Metal  36 

Wood      and      Cardboard      on 

Metal,  37 

Pattern  Letters  and  Figures,  Al- 
loys for,  80 

Paving  Brick,  Stain  for,  166 
Patent  Leather,  451 

Leather  Dressings,  449 
Polish,  633 
Preserver,  453 
Stains  for,  452 
Patina  of  Art  Bronzes,  584 

Oxidizing  Processes,  584 
Patinas,  584 
Peach  Extract,  317 

Tint  Rouge,  231 
Pearls,  to  Clean,  208 
Peeling  of  Paints,  501 
Pegamoid,  509 
Pencils,  Antiseptic,  99 

for  Marking  Glass,  374 
Pen  Metal,  74 
Pens,  Gold,  383 
Peppermint  as  a  Flavor,  252 
Pepsin  Phosohate,  112 
Percentage  Solution,  509,  704 
Perfumed  Ammonia  Water,  91 

Fumigating  Pastilles,  367 

Pastilles,  520 


Perfumes,  366,  509 

Cploring,  511 

Directions  for  Making,  512 

Fumigating,  366 

for  Hair  Oils,  520 

for  Soap,  648 

Permanent    Patina    for    Copper, 
585 

Paste,  38 

Perpetual  Ink,  404 
Perspiration  Remedy,  233 
Perspiring  Hands,  233 
Petrolatum  Cold  Cream,  226 
Petroleum,  521 

Briquettes,  522 

Emulsion,  423 

for  Spinning,  522 

Hair  Washes,  390 

Jellies    and    Solidified    Lubri- 
cants, 461 

Soap,  648 
Pewter,  75 

Aging,  522 

to  Clean,  205 
Phosphate  Dental  Cement,  163 

of  Casein  and  its  Production 

149 

Phosphor  Bronze,  58 
Phosphorescent  Mass,  523 
Photographers'  Ointment,  487 

Photographs,  554 
Phosphorus  Poison,  96,  614 

Substitute,  523 
Photographic  Developing  Papers, 

Mountants,  41 
Photographing  on  Silk,  540 
Photographs  Enlarged,  542 

on  Brooches,  551 

Transparent,  545 
Photography,  523 

without  Light,  154 
Piano  Polishes,  598 
Piccalilli  Sauce,  213 
Pickle  for  Brass,  132 

for  Bronze,  138 

for  Copper,  221 

for  Dipping  Brass,  132 
Pickling  Brass  like  Gold,  132 

Iron  Scrap   before  Enameling, 
305 

of  German-silver  Articles,  582 

Process,  453 

Spice,  214 

Picric  Acid  Stains,   186 
Picture  Copying,  222 

Postal  Cards,  537 

Transferrer,  251 
Pictures,  Glow,  522 
Pigment  Paper,  540 
Pigments,  555 
Pile  Ointments,  561 
Pinaud  Eau  de  Quinine,  392 
Pinchbeck  Gold,  69 
Pineapple  Essence,  317 

Lemonade,  110 
Pine  Syrup,  320 

Pine-tar  Dandruff  Shampoo,  389 
Ping-pong  Frappe,  110 
Pinion  Alloy,  737 
Pink  Carbolized  Sanitary  Powder, 
263 

Color  on  Silver,  642 

Dye  for  Cotton,  271 

for  Wool,  271 
Pinkeye,  731 
Pink  Grease  Paint,  229 

Purple  Gold,  383 

Salve,  487 

Soap,  652 

Pins  of  Watches,  738 
Pin  Wheels,  609 
Pipe-joint  Cement,  162 


Pipe  Leaks,  446 

to  Color  a  Meerschaum,  469 
Pipes,  Rust-preventive  for,  625 
Pistachio  Essence,  317 
Plain  Rubber  Cement,  34 
Plant  Fertilizers,  336 

Preservatives,  345 
Plants,  561 
Plaster,  561 

Articles,  Repairing  of,  27 

Cast  of  Coins,  150 

Casts,  Preservation  of,  565 

for  Foundry  Models,  564 

from  Spent  Gas  Lime,  564 

Grease,  463 

Irritating,  486 

Model  Lubricant,  463 

Mold,  152,  564 

Objects,  Cleaning  of,  564 

of   Paris,    Hardening,    32,   150, 
564 

Repairing,  27 
Plastic  Alloys,  64 

and  Elastic  Composition,  158 

Metal  Composition,  65 

Modeling  Clay,  184 

Substances    of    Nitro-cellulose 

Base,  156 

Polishing  Paste,  600 
Platina,  Birmingham,  55 
Plate   Glass,    Removing    Putty, 
206 

Pewter,  75 
Plates,  Care  of  Photographic,  523 

for  Engraving,  71 
Platine  for  Dress  Buttons,  80 
Plating,  565 

Gilding  and  Electrotyping,  288 

of  Aluminum,  572 
Platinizing,  586 

Aluminum,  586 

Copper  and  Brass,  586 

Metals,  586 

on  Glass  or  Porcelain,  586 
Platinotype  Paper,  530 
Platinum  Alloys,  73 

-gold  Alloys   for  Dental    Pur- 
poses, 74 

Papers     and    Their     Develop- 
ment, 529 

Silver,  74 

Solders,  665 

Waste,  to  Separate  Silver  from, 

641 

Platt's  Chlorides,  264 
Playing  Cards,  to  Clean,  209 
Plumbago,  460 
Plumbers'  Cement,  161 
Plumes,  335 
Plush,  590 

to  Remove  Grease  Spots  from, 

193 

Poison  Ivy,  96 
Poisonous  Fly-papers,  347 

Mushrooms,  96 
Poisons,  Antidotes  for,  92 
Polish  for  Beechwood  Furniture, 
593 

for  Bronze  Articles,  591 

for  Copper  Articles,  591 

for  Fine  Steel,  597 

for  Gilt  Frames,  600 

for  Varnished  Work,  195 
Polishes,  590 

Bone,  395 

for  Aluminum,  590 

for  Bars,  Counters,  etc.,  590 

for  Brass,  Bronze,  Copper,  etc., 
590 

for  Floors,  591 

for  Furniture,  592 

for  Glass,  593 

for  Ivory,  Bone,  etc.,  593 

for  Pianos,  596 

for  Silverware,  596 


INDEX 


801 


Polishes,  for  Steel  and  Iron,  597 

for  the  Laundry,  444 

for  Wood,  598 

or  Glazes  for  Laundry  Work, 

444 
Polishing  Agent,  599 

Bricks,  600 

Cloths,  to  Prepare,  599 

Cream,  600 

Mediums,  600 

Pastes,  595 

for  the  Nails,  227 

Powders,  594 

Soaps,  594 

Polychroming  of  Figures,  501 
Pomade,  Putz,  203 
Pomades,  277,  392 

Colors  for,  228 

for  the  Lips,  226 
Pomegranate  Essence,  317 
Poppy  Oil,  484 

-seed  Oil,  Bleaching  of,  459 
Porcelain,  601 

How  to  Tell  Pottery,  173 

Letters,  Cement  for,  19 

Production   of   Luster   Colors, 

172 
Portland  Cement,  162 

Size  Over,  30 
Positive  Colors,  556 
Postal  Cards,  How  to  Make,  537 
How  to  Make  Sensitized,  539 
Potassium    Amalgams,    Applica- 
tions of,  86 

Silicate  as  a  Cement,  19 
Potato  Starch,  680 
Pottery,  173 

and  Porcelain,  How  to  Tell,  173 

Bodies  and  Glazes,  167 

Metallic  Luster  on,  173 

to  Cut,  164 
Poultry  Applications,  419 

Foods    and    Poultry    Diseases 
and  Their  Remedies,  733 

Lice  Destroyer,  419 

Wine,  771 
Pounce,  189 

Powdered    Camphor    in    Perma- 
nent Form,  144 

Cork  as  a  Preservative,  606 

Nail  Polishes,  226 
Powder,  Blasting,  330 

Face,  243 

for  Cleaning  Gloves,  195 

for  Colored  Fires,  609 

for  Gilding  Metals,  579 

for  Hardening  Iron,  427 

Roup,  734 

to  Keep  Moths  Away,  425 

to  Weld  Wrought  Iron  at  Pale- 
red  Heat  with  Wrought  Iron, 
761 
Powders  for  Stamping,  679 

for  the  Toilet,  242 
Preservation  and  Use  of  Calcium 
Carbide,  144 

of  Belts,  105 

of  Carpets,  399 

of  Drawings,  266 

of  Eggs,  284 

of  Fats,  335 

of  Fishing  Nets,  223 

of  Fresh  Lemon  Juice,  456 

of  Fruit  Juices,  310 

of  Gum  Solution,  44 

of  Meats,  359 

of  Milk,  475 

of  Plaster  Casts,  565 

of  Syrups,  701 

of  Wood,  776 

of  Yeast,  786 

Preservative  Fluid  for  Museums, 
602 

for  Stuffed  Animals,  602 
Preservatives,  602 


Preservatives,  for  Leather,  452 
Prairie  Oyster,  116 
Preparation  of  Amalgams,  85 
of  Brick  Colors,  165 
of  Carbolineum,147 
of  Catgut  Sutures,  155 
of  Celluloid,  156 
of  Emulsions  of  Crude  Petro- 
leum, 521 
of  Enamels,  308 
of  French  Bronze,  136 
of  Syrups,  702 
of    Uninflammable     Celluloid, 

157 
Preparations   of   Copper   Water, 

221 
Prepared  Mustards  of  Commerce, 

214 

Preparing  Bone  for  Fertilizer,  338 
Preparing    Emery    for    Lapping, 

289 

Preservative  for  Stone,  602 
Preservatives  for  Paste,  38 
for  Shoe  89168,  633 
for  Zoological  and  Anatomical 

Specimens,  602 
Preserved  Strawberries,  605 
Preserving  Antiques,  98 
Eggs  with  Lime,  285 
Meat,  a  German  Method,  361 
Pressure  Table,  704 
Preventing  the  Peeling  of  Coat- 
ings for  Iron,  427 
the     Putrefaction     of     Strong 

Glues,  11 

Varnish  from  Crawling,  717 
Prevention  of  Boiler  Scale,  122 
of  Electrolysis,  123 
of  Fermentation,  765 
of  Foaming  and  Partial  Cara- 
melization   of   Fruit   Juices, 
311 
of     Fogging,     Dimming     and 

Clouding,  374 
Prickly   Heat,    Applications   for, 

398 
Priming  Coat  for  Water  Spots, 

501 

Iron,  495 

Print  Copying,  222 
Printing  Ink,  Savages,  409 
Inks,  408 
Oilcloth  and  Leather  in  Gold, 

379 

on  Celluloid,  161 
on  Photographs,  554 
Printing-out  Paper,  How  to  Sensi- 
tize, 539 

Printing-roller  Compositions,  617 
Prints,  their  Preservation,  309 
Process  for  Colored  Glazes,  165 
for  Dyeing  in  Khaki  Colors,  276 
of  Electroplating,  286 
of  Impregnating  Fabrics  with 

Celluloid,  161 
Production  of  Consistent  Mineral 

Oils,  484  \ 
of  Lampblack,  441 
of  Luster  Colors  on  Porcelain 

and  Glazed  Pottery,  172 
of  Minargent,  64 
of  Rainbow  Colors  on  Metals, 

568 
of  Substances  Resembling  Cel- 

luloid,  158 

Properties  of  Amalgams,  85 
of    Concrete    Blocks,  Strength, 

695 
Protecting    Boiler    Plates    from 

Scale,  122 

Cement  Against  Acid,  9 
Stuffed  Furniture  from  Moths, 

425 

Protection  for  Cement  Work,  162 
for  Oil  Paintings,  488 


Protection  of  Acetylene  Appara- 
tus from  Frost,  363 
Protective    Coating    for    Bright 

Iron  Articles,  496 
Prussic  Acid,  93 
Pumice  Stone,  606 
Pumice-stone  Soap,  648 
Pumillo  Toilet  Vinegar,  244 
Punch,  Claret,  112 
Puncture  Cement,  162 
Purification  of  Benzine,  106 
Purifying-air,  44 
Purifying  Oils  and  Fats,  335 

Rancid  Castor  Oil,  153 

Water,  740 
Purple  and  Violet  Dyes,  269 

Dye,  269 

for  Cotton,  270 
for  Silk,  270 

Ink,  416 

of  Cassius,  383 
Putty,  606 

Acid-proof,  607 

for   Attaching    Sign-letters    to 
Glass,  19 

for  Celluloid,  161 

Nose,  230 

Substitute  for,  608 

to  Remove,  206 
Putz  Pomade,  203 
Pyrocatechin  Developer,  526 
Pyrogallic  Acid  Stains,  185 
Pyrotechnics,  608,  610 


Quadruple    Extract    Perfumery, 

518 
Quince  Extract,  317 

Flip,  115 
Quick  Dryer  for  Inks  Used  on 

Bookbinders'  Cases,  410 
Quick-drying  Enamel  Colors,  722 
Quick-water,  66 
Quilts,  to  Clean,  194 


Rags  for  Cleaning,  194 
Raspberryade  Powder,  627 
Raspberry  Essences,  318 

Lemonade,  110 

Sour,  116 

Syrup,  317,  318 
Rat  Poisons,  96,  613 
Ratsbane  Poison,  93 
Ravigotte  Mustard,  215 
Razor  Paper,  503 

Pastes,  509,  615 

Recipes    for    Cold-stirred    Toilet 
Soaps,  652 

for  Pottery  and  Brick  Work, 
167 

for  Soldering,  665 
Recovering  Glycerine  from  Soap 

Boiler's  Lye,  378 
Recovery    of    Tin    and    Iron    in 
Tinned-plate  Clippings.  707 
Recutting  Old  Files,  339 
Red  Birds,  Food  for,  729 

Coloring  of  Copper,  221 

Crimson  and  Pink  Dyes,  270 

Dye  for  Wool,  271 

Furniture  Paste,  592 

Gilding,  580 

Gold  Enamel,  67 

Grease  Paint,  229 

Indelible  Inks,  406 

Ink,  416 

Patina,  585 

Russia  Leather  Varnish,  449 
Reducer    for    Gelatin    Dry-plate 
Negatives,  535 


INDEX 


Reducers,  552 
Reducing  Photographs,  542 
Refining  Linseed  Oil,  484 
of  Potato  Starch,  680 
Refinishing  Gas  Fixtures,  130 
Reflector  Metal,  72 
Refrigerants,  615 
Refrigeration,  616 
Refrigerators,  Home-made,  616 

their  Care,  401 
Regilding  Mat  Articles,  580 
Reinking    Typewriter    Ribbons, 

413 
Relief  Etching  of  Copper,  Steel, 

and  Brass,  323 
Ground  for,  322 
of  Zinc,  323 
Relishes,  213 

Remedies  Against  Human  Para- 
sites, 422 
Mosquitoes,  425 
for  Dry  Rot,  618 
for  Fetid  Breath,  133 
for  Insect  Bites,  417 
Removable  Binding,  141 
Removal    of   Aniline-dye    Staina 

from  the  Skin,  184 
of  Corns,  224 

of  Dirt  from  Paraffine,  508 
of  Heat  Stains  from  Polished 

Wood,  776 
of  Iron  from  Drinking  Water, 

741 
of  Musty  Taste  and  Smell  from 

Wine,  771 
of  Odors  from  Wooden  Boxes, 

Chests,  Drawers,  etc.,  398 
of  Paint  from  Clothing,  192 
of  Peruvian-balsam  Stains,  194 
of  Picric-acid  Stains,  186 
of  Rust,  199 
Removing  Acid  Stains,  184 

and  Preventing  Match  Marks, 

195 

Egg  Stains,  201 
Glaze  from  Emery  Wheels,  289 
Grease  Spots  from  Plush,  193 
Inground  Dirt,  235 
Ink  Stains,  189 

Iron   Rust   from    Muslin,   193 
Odor  from  Pasteboard,  399 
Oil  Spots  from  Leather,  206 
Oil  Stains  from  Marble,  197 
Old  Wall  Paper,  400 
Paint  from  Wood,  188 
Silver  Stains,  209 
Spots  from  Furniture,  206 
the  Gum  of  Sticky  Fly-paper, 

348 

Varnish,  etc.,  188 
Window  Frost,  376 
Woody  Odor,  399 
Rendering  Paraffine  Transparent, 

507 

Renovating  a  Camera,  553 
Old  Parquet  Floors,  345 
Renovation  of  Polished  Surfaces 

of  Wood,  etc.,  197 
Repairing  Broken  Glass,  26 
Hectographs,  396 
Rubber  Goods,  620 
Replacing  Rubies  whose  Settings 

have  Deteriorated,  736 
Replating,  588 

with  Battery,  573 
Reproduction    of    Plaster    Origi- 
nals, 565 
Resilvering,  588 

of  Mirrors,  476 
Restoring  Photographs,  544 

Tarnished  Gold,  199 
Restoration  of  Brass  Articles,  132 
of  Old  Prints,  309 


Restoration  of  Spoiled  Beer,  105 

of  the  Color  of  Turquoises,  432 
Retz  Alloy,  64 
Revolver  Lubricants,  460 
Rhubarb  for  Cholera,  180 
Ribbon,  Fumigating,  366 
Ribbons  for  Typewriters,  711 
Rice  Paste,  38 
Rifle  Lubricants,  460 
Ring,  How  to  Solder,  666 
Rings  on  Metal,  Producing  Col- 
ored, 582 

Riveting  China,  179 
Roach  Exterminators,  425 
Rock-candy  Syrup,  702 
Rockets,  609 
Rockingham  Glazes,  171 
Rodinal  Developer,  524 
Roller  Compositions  for  Printers, 

617 

Roman  Candles,  609 
Roof  Paints,  497 
Roofs,  How  to  Lay,  397 

Prevention  of  Leakage,  397 
Room  Deodorizer,  400 
Rope  Lubricants,  463 
Ropes,  617 

Waterproofing,  753 
Roquefort  Cheese,  177 
Rose's  Alloy,  64 
Rose  Cordial,  765 

Cream,  115 

Rose-Glycerine  Soap,  652 
Rosemary  Water  for  the  Hair,-389 
Rose  Mint,  115 

Pink  Dye,  278 

Pomade,  227 

Poudre  de  Riz  Powder,  243 

Powders,  230 

Talc,  510 

Rose-tint  Glass,  371 
Rosewood,  783 

Stain,  783 

Rosin,  Shellac,  and  Wax  Cement, 
34 

Soap  as  an  Emulsifier,  289 

Sticks,  260 

Tests  for,  in  Extracts,  356 
Rottmanner's  Beauty  Water,  244 
Rouge,  228,  229,  230 

for  Buff  Wheels,  618 

or  Paris  Red,  600 

Palettes,  230 

Powder,  600 

Tablets,  230 

Theater,  231 
Roup  Cures,  734 
Royal  Frappe,  114 

Mist,  115 
Rubber,  618 

and  Rubber  Articles,  620 
Wood  Fastened,  22 

Boots  and  Shoe  Cement,  23 

Cement  for  Cloth,  24 

Cements,  22,  34 

Gloves,  Substitute  for,  100 
Testing,  622 

Goods,  Repairing,  620 

Its    Properties    and    Uses    in 
Waterproofing.  743 

Scraps,  Treatment  of,  621 

Softening,  621 

Stamps,  622 

Varnishes,  724 
Ruby  Settings,  737 
Rules  for  Varnishing,  717 
Rum,  Bay,  104 
Ruoltz  Metal,  64 
Russet  Leather  Dressing,  449 
Russian  Leather,  454 

Polishing  Lac,  411 
Rust  Paints,  497 

Paper,  625 


Rust,  Prevention  for  Iron  Pipes, 
625 

Preventive  for  Tools,  etc.,  625 

Removers,  193,  198 

Preventives,  623 
Rusty  Pieces,  to  Separate,  625 


Saccharine  in  Food,  351 
Sachet  Powders,  509 
Safety  in  Explosives,  330 

Paper,  503 

Paste  for  Matches,  467 
Sage  Cheese,  176 
Salicyl,  Sweet,  258 
Salicylic  Acid  in  Food,  349 

Soap,  654 

Saltpeter  (Nitrate  of  Potash),  96 
Salts,  Effervescent,  626 

Smelling,  628 
Salve,  486 
Sand,  628 

Holes  in  Brass,  150 

in  Cast-brass  Work,  150 
Sand-lime  Brick,  689 
Sand  Soap,  654 

to  Prevent  Adhesion  of  Sand  to 

Castings,  150 
Sandstone  Cements,  17 

Coating,  10 

to  Remove  Oil  Spots  from,  198 
Sapo  Durus;  654 
Saponaceous  Tooth  Pastes,  257 
Sarsaparilla,  629 

Beer,  118 

Extract,  318 

Soluble  Extract,  318 
Sauces,  Table,  213 
Sausage  Color,  358 
Savage's  Printing  Ink,  409 
Savine  Poison,  96 
Sawdust  for  Jewelers,  737 

in  Bran,  126 
Saxon  Blue  Dye,  268 
Scald  Head,  Soap  for,  653 
Scale    for    Photographic    Reduc- 
tion, 542 

in  Boilers,  122 

Insects,  Extermination  of,  423 
on  Orange  Trees,  423 

Pan  Cleaner,  205 
Scales  and  Tables,  547 
Scalp  Wash,  389 
Scarlet  Lake  Dyes,  277 

with  Lac  Dye,  271 
Schiffmann's  Asthma  Powder,  101 
Scissors  Hardening,  685 
Scotch  Beer,  118 
Scratch  Brushing,  576 
Screws,  629 

Bluing,  682 

in  Watches,  738 
Sealing  (Burning)  Trick,  611 

Waxes,  755 
Sea  Sickness,  630 
Seasonings,  213 
Seed,  Bird,  120 
Seidlitz  Salt,  628 
Self-igniting  Mantles,  465 
Seltzer  and  Lemon,  110 

Lemonade,  110 

Water,  740 
Separating  Silver  from  Platinum 

Waste,  641 

Serpents,  Pharaoh's,  630 
Serviettes  Magiques,  596 
Setting  of  Tools,  708 

the  Paint-brush  Bristles,  141 
Sewing-machine  Oil,  461 
Sewing  Thread,  Dressing  for,  706 
Shades  of  Red,  etc.,  on  Matt  Gold 

Bijouterie,  431 
Shading  Pen,  Ink  for,  416 


INDEX 


803 


Shampoo  Lotions  and  Pastes,  392 

Soap,  653 
Sharpening  Pastes,  509 

Stones,  761 
Shaving  Paste,  630 

Soaps,  649 
Sheep,  734 
Sheet  Brass,  54 
Sheet-dips,  264 
Sheet  Metal  Alloy,  71 

Lubricant,  463 
Shellac,  716 

Bleaching,  631 
Shell  Cameos,  630 

Imitation  of,  429 

Polishes,  593 
Shells,  Lubricants  for  Redrawing, 

463 

Sherbet,  Egg,  115 
Shims  in  Engine  Brasses,  631 
"Shio  Liao,"  32 
Ship    Compositions   and   Paints, 

498 
Shoe  Dressings,  631 

Leather  Dressing,  450 
Shoes,  Blacking  for,  631 

Waterproofing,  750 
Show  Bottles,  127 
Show-case  Signs,  457 
Show  Cases,  635 

to  Prevent  Dimming  of»  374 
Siberian  Flip,  115 
Siccatives,  636 
Sign  Letters,  639 
Sign-letter  Cements,  18 
Signs  on  Show  Cases,  457 

to  Repair  Enameled,  304 
Silicate  of  Oxychloride  Cements, 

35 

Silicon  Bronze,  61 
Silk,  639 

Gilding,  580 

Sensitizers     for     Photographic 

Purposes,  540 
Silver,  639 

Alloys,  75 

Amalgam,  88,  90 

Bromide  Paper,  Toning  Baths 
for,  541 

Bronze,  71 

Silver-coin  Cleaner,  200 
Silver,  Copper,  Nickel,  and  Zinc 
Alloys,  76 

Etching  Fluid  for,  324 

Fizz,  115 

Foil  Substitute,  474 

Gray  Dye  for  Straw,  269 
Stain,  783 

Imitation,  77 

Ink,  416 

Nitrate  Spots,  to  Remove,  194 
Test  for  Cottonseed  Oil,  482 
,     Ornamental  Designs  on,  641 
Silver-plating,  574,  587 
Silver  Polishing  Balls,  599 

Solder  for  Enameling,  434 
for  Plated  Metal,  434 

Solders,  663 

for    Soldering    Iron, .  Steel, 
Cast  Iron,  and  Copper,  663 

Testing,  642 

to  Clean,  204 

to  Color  Pink,  642 

to  Recover  Gold  from,  382 
Silvering  by  Oxidation,  583 

Bronze,  587 

Copper,  587 

Glass  Balls,  Amalgam  for,  90 
Globes,  641 

Globes,  476 

of  Mirrors,  476 

Powder  for  Metals,  642 

Silver-plating,  and  Desilvering, 
587 

Test  for,  642 


Silverware  Cleaner,  200 

Polishes,  596 

Wrapping  Paper  for,  506 
Silver-zinc,  76 
Similor,  68 

Simple  Coloring  of  Bronze  Pow- 
der, 134 

Test  for  Red  Lead  and  Orange 
Lead,  446 

Way  to  Clean  a  Clock,  207 
Sinews,  Treatment  of,  11 
Sinks,  to  Clean,  202 
Size  Over  Portland  Cement,  31 
Sizing,  38 

Walls  for  Kalsomine,  436 
Skin  Bleaches,  Balms,  etc.,  234 

Chapped,  232 

Skin-cleaning  Preparations,  184 
Skin  Cream,  239 

Discoloration,  235 

Foods,  231,  234 

Lotion,  234 

Ointments,  487 

Troubles,  644 
Slate,  643 

Dye  for  Silk,  269 
for  Straw  Hats,  269 

Parchment,  506 
Slides  for  Lanterns,  532 
Slipcoat  or  Soft  Cheese,  177 
Slugs  on  Roses,  423 
Smaragdine,  45 
Smelling  Salts,  510,  628 
Smokeless  Powder,  329 

Van-colored  Fire,  609 
Smut,  Treatment  for,  384 
Snake  Bites,  96,  643 
Soap,  Benzoin,  652 
Soap-bubble  Liquids,  655 
Soap,  Coloring,  644 

for   Surgical   Instruments,  653 

for  Garment  Cleaning,  645 

Perfumes,  520 

Polishes,  594 

Powder,  Borax,  649,  650 

Substitutes,  653 

Tooth,  257 
Soaps,  644 

and  Pastes  for  Gloves,  195 

for  Clothing  and  Fabrics,  191 
Soda,  Coffee  Cream,  113 

Water,  111 

Soda-water  Fountain  Drinks,  110 
Sodium  Amalgams,  Applications 
of,  86 

Salts,  Effervescent,  627 

Silicate  as  a  Cement,  19 
Soft  Enamels  for  Iron,  White,  305 

German-silver  Solder,  661 

Glaze  Brick,  1.65 

Gold  Solder,  434 

Metal  Castings,  151 

Silver  Solders,  664 

Soldering  Paste,  667 

Solder,  664 

Toilet  Soaps,  652 
Softening  Celluloid,  160 

Rubber,  621 

Steel,  687 
Solder,  Copper,  659 

for  Articles  which  will  not  Bear 
a  High  Temperature,  666 

for  Brass  Tubes,  659 

for  Fastening  Brass  to  Tin,  659 

for  Gold,  434 

for  Iron,  665 

for  Silver  Chains,  664 

for  Silver-plated  Work,  664 

for  Silversmiths,  664 

from  Gold,  to  Remove,  383 
Soldering,  Acids,  656 

a  Ring  Containing  a  Jewel,  436, 
666 

Block,  667 


Soldering,  Concealed,  665 

of  Metallic  Articles,  656 

of  Metals,  655 

Fluxes  for,  660 

Paste,  667 

Powder  for  Steel,  665 

Recipes,  665 

Solution  for  Steel,  665 

without  Heat,  666 
Solders,  655 

for  Glass,  662 

for  Gold,  434 

for  Jewelers,  436 

for  Silver,  434 
Solid  Alcohol,  45 

Cleansing  Compound,  209 

Linseed  Oil,  483 
Solidified  Lubricants,  462 
Soluble  Blue,  443 

Essence  of  Ginger,  314 

Extract  of  Ginger  Ale,  108 

Glass,  Bronzing  with,  139 

Gun  Cotton,  332 
Solution  for  Removing  Nitrate  of 

Silver  Spots,  194 
Solutions  for  Batteries,  104 

for  Cleaning  Metals;  200 

Percentage,  704 
Solvent  for  Iron  Rust,  201 
Solvents  for  Celluloid,  160 
Sorel's  Dental  Cement,  163 
Soup  Herb  Extract,  212 
Sources  of  Potable  Alcohol,  668 
Sozodont,  256 
Sparkling  Wines,  767 
Sparks  from  the  Finger  Tips,  611 
Spatter  Work,  457 
Spavin  Cures,  730 
Spearmint  Cordial,  765 
Special  Glazes  for  Bricks,  167 
Specific  Gravity  Test,  382 
Speculum  Metal,  73 
Spice  for  Fruit  Compote,  605 

Pickling,  214 
Spices,  Adulterated,  358 

for  Flavoring,  213 
Spirit,  667,  678 

Stains  for  Wood,  784 
Spirits  of  Salts  Poison,  92 
Sponge  Trick,  Blazing,  611 

Window  Display,  679 
Sponges,  678 

as  Filters,  339 

Sterilization  of,  679 

to  Clean,  210 
Spot  and  Stain  Removers,  185 

Gilding,  580 

Spots  on  Photographic  Plates,  554 
Sprain  Washes,  730 
Spray  Solution,  103 
Spring  Cleaning,  207 

Hardening,  685 
Springs  of  Watches,  737 

t9  Clean,  207 

Sprinkling  Powders  for  Flies,  421 
Spruce  Beer,  118,  119 
Squibb's  Diarrhcea  Mixture,  179 
Squill  Poisons,  613 
Stage  Decorations,  Fireproofing, 

342 
Stain,  Brick,  133 

for  Blue  Paving  Bricks,  166 
Stain-removing  Soaps,  653 
Stained  Ceilings,  400 
Staining  Horns,  397 
Stains,  781 

for  Lacquers,  438 

for  Oak  Leather,  455 

for  Patent  Leather,  452 

for  Wood,  781 

Attacked     by     Alkalies     or 

Acids,  785 
Stamping,  679 

Colors   for   Use   with   Rubber 
Stamps,  679 


804 


INDEX 


Stamping  Liquids  and  Powders, 
679 

Powder  for  Embroideries,  680 
Starch,  445,  680 

in  Jelly,  Tests  for,  357 

Luster,  399 

Paste,  35 

Powder,  681 

Starch-producing  Plants,  668 
Statuary  Bronze,  57 
Statue  Cleaning,  197 
Statuettes,  Cleaning  of,  564 

of  Lipowitz  Metal,  64 
Steam  Cylinder  Lubricant,  463 
Steel,  681 

Alloys,  77 

for  Drawing  Colors  on,  80 
for  Locomotive  Cylinders,  77 

and  Iron  Polishes,  597 

Blue  and  Old  Silver  on  Brass, 
130 

Bluing,  682 

Bronze,  61 

Browning  of,  682 

Cleaner,  199 

Coloring,  682 

Distinguishing  Iron  from,  427 

Dust  as  a  Polishing  Agent,  600 

Etching,  323 
on,  687 

Fragments,  687 
Steel-hardening  Powder,  427 
Steel,  Oxidized,  584 

Paint  for,  497 

Plating,  575 

Polishes,  597 

Soldering,  665 

Testing,  687 

to  Clean,  199 

Tools,  to  Put  an  Edge  on,  686 

Wire  Hardening,  684 
Stencil  Inks,  411 

Marking  Ink  that  will  Wash 

Out,  399 
Stencils  for  Plotting  Letters  of 

Sign  Plates,  296 
Stereochromy,  688 
Stereopticon  Slides,  532 
Stereotype  Metal,  77 
Sterilization  of  Sponges,  679 

of  Water  with  Lime  Chloride, 

741 

Sterling  Silver,  434 
Stick  Pomade,  228 
Sticky  Fly-papers,  347 

Fly  Preparations,  421 
Stilton  Cheese,  177 
Stone,  Artificial,  688 

Cements,  16 

Cleaning,  196 

Preservative  for,  602 
Stones  for  Sharpening,  708,  761 

(Preeious),  Imitation  of,  370 
Stoneware,  167 

and  Glass  Cements,  26 

Waterproof  Cements  for,  21 
Stopper  Lubricants,  462,  700 
Store  Windows,  to  Clean,  209 
Stove,  Blacking,  700 

Cement,  162 

Cleaners,  202 

Lacquer,  441 

Polish,  597,  700 
Varnishes,  727 

Stramonium,  Antidote  for,  102 
Strap  Lubricant,  460 
Strawberries,  Preserved,  605 
Strawberry  Essence,  318 

Juice,  318 

Pomade,  227 
Straw,  Bleaching,  120 

Fireproofing,  343 
Straw-hat  Cleaners,  187 

Dyes,  394 
Strengthened  Filter  Paper,  503 


Stripping  Gilt  Articles,  205 

Photograph  Films,  553 
Strong  Adhesive  Paste,  37,  39 

Cement,  32 

Twine,  223 

Strontium  Amalgams,  86 
Stropping  Pastes,  615 
Strychnine  or  Nux  Vomica,  96 

Poisons,  614 

Stuffed  Animals,  Preserved,  602 
Styptic  Paste  of  Gutta  Percha, 

701 

Styptics,  701 
Substances  Used  for  Denaturing 

Alcohol,  678 
Substitute  for  Benzine,  106 

for  Camphor  in  the  Preparation 
of  Celluloid  arid  Applicable 
to  Other  Purposes,  157 

for  Cement  on  Grinder  Disks, 
31 

for  Cork,  224 

for  Fire  Grenades,  341 

for  Gum  Arabic,  386 

for  Putty,  608 

for  Rubber  Gloves,  100 

for  Soldering  Fluid,  659 
Substitutes  for  Coffee,  210 

for  German  Silver,  70 

for  Wood,  785 
Suffolk  Cheese,  177 
Sugar-producing  Plants,  668 
Sulphate  of  Zinc  Poison,  97 

Stains,  to  Remove,  186 
Sulphuric  Acid  Poison,  92 
Summer  Drink,  118 

Taffy,  217 
Sun  Bronze,  61 

Cholera  Mixture,  179 
Sunburn  Remedies,  240,  241 
Sunflower-glycerine  Soap,  653 
Superfatted  Liquid  Lanolin-glyc- 
erine Soap,  647 
Sutures  of  Catgut,  155 
Swiss  Cheese,  177 
Sympathetic  Inks,  412 
Syndeticon,  32 
Syrup  of  Bromoform,  134 

(Raspberry),  317 

Table,  704 
Syrups,  321,  701 
Szegedin  Soap,  653 


Table  of  Drops,  704 

Sauces,  213 

Showing  Displacement  on 
Ground  Glass  of  Objects  in 
Motion,  548 

Top,  Acid-proof,  9 
Tables,  703 

and  Scales,  547 

for  Photographers,  547 
Tablet  Enameling,  293 
Tablets,  Chocolate  Coated,  179 

for  Mouth  Wash,  259 

Glue  for,  13 
Taffy,  217 
Tailor's  Chalk,  164 
Talc  Powder,  243 
Talcum  Powder,  243 
Tallow,  334 
Talmi  Gold,  69 

Tamping  of  Concrete  Blocks,  695 
Tan  and  Freckle  Lotion,  241 

and  Russet  Shoe  Polishes,  633 
Tank,  705 

Tanned  Leather,  Dye  for,  447 
Tanning,  453 

Hides,  454 

Taps,  to  Remove  Broken,  705 
Tar  Paints,  780 
Tarragon  Mustard,  215 


Tar  Syrup,  320 
Tasteless  Castor  Oil,  153 
Tattoo  Marks,  Removal  of,  705 
Tawing,  448 
Tea  Extract,  319 

Hot,  113 

Tea-rose  Talc  Powder,  243 
Teeth,  to  Whiten  Discolored,  705 
Telescope  Metal,  71 
Temperature  for  Brushes,  140 

of  Metal,  152 

of  Water  for  Plants,  561 
Tempered  Copper,  221 
Tempering  Brass,  132 

Steel,  683 
Terra  Cotta  Cleaning,  197 

Substitute,  705 
Test  for  Glue,  10 
Testing  Nickel,  481 

Rubber  Gloves,  622 

Siccatives,  637 

Silver,  642 

Steel,  687 
Tests  for  Absolute  Alcohol,  45 

for  Aniline  in  Pigments,  560 

for  Cotton,  245 

for  Lubricants,  463 

for  Yeast,  786 
Textile  Cleaning,  191 
Theater  Rouge,  231 
The  Burning  Banana,  611 

Gum-bichromate     Photoprint- 
ing  Process,  546 

Preservation  of  Books,  124 

Prevention   of   the    Inflamma- 
bility of  Benzine,  106 
Therapeutic  Grouping  of  Medic- 
inal Plasters,  561 
Thermometers,  706 
Thread,  706 

Three-color  Process,  548 
Throat  Lozenges,  218 
Thymol,  100 
Ticks,  Cattle  Dip  for,  419 
Tiers-Argent  Alloy,  75 
Tilemakers'  Notes,  164 
Tin,  49,  706 

Alloys,  77 

Amalgams,  Applications  of,  87 

Ash,  172 

Bismuth,  and  Magnesium,  49 

Bronzing,  567 

Chloride  of  Tin,  Poison,  97 
Tinctures  for  Perfumes,  513 
Tin,  Etching  Fluid  for,  324 
Tinfoil,  707 
Tin  Foils  for  Capsules,  474 

for  Wrapping  Cheese,  474 
Tin  in  Powder  Form,  707 
Tin-lead,  77 

Alloys,  78 

Tinned  Surface,  589 
Tinning,  584 

by  Oxidation,  584 

Tin  Plating  by  Electric  Bath, 
575 

of  Lead,  589 
Tinseled     Letters,     or     Chinese 

Painting  on  Glass,  458 
Tin  Silver-Plating,  589 

Solders,  665 

Statuettes,  Buttons,  etc.,  78 

Varnishes,  727 
Tipping  Gold  Pens,  383 
Tire,  708 

Cements,  23 
Tissier's  Metal,  64 
Tissue  Paper,  Paste  for,  37 
To  Ascertain  whether  an  Article 
is  Nickeled,  Tinned,  or  Sil- 
vered, 589 

Attach  Glass  Labels  to  Bottles, 

41 
Gold  Leaf  Permanently,  474 


INDEX 


805 


Tobin  Bronze,  61 

To  Blacken  Aluminum,  81 

Bleach  Glue,  378 
Tobacco  Poison,  97 
To  Bronze  Copper,  136 
Burnish  Gilt  Work,  384 
Caseharden  Locally,  684 
Cast  Yellow  Brass,  54 
Cement  Glass  to  Iron,  17 
Clarify  Liqueurs,  770 

Solutions  of  Gelatin,  Glues, 
etc.,  370 

Turbid  Orange  Flower  Water, 

512 
Clean  a  Gas  Stove,  202 

Aluminum,  204 

Articles  of  Nickel,  201 

Brushes  of  Dry  Paint,  188 

Colored  Leather,  186 

Dull  Gold,  204 

Files,  205 

Fire-gilt  Articles,  185 

Furs,  368 

Gilt  Frames,  etc.,  185 

Gilt  Objects,  203 

Gold  and  Silver  Lace,  193 

Gummed  Parts  of  Machin- 
ery, 203 

Gummed-up  Springs,  207 

Jet  Jewelry,  431 

Lacquered  Goods,  195 

Linoleum,  206 

Milk  Glass,  209 

Mirrors,  209 

Oily  Bottles,  210 

Old  Medals,  199 

Painted  Walls,  190 

Paintings,  195 

Petroleum    Lamp    Burners, 
200 

Playing  Cards,  209 

Polished  Paits  of  Machines, 
201 

Quilts,  194 

Silver  Ornaments,  201 

Skins     Used    for    Polishing 
Purposes,  186 

Soldered  Watch  Cases,  207 

Sponges,  210 

Store  Windows,  209 

Tarnished  Zinc,  205 

the  Tops  of  Clocks  in  Re- 
pairing, 20 

Very  Soiled  Hands,  185 

Watch  Chains,  206 

Wool,  273 

Zinc  Articles,  203 
Coat  Brass  Articles  with  Anti- 
mony Colors,  581 
Color  a  Meerschaum  Pipe,  469 

Billiard  Balls  Red,  428 

Bronze,  138 

Butter,  359 

Cheese,  359 

Gold,  383 

Iron  Blue,  427 

Ivory,  428 

Conceal  Soldering,  665 
Copper  Aluminum,  581 
Copy  Old  Letters,  etc.,  223 
Cut  Castile  Soap,  644 

Glass,  371 
To  Cut  Glass  under  Water,  372 

Pottery,  164 
Toddy,  Hot  Soda,  112 
To  Detect  Artificial  Vanillin  in 
Vanilla  Extracts,  713 

the  Presence  of  Aniline  in  a 
Pigment,  560 

Tonka    in    Vanilla    Extract, 

714 
Determine  the  Covering  Power 

of  Pigments,  560 
Dissolve    Copper    from    Gold 

Articles,  382 


To     Distinguish      Cotton     from 

Linen,  246 

Genuine  Diamonds,  260 
Glue  and  Other   Adhesives, 

378 

Iron  from  Steel,  427 
Steel  from  Iron,  687 
Do  Away  with  Wiping  Dishes, 

399     ' 

Drain  a  Refrigerator,  616 
Drill  Optical  Glass,  372 
Dye  Copper  Parts  Violet  and 

Orange,  221 

Cotton  Dark  Brown,  280 
Feathers,  282 
Felt  Goods,  281 
Silk  a  Delicate  Greenish  Yel- 
low, 280 

Silk  Peacock  Blue,  281 
Stiffen,     and     Bleach     Felt 

Hats,  273 
Woolen  Yarns,  etc.,  Various 

Shades  of  Magenta,  280 
Woolens  with  Blue  de  Lyons, 

280 

Eat  Burning  Coals,  612 
Estimate  Contents  of  a  Circu- 
lar Tank,  705 

Extract   Oil    Spots   from   Fin- 
ished Goods,  273 
Shellac  from  Fur  Hats,  394 
Fasten  Brass  upon  Glass,  17 
Paper  Tickets  to  Glass,  19 
Rubber  to  Wood,  22 
Fill  Engraved  Letters  on  Metal 

Signs,  457 
Find  the  Number  of  Carats, 

432 
Fire  Paper,  etc.,  by  Breathing 

on  it,  611 
Fix     Alcoholic     Lacquers     on 

Metallic  Surfaces,  440 
Dyes,  274 
Gold     Letters,     etc.,     upon 

Glass,  18 
Paper  upon  Polished  Metal, 

37 

Iron  in  Stone,  162 
Fuse  Gold  Dust,  384 
Give  a  Brown  Color  to  Brass, 

130 

a  Green  Color  to  Gold  Jew- 
elry, 582 

Brass  a  Golden  Color,  577 
Dark     Inks     a     Bronze     or 

Changeable  Hue,  409 
Grind  Glass,  372 
Harden  a  Hammer,  684 
Hard-solder     Parts     Formerly 
Soldered  with  Tin  Solder,  663 
Impart  the  Aroma  and  Taste 
of  Natural  Butter  to  Mar- 
garine, 143 
Improve  Deadened  Brass  Parts 

132 

Increase  the  Toughness,  Dens- 
ity, and  Tenacity  of  Alumi- 
num, 83 

Toilet  Creams,  235 
Milks,  239 
Powders,  242 
Soap  Powder,  652 
Toilet  Soaps,  650 
Vinegars,  244 
Waters,  244,  519 
To  Keep  Files  Clean,  339 

Flaxseed  Free  from  Bugs,  424 
Flies  from  Fresh  Paint,  501 
Ice  in  Small  Quantities,  402 
India  Ink  Liquid,  407 
Liquid    Paint    in  Workable 

Condition,  501 
Keep  Machinery  Bright,  624 
Tolidol  Developer,  52 


To  Loosen  a  Glass  Stopper,  700 
a    Rusty    Screw    in  a  Watch 

Movement,  738 
Tomato  Bouillon  Extract,  212 
Tombac  Volor  on  Brass,  130 
To  Make  a  Belt  Pull,  106 

a  Clock  Strike  Correctly,  738 
a   Transparent   Cement   for 

Glass,  29 
Cider,  180 
Corks      Impermeable      and 

Acid-proof,  10 
Fat  Oil  Gold  Size,  382 
Holes  in  Thin  Glass,  372 
Loose  Nails  in  Walls  Rigid, 

399 

or  Enlarge  a  Dial  Hole,  737 
Pluah  Adhere  to  Metal,  590 
Matt  Gilt  Articles,  432 
Mend  Grindstones,  386 

Wedgwood  Mortars,  29 
Toning  Baths,  540 

for    Silver    Bromide    Paper, 
541 

Black  Inks,  409 
Tonka  Extract,  319 

Its   Detection  in  Vanilla  Ex- 
tracts, 714 
Tool  Lubricant,  461 

Setting,  708 

Tools,  Rust  Prevention,  625 
Toothache,  709 
Tooth  Cements,  163 

Paste  to  be  put  in  Collapsible 

Tubes,  257 
Pastes,  Powders,  and  Washes, 

251 

Powder  for  Children,  255 
Powders  and  Pastes,  253 
Soaps  and  Pastes,  257 
Straightening,  737 
To  Overcome  Odors  in  Freshly 

Prepared  Rooms,  400 
Paint     Wrought     Iron     with 

Graphite,  496 

Paste  Paper  on  Smooth  Iron,  37 
Pickle  Black  Iron-plate  Scrap 

Before  Enameling,  305 
Polish  Delicate  Objects,  599 

Paintings  on  Wood,  600 
Prepare  Polishing  Cloths,  599 
Preserve  Beef,  360 
Furs,  368 
Milk,  606 

Steel  from  Rust,  199 
Prevent    Crawling    of    Paints, 

490 
Dimming  of  Eyeglasses,  etc., 

376 

Glue  from  Cracking,  10 
Screws    from    Rusting    and 

Becoming  Fast,  629 
Smoke  from  Flashlight,  552 
the    Adhesion    of    Modeling 

Sand  to  Castings,  150 
the    Trickling    of    Burning 
Candles,  145 

Wooden  Vessels  from  Leak- 
ing, 446 
Produce  Fine  Leaves  of  Metal, 

473 
Protect    Papered    Walls    from 

Vermin,  401 

Zinc  Roofing  from  Rust,  626 
Purify  Bismuth,  380 
Put   an  Edge  .on  Steel  Tools, 

686 
Quickly  Remove  a  Ring  from  a 

Swollen  Finger,  431 
Reblack  Clock  Hands,  738 
Recognize  Whether  an  Article 

is  Gilt,  383 

Recover  Gold-leaf  Waste,  381 
Reduce  Engravings,  310 


806 


INDEX 


To  Reduce  Photographs,  548 
Refine  Board  Sweepings,  432 
Remedy    Worn    Pinions    from 

Watches,  738 
Remove  a  Name  from  a  Dial, 

207 

Aniline  Stains,  185 
from  Ceilings,  etc.,  190 
Balsam  Stains,  194 
Black    Letters    from    White 

Enameled  Signs,  639 
Burnt    Oil    from    Hardened 

Steel,  686 

Enamel  and  Tin  Solder,  188 
Fragments     of     Steel     from 

Other  Metals,  687 
Finger   Marks  from  Books, 

etc.,  186 

Glue  from  Glass,  208 
Gold  from  Silver,  382 
Grease  Spots  from  Marble, 

197 
Hard    Grease,    Paint,    etc., 

from  Machinery,  200 
Ink  Stains  on  Silver,  201 
Nitric-acid  Stains,  185 
Oil-paint  Spots  from  Glass, 

209- 

Oil-paint  Spots  from  Sand- 
stones, 198 
Old  Enamel,  189 
Old  Oil,   Paint,   or  Varnish 

Coats,  187 
Paint,    Varnish,    etc.,    from 

Wood,  188 
Putty,    Grease,    etc.,    from 

Plate  Glass,  206 
Pyro  Stains  from  the  Fin- 
gers, 555 

Red  (Aniline)  Ink,  190 
Rust  from  Instruments,  199 
Rust  from  Iron  Utensils,  198 
Rust  from  Nickel,  199,  203 
Silver  Plating,  203 
Silver    Stains    from    White 

Fabrics,  193 

Soft  Solder  from  Gold,  383 
Spots  from  Drawings,  206 
Spots  from  Tracing  Cloth, 

192 

Stains  from  the  Hands,  184 
Stains  of  Sulphate,  186 
Strains  in  Metal  by  Heating, 

686 

Varnish  from  Metal,  188 
Vegetable       Growth       from 

Buildings,  209 
Water  Stains  from  Varnished 

Furniture,  188 
Vaseline  Stains  from  Cloth- 
ing, 192 
Render  Aniline  Colors  Soluble 

in  Water,  274 
Fine  Cracks  in  Tools  Visible, 

686 
Gum  Arabic  More  Adhesive, 

43 

Negatives  Permanent,  553 
Pale  Gold  Darker,  383 
Shrunken     Wooden     Casks 

Watertight,  149 
Window  Panes  Opaque,  375 
Renew  Old  Silks,  274 
Renovate  and  Brighten  Russet 

and  Yellow  Shoes,  633 
Brick  Walls,  190 
Old  Oil  Paintings,  488 
Straw  Hats,  187 
Repair     a     Dial,     etc.,     with 

Enamel  Applied  Cold,  737 
a  Repeating  Clock-bell,  737 
Enameled  Signs,  304 
Meerschaum  Pipes,  469 
Restore  Brushes,  141 

Patent  Leather  Dash,  452 


To   Restore    Reddened   Carbolic 
Acid,  147 

the  Color  of  a  Gold  or  Gilt 

Dial,  207 
Burnt  Steel,  686 
Tortoise-shell  Polishes,  593 
To  Scale  Cast  Iron,  204 

Scent  Advertising  Matter,  510 
Separate  Rusty  Pieces,  625 
Silver  Brass,  Bronze,  Copper, 

587 
Glass  Balls  and  Plate  Glass, 

587 

Silver-plate  Metals,  588 
Soften  Glaziers'  Putty,  607 
Horn,  397 
Iron  Castings,  427 
Old  Whitewash,  762 
Solder    a    Piece    of    Hardened 

Steel,  665 

Stop    Leakage    in    Iron    Hot- 
Water  Pipes,  446 
Sweeten  Rancid  Butter,  143 
Take     Boiling     Lead    in     the 

Mouth,  612 

Tell  Genuine  Meerschaum,  469 
•  Temper  Small  Coil  Springs  and 

Tools,  683 

Test  Extract  of  Licorice,  458 
Fruit  Juices  and  Syrucs  for 

Aniline  Colors,  321 
Fruit    Juices    for     Salicylic 

Acid,  321 

the  Color  to  See  if  it  is  Pre- 
cipitating, 277        , 
Tighten  a  Ruby  Pin,  738 
Toughen  China,  173 
Transfer  Designs,  710 

Engravings,  710 
Turn  Blueprints  Brown,  542 
Utilize  Drill  Chips,  686 
Touchstone,  Aquafortis  for  the, 

383 

Toughening  Leather,  455 
To  Weaken  a  Balance  Spring,  733 
Whiten  Flannels,  446 

Iron,  427 

Widen  a  Jewel  Hole,  431 
Tracing-cloth  Cleaners,  194 
Tracing  Cloth,  Removing  Spots 

from,  192 
Tracing,  How  to  Clean,  194 

Paper,  503 

Tragacanth,  Mucilage  of,  42 
Transfer  Processes,  710 
Transparencies,  709 
Transparent  Candles,  145 
Brick  Glaze,  167 
Ground  Glass,  373 
Photographs,  545 
Soaps,  652 

Trays,  Varnish  for,  727 
Treacle  Beer,  119 
Treatment    and    Utilization     of 

Rubber  Scraps,  621 
of  Bunions,  224 
of  Carbolic-acid  Burns,  147 
of  Cast-iron  Grave  Crosses,  202 
of  Corns,  225 
of  Damp  Walls,  400 
of  Fresh  Plaster,  564 
of  Newly  Laid  Linoleum,  459 
of  the  Grindstone,  386 
Tricks  with  Fire,  608 
Triple  Extract  Perfumery,  513 

Pewter,  75 
Tubs:  to  Render  Shrunken  Tubs 

Water-tight,  149 
Turmeric  in  Food,  352 
Turpentine  Stains,  784 
Turquoises,    Restoration    of    the 

Color  of,  432 

Turtle  (Mock)  Extract,  212 
Twine,  711 
Strong,  223 


Two-solution  Ink  Remover,  189 
Type  Metal,  78 
Typewriter  Ribbon  Inks,  413 
Ribbons,  711 


Udder  Inflammation,  731 
Unclassified  Alloys,  80 

Dyers'  Recipes,  273 
Unclean  Lenses,  456 
Uninflammable  Celluloid,  157 
United  States  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures, 758 
Uniting  Glass  with  Horn,  17 

Rubber  and  Leather,  22 
Universal  Cement,  31 

Cleaner,  209 

Urine,  Detection  of  Albumen,  44 
Utensils,  Capacities  of,  703 

to  Remove  Rust,  198 
Utilization  of  Waste  Material  or 
By-products,  673 


Valves,  711 
Vanilla,  713 

Extract,  319,  355 

Substitute,  714 
Vanillin,  713 
Vaseline  Pomade,  228 

Stains,  to  Remove,  192 
Vasolimentum,  728 
Varnish  and  Paint  Remover,  188 

Bookbinders',  720 

Brushes  at  Rest.  141 

for  Bicycles,  719 

for  Blackboards,  720 

for  Floors,  724 

for  Trays  and  Tinware,  727 

Gums  Used  in  Making,  715 

How  to  Pour  Out,  153 

Making,  Linseed  Oil  for,  483 

Manufacturing  Hints,  715 

Removers,  187 

Substitutes,  727 
Varnished  Paper,  506 
Varnishes,  543,  714 

Engravers',  723 

Insulating,  426 

Photographic  Retouching,  543 
Varnishing,  Rules  for,  717 
Vat  Enamels  and  Varnishes,  721 
Vegetable  Acids,  Poison,  92 
Vegetables,  Canned,  352 
Vehicle  for  Oil  Colors,  560 
Venetian  Paste,  39 
Vermilion  Grease  Paint,  229 
Vermin  Killer,  422 
Very  Hard  Silver  Solder,  663 
Veterinary  Dose  Table,  729 

Formulas,  728 
Vichy,  740 

Salt,  628 
Violet  Ammonia,  244,  245 

Color  for  Ammonia,  91 

Cream,  115 

Dye  for  Silk  or  Wool,  270 
for  Straw  Bonnets,  270 

Flavor  for  Candy,  217 

Ink,  417 

Poudre  de  Riz  Powder,  242 

Sachet,  510 

Smelling  Salts,  510 

Talc,  510 
Powder,  243 

Tooth  Powder,  252 

Water,  520 

Witch  Hazel,  245 
Vinaigre  Rouge,  244 
Vinegar,  358,  734 

Toilet,  244 
Viscose,  159 


INDEX 


807 


Vogel's  Composition  Files,  64 
Voice  Lozenges,  219 
Vulcanization  of  Rubber,  622 


W 

Wagon  and  Axle  Greases,  462 
Wall    Cleaners,  190 
Wall-paper  Dyes,  278 
Removal  of,  400 
Wall-paper  Paste,  39 
Wall  Priming,  501 

Waterproofing,  741 
Walls,  Damp,  400 

Hard-finished,  499 
Walnut,  783 
Warming  Bottle,  127 
Warping,  Prevention  of,  781 
Warts,  736 

Washes,  Nail-cleaning,  227 
Washing  Blankets,  399 

Brushes,  141 

Fluids  and  Powders,  445 

of  Light  Silk  Goods,  639 
Waste,    Photographic,    Its    Dis- 
position, 534 

Watch  Chains,  to  Clean,  206 
Watch-dial  Cements,  20 
Watch  Gilding,  738 
Watch-lid  Cement,  20 
Watchmakers'  Alloys,  736 

and  Jewelers'  Cleaning  Prepa- 
rations, 206 

Formulas,  736 

Oil,  738 
Watch  Manufacturers'  Alloys,  736 

Movements,  Palladium  Plating 

of,  583 

Waterproof        and       Acid-proof 
Pastes,  38 

Cements  for  Glass,  Stoneware, 
and  Metal,  21 

Coatings,  742 

Glues,  13 

Harness  Composition,  451 

Ink,  417 

Paints,  491 

Papers,  505 

Putties,  608 

Ropes,  753 

Shoe  Dressings,  634 

Stiffening  for  Straw  Hats,  187 

Varnish  for  Beach  Shoes,  635 

Wood,  753 
Waterproofing,  741 

Blue  Prints,  741 

Brick  Arches,  741 

Canvas,  742 

Cellars,  400 

Corks,  742 

Fabrics,  742 

Leather,  750 

Paper,  751 
Water-  and  Acid-resisting  Paint, 

499 

Water-closets,  Deodorants  for,  263 
Water,  Copper,  221 

Filters  for,  339 
Water-glass  Cements,  19 
Water  Glass  in  Stereochromatic 
Painting,  688 

Jackets,  Anti-freezing  Solutions 
for,  363 

Natural  and  Artificial,  739 

Purification,  Alum  Process  of, 
340 

Spots,  Priming  for,  501 

Stains,  784 


Water    Stirred    Yellow,     Scarlet 

and  Colorless,  612 
Water-tight  Casks,  149 

Glass,  373 

Roofs,  373 

"Water  Tone"  Platinum  Paper, 
529 

to  Freeze,  616 

Varnish,  544 
Waters,  Toilet,  244 
Wax,  753 

Burning,  Trick,  611 

for  Bottles,  553 

for  Ironing,  444 

for  Linoleum,  459 

Paper,  505 
Waxes  for  Floors,  Furniture,  etc., 

754 

Weather  Forecasters,  756 
Weatherproofing,  499 

Casts,  565 
Weed  Killers,  262 
Weights  and  Measures,  757 

of  Eggs,  284 
Weiss  Beer,  119 
Welding  Compound,  687 

Powder  to  Weld  Steel  on 
Wrought  Iron  at  Pale-red 
Heat,  761 

Powders,  761 
Westphalian  Cheese,  177 
Wheel  Grease,  462 
Whetstones,  761 
Whipped  Cream,  247,  248 
White  Brass,  55 

Bricks,  164 

Coating  for  Signs,  etc.,  490 

Cosmetique,  228 

Face  Powder,  243 

Flint  Glass  Containing  Lead,  373 

Furniture,  Enamel  for,  722 

Glass  for  Ordinary  Molded 
Bottles,  373 

Glazes,  167 

White-gold  Plates  Without  Sol- 
der, 384 
White  Grease  Paints,  229 

Ink,  417 

Metals,  78 

White-metal  Alloys,  79 
White  Metals  Based  on  Copper,  79 
Based  on  Platinum,  79 

Pine  and  Tar  Syrup,  320 

Petroleum  Jelly,  462 

Portland  Cement,  162 

Rose  Perfumery,  518 

Shoe  Dressing,  635 

Solder  for  Silver, '434 

Stamping  Ink,  417 

for  Embroidery,  411 

Vitriol,  Poison,  97 
Whitewash,  761 

to  Remove,  190 
Whiting,  761 

Whooping-cough  Remedies,  211 
Wild-cherry  Balsam,  103 

Extract,  321 
Wiltshire  Cheese,  177 
Window-cleaning  Compound,  208 
Window  Display,  762 

Panes,  Cleaning,  208 
Opaque,  to  Render,  375 

Perfume,  762 

Polishes,  593 
Windows,  Frosted,  376 

to  Prevent  Dimming  of,  376 
Wine  Color  Dye,  270 
Wines  and  Liquors,  762 

Medicinal,  771 

Removal  of  Musty  Taste,  771 


Winter  Beverages,  117 
Wintergreen,       to       Distinguish 
Methyl  Salicylate  from  Oil 
of,  771 
Wire  Hardening,  684 

Rope,  771 
Witch-hazel  Creams,  238 

Jelly,  228 

Violet,  245 
Wood,  772 

Acid-proof,  9 

Cements,  26 

Chlorine-proofing,  9 

Fillers,  773 

Fireproofing,  342 
Wooden  Gears,  463 
Wood  Gilding,  580 

Polishes,  598 

Pulp,  Fireproofing,  343 

Renovators,  194,  197 

Securing  Metals  to,  37 
Stain  for,  781 

Substitutes  for,  785 
•   Warping,  to  Prevent,  781 

Waterproofing,  753 
Wood's  Metal,  64 
Woodwork,    Cleaning,    194 
Wool  Oil,  485 

Silk,  or  Straw  Bleaching,  120 

to  Clean,  273 
Woorara  Poison,  97 
Worcestershire  Sauce,  213 
Working  of  Sheet  Aluminum,  83 
Worm  Powder  for  Stock,  732 
Wrapping  Paper  for  Silverware ,  506 
Wrinkles,  Removal  of,  231,  233 
Writing  Inks,  414 

on  Glass,  376,  405 

on  Ivory,  Glass,  etc.,  405 

on  Zinc,  405 

Restoring  Faded,  786 


Yama,  116 
Yeast,  786 

and  Fertilizers,  339 
Yellow  Coloring  for   Beverages, 
119 

Dye  for  Cotton,  271 
for  Silk,  271 

Hard  Solders,  658 

Ink,  417 

Orange  and  Bronze  Dyes,  271 

Stain  for  Wood,  784 
Ylang-Ylang  Perfume,  518 
Yolk  of  Egg  as  an  Emulsifier,  290 
York  Cheese,  177 


Zapon,  728 

for  Impregnating  Paper,  506 

Varnishes,  728 
Zinc,  49 

Alloys,  80 

Amalgam    for    Electric    Bat- 
teries, 89 
for  Dentists'  Zinc,  163 

Amalgams,  Applications  of,  87 

Articles,  Bronzing,  136 
to  Clean,  203 

Bronzing,  137,  567 

Contact  Silver-plating,  589 

Etching,  323 

Gilding,  580 
Zinc-Nickel,  80 
Zinc  Plates,  Coppering,  573 

Poison,  97 

to  Clean,  205 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


